A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities worldwide are on the rise, with Washington, D.C. emerging as the biggest hotspot. 



The study, which was focused on rat sighting reports from 16 global cities, attributes the increasing rat populations to warming temperatures, urbanization, and other human activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rat-sightings-on-the-rise">Rat sightings on the rise</h2>



The researchers conducted a first-of-its-kind analysis using publicly submitted rat complaint data. They discovered that in 11 of the 16 cities analyzed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-have-a-very-complex-social-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rat</a> sightings have increased in recent years. 



Based on individual city trends, Washington D.C. led the pack, followed by San Francisco, Toronto, New York City, and Amsterdam. According to the study, the rat reporting trend in Washington D.C. was three times greater than that of Boston. 



Only three cities - New Orleans, Louisville, and Tokyo - experienced significant decreases in rat reports, with New Orleans showing the largest drop. The experts suggest that New Orleans’ strategies could serve as a model for other cities seeking to control rat populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-drivers-of-rat-population-growth">Key drivers of rat population growth </h2>



The research team performed statistical analyses of rat sighting reports and concluded that a little over 40% of the rising trend is due to warming temperatures. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-surge-in-global-warming-may-have-an-unexpected-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> is primarily a result of burning coal, oil, and natural gas, which leads to milder winters and longer foraging periods for rats. 



Study lead author Jonathan Richardson, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.richmond.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Richmond</a>, explained the mechanism.



“We're seeing these increasing trends in rats in cities that are warming the fastest, probably because this is a small mammal that has physiological challenges in the cold weather months,” said Richardson.&nbsp;



“If we're warming the climate and winter starts a week or two later and spring arrives a week or two earlier, that's one, two, maybe even three or four weeks across the entire year where those rats can be above ground foraging, acquiring more food and maybe squeezing out one or two more reproductive cycles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urbanization-and-higher-population-density">Urbanization and higher population density </h2>



Even a few extra weeks of activity can have a dramatic effect, given that female rats can produce a litter every month. With each litter consisting of eight to 16 pups, this additional time significantly accelerates population growth.



In addition to the effects of warming, the study identified increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> and higher population densities as major factors. Rats thrive in built environments where food waste is abundant and human activity creates numerous shelters.&nbsp;



The experts note that these conditions allow rats to flourish in areas where people and their refuse provide a constant source of sustenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-nature-s-ultimate-urban-survivors">Rats: Nature’s ultimate urban survivors</h2>



Rats have evolved to be remarkably adaptive in urban settings. New York City rat czar Kathleen Corradi stated during a conference that the rat is the third most successful mammal behind humans and house mice. So it evolved and engineered to live alongside us.&nbsp;



“They followed humans, Homo sapiens, across the continents and are in every single continent except Antarctica. So it's considered a wicked problem.”



Their ability to adapt and survive in close proximity to humans explains why rat populations are expanding even as cities implement various control measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-rising-rat-populations">Consequences of rising rat populations</h2>



While rats are undeniably adaptable, their increasing numbers pose serious risks. When rodent populations soar, public health and urban infrastructure can suffer. 



"When rodent populations are high, people get sick, motor vehicles become disabled, mental health declines, fires are started and foods fouled," said Houston rat expert Michael Parsons, who was not involved in the study.



This statement captures the multifaceted impact of rat infestations. High rat populations can lead to increased transmission of diseases, disruption of transportation systems, and other societal challenges. 



People are understandably disturbed by rats, primarily due to an instinctive fear of creatures that can transmit disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-city-rats">Quantifying city rats</h2>



Rats are notoriously difficult to count accurately due to their secretive and elusive nature. The study did not count rats directly; instead, it analyzed rat sighting complaints submitted by city residents. 



Although these reports may not reflect the actual number of rats, they provide valuable insight into trends over time. Richardson emphasized that the long-term consistency of the reporting methods used in the study lends credibility to the observed trends.



Even though Washington D.C. exhibited the highest rate of increase, Richardson clarified that this does not necessarily mean the city has the most rats overall - it simply indicates that the number of rat complaints is rising faster than in other cities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prevention-over-poison">Prevention over poison</h2>



The study's findings suggest that traditional methods of rat control, such as poisoning and trapping, may not be sufficient to combat the escalating problem. 



Instead, prevention measures appear to be more effective. In cities like New Orleans, public authorities are taking proactive steps. 



For instance, educational workshops and community campaigns focus on reducing conditions that attract rats, such as improper waste management and excess food availability.



“In New Orleans they make a big effort to get out into neighborhoods and do educational workshops and campaigns to talk to residents about what makes a property less likely to have rats,” Richardson said.



Similarly, New York City has initiated innovative strategies, including replacing street garbage bags with rat-resistant containers and forming an elite volunteer group known as the “NYC rat pack.” 



Early results from these initiatives are promising, although comprehensive data have yet to fully reflect their impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-complex-urban-challenge">A complex urban challenge</h2>



While it is possible to better manage rat populations through improved urban planning and public education, complete eradication is unrealistic. 



As <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> conservation scientist Neil Carter pointed out, we can fight them better, but in the end “people need to coexist with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-addresses-the-global-need-for-human-wildlife-coexistence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> in urban environments, even with rats.”



“Zero rats is impossible," noted Richardson. “But I think an expectation that we need to live with the number of rats that we're seeing in many of these cities is also an unhealthy perspective on this problem.”



In conclusion, this study offers a critical, data-driven look at the complex factors driving rat population growth in urban environments. 



As cities continue to warm, expand, and densify, the challenge of managing rat populations will require innovative and sustainable approaches that focus on prevention and public awareness.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ads6782" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



Image Credit: AP Photo/Mary Altaffer



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Rat populations are increasing in cities as temperatures rise

A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities worldwide are on the rise, with Washington, D.C. emerging as the biggest hotspot. The study, which was focused on rat sighting reports from 16 global cities, attributes the increasing rat populations to warming temperatures, urbanization, and other human activities. Rat sightings on the rise The researchers conducted a first-of-its-kind analysis using publicly submitted rat complaint data. They discovered that in 11 of the 16 cities analyzed, rat sightings have increased in recent years.  Based on individual city...

On the eve of <a href="https://worldelephantday.org/">World Elephant Day</a> (August 12), an analysis of social media posts led by <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/">Griffith University</a> in Australia has highlighted how the type of attention <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-have-personality-traits-that-help-them-solve-problems/">elephants</a> receive on Twitter does not align with the most pressing threats to wild elephants. This phenomenon may have negative consequences for elephant conservation and lead to resentment from the local communities that live with elephants.&nbsp;



According to the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN), the most pressing threats elephants currently face are habitat loss, human-elephant conflict, and poaching, with the magnitude of each threat varying between the three species of elephants (the African Forest Elephant, the African Savanna Elephant, and the Asian Elephant).&nbsp;



“The key highlights were that of the three main threats to wild elephants – being poached, habitat loss, and human-elephant conflict – there was a lack of attention on Twitter specifically around habitat loss and human-elephant conflict,” said study lead author Niall Hammond, a doctoral student in Wildlife Conservation at the Griffith University.&nbsp;“Our Twitter analysis revealed these major threats were infrequently discussed, with habitat loss being the most infrequently discussed (less than one percent of all tweets).”



The analysis showed that the most frequently discussed aspects were elephant welfare issues, such as tourist elephant rides (23 percent). Users from non-elephant range regions were the dominant voice on Twitter (72 percent), with posts largely focusing on elephant welfare concerns and trophy hunting (which, in fact, is not a threat to elephant conservation). By contrast, users from African Elephant range countries (14 percent) were more likely to discuss human-elephant conflict and poaching, as well as to promote elephant tourism, while those from Asian Elephant range countries (13 percent) posted more about human-elephant conflict and elephant tourism, but were less likely to tweet about poaching.



“Human-elephant conflict is a major issue. Our study found that the lack of acknowledgement of the impact of human-elephant conflict on local people often leads to resentment from people within elephant range countries, where peoples’ safety and livelihoods are often at risk due to elephants. For example, in India it is estimated that 100 people are killed by elephants each year and 40-50 elephants are killed during crop raiding,” Hammond explained.



Thus, the location of the tweets’ origins highlighted a divide in the understanding and lived experience of those living in countries with elephants and those without. “When we watch nature documentaries, elephants are often portrayed as living in areas where there are no people, but that is not the reality.”



“The reality is that in many areas, elephants and people live in shared spaces, where there are no fences to separate people and wildlife. It is important to acknowledge the sacrifices these communities make on a daily basis in co-existing with elephants and advocate for greater rights for communities to manage their wildlife sustainably because without their continued support the conservation of elephants would not be possible,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/csp2.12785">Conservation Science and Practice</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Elephant tweets often misrepresent conservation issues

On the eve of World Elephant Day (August 12), an...

In many animals – and most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-dinosaurs-died-in-the-springtime/">dinosaurs</a> – the eye sockets are circular holes in the skull housing the eyeballs. However, according to a new study led by Dr. Stephan Lautenschlager, a senior lecturer in Paleobiology at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>, large dinosaur predators, such as Tyrannosaurus Rex, evolved different, elliptical or oval shapes of eye sockets in order to better deal with forceful bites.



Dr. Lautenschlager analyzed the shape of the eye sockets of over 500 different dinosaurs and related species. “The results show that only some dinosaurs had eye sockets that were elliptical or keyhole-shaped,” he said. “However, all of those were large, carnivorous dinosaurs with skull lengths of one meter or more.”



By using computer simulations and stress analysis, Dr. Lautenschlager investigated what purpose such unusual eye socket shapes could have, and discovered that a skull with circular eye sockets was more prone to high stresses during biting. However, if these were replaced with elliptical or oval eye sockets, the stress during biting was considerably reduced, allowing major predators to evolve high bite sources that would not compromise their skull stability.



While most herbivorous dinosaur species and juvenile individuals retained circular eye socket shapes, large carnivores such as T. Rex adopted different morphologies, including elliptical, keyhole-shaped, of figure-of-eight-shaped sockets. “In these species, just the upper part of the eye socket was actually occupied by the eyeball. This also led to a relative reduction of eye size compared with skull size,” explained Dr. Lautenschlager.



“These morphologies are beneficial in mitigating and dissipating feeding-induced stresses and require only little investment in reinforcing the bony structure of the skull. Conversely, the development and maintenance of large circular orbits and corresponding eyes would be physiologically costly and likely outweigh potential benefits for visual acuity,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-03706-0#Sec6">Nature Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Dinosaurs evolved different eye sockets for stronger bites

In many animals – and most dinosaurs – the eye...

Early days of the COVID-19 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pandemic-restrictions-had-a-lasting-effect-on-behavior-patterns/">pandemic</a> were a stressful time marked by fear, isolation, and uncertainty. But for birds, the reduction in noise and commotion created a wider range of habitat in cities.



A new study from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> reports that many birds were just as likely to be found in highly developed urban areas as they were in less-developed green spaces during COVID-19 lockdowns in the Pacific Northwest.



“Our findings suggest that some birds may have been able to use more spaces in cities because our human footprint was a little lighter,” said Olivia Sanderfoot, who completed the study as a doctoral researcher and is now a postdoctoral scholar in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of California, Los Angeles.&nbsp;



“For about half of the species we observed, neither land use nor canopy cover had an effect on their site use. That’s very interesting, because we would expect that whether a habitat was mostly covered in concrete or vegetation would tell you something about what birds would be there,” said Sanderfoot.



In the spring of 2020, more than 900 community scientists were recruited to participate in the study. The volunteers chose their own monitoring sites such as backyards and parks, and recorded the birds they observed at least once a week. This allowed researchers to gather data despite the lockdowns and gave many volunteers a welcomed distraction from the stresses of the pandemic.



Among the 35 species that showed the strongest changes in behavior were some of the Pacific Northwest’s most iconic, including chickadees, great blue herons, downy woodpeckers and Wilson’s warblers. The researchers focused on 46 bird species overall and completed more than 6,000 individual surveys.



To compare bird observations to human activity, the team used data from Google’s Community Mobility Reports, which track the relative amount that people moved around at various points during the pandemic.



As people returned to public spaces and human activity increased, volunteers recorded an increase in sightings of several bird species in green spaces. While the birds may have been elsewhere during lockdowns enjoying the absence of human disturbance, they returned to green spaces when activity picked up again.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This could tell us how important it is to build green spaces into our cities. That’s the biggest takeaway for me.” said Sanderfoot.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.



Image Credit: Holly Hauser



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Birds expanded into quieter cities during Covid lockdowns

Early days of the COVID-19 pandemic were a stressful time...

Every year, trillions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pitcher-plants-harness-rain-energy-to-capture-insects/">insects</a> in Western Europe undertake seasonal migrations; usually they move southward towards the Mediterranean and North Africa at the end of the northern summer, and return northward during the spring or early summer. The same pathway is followed by many species of moths, butterflies and hoverflies; vast numbers of these insects cross the Alps in order to fly as directly as possible to their overwintering destinations.&nbsp;



Although these enormous migrations are understood on a population level, very little is known about how individual insects manage to navigate their way through the considerable obstacles, or what methods they use to locate their destinations. This gap in understanding is due, mostly, to the challenge of tracking these small animals as they fly, surprisingly rapidly and often at night.&nbsp;



A new study on migrating death’s-head hawkmoths (Acherontia atropos) has now used miniscule tracking devices and a light aircraft to track seven individual moths as they migrated across the Alps at night. The study, published by the <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a> (AAAS), reveals that these hawkmoths make use of complex migratory strategies to stay on track.&nbsp;



The death’s-head hawkmoth, known for the sinister skull-shaped marking on its thorax, is the largest lepidopteran in Europe, weighing in at up to 3.5g. It is a long-distance Afro-Palearctic migrant that arrives to breed in Europe, north of the Alps, in spring each year. The subsequent generation returns south the following autumn to winter-breeding regions in the Mediterranean Basin and sub-Saharan Africa, covering a distance of up to 4,000km.&nbsp;



The researchers fitted tiny, very high frequency radio transmitters to the backs of 14 hawkmoths and recorded their precise GPS locations from a light aircraft at regular intervals (every 5 to 15 min, when possible) throughout their migration. They obtained detailed tracks for seven of the moths. The moths all started their migratory flights shortly after sunset, and were followed by the researchers for between 1 and 3.7 hours. During this time, the moths flew a mean distance of 63.7km, with the longest distance being 89.6km. This represents the longest distance over which any insect has been continuously tracked in the field.



A team led by Dr. Myles Menz&nbsp;from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior discovered that the moths did not just fly in a direction with favorable tailwinds, as had been proposed by other scientists in the past. Instead, the moths flew in the most direct straight line to their destination, but were able to correct their specific flight headings constantly, as they came across disruptive winds and specific features of the terrain.&nbsp;



The hawkmoths traveled at a mean ground speed of 33.8km/hour, and they all travelled in straight lines along their entire flight paths, which lasted tens of kilometers. This direct line was maintained, despite the presence of winds of varying strengths and directions throughout their course.&nbsp;&nbsp;



According to the researchers, maintaining a consistently straight flight trajectory and flight speed throughout the night under variable wind conditions strongly suggests that the moths have an internal compass mechanism. This, along with the insect’s exceptional night vision, indicates that the hawkmoths likely use a combination of visual landmarks and Earth’s magnetic field to navigate considerable distances during migration.



Interestingly enough, the moths chose pathways through the mountains that had topographical features (such as high-altitude passes) which allowed them to avoid the very highest altitudes when crossing the Alps. One of these pathways involved using a wide valley running west-southwest that enabled the moths to circumvent the Alps altogether.



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, sheds new light on the complex and sophisticated behavior of hawkmoths while on seasonal migrations. "To maintain such straight trajectories over long periods of time, as seen here, the moths must regularly update their positions relative to whichever navigational cues they rely on," wrote the study authors. The results show that complex migratory strategies are not the preserve of vertebrates alone, but can be found in these remarkable insects as well.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How death’s-head hawkmoths navigate the Alps at night

Every year, trillions of insects in Western Europe undertake seasonal...

Scientists have long known that, just like humans, many species of mammals and birds experience REM (rapid eye movement) sleep – a type of deep sleep during which most dreaming occurs. However, until recently, not much attention has been given to the sleeping patterns of spiders.&nbsp;



Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en">University of Konstanz</a> in Germany has recorded over 30 baby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jumping-spiders-know-the-difference-between-animals-and-objects/">jumping spiders</a> (Evarcha arcuata) during their resting states, and found that they displayed periodical bouts of retinal movements coupled with limb twitching and leg curling, suggesting that they might experience REM sleep too.



While many species similar to spiders do not have movable eyes, which makes it difficult to investigate their sleep cycles, jumping spiders are fierce predators that move their retinal tubes around constantly to redirect their gaze when they hunt.&nbsp;



Moreover, baby jumping spiders have a see-through outer layer which gives scientists a clear window into their bodies. “Sometimes as a biologist, you just get really, really lucky,” said study co-author Paul Shamble, an evolutionary biologist at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>.&nbsp;



By filming the baby spiders while they were resting, the researchers were surprised to find that they exhibited similar movements and behaviors as other species known to experience REM sleep.&nbsp;



“Here, we report evidence for an REM sleep-like state in a terrestrial invertebrate – periodic bouts of retinal movements coupled with limb twitching and stereotyped leg curling behaviors during nocturnal resting in a jumping spider,” the study authors reported.&nbsp;



“Observed retinal movement bouts were consistent, including regular durations and intervals, with both increasing over the course of the night.&nbsp;This report provides direct evidence for an REM sleep-like state in a terrestrial invertebrate – an arthropod – with clear parallels to REM sleep in terrestrial vertebrates.”



However, scientists are still not sure whether the spiders are technically asleep while they are in these resting states. Experts such as Jerry Siegel, a sleep researcher at the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA), remain skeptical that spiders are in fact capable of REM sleep. “There may be animals that have activity in quiet states. But are they REM sleep? It’s hard to imagine that they could be the same thing,” he said.



Further research is needed to better understand the sleeping patterns of spiders and other similar animals, and clarify how widespread REM sleep is in the animal kingdom, and what evolutionary purposes it might serve. “Comparisons across such long-diverged lineages likely hold important questions and answers about the visual brain, as well as the origin, evolution, and function of REM sleep,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2204754119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Jumping spiders may experience REM sleep

Scientists have long known that, just like humans, many species...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) has found that female white-faced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-rated-genes-help-capuchin-monkeys-live-longer/">capuchin monkeys</a> living in the tropical forests of northwestern Costa Rico that are better integrated into social networks with other adult females tend to survive longer.



“As humans, we assume there is some benefit to social interactions, but it is really hard to measure the success of our behavioral strategies,” said study senior author Susan Perry, a field primatologist at UCLA. “Why do we invest so much in our relationships with others? Does it lead to a longer lifespan? Does it lead to more reproductive success? It requires a colossal effort to measure this in humans and other animals.”



Together with her research team, Professor Perry tracked the female capuchin monkeys’ social interactions with other females, males, and companions of any sex and age, based on 18 years of data. Interactions taken into account in the study included giving and receiving grooming, foraging nearby, and taking part in coalitionary conflicts, such as intervening to help one another in conflicts by fighting, chasing, or producing aggressive sounds and facial expressions.



While the analyses revealed no evidence that heterosexual relationships provided any survival-related benefits to females, they clearly shown that social integration into networks with other female adults significantly improved their chance of survival. 



“We found the strongest evidence that social integration into female networks predicts survival. Females who frequently engaged in grooming and foraged in close proximity with other females experienced improved survivorship,” the authors explained.



“We also found marginal support that females who frequently provided and received coalitionary support from other females possibly experienced survival-related benefits. The fact that female interactions with other females across all behavioral domains show at least some evidence of beneficial impact on survival suggests that females cultivate strong relationships with each other.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Further research is needed to better understand why relationships with other females have the greatest impact on the survival of female capuchin monkeys, and to investigate whether this phenomenon can be found in other species of monkeys.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/33/4/807/6598784">Behavioral Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Female monkeys with strong friendships survive longer

A new study led by the University of California, Los...

Sponges are ancient filter-feeding animals that rely on maintaining a flow of water through their bodies to obtain suspended food and dissolved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-may-have-come-from-ancient-rocks-of-early-earth/">oxygen</a>. They do not have a nervous, digestive or circulatory system, and remove waste products by releasing them into this same flow of water. However, a new study that analyzed videos of sponges over extended time periods has identified a special technique that they use to get rid of unwanted material from inside their bodies.&nbsp;



As one of the oldest multicellular organisms in existence, a sponge spends most of its life stuck to the substratum and cannot move away when conditions become unpleasant. Under these circumstances it may take in unwanted particles of sediment with its constant inflow of water. These waste particles would soon clog up a sponge’s filtration system and so they need to be removed. And the sponge does this by undergoing an extended contraction, referred to as a “sneeze.”



"Our data suggest that sneezing is an adaptation that sponges evolved to keep themselves clean,” said study senior author Jasper de Goeij, a marine biologist at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en">University of Amsterdam</a>.



While biologists have known about the contraction behavior, the authors of this paper show that these sneezes get rid of materials the sponges cannot use. “Let’s be clear: sponges don’t sneeze like humans do. A sponge sneeze takes about half an hour to complete. But both sponge and human sneezes exist as a waste disposal mechanism,” says de Goeij.



The researchers used time-lapse videos of sponges to show that these organisms do not simply dispose of waste and unwanted particles with water that flows away through the outlet pores. They actively secrete mucus, often against the direction of water flow, onto their outer surfaces. They then expel unwanted particles through their pores and these become aggregated in the stringy clumps of mucus. Every now and then, the sponge goes through a contraction (sneeze) that loosens the strings of mucus and accumulated particulate matter, dispatching them into the water column.



What is a sponge’s waste is a fish’s windfall. Fish hang around the sponges waiting for these strings of mucus to be shed so that they may eat them.



“We also observed fish and other animals feeding off of the sponge mucus as food,” explained study first author Niklas Kornder. “Some organic matter exists in the water surrounding the coral reef, but most of it is not concentrated enough for other animals to eat. Sponges transform this material into eatable mucus."



The researchers noted this “sneezing” behavior in two species of sponges, the Caribbean tube sponge&nbsp;Aplysina archeri&nbsp;and another Indo-Pacific species of the genus&nbsp;Chelonaplysilla.&nbsp;



“We actually think that most, if not all, sponges sneeze. I’ve seen mucus accumulate on different sponges while diving and in pictures taken by other scientists for other purposes,” said Kornder. 



“Our findings highlight opportunities to better understand material cycling in some of the most ancient Metazoans,” wrote the study authors.



There are still many aspects about sponge “sneezes” that remain to be investigated. “In the videos, you can see that the mucus moves along defined paths on the surface of the sponge before accumulating. I have some hypotheses, but more analysis is needed to find out what is happening,” said Kornder.



“There are a lot of scientists that think sponges are very simple organisms, but more often than not we are amazed by the flexibility that they show to adapt to their environment,” said de Goeij.



The study is, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.07.017">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sponges “sneeze” to get rid of unwanted waste

Sponges are ancient filter-feeding animals that rely on maintaining a...

How did enormous dinosaurs like Brontosaurus carry so much weight on land? A new study led by the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> has finally solved this mystery. Using 3D modeling, the experts digitally reconstructed the foot bones of various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sauropods-walked-more-like-hippos-than-elephants/">sauropods</a> to test their function. 



Dr. Andréas Jannel conducted the research during his PhD studies at UQ’s Dinosaur Lab. He said the team discovered that the hind feet of sauropods had a soft tissue pad beneath the "heel" that added cushioning to absorb their immense weight.



“We’ve finally confirmed a long-suspected idea and we provide, for the first time, biomechanical evidence that a soft tissue pad – particularly in their back feet – would have played a crucial role in reducing locomotor pressures and bone stresses,” said Dr. Jannel. “It is mind-blowing to imagine that these giant creatures could have been able to support their own weight on land.”



It was once assumed that sauropods were semi-aquatic and that water buoyancy took literal tons of weight off their relatively small legs. This theory was contradicted in the mid-twentieth century when scientists analyzed sauropod tracks that were found in deposits on land.



Sauropods were also once believed to have feet similar to a modern-day elephant, noted study co-author Dr. Olga Panagiotopoulou of Monash University.



“Popular culture - think Jurassic Park or Walking with Dinosaurs - often depicts these behemoths with almost-cylindrical, thick, elephant-like feet,” said Dr. Panagiotopoulou. “But when it comes to their skeletal structure, elephants are actually ‘tip-toed’ on all four feet, whereas sauropods have different foot configurations in their front and back feet."



“Sauropod’s front feet are more columnar-like, while they present more ‘wedge high heels’ at the back supported by a large soft tissue pad.”



This was because sauropods and elephants had different evolutionary origins, explained study co-author Professor Steve Salisbury.&nbsp;



“Elephants belong to an ancient order of mammals called proboscideans, which first appeared in Africa roughly 60 million years ago as small, nondescript herbivores. In contrast, sauropods – whose ancestors first appeared 230 million years ago – are more closely related to birds," said Professor Salisbury.



“They were agile, two-legged herbivores and it was only later in their evolution that they walked on all fours. Crucially, the transition to becoming the largest land animals to walk the earth seems to have involved the adaptation of a heel pad.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mystery solved: how massive dinosaurs carried their weight

How did enormous dinosaurs like Brontosaurus carry so much weight...

Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-self-regulated-their-body-temperature/">dinosaurs</a> replaced their teeth as they fell out - a trait that is shared with modern crocodilians and sharks. Tooth replacement is useful for predatory animals whose teeth are used to hold struggling prey animals and are often broken off.&nbsp;



Now, new research shows that spinosaurids (a group that includes spinosaurus) replaced their teeth even faster than many other dinosaurs. This helps explain why so many spinosaurid teeth have been found littering dinosaur digs.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.ehu.eus/en">University of the Basque Country</a> assessed a partial spinosaurid jaw from the Late Cretaceous found in La Rioja, Spain. The jaw contained eight alveoli or tooth sockets and tooth remains. Indeed, the researchers found up to three teeth in a single alveolus.&nbsp;



“We recognized up to three generations of teeth in the same alveolus: the functional tooth of the animal, another tooth being formed and which would replace the first, and the germ of the one that would end up replacing the second,” explained Pablo Navarro, co-author of the research published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2022.2069019">Historical Biology</a>.



“This suggests very rapid tooth replacement and is probably one of the reasons why so many spinosaurid teeth can be&nbsp; found on the Iberian Peninsula during the Lower Cretaceous."



Previous research showed that some species of spinosaurids were able to quickly replace their conical teeth, with an estimated time of 60 to 68 days. This research not only verifies the trait for the entire group, but also explains the mechanism of how this regeneration is possible.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Throughout their lives these animals grew new teeth that gradually replaced the original ones and caused them to fall out. This means that the same animal could generate multiple teeth,” said Navarro.



“These teeth, more or less conical in shape and a centimetre in size, were transported by rivers, accumulated in lake areas and, over time, became fossilised,” said the researcher. They are one of the most common vertebrate remains in Iberian sites of the Lower Cretaceous (between 145 and 113 million years ago)”.



Although scientists aren’t entirely sure why spinosaurid teeth were replaced so quickly, it’s likely this ability gave them an edge over other predators.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2022.2069019">Historical Biology&nbsp;</a>



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spinosaurids rapidly replaced their teeth

Many dinosaurs replaced their teeth as they fell out -...

A new study from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> explores the connection between hearing loss and dementia in geriatric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/playfulness-is-a-key-personality-trait-of-gifted-dogs/">dogs</a>. These findings could support treatment of aging dogs and advance our understanding of the relationship between sensory loss and cognitive function.



“In humans, we know that age-related hearing loss is estimated to affect one-third of people over age 65,” said study co-author Natasha Olby.&nbsp;



“We also know that the rate of cognitive decline is approximately 30-40% faster in people with age-related hearing loss and that hearing loss is a greater contributor to dementia risk than other factors such as hypertension or obesity. But we don’t understand whether the same holds true for dogs.”



The researchers evaluated 39 senior or geriatric dogs. Auditory and cognitive tests were performed and owners were asked to fill out questionnaires focused on cognitive ability and quality of life. Cognitive testing, questionnaire scores and age were compared between hearing groups.



The “average” dog can hear tones at 50 decibels (dBs) with no difficulty. Of the study cohort, 19 of the dogs could hear at 50 dBs, 12 at 70 dBs, and eight at 90 dBs (roughly equivalent to the noise made by a jet plane at takeoff).&nbsp;



When the hearing results were compared with quality of life questionnaire responses, scores related to vitality and companionship declined significantly as hearing deteriorated. The results from cognitive testing were similar - as hearing declined, so did the dog’s ability to perform tasks.



“Hearing loss is one of the biggest predictors of dementia in people,” said Olby. “Hearing loss also contributes to falls in elderly people, as sensory decline contributes to a loss in motor skills. So the connection between physical and neurological decline is clear for humans.”



These findings suggest that the same connection happens with aging dogs. Understanding these changes in elderly dogs enhances the ability to identify and treat these issues in pets, but also improves the understanding of the same issues among humans.



The study appears in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jvim.16510">Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hearing loss linked to dementia in aging dogs

A new study from North Carolina State University explores the...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> has examined how the geographical characteristics of the world’s islands influence the seasonal variation in the number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-report-confirms-that-bird-species-are-steadily-declining/">bird species</a>. The experts have shown that the seasonal species richness of birds is affected by the size of an island, how isolated it is from the mainland, and the latitude at which it is located.&nbsp;



“We used 21 years of bird observations on 690 islands from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s eBird program,” said study lead author Frank La Sorte, an expert in Avian Ecology and Behavior. “In addition to resident bird species that occur year-round on islands, islands can also host migratory bird species during the breeding or non-breeding seasons, or as transients during migration.”



The analysis revealed that species numbers peaked on islands located in the Northern Hemisphere at mid-latitudes during migration seasons. However, during non-breeding periods, the number of bird species increased on tropical islands, reflecting the fact that the majority of bird species breed in the Northern Hemisphere and migrate towards the tropics to spend their autumns and winters.



Moreover, the researchers found an unmistakable correlation between the size of an island and the number of species present there: the bigger the island, the more bird species. By contrast, islands that are more distant from the mainland usually host a smaller number of species.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“These findings emphasize the importance of evolutionary processes on the largest islands and the unique ecology of the world’s most remote islands,” Dr. La Sorte explained. “Overall, species richness was lowest across all four seasons on the smallest, most remote islands and species richness was highest across all four seasons on the largest islands located at intermediate distances from the mainland.”



However, the scientists stress that there are significant variations in these relationships. For instance, even though large islands usually contain more species of birds, if these islands are very remote, they host fewer species, much like the extremely remote small islands.



“Our findings show that islands play a pivotal role as stopover sites and as wintering grounds for the world’s migratory birds. A better understanding of the geographical relationships between migratory birds and islands across seasons will improve our ability to practice effective bird conservation in these unique places,” Dr. La Sorte concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.1105">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

What types of islands attract migratory birds?

A new study led by Cornell University has examined how...

Oak savannas are grassy and shrubby areas, featuring oaks as the dominant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-makes-pine-trees-more-susceptible-to-disease/">tree</a> species. Since oaks require a dry environment, in North America these savannas are frequently found in the rain shadow of the West Coast’s mountain range. Oaks host a vast diversity of insect species, such as oak gall wasps, which form striking growths known as galls. However, the expansion of this invasive wasp species has usually been kept in check by a wide range of parasitoid wasps, which lay their eggs inside the galls, and, after hatching, their larvae feed upon the oak gall wasp larvae.&nbsp;



According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/">Binghamton University</a> in New York, climate change has led to warming temperatures in the Pacific Northwest, leading some insect species – including the oak gall wasps - to expand their range into more northerly oak savannas, where they encounter less competition and they can proliferate. “In the native range, you might find a handful of galls on a single leaf. In the expanded range, sometimes you’re finding thousands on a single tree,” said study senior author Kirsten Prior, an assistant professor of Biological Sciences at Binghamton. “This is pretty prevalent throughout Vancouver Island.”



Biodiversity tends to work on a latitudinal gradient: while there is a vast multitude of species closer to the equator, their numbers gradually decrease at higher latitudes. Thus, when species expand their range northwards due to warming temperatures, they often move into areas without a diversity of predators and competitors, eventually overwhelming the ecosystems they encounter.



“When species undergo poleward range expansions in response to anthropogenic change, they likely encounter less diverse communities in new locations. If low diversity communities provide weak biotic interactions, such as reduced competition or predation, range-expanding species may experience high niche opportunities,” the study authors explained.



This seems to happen currently with oak gall wasps, which exhibit unusual population growths at higher latitudes, where they need to face less competition – a phenomenon highlighting the importance of biodiversity for keeping invasive species in check, as well as the potential long-term ramifications of climate change.



“Biodiversity can be really important in potentially protecting areas from invading species. If we have strong competitors and predators, this might make areas less susceptible to invading species,” concluded study lead author Dylan Jones, a doctoral student in Biology at Binghamton.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13780">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Invasive wasps are expanding northward on the West Coast

Oak savannas are grassy and shrubby areas, featuring oaks as...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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