Wandering salamanders, also known as "skydiving salamanders," have fascinated scientists for years with their ability to jump and glide effortlessly through the towering canopies of coastal redwood forests. 



Despite their small size, these amphibians navigate high-altitude branches with precision, sticking their landings and taking off with ease. 



Until recently, the mechanics behind their remarkable acrobatic movement remained a mystery. Now, a new study reveals a surprising answer: blood-powered toes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salamanders-that-control-blood-flow">Salamanders that control blood flow</h2>



Researchers at Washington State University discovered that wandering salamanders (Aneides vagrans) can rapidly control the blood flow in their toe tips.



This ability allows them to grip, detach, and move through their arboreal environment with remarkable efficiency. 



The study not only sheds light on an unknown aspect of salamander physiology but also has potential implications for technological advances in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adhesives</a>, prosthetics, and robotic limbs.



The research team found that salamanders can fill, trap, and drain blood within their toe tips. 



This process helps them fine-tune their attachment and detachment from surfaces, providing the grip necessary for climbing and the release required for efficient movement.



The discovery challenges previous assumptions about the function of the visible red “lakes” of blood in their translucent toes. These structures were long thought to aid in oxygenation, but no scientific evidence supported that claim.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-the-control">Advantages of the control</h2>



The study suggests that controlling blood flow in the toes allows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-salamander-like-beast-gaiasia-jennyae-top-predator-before-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salamanders</a> to adjust pressure asymmetrically.



 This fine-tuned control helps them navigate the irregular surfaces of tree bark. Surprisingly, the blood influx before “toe-off” does not aid in attachment but rather helps the salamanders detach. 



By slightly inflating their toe tips, they reduce the surface area in contact with the bark, minimizing the energy required to let go. This efficiency is crucial when gliding between branches and ensuring safe landings.



“Gecko-inspired adhesives already allow surfaces to be reused without losing stickiness,” said Christian Brown, lead author of the study, and a postdoctoral researcher in integrative physiology and neuroscience at <a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University</a>.



“Understanding salamander toes could lead to similar breakthroughs in attachment technologies.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-documentary-shoot">A documentary shoot</h2>



The origins of this study trace back to an unexpected moment during the filming of the documentary The Americas, which will air on February 23, 2025 on NBC and Peacock.



Brown was assisting on set as a salamander expert when he noticed something unusual through the production team’s high-powered camera lenses.



Just before a wandering salamander took a step, blood appeared to rush into its toe tips. Brown and camera assistant William Goldenberg observed this phenomenon multiple times. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/salamandar-wandering_Aneides-vagrans_hindfoot_suction_blood-flow_credit-WSU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/salamandar-wandering_Aneides-vagrans_hindfoot_suction_blood-flow_credit-WSU_1s.webp" alt="The hindfoot of a live wandering salamander (Aneides vagrans). In the background, blood can be seen filling a toe tip. Photo: William P. Goldenberg/WSU" class="wp-image-1958372"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hindfoot of a live wandering salamander (Aneides vagrans). In the background, blood can be seen filling a toe tip. Photo: William P. Goldenberg/WSU</figcaption></figure>



The repeated occurrence caught their attention. “We looked at each other like, ‘Did you see that?’” Brown related.



Although the documentary team moved on to other subjects, Brown’s curiosity lingered. After filming wrapped, he reached out to Goldenberg and proposed an experiment. 



Using high-resolution film equipment, they would investigate whether salamanders consistently displayed this blood-powered toe mechanism under controlled conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salamanders-regulating-their-blood-flow">Salamanders regulating their blood flow </h2>



The research team conducted detailed video trials and microscopic analysis at Washington State University’s <a href="https://fmic.wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Franceschi Microscopy &amp; Imaging Center</a>. 



Their findings confirmed that wandering salamanders regulate blood flow to each individual toe tip, which allows them to modify grip strength as needed.



This discovery provides insight into how salamanders navigate the complex terrain of the redwood canopy. The ability to release their grip efficiently is particularly significant. 



“If you’re climbing a redwood and have 18 toes gripping bark, being able to detach efficiently without damaging your toe tips makes a huge difference,” Brown said. 



The research suggests that this mechanism plays a crucial role in the salamanders’ ability to thrive in the towering heights of their natural habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-one-species">Implications beyond one species</h2>



While this study focused on&nbsp;Aneides vagrans, the findings could have broader implications. Other salamander species, including aquatic ones, also have vascularized toe structures. 



These structures may serve different purposes depending on the environment, from regulating grip on wet surfaces to enhancing movement across diverse landscapes.



The discovery could also inspire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-pushing-the-u-s-toward-an-unpredictable-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">innovations</a> beyond biology. Scientists studying bioinspired design are particularly interested in nature’s solutions to movement and adhesion problems.



By understanding how salamanders control their grip with blood-powered toe tips, researchers may be able to develop new adhesives and prosthetics that mimic this ability.



Brown and his colleagues plan to expand their research to investigate how similar mechanisms function in other salamander species. 



“This could redefine our understanding of how salamanders move across diverse habitats,” Brown said. The findings could help explain how different species adapt to their environments and refine our knowledge of biomechanics in amphibians.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-salamander-movement">New perspective on salamander movement</h2>



The discovery of blood-powered toes in wandering salamanders challenges previous assumptions about their movement and grip strength. 



As scientists continue to study these remarkable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-and-toads-face-new-risks-as-their-habitats-dry-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>, they may uncover even more secrets hidden within their physiology. 



For now, the ability of wandering salamanders to control their grip with precision remains an intriguing discovery in animal biomechanics.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmor.70026" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Morphology</a>. 



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'Skydiving' salamanders can fully control blood flow in their toes

Wandering salamanders, also known as "skydiving salamanders," have fascinated scientists for years with their ability to jump and glide effortlessly through the towering canopies of coastal redwood forests. Despite their small size, these amphibians navigate high-altitude branches with precision, sticking their landings and taking off with ease. Until recently, the mechanics behind their remarkable acrobatic movement remained a mystery. Now, a new study reveals a surprising answer: blood-powered toes. Salamanders that control blood flow Researchers at Washington State University discovered that wandering salamanders (Aneides vagrans) can rapidly control...

Since urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eastern-coyotes-wolves/">coyote</a> research began in the 1980s and 1990s, there has been a sustained interest in the scientific community in what type of foods coyotes living in urban areas are eating, specifically whether they are relying on human foods for sustenance. Now, by analyzing the DNA of urban coyotes living in New York, a team of experts discovered that they eat a variety of native prey species and only supplement this diet with human-sourced food items.



“Urban areas have lots of people and thus greater availability of anthropogenic foods,” said study lead author Carol Henger, a postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a>. “Knowing what the coyotes are eating can help inform management practices by city officials.”



Coyotes are opportunistic omnivores, usually taking advantage of whatever food is available. Although previous research conducted in cities such as Los Angeles and Chicago have found that coyotes eat mainly “natural” foods such as rabbits or rodents, city coyotes still tend to consume more human-sourced food items than their countryside counterparts.



To find out what New York coyotes are eating, the researchers analyzed DNA from coyote fecal samples collected in parks and other green spaces between 2010 and 2017. The analyses revealed that urban coyotes consumed a wide variety of mammalian prey, including racoons, rabbits, deer, and voles. However, they also ate birds, insects, plants, as well as human-sourced foods like beef, pork, or chicken.



“What’s unique about our study is that by sequencing the DNA of coyote scat we were able to detect diet items that might not be detected through a visual analysis of the scat samples, such as specific human food items. There are no wild cows, chickens, or banana trees in NYC parks so if we got a DNA hit on something like that, we knew that the coyote had eaten from an anthropogenic source,” Dr. Henger explained.



The scientists also compared the diet of NYC coyotes to that of coyotes living in non-urban areas from the New York state, and found that raccoons and deer made up a larger proportion of the diet of non-urban coyotes compared to that of their urban relatives. Although both groups of coyotes ate similar proportions of human food (about 60 percent of the fecal samples contained traces of at least one human food item), the urban coyotes ate a wider variety of such products, including rice, goat meat, guineafowl, or bananas.



“Raccoons were the most prevalent mammal detected in the New York City coyote diet,” Dr. Henger reported. “With no other natural predators to limit their populations, coyotes provide an important ecological service. Raccoons can carry diseases such as rabies and canine distemper that can be transmitted to humans and pets. By predating on raccoons, coyotes are helping to provide healthy ecosystems.”&nbsp;



“Our results show that coyotes are not reliant on human food to survive in New York City. Instead, coyotes are eating natural food items that are available in the city parks. This study highlights the importance of creating and maintaining green spaces where wildlife can thrive,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13788">PeerJ</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Urban coyotes do not rely on human food

Since urban coyote research began in the 1980s and 1990s,...

Around the world, more than five billion species of hoofed animals – known as “ungulates” and including species such as giraffes, horses, pigs, alpacas, or yaks – are kept as livestock or in zoos and safari parks. A new study led by <a href="https://www.aber.ac.uk/en/">Aberystwyth University</a> and the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> has investigated which of these species are better suited to captive environments and which display significant levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-may-sometimes-protect-our-bodies/">stress</a> and require better husbandry if kept in captivity.&nbsp;



By examining the behavior of over 15,000 individual animals across 38 ungulate species, the experts found that the type of food species eaten and their mating strategies were associated to the risk of stress symptoms. Species most at risk of experiencing stress in captivity were those that eat high-growing woody vegetation (browsers), such as camels, okapis, and rhinoceros, or are sexually promiscuous, like buffalos, yaks, pigs, or sheep.



If a species’ behavioral needs – which they perform to survive and reproduce in the wild – are restricted by captivity, the animals often experience poor welfare and engage in repetitive, unusual behaviors – known as “stereotypical behaviors.” In this study, the scientists aimed to identify which specific behavioral needs should be prioritized to avoid stress and stereotypical behaviors and provide better welfare for the ungulates.



“Our data suggest that features of both a species’ wild behavioral biology and captive husbandry are predictive of these stereotypic behaviours in ungulates,” said study senior author Sebastian McBride, an expert in Animal Cognition at Aberystwyth.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This research has very important implications for how these large, hoofed animals are kept in captivity – we now have a better understanding of which species are most susceptible to stress in captivity and how we can tackle this problem to improve the welfare of those animals.”



“We found that for ungulates, having the right food and social organization is crucial for their welfare. Whereas for carnivores, having enough space in captivity seems to be key. This shows the importance of understanding the specific needs of different groups of species,” added study co-author Leanne Proops, a researcher in Animal Behavior and Welfare at Portsmouth.



“As a society, we need to continue to question and examine the environmental factors that are important to animals if we are to maximize their welfare. There are lessons here for both farmers and zoos about how best to raise and treat livestock,” concluded lead author Kate Lewis, a doctoral student in Equine Behavior at Portsmouth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.1311">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Proper food and company reduce stress in captive animals

Around the world, more than five billion species of hoofed...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humanity-should-brace-for-catastrophic-climate-change/">Climate change</a> and related extreme weather events such as heatwaves or droughts are putting livestock at risk, causing huge economic losses for the production chain. To solve this problem, a research team led by the <a href="https://piacenza.unicatt.it/">Catholic University of the Sacred Heart</a> in Piacenza, Italy, are searching for genes to make cattle and sheep breeds more resistant to climate change.



“Production loss due to heat depends on environmental conditions, as assessed by the temperature/humidity index (THI),” explained study senior author Professor Paolo Ajmone-Marsan, a professor of Animal Breeding at the Catholic University. “Several studies revealed worrying estimates of the order of millions of euros in direct costs (loss of production) and indirect costs (cost of veterinary interventions, fodder, etc.).”



Recent research estimates that the loss of global production from heat stress could reach $40 billion a year by the end of the century, equivalent to ten percent of the 2005 value of meat and milk. “Heat stress is deleterious to all animal species, particularly for ruminants and high-producing dairy cattle, as well as our breeds,” said study co-author Riccardo Negrini, an expert in Animal Science at the same university. “Unfortunately, climate projections indicate that summer weather in our country will be increasingly dry and hot. That will increase stress in animals, despite shading, ventilation, sprinkling of water, and possible conditioning.”



However, according to Professor Ajmone-Marsan, genomics can now be efficiently employed to save livestock from the harmful effects of climate change. For instance, national breeding programs have changed the selection goals of livestock species, favoring animals which are more robust and resilient to environmental factors, and not just highly productive (as previous breeding efforts did).&nbsp;



Through genomics, several genetic variants which help animals to better adapt to hostile climates have already been identified. For example, in some local Caribbean cattle breeds, such as Senepol, Limoneiro, and Carora, a “slick” mutation that results in hair shortening and other physiological changes that make the animals highly resistant to heat stress has recently been discovered. This mutation has been introduced into the Friesian cattle breed in Florida, making them more resilient to climate change.



“Many ongoing research projects are looking for other favorable genetic variants associated with adaptation to the environment in other breeds and other species. We are actively involved in some of these projects,” said study co-author Licia Colli, a researcher in Zootechnics at the Catholic University. “Understanding the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms of climate adaptation is important for planning genetic and genomic improvement programs that increase the production efficiency of local breeds without compromising their adaptive traits.”



“Genomics is a powerful tool and it will facilitate the selection of animals more resilient to climate change, but it is only one of the factors that can ensure animal welfare in extreme climates; it’s crucial also to control farm structures, breeding management, and precision feeding. The good news is that animals in production are increasingly closely monitored by cameras, sensors, and intelligent data analysis systems, that alert farmers as soon as animals show the first signs of stress, allowing immediate implementation of mitigation measures,” concluded Emilio Trevisi, a professor of Animal Sciences, Food, and Nutrition at the same university.&nbsp;



The study – which comprehensively reviews several of current genomic projects aiming to increase farm animals’ resilience to climate change – was published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/11/10/2833">MDPI Animals</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genomics can help farm animals adapt to climate change

Climate change and related extreme weather events such as heatwaves...

The deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-making-the-ocean-more-acidic/">ocean</a> is a harsh environment. At 11 kilometers below, water at the Mariana Trench exerts eight tons of pressure per square inch. This is 1,100 times greater than the pressure at sea level on dry land.&nbsp;



Under this type of pressure, the normal tetrahedron shape of the water molecule is warped. Inside of an organism, this change in water molecule shape prevents biological processes from taking place, thus killing the organism. New research from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> shows how fishes living at these depths survive otherwise crushing pressure.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Life has adapted to survive and thrive in environmental extremes. In the depths of the oceans, organisms live under extreme high pressures that would destroy human life," said Professor Lorna Dougan.



“These high pressures distort the liquid water that resides in all life, resulting in detrimental impacts to the biomolecules that underpin all biological processes."&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We need to understand what happens to water under pressure and how pressure-adapted organisms combat these effects. If we can understand how these organisms survive at extreme pressure, we can apply these findings to the wider study of biomolecular stability.”&nbsp;



The chemical that allows fish to survive these depths is TMAO - trimethylamine N-oxide. The research shows that the amount of TMAO in ocean dwelling animals increases with the depth they live at.&nbsp;



Led by Dr. Harrison Laurent, the researchers fired a beam of neutrons at water particles under low pressure (25 bar) and high pressure (4 kbar) with and without TMAO present. Without TMAO, the water bonds became distorted and compacted. With TMAO, however, the water bonds were strengthened and supported.



“The TMAO provides a structural anchor which results in the water being able to resist the extreme pressure it is under. The findings are important because they help scientists understand the processes by which organisms have adapted to survive the extreme conditions found in the oceans," said Dr. Laurent.



This research allows scientists to better understand how a plethora of newly discovered organisms can survive deep in the world’s oceans. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42004-022-00726-z.">Communications Chemistry</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do fish survive the intense pressure of deep water?

The deep ocean is a harsh environment. At 11 kilometers...

The use of service <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-more-aware-of-actions-than-objects/">dogs</a> to support people with psychological conditions such as anxiety, panic attacks and post-traumatic stress disorder is growing in popularity. Such dogs are reported to improve a sufferer’s quality of life and social connections. In addition, they are able to help reduce the number of panic attacks, or the severity of PTSD symptoms, by behaving in a way that ‘calms’ the sufferer, or ‘interrupts’ his or her anxiety. Clearly, the dogs are able to perceive and respond to their owners’ psychological distress, but the mechanisms by which they do this are currently not understood.



A new study by researchers from Queens University, Belfast, and Newcastle University in the U.K. has investigated whether dogs can in fact smell when a person experiences stress. Given the excellent sense of smell that dogs have, and the fact that they have lived in association with humans for thousands of years, the researchers wondered whether dogs are able to perceive the chemical signals associated with stress in their owners.&nbsp;



The experience of stress is the main characteristic of people who suffer from anxiety, panic attacks and PTSD. Stress results in physiological changes in the body, including the release of epinephrine and cortisol hormones into the bloodstream, and increases in heart rate, blood pressure and speed of respiration. The physiological response to psychological stress is rapid, bringing about these changes within a few seconds. The researchers hypothesized that dogs, with their superior sense of smell, may be responding to olfactory cues produced by humans that are in a state of psychological stress.&nbsp;



In order to test this hypothesis, the researchers collected samples of breath and sweat from non-smoking participants who had not recently eaten or drunk anything. Baseline samples were collected first, and then the participants were given a fast-paced arithmetic task that provoked stress, after which their breath and sweat odors were again collected. In addition, participants’ heart rate and blood pressure were recorded, along with their self-reported experience of stress level.&nbsp;



Thirty-six of the participants showed increases in blood pressure and heart rate during the test, and also reported increased levels of stress.&nbsp; The samples from these participants were shown to&nbsp;trained&nbsp;dogs within three hours of being collected. Four dogs of different&nbsp;breeds and breed-mixes&nbsp;were trained, using a clicker and kibble rewards, to&nbsp;indicate the stress sample of a participant by adopting an alert posture.&nbsp;



Initially, the dogs had to identify a stress sample when it was randomly presented along with two blanks (samples without sweat or breath). They correctly&nbsp;alerted to&nbsp;the stress sample in 94 percent of the trials, with individual dogs achieving success rates of between 90 and 97 percent.&nbsp;But then the dogs were asked to identify the stress sample when it was presented along with one blank and with the baseline (relaxed) sample from the same participant. The researchers proposed that if the dogs could alert on the stress sample when the same participant’s baseline sample was present, this would imply that the chemical composition of the two human samples is different.



The findings of the study are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274143">PLoS ONE</a>, and show that the dogs&nbsp;correctly detected and indicated (by alerting) 675 out of 720 stress samples. This equates to a success rate of 93.8 percent, which is far greater than would be expected if the alerting behavior were purely random (p&lt;0.001).&nbsp;



The experts conclude that dogs can detect&nbsp;the odor associated with&nbsp;the change in&nbsp;volatile organic compounds&nbsp;produced by humans in response to stress, a finding that&nbsp;tells us more about the human-dog relationship and&nbsp;could have applications to the training of anxiety and PTSD service dogs that are currently trained to respond predominantly to visual cues.



“This study demonstrates that dogs can discriminate between the breath and sweat taken from humans before and after a stress-inducing task," wrote the researchers.&nbsp; "This finding tells us that an acute, negative, psychological stress response alters the odor profile of our breath/sweat, and that dogs are able to detect this change in odor.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Stress has an odor, and dogs can smell it on us

The use of service dogs to support people with psychological...

Everyone knows what modern sharks look like: large fish with hydrodynamic bodies cutting through the water in search of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-pythons-eat-prey-as-large-as-a-deer/">prey</a>. However, sharks are an ancient lineage of fishes and in the deep past, ancestral sharks did not always appear as our modern sharks do.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Recently, the discovery of a 439 million-year-old shark was published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05233-8">Nature</a> predating the next oldest jawed fish by 15 million years. This shark is from the class Acanthodii and unlike modern sharks was armored. The shark was named Fanjingshania after the famous UNESCO world heritage site, Fanjingsha.&nbsp;



"This is the oldest jawed fish with known anatomy," said Professor ZHU Min from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP) of the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>. "The new data allowed us to place Fanjingshania in the phylogenetic tree of early vertebrates and gain much needed information about the evolutionary steps leading to the origin of important vertebrate adaptations such as jaws, sensory systems, and paired appendages."



There were several features to distinguish Fanjingshania, including a shoulder girdle fused to fin spines. The fish also had unique armor plates, with parts of the pectoral fins fused to scales on the body. This anatomy suggests a unique role in the evolution of vertebrates for Fanjingshania. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;



"This level of hard tissue modification is unprecedented in chondrichthyans, a group that includes modern cartilaginous fish and their extinct ancestors," said study lead author Dr. Plamen Andreev, a researcher at Qujing Normal University. "It speaks about greater than currently understood developmental plasticity of the mineralized skeleton at the onset of jawed fish diversification."



"The new discovery puts into question existing models of vertebrate evolution by significantly condensing the timeframe for the emergence of jawed fish from their closest jawless ancestors. This will have a profound impact on how we assess evolutionary rates in early vertebrates and the relationship between morphological and molecular change in these groups," said Dr. Ivan J. Sansom from the University of Birmingham.



This discovery helps scientists better understand the evolution of fishes and pushes the origin of jawed fish to an earlier date than previously suspected. Since we all evolved from fishes, it’s an important piece of our own heritage.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ZHANG Heming



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient shark was one of the earliest human ancestors

Everyone knows what modern sharks look like: large fish with...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a>, contrary to popular belief, dairy cows and other dairy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cattle-are-becoming-less-adapted-to-their-environment/">cattle</a> are likely to experience worse welfare than cows raised solely for meat. By asking 70 leading bovine welfare experts from all over the world to assess the welfare risks of the most common production systems in their countries, the researchers found that dairy production involves a higher degree of human intervention, since dairy cattle are used to provide milk for human consumption, whereas beef cattle produce milk for their own calves – an aspect which has major implications for how these animals and their calves are raised and managed.



“The welfare is worse with cattle in the most common dairy production systems in opposition to cattle in the most common beef production systems. These findings contradict a very long and widely held belief in our society,” said study lead author Roi Mandel, a postdoctoral fellow in Veterinary and Animal Sciences at the University of Copenhagen.



“The higher welfare risk in the dairy sector is not limited to dairy cows – defined from first calving onwards – but also to their calves. Experts rated the welfare risk of calves originating from dairy herds to be higher than that of calves originating from beef herds, regardless of the production goal, be it for red-meat, veal, or to replace the dam.”



Since the milk from dairy cows is produced in significantly higher volumes than in beef cows and is collected one to three times per day - often for 305 days or more per lactation - these cows frequently experience more stress than those grown solely for meat. Moreover, early separation of calves from their dams, together with long-term genetic selection for high milk yield in dairy cows are major factors causing poor welfare, with the latter leading to health problems such as lameness, mastitis, and reproductive and metabolic disorders.



“Refining or simply eliminating, when possible, husbandry practices that have long been recognized as compromising the welfare of both cows and their calves, such as early separation of the calves from their dams, may help to minimize the welfare gap between the beef and the dairy sector,” said Dr. Mandel.



“A complementary approach that applies to both sectors, dairy or beef, would be to elevate overall welfare, e.g. by better training of animal handlers. Unfortunately, in many regions of the world, training of animal handlers is not mandatory. In other countries periodic training updates could be required.”



“Raising awareness about the fact that dairy production also produces meat, and the toll of milk production on the welfare state of animals in the dairy industry, would hopefully encourage a more sustainable and responsible food consumption. Labeling the origin of the meat (beef/dairy herd) on food packaging, could be a first step in this process,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2022.100622">animal</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dairy cattle’s welfare is worse than that of beef cattle

According to a new study led by the University of...

Fruit,Fly

In the fight for love, the male members of a species usually take center stage. However, a group of scientists at the <a href="https://www.fchampalimaud.org/champalimaud-foundation/champalimaud-centre">Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown</a> have demonstrated that female fruit flies aren't spectators when it comes to sexual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sexual-competition-makes-animal-populations-more-resilient/">competition</a>.



"It is well known that female fruit flies display aggression over food and territory. So we asked, 'what about mating?" said study senior author Maria Luisa Vasconcelos.



When the team placed one male with two virgin females, everything seemed fine while the male was courting both females. But if the male began copulating with one of the flies, the spurned female began attacking the other female.



"This is curious because when the situation is reversed - when two males are in the same chamber with one female - both vigorously court the female simultaneously. But once mating is in progress, the 'losing' male doesn't attack. Instead, it courts the female even though she is otherwise engaged," explained Vasconcelos.&nbsp;



However, if a male had not previously courted a female, she would not attack. This piqued the researchers' curiosity.



"We wanted to understand what were the exact circumstances that gave rise to this behavior. For example, was it important that the females were virgins? Also, were there any external signals involved, like particular odors?" explained study first author Miguel Gaspar.



The researchers confirmed that the sexual status of the female influenced her behavior. "Mating triggers a series of physiological changes in females, which are known to have a dramatic effect on their behaviour as well," Gaspar explained. "And indeed, we found that while virgins quickly became aggressive, mated females were indifferent to the copulating pair."



The presence of food also played a role. "This was very interesting," said Vasconcelos. "We know that mated females become aggressive towards each other in the presence of food. Probably because they need nourishment to support the pregnancy. However, here the females were virgins. A possible explanation might be that mating in an environment with food is perceived as conducive to a successful pregnancy."



"We report here how female aggression towards mating pairs can be elicited. These findings add to the growing body of evidence that fruit fly females display rich, complex behaviors that are sensitive to social, environmental, and internal states. Now, we can use the extensive genetic and molecular tools available in fly research to investigate the neural underpinnings of this newly-discovered behavior."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(22)01453-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982222014531%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scorned female fruit flies attack their sexual competitors

In the fight for love, the male members of a...

Honeydew is a sugary solution produced by several different types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-struggle-to-adjust-to-high-temperatures/">insects</a>, particularly those that feed by inserting their proboscis into the phloem vessels of a plant. These vessels carry dissolved sugars and other nutrients all over the plant, and the sucking insects use their spike-like mouthparts to access the flow of goodies. Strangely, when an insect taps into the liquid and begins to suck, the high pressure in the phloem vessel causes a big droplet of honeydew to emerge from the insect’s anus. It is a valued source of food for other insects, including different species of ants.&nbsp;



Although the chemical composition of honeydew has been studied from the perspective of its nutritional value to ants and other species that feed on it, the nature of the volatile (or smelly) components has not been investigated. It is possible that scents from honeydew secretions are used by insects to communicate with each other, especially around the time of reproduction. A new study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/finsc.2022.982965">Frontiers in Insect Science</a>, has now shown that the honeydew produced by spotted lanternflies gives rise to many airborne organic molecules that are attractive to other members of the species, and probably play an important role in the behavior of the insects.&nbsp;



Spotted lanternflies (Lycorma delicatula) are not native to the U.S., but have been introduced inadvertently from China, where they are indigenous. The first individual was recorded in Pennsylvania in September 2014. Unfortunately, this species is invasive and feeds on a wide range of fruit, ornamental and woody trees. Individuals can spread long distances with the help of people who translocate infested material or items containing egg masses. It is critical that this pest be controlled before it spreads too widely, or it could do serious damage to the country’s grape, orchard, and logging industries.



“This research is important because the first step to managing any pest is to understand their biology and behavior,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/1710547/overview">Dr. Miriam Cooperband</a>&nbsp;of the United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine Division (USDA APHIS PPQ) in the U.S. “As we learn more about the behavior of the spotted lanternfly, we hope to find a vulnerability that we can use to develop pest management tools to reduce its population and spread.”



It seems that spotted lanternflies do have one rather unusual behavior that may prove a vulnerability. Not only do they leave their honeydew secretions dotted onto the understory of trees in their habitat, but they also form mass aggregations on the trunks of select trees. There, they secrete so much honeydew that the surface of the tree trunk becomes white and frothy, and begins to smell like fermenting fruit. Multitudes of lanternflies gather at these sites and add to the secretions, while neighboring tree trunks are left untouched.



Cooperband and her collaborators wondered whether the honeydew that is excreted in these copious quantities perhaps contains semiochemicals, pheromones that convey signals to other lanternflies and modify their behavior. In previous studies the researchers had fixed small samples of either male or female spotted lanternflies to the trunk of a tree, enclosed in a fine mesh sleeve. These groups soon generated large aggregations of free lanternflies on the tree trunks, suggesting to the researchers that pheromones were indeed involved in attracting the lanternflies to each other.



To find out whether the honeydew contains any behaviorally active components that could influence lanternfly behavior, the researchers collected honeydew samples separately from male and female lanternflies in the field, to test in the lab. They found numerous semiochemicals present, including four ketones, six esters, and three alcohols, all of which existed in both sexes but at different ratios. Two compounds occurred at ratios over 1.5 times higher in male than in female honeydew, whereas five other compounds were found at higher concentrations in female than in male secretions.&nbsp;



The researchers then investigated how the honeydew influenced lanternfly behavior by giving captive lanternflies a choice to move to areas with or without the different types of honeydew. Their results showed that male flies were strongly attracted to male honeydew, while both males and females were only slightly attracted to female honeydew. Although it is not clear what would cause this behavior, this is consistent with observations of how these insects behave in the field.



The team went on identify which components of the honeydew produced the strongest signals. Five molecules were tested for attraction and found to have specific sex-attractant profiles. Two molecules called benzyl acetate and 2-octanone attracted both sexes, one molecule called 2-heptanone attracted only males, one molecule, 2-nonanone, attracted only females, and one molecule, 1-nonanol, repelled females but not males. All five of these compounds also serve as pheromone components for species across multiple insect orders, including bees and bed bugs.



These findings are just the initial steps to obtaining a better understanding of how, potentially, to control this invasive pest. The authors suggest that their findings can help develop non-insecticide control measures, such as the development of semiochemical lures for detecting lanternfly presence, or to use as mass trapping tools. There are many more questions to answer, such as whether there are seasonal variations in this behavior, and whether there are interactions with microbes in the honeydew that produce the necessary chemicals.&nbsp;



“Spotted lanternfly behavior and communication is quite complex, and this is only the tip of the iceberg. In addition to our work studying chemical signals, such as those in honeydew, we are also interested in the role of substrate vibrations in their communication system,” said Cooperband. “Future research might focus on understanding how they locate each other when they gather and find mates using multiple types of signals.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Honeydew secretions could be used to manage crop pests

Honeydew is a sugary solution produced by several different types...

Macro,The,Stinkbug,On,Green,Leaf

A new modeling study led by <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> (WSU) has found that, in the United States, climate change could increase the suitable habitat for the brown marmorated stink bug by 70 percent. The foul-smelling, voracious pest migrated from Asia to the United States two decades ago.&nbsp;



By drawing on data from a three-year stink bug monitoring effort in 17 states, as well as several potential climate change scenarios, the experts estimated a possible northward shift in stink bug-hospitable areas, including the Mid-Atlantic, the Great Lakes, and West Coast valleys such as the Sacramento Valley in California or the Treasure Valley in Idaho. However, whether the insects will manage to thrive in these places will depend on the conditions of each area and potential mitigation measures.



“Every system will change with climate change, so the fact that you can grow garbanzo beans, lentils or wheat without these pests now, doesn’t mean that you will not have them in a few years,” said study lead author Javier Gutierrez Illan, an entomologist at WSU. “There are mitigating things that we can do, but it is wise to prepare for change.”



The brown marmorated stink bug is a generalist herbivore, known to feast on almost 170 different plants, including crops and even ornamental plants. Since its arrival in the U.S. two decades ago, it has been detected in 46 states and is considered a pest in 15 of them. Because these bugs like to winter indoors, proximity to populated areas appeared to help them get established in new places.&nbsp;



However, once there, they do not need people to proliferate, and other factors – such as water availability – have a greater impact on their abundance. Thus, although the bugs dislike cold winters, rising temperatures caused by climate change are not necessarily beneficial for them if the land becomes too dry. As a consequence, changing patterns of precipitation will likely play a leading role in influencing where the bugs will thrive.&nbsp;



Currently, some states (including Washington) are employing a parasitoid insect called the samurai wasp to control stink bugs. These wasps lay their eggs inside stink bug eggs, which not only destroys the affected eggs, but also gives the opportunity to wasp larvae to further consume other developing stink bugs.&nbsp;



According to the scientists, such measures may help prevent or minimize stink bug spread into new areas. They also advise Washington growers to use WSU’s&nbsp;<a href="https://decisionaid.systems/">DAS, or Decision Aid System</a>,&nbsp;a online tool that provides information to help them prepare for future changes to their agricultural systems, including the possible invasion of such pests. Finally, growers would also benefit from familiarizing themselves with the stink bugs through websites such as <a href="https://www.stopbmsb.org/">stopbsmb.org</a>.



“Most growers learn from their parents or from the previous generation, but the information that they had is probably no longer as useful because the climate is changing, so they need these types of tools,” Gutierrez Illan concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Stink bug habitat could increase by 70 percent in the U.S.

A new modeling study led by Washington State University (WSU)...

The larger African carnivores, such as lions, leopards and cheetahs, have populations that are predictably constrained within the borders of nature reserves and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-crossings-save-lives-and-money-in-washington-state/">wildlife</a> areas. They have suffered range contractions in the past because they were in conflict with humans and their livestock. But a new study, led by scientists from the <a href="https://environment.yale.edu/">Yale School of the Environment</a>, has found that all 91 different species of African carnivores investigated are facing range loss, and the smaller, less conspicuous carnivores are no exception.



The study, published in&nbsp;the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2201942119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> and led by YSE Knobloch Family Associate Professor of Wildlife and Land Conservation Nyeema C. Harris, found that many carnivore species that are currently classified as being of “least concern” in the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Red List of Threatened Species had ranges that are at risk of significant contraction.&nbsp;



For example, the common slender mongoose (Herpestes sanguineus) and serval (Leptailurus serval) both face the risk that 16 percent of their current range area will be lost, while it was as much as 70 percent for the Egyptian weasel (Mustela subpalmata).&nbsp; Harris says the most important finding of the study, which analyzed additional data not previously assessed, is that all the species studied have some portion of their range at risk of contraction due to burgeoning threats. The average range contraction risk for the species studied was 15 percent.&nbsp;



“There’s a growing interest in relying on geospatial data to make conservation decisions but the range maps are flawed,” said Harris. “Traditional gap analyses do not consider both threats and assets, across the range, that influence population persistence. We are introducing a novel approach by assessing these different variables.”



Most surprising, she said, is that the team’s model was able to determine the potential range contraction risk for so many of the different species. Filling in these gaps in the current understanding will help forecast range contractions in African carnivores in future. The study reported that the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) and the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), large carnivores that are classified as endangered in the IUCN Red List, were facing range losses of 33 percent and 3 percent, respectively.&nbsp;



“We were able to get new insights about species that are largely unknown or understudied, and we identified that there are some conservation concerns because they have very small ranges containing more threats than assets,” said Harris. “The model is giving us a broader understanding and a different approach to anticipating biodiversity losses, especially for species with limited information, classified as ‘data deficient’ in the IUCN Red List, such as the Ethiopian Genet (Genetta abyssinica, a catlike mammal) and Pousargues’s mongoose (Dologale dybowskii), also known as African tropical savannah mongoose.”&nbsp;



Approximately one third of the world’s carnivore species are to be found in Africa, but these animals are under pressure from many different anthropogenic factors. Conflict with humans is a persistent problem, especially in parts where farmers depend on livestock that can fall prey to predators. Africa also has a rich biocultural diversity, with many groups of that value carnivores as part of their heritage.&nbsp;



The study examines possible assets to conservation, such as distribution of Indigenous lands and cultural diversity, and threats to carnivores, such as drought risks and exposure to urbanization or&nbsp;agriculture. It highlights some anthropic factors that are helping conservation efforts. For example, customary laws and traditional ceremonies of the Nharira community in central Zimbabwe include biodiversity protection.



“The blanket inclusion of human density as inherently and exclusively an environmental stressor is not accurate,” the authors noted. “By seeking, incorporating, and respecting traditional ecological knowledge of people in places, conservation can progress to a more inclusive practice and promote species ranges under varying global change scenarios.”



According to Harris, more work needs to be done to fill out the full extent of variables distributed across species ranges – an idea she calls textured range maps. She noted that such efforts can complement existing frameworks such as the IUCN Red List. She said their model will be used for a global carnivore assessment, and she hopes other researchers will apply similar approaches to study different groups of conservation interest, such as primates and amphibians around the world. “It will allow us to set a very explicit agenda around conservation strategy."



The study was co-authored by YSE doctoral student Siria Gámez; Asia Murphy, postdoctoral fellow at the Department of Environmental Studies, University of California, Santa Cruz; Aalayna R. Green, doctoral student in natural resources at Cornell University; Daniel M. Mwamidi, doctoral student at the Institution of Environmental Science and Technology at the Autonomous University of Barcelona; and Gabriela C. Nunez-Mir, assistant professor of biological sciences at the University of Illinois, Chicago.



“I’m very proud of the collaborators and the partners involved in this work who bring different expertise and experiences,” said Harris, noting the team of all Black and Latina scientists. “We are helping to change the narrative of who gets to ask the questions&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

African carnivores face range losses in the future

The larger African carnivores, such as lions, leopards and cheetahs,...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, the structure of family groups – defined in terms of “relatedness,” or the strength of genetic links to members of a social group - gives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivalry-has-helped-drive-intelligence-among-animals/">animals</a> incentives to help or harm their social group as they age. The experts found that, when living in a group of close genetic relatives, it is in an animal’s best interest to behave in ways helping the whole group. By contrast, when living among less related, or unrelated individuals, the best strategy for individual animals often appears to be selfish or even harmful behavior.



“We wanted to know how an individual’s relatedness to their group changes as they age, and what consequences this might have for behavior,” said study lead author Sam Ellis, a research fellow in Animal Behavior at Exeter.



“We made a model to predict these changes and then tested it using data on banded mongooses, chimpanzees, badgers, killer whales, spotted hyenas, rhesus macaques, and yellow baboons. Our model fitted the real data. This is exciting is because it allows us to make predictions about how and why social behaviors can change with age.”



For instance, while male and female killer whales both remain in the same group as their mothers, with females thus having a growing number of close relatives around them as they age, female spotted hyenas usually live among fewer close relatives as time passes – features which structure these animals’ behavior towards their group members.



“Across a wide range of species, we see age-related changes in helping and harming behavior which can also differ between males and females,” explained study co-author Darren Croft, an expert in Social Evolution at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a>.



“Our new work shows that understanding how relatedness to the family group changes with age is key in understanding how the incentives to help or harm the group changes across the lifespan, which can potentially explain these differences across species and between the sexes.”



“This research opens the door for future studies by providing testable predictions for how patterns of helping and harming will change across the lifespan and we eagerly anticipate new work testing these predictions,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01872-2">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetic ties influence the social behavior of aging animals

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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