For many years, paleontologists believed that the fossilization process completely eradicated any original organic molecules in ancient remains.&nbsp;



Now, scientists at the University of Liverpool have discovered that some Mesozoic fossils still preserve vestiges of their original organic compounds. 



The findings shed light on how proteins like collagen may survive for millions of years within dinosaur bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-skepticism-to-discovery">From skepticism to discovery</h2>



The research was focused on a well-preserved hip bone from an Edmontosaurus - a duck-billed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaur</a> excavated from the Hell Creek Formation in South Dakota. 



The fossil, weighing roughly 50 pounds (23 kilograms), is part of the University of Liverpool’s collections. 



The researchers used advanced mass spectrometry and protein sequencing to detect and analyze signs of bone collagen in the sample. 



The results contradict the long-held assumption that any organic material found in fossils must be modern contamination.



“This research shows beyond doubt that organic biomolecules, such as proteins like collagen, appear to be present in some fossils,” said Professor Steve Taylor, chair of the Mass Spectrometry Research Group at the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Liverpool</a>.



“Our results have far-reaching implications. Firstly, it refutes the hypothesis that any organics found in fossils must result from contamination.”&nbsp;



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-collagen-survived-the-test-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a> remnants offer a rare glimpse into dinosaur biology, opening up new questions about what biochemical information might still be gleaned from well-preserved fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-molecules-survive-fossilization-nbsp">Ancient molecules survive fossilization&nbsp;</h2>



Collagen is the primary structural protein in the bones of living organisms. After millions of years, one would expect it to be replaced by minerals or otherwise degraded.&nbsp;



However, the study demonstrates that not only can collagen molecules survive fossilization but they can also remain detectable if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> is of exceptional quality.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_1s.webp" alt="Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool" class="wp-image-1958814"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool</figcaption></figure>



The team’s analyses involved a combination of protein sequencing, tandem mass spectrometry, and imaging techniques to characterize the Edmontosaurus bone.&nbsp;



These methods allowed the experts to pinpoint markers of collagen and confirm that the protein fragments were indeed vestiges from the ancient organism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-record-of-dinosaur-physiology-nbsp">Hidden record of dinosaur physiology&nbsp;</h2>



The discovery suggests the value of re-examining historical fossil collections for similarly overlooked molecular structures. 



Fossils previously dismissed as fully mineralized may still contain pockets of original organic material, offering a wealth of new insights.



Taylor emphasized the potential of cross-polarized light microscopy images that have been archived for decades.&nbsp;



“These images may reveal intact patches of bone collagen, potentially offering a ready-made trove of fossil candidates for further protein analysis,” said Taylor.&nbsp;



The potential to reanalyze these images with modern techniques could reveal a hidden record of dinosaur physiology, including growth rates and metabolic traits.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-dinosaur-research">Implications for dinosaur research</h2>



This breakthrough has major implications for paleontology and molecular biology. With access to ancient proteins, scientists can refine dinosaur phylogenies by comparing molecular signatures.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_2m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_2s.webp" alt="Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool" class="wp-image-1958816"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool</figcaption></figure>



Furthermore, experts could uncover the biochemical pathways that enabled the preservation of organic compounds over millions of years.



“The findings inform the intriguing mystery of how these proteins have managed to persist in fossils for so long,” said Taylor.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-presence-of-dinosaur-collagen-nbsp">Confirming the presence of dinosaur collagen&nbsp;</h2>



For the investigation, researchers from multiple institutions specialized in different analytic methods.&nbsp;



The Mass Spectrometry Research Group performed in-depth protein sequencing, while other collaborators contributed to high-resolution imaging, additional data verification, and advanced mass spectrometry.&nbsp;



These collective efforts reinforced the conclusion that the collagen was not a result of contamination, but an ancient molecular relic.



In addition, the successful detection of collagen alpha-1 fragments - one of the most fundamental protein forms in bone - came from the Center for Proteome Research at the University of Liverpool.&nbsp;



Experts at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> contributed tandem mass spectrometry capabilities to detect and quantify markers that definitively establish the presence of ancient collagen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions-nbsp">Future research directions&nbsp;</h2>



Even though the study resolves a long-standing debate about the possibility of finding original organic molecules in dinosaur fossils, it also opens new avenues for research.&nbsp;



By pinpointing the conditions under which these molecular remnants can remain stable, scientists might be able to target specific specimens or geological settings where surviving biomolecules are most likely to be found.



There is growing interest in how such data can illuminate dinosaur evolutionary pathways and relationships.&nbsp;



If collagen or other proteins can be consistently identified across a variety of specimens, it may become possible to conduct molecular-level comparisons between species.



Ultimately, these findings prompt reexamination of museum and field collections worldwide, suggesting that the deeper secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient life</a> - once deemed lost - may still lie hidden within the fossil record.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.analchem.4c03115#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Analytical Chemistry</a>.



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Collagen discovered in 70 million-year-old dinosaur fossil

For many years, paleontologists believed that the fossilization process completely eradicated any original organic molecules in ancient remains.&nbsp; Now, scientists at the University of Liverpool have discovered that some Mesozoic fossils still preserve vestiges of their original organic compounds. The findings shed light on how proteins like collagen may survive for millions of years within dinosaur bones. From skepticism to discovery The research was focused on a well-preserved hip bone from an Edmontosaurus - a duck-billed dinosaur excavated from the Hell Creek Formation in South Dakota. The...

Puffer fish, a delicacy in Japanese cuisine, contain a lethal toxin that can lead to food poisoning and a swift death if improperly prepared. The fish’s liver and ovaries contain a powerful neurotoxin called tetrodotoxin (TTX). Though its purpose is unclear, puffer fish also have analogs of TTX that are non-toxic. Researchers at <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/">Nagoya University</a> have proposed that puffer fish use these toxin analogs to communicate using smell.&nbsp;&nbsp;



For the research, the team studied grass puffer fish. Grass puffers are considered a problem for recreational anglers as they eat bait and break fishing lines. Others enjoy their appearance and some people keep them as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-owners-are-happier-than-people-who-dont-have-pets/">pets</a>.



Since childhood, Professor Hideki Abe was delighted by the grass puffer’s “charming appearance." As a biologist, he was more intrigued by their spawning behavior. “I was fascinated by the hypothesis that their toxin may be involved in their spawning behavior as a pheromone,” he explained. Pheromones are chemicals that are perceived by fish using their olfactory senses and affect the behavior of others.&nbsp;



The grass puffer accumulates the neurotoxin TTX to discourage would-be predators. They also accumulate a non-toxic analog of TTX called TDT. To better grasp this phenomenon, the research team investigated the compound. The results showed that TDT serves as a smell that attracts other grass puffers and the olfactory sensory cells that they use to sense it.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Surprisingly, the team discovered that rather than responding to the toxic TTX, the puffer fish responded to its non-toxic analog, TDT, implying that it behaves as an odorant that attracts grass puffers.&nbsp;



The attractive properties of TDT were studied by putting grass puffers into a fish tank, and then introducing it to only one side. Responding to the chemical, the grass puffers gathered in the part of the tank where it was added.&nbsp; The results were not expected given previous TTX studies.&nbsp;



“The TTX used in earlier studies was derived from living organisms and had low purification; therefore, we assumed that it might not only contain TTX but other analogs, including TDT, which might have actually induced the odor response," said Professor Abe.&nbsp;&nbsp;



By using pure TDT, long-held beliefs about the role of TTX in pheromone signaling may be overturned.&nbsp;



“Prey animals contain both the toxin and its analog, so grass puffers may use the smell of TDT as a signal to find prey animals bearing TTX, such as flatworms, starfish, gastropods, and skeleton shrimp,” said Professor Abe.



Because TTX and TDT are located in the ovaries, it is released from the eggs of a female during spawning. This was found to protect eggs from predators while also attracting males.&nbsp;



These results are a new perspective and clarify the biological functions of the non-toxic analog. The researchers expect their work to impact future research on the reproductive behavior of puffer fish.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Puffer fish communicate using non-toxic substances

Puffer fish, a delicacy in Japanese cuisine, contain a lethal...

A new species of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-killing-asteroid-scoured-the-worlds-oceans/">dinosaur</a> age has been identified from the Atlantic coast of Angola. An international team named the new genus and species Epapatelo otyikokolo. With wings spanning nearly 16 feet, this flying reptile was found in the same region as fossils from large marine animals currently on display at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History.&nbsp;



The fossils date back to the Late Cretaceous which is extremely rare. “This new discovery gives us a much better understanding of the ecological role of the creatures that were flying above the waves of Bentiaba, on the west coast of Africa, approximately 71.5 million years ago,” said team member Michael J. Polcyn.&nbsp;



Paloentologists Louis L. Jacobs and Polcyn forged the Projecto PaleoAngola partnership with collaborators in Angola, Portugal, and the Netherlands to explore Angola’s rich fossil history. The international team discovered and collected the fourteen bones from Epapatelo otyikokolo in Bentiaba, Angola, starting in 2005. Bentiaba is located on the Angola coastline that the team&nbsp; called a “museum in the ground” because of the many fossils that were discovered.



Once they returned, the team spent 13 years with a small army of students to prepare the excavated fossils. Epapatelo otyikokolo is believed to have been a fish-eating pterosaur similar to large modern-day seabirds.



“They likely spent time flying above open-water environments and diving to feed, like gannets and brown pelicans do today,” said study co-author Louis L. Jacobs. “Epapatelo otyikokolo was not a small animal, and its wingspan was approximately 4.8 m, or nearly 16 feet.”&nbsp;



Since the study, more fossils have been discovered suggesting that the species could have been even larger in size. Pterosaurs were impressive creatures, with some of the largest species having wingspans of nearly 35 feet.



Many of those fossils are currently on display at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History “Sea Monsters Unearthed” exhibit.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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New pterosaur species found on the coast of Angola

A new species of the dinosaur age has been identified...

A new study led by <a href="https://international.au.dk/">Aarhus University</a> in Denmark has found that, much like humans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seals-can-perceive-rhythm-early-in-life/">seals</a> can both distinguish and react differently to various rhythms soon after birth. While the ability to distinguish rhythms has already been well-documented in birds, this is one of the first studies identifying this capacity in non-human mammals. According to the experts, these findings are an important step forward in our understanding of human musicality and its relationship with language development.



The scientists tested 20 harbor seal pups to see if they have an understanding of rhythm, by playing sequences of seal calls in different rhythmic variations and tempi over a period of 30 minutes. The experiments revealed that seals reacted differently, depending on which type of rhythm they were exposed to.



“We filmed the seals’ reactions to the sounds and measured how many times they turned their heads to look at where the sounds were coming from. We then examined whether there was a difference between how many times the seals turned their heads, and how long they looked towards the sound, depending on the rhythm we played. This allowed us to see whether the different rhythms produced different reactions,” said study senior author Andrea Ravignani, an expert in the neural processing of music at Aarhus.



According to the researchers, these findings may provide not only a better understanding of the seals’ sense of rhythm, but also of human language development, which is known to go hand in hand with the emergence of a sense of rhythm in infants. By showing evidence that another vocally plastic mammal can perceive different rhythms, this study supports the scientific hypothesis that the two abilities are interconnected.



“We can conclude that even very young, untrained seals can distinguish vocalizations from other seals, based on their rhythms. It shows that we are not the only mammals to show rhythmic understanding and learn vocalizations. The two abilities may possibly have developed in parallel in both seals and human beings,” Ravignani said.



Further research is needed to clarify whether seals can detect rhythms in sounds other than those produced by their conspecifics, whether they can perceive more complex rhythms, and whether other non-human mammals also have these capacities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2022.0316">Biology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seals have a surprising sense of rhythm

A new study led by Aarhus University in Denmark has...

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.bfr.bund.de/en/home.html">German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment</a> has recently found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cows-are-relaxed-by-face-to-face-interactions-with-people/">cows</a> fed with industrial hemp silage – a common ingredient in animal feed – show increased yawning, salivation, and unsteady movements, which are potential indicators of cannabinoid intoxication. These compounds could also be transferred into the milk they produce, with some samples showing levels high enough to impact human health.



“Our study shows that feeding cannabinoid-rich industrial hemp silage made from leaves, flowers, and seeds leads to a decrease in feed intake and milk yield in dairy cows. A transfer of cannabinoids into foods of animal origin is conceivable when by-products of hemp production and the whole plant are used as feedstuffs,” the authors explained.



Due to recent changes in global cannabis regulations, there is currently an increase in demand for industrial hemp for a variety of uses, including insulation, the development of textiles, paper, ropes, bioplastics, and biofuels, as well as its widespread use as animal feed. Since hemp contains cannabinoids, such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its derivatives, it can induce psychoactive effects on animals that consume it.



To test the effect of industrial hemp on dairy cows, the researchers initially started adapting ten lactating Holstein Freisian cows by replacing up to 0.92 kilograms of the corn silage they usually consumed with low-THC industrial hemp silage. Afterwards, the cows were split into two groups and were fed either 0.84 kilograms or 1.68 kilograms of high-THC hemp silage per day. During the study period, the scientists measured the cows’ feed intake, milk yield, heart and respiratory rates, and body temperature, while also recording behavioral changes, such as muscle tremors, hypersalivation, or changes in coordination.



While the low-THC variety had no effect on the cows during the first experimental stage, both doses of the high-THC variety resulted in significant behavioral changes. Moreover, from the second day of exposure, the cows decreased their feed intake and milk yield. By using laboratory separation methods and computer models, the scientists measured the levels of cannabinoids transferred to the milk from the feed, and discovered that, although there was a less than one percent transfer rate, the large quantities of food the cows consumed meant that substantial amounts were present in the milk too.



While the current data is insufficient for drawing clear conclusions on the health risks for humans posed by consuming such milk, these findings will hopefully lead to further research on the effects of feeding cows with industrial hemp.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-022-00623-7">Nature Food</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cows are getting high from industrial hemp

A team of researchers from the German Federal Institute for...

Sumatran rhinos (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), also known as hairy or Asian two-horned rhinos, are among the most critically endangered large mammal species on Earth. They used to inhabit a continuous, vast area in East and Southeast Asia but the estimated remaining 50-80 individuals are now confined to around 10 fragmented populations that are scattered across Sumatra and Indonesian Borneo. Habitat loss, poaching and limited breeding opportunities continue to cause populations to decline and extinction is now a very real possibility for this, the smallest and most ancient of the five extant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rhinos-show-that-diseases-can-disrupt-conservation-efforts/">rhinoceros</a> species.



Due to the fragmented nature of the remaining population, breeding encounters between males and females are rare, and inbreeding is inevitable. This situation calls for an urgent reintroduction of new genetic material to stop the erosion of genetic diversity. Captive breeding programs involving the nine individuals in zoos around the world have been spectacularly unsuccessful and Kertam, the last male Sumatran rhino in Malaysia, died in 2018, limiting the chances of introducing new genetic material even further.&nbsp;



However, a team of Berlin scientists led by Dr.&nbsp;Vera Zywitza and Dr&nbsp;Sebastian Diecke, head of the Pluripotent Stem Cells Platform at the Max Delbrück Center in Berlin, feel that all is not lost just yet. They and their international partners have set out to turn skin cells taken from now deceased Sumatran rhinos into stem cells, from which they can then derive egg and sperm cells to be used in in vitro fertilization in the laboratory. The embryos formed in this way, which will be the offspring of Kertam and other already deceased or infertile individuals, will be carried to term by surrogate rhino mothers.



In the scientific journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105414">iScience</a>, the team, led by first author Zywitza and last author Diecke, have reported their initial success in this ambitious project – they have produced induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from the skin cells of Kertam, which were taken by biopsy from this male before he died, and were kept frozen. These iPSCs are a powerful tool to fight extinction because they can be used to make every cell type in a body, including egg and sperm cells. Fertile and viable offspring have already been generated in the laboratory using iPSCs from mice, and the technique is increasingly being applied to a variety of other mammalian species.&nbsp;



Another advantage of producing iPSCs from rare and threatened species is that these cells never die, but continue to divide infinitely. This means they can preserve a copy of the genome from a threatened species for decades into the future, allowing scientists to use the genetic material potentially to resurrect the species. In fact, the technology platform developed its stem cell technologies as part of the BioRescue research project for the even more critically endangered northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni)&nbsp;– of which only two females now remain, living in a Kenyan wildlife reserve.&nbsp;



“Our current study has benefited a lot from the knowledge gained through this large-scale project, which is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research,” says Zywitza. Professor Thomas Hildebrandt, head of the Reproduction Management Department at the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW) in Berlin, and his research group, were also significantly involved in the project.



Zywitza recounts how all those involved in the current study were surprised and pleased to discover that the methods used to turn the skin cells of northern white rhinos into stem cells also worked well with the cells of Sumatran rhinos. Under the microscope, the stem cells of both rhino species were barely distinguishable from human iPS cells. Nevertheless, there were species-specific differences: “In contrast to northern white rhino iPSCs, Kertam’s iPSCs could not be cultivated without feeder cells, which release growth factors that help to keep stem cells in a pluripotent state,” explains Zywitza.&nbsp;



The researchers see their success so far as the first step towards fighting the extinction of the Sumatran rhino using stem cell-associated techniques. Their next goal is to use Kertam’s iPS cells to grow sperm suitable for artificial insemination. “This step is more difficult,” says Zywitza. “To obtain sperm cells, we first need to use the iPS cells to cultivate primordial germ cells – the precursors of eggs and sperm.” They also plan to obtain iPS cells from other Sumatran rhinos to increase the genetic diversity in storage, since the reintroduction of genetic material in future will be crucial to support a healthy and self-sustaining Sumatran rhino population.



Reproduction expert Thomas Hildebrandt explains why efforts like these are necessary: “Measures are indeed being taken in Indonesia to preserve the Sumatran rhino population by bringing together the remaining individuals in wildlife reserves,” he says. “But females that have not been pregnant for a long time often become infertile, for example due to cysts that develop on their reproductive organs, or they may just be too old to bear young.”



“Even though our work is attempting to make the seemingly impossible possible – to ensure the survival of animals that would otherwise probably disappear from our planet – it must remain an exception and not become the rule,” emphasizes Zywitza. “Despite all the buzz around what we are doing in the lab, this can at best make a small contribution to saving these rhinos from extinction. The protection and conservation of the animals’ few remaining habitats is at least equally important.”



Image Credit: Ben Jastram, Leibniz-IZW



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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The Sumatran rhino may have another chance at survival

Sumatran rhinos (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), also known as hairy or Asian...

Cephalopods – a group of animals including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-violent-squid-attack-200-million-years-ago/">squids</a>, octopuses, and cuttlefish – are extremely intelligent creatures capable of behaviors such as processing information to change their shape, color, and even texture in order to blend with the environment, communicating with conspecifics, and using tools to solve problems – capacities that are possible due to the fact that they have the most complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conspicuous-frogs-have-big-brains-to-evade-predators/">brains</a> of any invertebrates on Earth.



By studying the visual systems of these soft-bodied animals – which is where two thirds of their central processing tissue are located – a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> discovered that their nervous system develops in a surprisingly similar way with that of vertebrates, despite the fact that the two groups diverged from each other over 500 million years ago.



The experts used a new live-imagining technique to watch neurons being created in the embryo in almost real-time, and tracked these cells through the development of the nervous system in the retina. The neural stem cells that they tracked behaved eerily similar to the way such cells behave in vertebrates during the development of their nervous system. These findings suggest that not only are they using similar mechanisms to make their big brains, but that the way in which the cells act, divide, and are shaped may essentially layout the blueprint required to develop this type of nervous system in both vertebrates and invertebrates.



“Our conclusions were surprising because a lot of what we know about nervous system development in vertebrates has long been thought to be special to that lineage,” said study senior author Kristen Koenig, an expert in cephalopod evolution at Harvard. “By observing the fact that the process is very similar, what it suggested to us is that these two independently evolved very large nervous systems are using the same mechanisms to build them. What that suggests is that those mechanisms — those tools — the animals use during development may be important for building big nervous systems.”



An innovative live-imaging technique allowed the researchers to observe how stem cells called “neural progenitor cells” are organized. These cells form a special kind of structure – known as a pseudostratified epithelium – which consists of elongated and densely packed cells. Moreover, the investigations revealed that the nucleus of these structures moves up and down before and after dividing – a movement through which the tissues are kept organized and growth is promoted.



Such a structure is used by vertebrates to develop their brains and eyes and was traditionally considered as one of the reasons the vertebrate nervous system could grow so large and complex. Surprisingly, this type of neural epitheliums appears widespread among invertebrates too. “One of the big takeaways from this type of work is just how valuable it is to study the diversity of life. By studying this diversity, you can actually really come back to fundamental ideas about even our own development and our own biomedically relevant questions. You can really speak to those questions,” Koenig concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.10.027">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How did octopuses develop complex brains?

Cephalopods – a group of animals including squids, octopuses, and...

Pearl <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-oyster-reefs-would-produce-major-benefits/">oysters</a> are a major aquaculture animal in Japan, since they produce beautiful pearls that are sought after for necklaces, rings, and earrings. While in the early 1990s, this industry was bringing in over 88 billion yen annually, over the past two decades, a combination of novel diseases and red tides has caused production of Japan’s pearls drop from about 70,000 kilograms a year to just 20,000.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology</a> (OIST) has constructed a high-quality, chromosome-scale genome of pearl oysters that they hope can be used to find more resilient strains.



“It’s very important to establish the genome,” said study first authors Takeshi Takeuchi, an expert in Marine Genomics at OIST. “Genomes are the full set of an organism’s genes - many of which are essential for survival. With the complete gene sequence, we can do many experiments and answer questions around immunity and how the pearls form.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists found that the oysters’ genomes are made up of 14 pairs of chromosomes, with the two pairs of each chromosome carrying nearly identical genes. However, the analyses have also revealed subtle differences between the two chromosomes of a pair - chromosome pair 9 - which were found to be related to immune processes. “Different genes on a pair of chromosomes is a significant find because the proteins can recognize different types of infectious diseases,”&nbsp;Dr. Takeuchi explained.



When animals such as pearl oysters are cultured, there are often strains that have a higher rate of survival or produces more beautiful pearls. Farmers frequently breed two animals with these strains, leading to inbreeding and reducing genetic diversity. If this reduced diversity occurs in the chromosomes with genes responsible for immunity, it can impact the animal’s resistance to pathogens. Thus, as Dr. Takeuchi concluded, it is highly important to maintain the genome diversity in aquaculture populations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/dnares/dsac035">DNA Research</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists reveal the molecular fingerprint of pearl oysters

Pearl oysters are a major aquaculture animal in Japan, since...

While we are familiar with the ways in which human activities are currently threatening the abundance and diversity of wild species on land, information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-biodiversity-could-shift-rapidly-due-to-climate-change/">biodiversity</a> changes in the oceans is not as easy to obtain. It’s estimated that intense fishing across the planet’s oceans has led to roughly half of all commercially harvested fish and invertebrate stocks becoming overfished during the 20th&nbsp;century, and the effects of these fisheries on ocean biodiversity are poorly researched and understood.&nbsp;



In a new study, scientists from Spain, the U.S. and Canada, have used the risk categories and criteria of the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s ‘Red List of Threatened Species’ to help develop an understanding of changing biodiversity among 52 populations of oceanic tuna, billfish and sharks since1950. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) labels a species as critically endangered (CR), endangered (EN), or vulnerable (V) on the basis of how much its population has declined over the past three generations or 10 years, whichever period is longer. Other categories include near threatened (NT) and of least concern (LC).



Dr. Maria José&nbsp;Juan-Jordá from the Basque Research and Technology Alliance, and colleagues, built upon this classification system and developed a continuous Red List Index (RLI) of yearly changes in extinction risk for populations of seven tuna species, six billfish species, and five shark species over the past 70 years. This helped them to understand the health of oceanic biodiversity as well as the overall impacts of fishing mortality and conservation efforts on these populations of predatory fish.



The researchers found that, between 1950 and 2008, the global RLI trajectory of these fish populations grew worse by around 27 percent. This reflected an increasing extinction risk due to fishing pressure for these iconic oceanic predatory species. However, as calls for better monitoring and effective fisheries management strategies were heeded, mortality due to fishing declined and populations of tuna and billfish gradually recovered. For tunas, the RLI started to improve in the 1990s and end of the 2000s whereas the RLI for billfishes deteriorated until the early 2000s, improving only during the past decade.&nbsp;



In particular, since 2008, populations of southern bluefin tuna have improved from critical to vulnerable, while yellowfin tuna, swordfish, blue marlin, striped marlin, and black marlin have moved to the categories near threatened or of least concern. These findings suggest that effective ocean fisheries management has shifted the biodiversity loss curve for tunas and billfishes. These target species are now being more successfully managed to ensure maximum sustainable catches.



However, the same cannot be said for oceanic shark species. The extinction risk for sharks, which remain largely undermanaged, continues to rise. Sharks are often captured as bycatch in other fisheries, and their numbers and biodiversity continue to decline, leading to increasing risk of biodiversity loss. The researchers report that there seems to be high resistance to any measure that might meaningfully curb fishing mortality for sharks, and emphasize that unless effective management actions are adopted to reduce shark mortality for each fishery and shark species – including international trade regulation – their risk trajectories will continue worsening in the future.&nbsp;



The authors state: “Our study connects annual changes in fishing mortality and extinction risk globally over the past 70 years for oceanic tunas, billfishes, and sharks and reveals how effective management for highly valuable commercial species of tunas and billfishes has reversed the biodiversity loss curve while the extinction risk of undermanaged sharks continues to increase.”



In a related Perspective, Matthew Burgess and Sarah Becker write: “The conservation statuses of threatened target species can be improved by managing the fishing industry, which can benefit the industry economically in the long run while allowing the threatened species to recover. However, the protection of high-vulnerability bycatch and non-target species is expected to be more difficult because they will require fisheries to invest in better fishing gear and targeting practices, or reduce fishing efforts, without directly benefiting from these changes.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abj0211">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Tunas, billfishes, and sharks are sentinels of global ocean health

While we are familiar with the ways in which human...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noble-false-widow-spiders-prey-upon-protected-bat-species/">False widow spiders</a> (Steatoda grossa)&nbsp;are a globally invasive species capable of reproducing year-round. However, little is known about the reproductive behavior of this common species of spider, colloquially known as the cupboard spider, due to its tendency to predominantly live in buildings.&nbsp;



Now, a recent study led by <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/">Simon Fraser University</a> has revealed how female spiders communicate by using pheromones to construct more attractive webs in order to lure mate-seeking males. According to the experts, these females disseminate pheromones from their webs to attract males and deposit contact pheromone components on their webs that induce courtship by the males once they arrive. In addition, the researchers also identified the organ that produces these pheromones (the posterior aggregate silk gland), as well as the chemical structure of the pheromones involved in courtship behavior.



“We also found that female false widow spiders have a sophisticated method to constantly&nbsp;‘mate call’ by slowly breaking down the courtship-inducing pheromone components to sex attractant pheromone components that lures the males in,” said study lead author Andreas Fischer, a doctoral student in Biology at Simon Fraser.



The scientists compared 93 sexually mature, adult virgin female false widow spiders that spun webs on wooden triangular prism scaffolds or bamboo skewers with 70 immature sub-adult females that were also allowed to build webs. Then, they collected web samples and identified their pheromone components, while testing the webs’ ability to attract and induce courtship behavior in male spiders.



The analysis revealed that females are able to actively adjust the attractiveness of their webs to males, by fine-tuning the pH level in their silk and thus controlling the enzyme involved in the transition of contact, courtship-inducing pheromone components to mate attractant pheromone components.



This, while previously only insects were known to actively time pheromone production and dissemination, and to modulate the amount of pheromones they emit, these findings suggest that arachnids, such as web-building spiders, could also be capable of such amazing feats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-04072-7">Nature Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

False widow spiders use pheromones to manipulate mates

False widow spiders (Steatoda grossa)&nbsp;are a globally invasive species capable...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumble-bees-can-play-with-objects-for-fun/">Bumblebees</a> use several different cues to locate and identify suitable flowers from which to harvest pollen and nectar. They home in on flower scent and color, but are also sensitive to the electrical field around a flower. These tiny electric fields form from the imbalance of charge between the ground and the atmosphere, and are unique to each species, depending on the plant’s distance from the ground and the shape of the blooms. Flowers use electric fields as an additional means by which to advertise themselves to pollinators, but it seems that human activities can change these electrical cues and make it more difficult for pollinators to sense the presence of suitable flowers.



A study published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus">PNAS&nbsp;Nexus</a> has investigated the effects, on bumblebees, of spraying plants with fertilizers and pesticides. These chemical sprays cause alterations to the electric fields around flowers for up to 25 minutes after exposure, which is far longer than the fluctuations caused by natural phenomena, such as wind. The researchers found that bumblebees were less likely to land on flowers that had been sprayed with fertilizers or pesticides, and that this resulted in a reduction in bee feeding effort.



<a href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/persons/ellard-hunting">Dr. Ellard Hunting</a>&nbsp;of Bristol’s&nbsp;<a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/">School of Biological Sciences</a>,&nbsp;and his team, noted that fertilizers did not affect the bees’ vision or sense of smell, and so they set out to mimic the electrical changes caused by fertilizers and pesticides in the field by manipulating flowers electrically. The results of their experiments showed that bumblebees were able to detect and discriminate against the small and dynamic electric field alterations that are caused by the chemicals.



“We know that chemicals are toxic, but we know little about how they affect the immediate interaction between plants and pollinators. Flowers have a range of cues that attract bees to promote feeding and pollination. For instance, bees use cues like flower odor and color, but they also use electric fields to identify plants," explained Dr. Hunting. “A big issue is thus – agrochemical application can distort floral cues and modify behavior in pollinators like bees."



And it is not only bumblebees and sprays of fertilizer or pesticide that are involved here: various other airborne particles such as nanoparticles, exhaust gasses, nano-plastics, and viral particles may have similar impacts, affecting a wide array of organisms that use the electric fields that are virtually everywhere in the natural environment.



“What makes this study important is that it’s the first known example of anthropogenic ‘noise’ interfering with a terrestrial animal’s electrical sense. It’s much like motorboat noise that hinders the ability of fish to detect their predators, or artificial light at night that confuses moths; the fertilizers are a source of noise to bees trying to detect floral electrical cues," said study co-author Sam England.



“This widens our understanding of the multifaceted ways in which human activity is negatively impacting the natural world, which can seem quite depressing, but it will hopefully allow us to introduce or invent solutions to prevent the adverse effects that these chemicals may be having on bees."



“The fact that fertilizers affect pollinator behavior by interfering with the way an organism perceives its physical environment offers a new perspective on how human-made chemicals disturb the natural environment," concluded Dr. Hunting.



The project was funded by the European Research Council and the Swiss National Science Foundation.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fertilizers disrupt flower electrical fields and confuse bees

Bumblebees use several different cues to locate and identify suitable...

Last week, the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/index.htm">U.S. National Park Service</a> (NPS) made an online plea aimed at protecting a peculiar species of frog – the Sonoran desert toad (Bufo alvarius) – which secretes a toxin with powerful psychedelic effects, a phenomenon leading an increasing number of people to either lick the back of these toads or collect and store the toxins they secrete for later consumption. While hallucinations and euphoria are common effects of this activity, experts warn that this highly potent toxin can also cause nausea, anxiety, seizures and, in some cases, even death.



“As we say with most things you come across in a national park, whether it be a banana slug, unfamiliar mushroom, or a large toad with glowing eyes in the dead of night, please refrain from licking,” the NPS officials said.



Demand for the toads’ secretions has boomed in recent years, with a growing retreat industry offering these chemicals to visitors seeking psychedelic experiences. Sometimes, this experience is even treated as a sacred ceremony, with participants paying thousands of dollars to get access to the hallucinogenic compound.



While it is not clear how many people actually lick the toads, for decades already, users have often dried into crystals and smoked in a pipe the substance in the toxins that the toad excretes when threatened (5-MeO-DMT), in order to experience 15 to 30 minutes of intense hallucinations and euphoria. Although this substance is illegal in the United States, where it is classified as a Schedule 1 controlled substance, it is legal in Mexico, thus attracting a large number of international visitors.



Increased interest in this experience has brought new dangers for this toad, which is found mainly in the Sonoran desert in the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Already targeted by predators such as racoons, and run over on roads by motor vehicles, the toad is currently also the target of poaching, over-harvesting, and illegal trafficking, leading conservation experts to list is as “endangered” in California and “threatened” in Mexico.



The NPS’s online plea can be found <a href="https://www.facebook.com/nationalparkservice/posts/pfbid02mEPQogXSFmUscGiEueFVFGG1FXS6RF41oEGN9qtS819QGusVeGuCzkaZ8TqsY2rQl">here</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

National Park Service warns of the dangers of licking toads

Last week, the U.S. National Park Service (NPS) made an...

The Tiger Beach in Bahamas is famous not only for its pristine beauty, but also for being frequented by an animal that might scare some people, but is in fact a major tourist attraction: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiger-shark-migrations-are-shifting-as-temperatures-rise/">Tiger shark</a> (Galeocerdo cuvier). Since the sea is crystal clear and only five meters deep, the sharks – which often surpass three meters in length – can be seen easily, and are often drawn to the site by local tour operators who throw fish and other food in the water.



Now, a team of researchers from Brazil and the United States has discovered that females of the species which frequently visit the area are larger and have higher hormone levels than conspecifics that spend less time there. These findings point to possible effects of mass tourism on this species.



“The area was dominated by large females, some of them pregnant. Generally speaking, hormone levels were higher in female sharks that frequented the area, where they were fed, than in others that didn’t interact much with divers. Moreover, the former’s nutritional state was better, and they had more omega-3 in their blood,” said study lead author Bianca Rigel, an expert in Biosciences at the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/">University of São Paulo</a>.



“We can’t say whether tourism is or isn’t harming these animals, as we were unable to collect material for testing before and after interaction with divers, which would have been ideal. However, we now have a body of evidence that will be helpful for future evaluations,” added study co-author, a professor of Biology at the same university.



By collecting blood samples from 33 sharks captured in this area, the researchers discovered that females that spent more time there had higher levels of omega-3 and other acids, as well as nitrogen isotopes – most probably due to the foods they were given by tour operators. Moreover, their hormone levels were also strikingly higher compared to those of sharks that were not frequenting the area – by a factor of three in the case of testosterone, four in that of estradiol, and 16.4 in that of corticosteroids.&nbsp;



“We don’t know exactly why this was. Levels of these hormones might have been higher as part of their more aggressive social dominance behavior while they were swimming with many other sharks,” Moreira explained. “Another hypothesis is that they were at a stage in their life cycle when they were ready to reproduce. Juveniles haven’t reached reproductive age and naturally have less of these hormones.”&nbsp;



Although the reasons for these physical alterations are not yet clear, these findings stress the importance of considering life cycle stages, hormone levels, and nutritional states in assessing the impact of tourism on sharks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.07.004">Animal Behavior</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tiger sharks that interact with tourists exhibit physical differences

The Tiger Beach in Bahamas is famous not only for...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...