Marmosets are small tree-dwelling primates from South America, often weighing less than eight ounces. They appear quite unassuming at first glance, yet research published in the journal Science suggests that marmosets may be masters of communication. The experts report that these little monkeys can call each other by specific “names” using their distinct vocalizations, shedding new light on how social communication might have evolved in primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-marmoset-communication">Insights Into marmoset communication</h2>



Marmoset communication has long fascinated scientists for its complexity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visually-striking-primate-features-ease-tension-and-reduce-conflict/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-like qualities</a>. Recent studies reveal that baby marmosets <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/baby-marmosets-learn-talk-just-we-do" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learn</a> to "talk" by mimicking their parents, much like human infants acquire language through imitation. Scientists have observed that they also demonstrate conversational etiquette, <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/scienceshot-marmosets-chat-we-do" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">taking turns</a> during vocal exchanges in a way that mirrors human dialogue. 



Furthermore, the researchers found that marmosets <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/marmosets-eavesdrop-their-neighbors-and-judge-them-accordingly" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eavesdrop</a> on their neighbors' conversations and even make judgments based on what they overhear. These behaviors highlight a level of social sophistication that may offer deeper insights into the evolution of communication in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a>, including humans. 



The discovery of their use of "names" to address individuals further cements the marmosets' reputation as some of the most intriguing communicators in the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marmosets-recognize-their-names">Marmosets recognize their names</h2>



The study, conducted at <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University</a>, included observations of marmosets housed in a specially designed facility. The researchers noticed that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-disrupts-communication-among-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> exchanged a series of chirps, sometimes described as “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Brain-maps-of-phee-call-perception-In-the-two-top-rows-depicting-brain-slices_fig2_323427950" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phee-calls</a>,” which showed consistent patterns when directed toward certain individuals. According to the experts, marmosets seemed able to recognize when a call was directed at them and respond accordingly, indicating that these calls function as personalized labels. This behavior was <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065345408602860?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">previously</a> considered a hallmark of humans, <a href="https://sarasotadolphin.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a>, and elephants.



The team found that marmosets consistently used the same phee-calls to address specific partners. This aligns with the idea that the animals are capable of flexible vocal production, rather than relying solely on reflexive calls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-communication-skills-of-marmosets">Advanced communication skills of marmosets </h2>



A key step in the study involved placing pairs of marmosets in the same room, with a barrier that restricted their view of one another. They noted that the monkeys began to engage in regular back-and-forth calls, directing certain phee-calls to particular individuals. When a computerized playback system <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp3757" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproduced</a> these calls, the monkeys responded more accurately when they heard the calls they associated with themselves. “This is the first time that we have seen this in non-human primates,” explained study lead author David Omer from the Hebrew University’s Safra Center for Brain Sciences (ELSC). Although other social mammals also demonstrate sophisticated vocal learning, the marmoset’s ability to apply these calls in such an individual-specific manner expands our view of their communication methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-traits-with-other-animals">Shared traits with other animals</h2>



Previous work has shown that African elephants may use name-like calls for each other. Marmosets now join this short list of species that single out peers with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-slower-helps-dogs-understand-what-humans-are-saying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distinct sounds</a>. While they rely heavily on sight to navigate their environment, these monkeys also need to coordinate in dense forests where vision can fail. Their range of social calls helps them stay connected as they move through the canopy.



Scientists say the phee-call’s meaning was originally thought to be a way for marmosets to broadcast their location. Now, evidence suggests the animals are actually calling each other by “name.” 



This skill even extends to members that are not blood relatives, who often learn the group’s vocal patterns and adapt them to fit their social network.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-precursors-of-language">Early precursors of language</h2>



According to the experts, these findings hint at how early precursors of language might have begun in primate lineages. Instead of emerging out of nowhere, human language might have deeper biological roots that began with animals forming signals to name group members.



The researchers noted that talkative marmosets could reshape the way we study animal language potential. Certain features of primate communication - like turn-taking in conversations - seem especially pronounced in these marmosets. Investigations into their learning processes continue to reveal how marmosets adapt sounds and create specific calls that resemble personal labels or “names.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-primates">Implications beyond primates</h2>



Many scientists are intrigued by the idea that naming could exist in other species but remain overlooked or misunderstood. The potential for flexible vocalization depends on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-communicate-with-animals-using-artificial-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social structures</a>, longevity, and the need to track individuals within a group. A close-knit system, such as that of marmosets, might create the perfect setting for these signals to evolve. Once recognized, such signals suggest that some rudimentary form of naming might not be exclusive to humans - though it is far less common among non-human primates.



Ultimately, the research may prompt new discussions about the early evolution of speech and the social pressures that may have driven it. By teasing out the rules guiding marmoset calls, researchers hope to find parallels to ancient hominids who may have used specific sounds to keep track of each other in complex environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-depths-of-marmoset-communication">Social depths of marmoset communication</h2>



Although questions remain about how widespread this behavior is in marmoset populations, it opens the door for deeper exploration of primate cognition.



Some investigators wonder if these miniature monkeys would continue developing new call variations if given larger living spaces or different social arrangements. Others are curious about whether their communicative skills change over time or if new adult arrivals learn established name patterns as swiftly as younger monkeys.



Studies of marmosets and other animals with potential name-like systems may offer vital clues to understanding how people formed the early building blocks of language. 



By examining these vocal labels in greater detail, scientists might gain insight into how primates engage in flexible social learning - an ability once believed to be mostly limited to humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp3757" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Marmosets call each other by 'names' with distinct vocalizations

Marmosets are small tree-dwelling primates from South America, often weighing less than eight ounces. They appear quite unassuming at first glance, yet research published in the journal Science suggests that marmosets may be masters of communication.The experts report that these little monkeys can call each other by specific “names” using their distinct vocalizations, shedding new light on how social communication might have evolved in primates. Insights Into marmoset communication Marmoset communication has long fascinated scientists for its complexity and human-like qualities. Recent studies reveal that baby marmosets learn to...

Our earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hominins-appeared-europe-africa/">hominin</a> ancestors used a variety of tools to interact with, and modify their environment. Such tools would have given them access to more sources of food and improved their chances of survival. Studies of early hominin tool use have been focused mostly on the production and diversity of stone flakes as cutting tools, rather than on the use of pounding tools. This is despite the fact that percussive artefacts have been identified at several Plio-Pleistocene archaeological sites and even form a component of the archaeological assemblages into the Later Stone Age.&nbsp;



In a new study led by Tomos Proffitt from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology</a>,&nbsp;the use of stone tools for pounding has been investigated in a group of wild chimpanzees from the&nbsp;Taï Forest National Park in Cote d'Ivoire. These primates&nbsp;have long been known to use percussive stone tools to crack open edible nuts; the tools take the form of hammer stones with which to bash a nut, and anvils upon which the nut is initially placed. The researchers felt that an improved understanding of the characteristics of these types of tools may cast light on the tool artefacts found at early hominin archaeological sites.&nbsp;&nbsp;



For their study, the researchers analyzed a total of 11 hammerstones and seven stone anvils, each one selected because it showed signs of being actively used.&nbsp; All hammerstones were found in close association with an active anvil (either wooden or stone) and freshly cracked nut debris. All anvils were found in association with an active hammerstone and freshly cracked nut debris within a radius of 50 cm to the anvil. By using a techno-typological analysis, along with two- and three-dimensional quantifiable measures of percussive damage patterns, the researchers characterized the features of these stone tools.&nbsp;



The experts then compared the findings with those derived from a similar study of stone percussive tools in another group of wild chimpanzees, this time in the forest of Bossou in Guinea. In this way, the researchers hoped to develop a better understanding of the variation within and between assemblages of chimpanzee stone tools used for nut-cracking.&nbsp;



The researchers found that the chimpanzees of the Taï Forest regularly use stone and wooden tools to crack open nuts from five different species. These include coula nuts (Coula edulis), panda (Panda oleosa), parinari (Parinari excelsa) saccaglottis (Sacoglottis gabonensis) and, more rarely, detarium nuts (Detarium senegalense). The chimpanzees use only hammers made of stone, but were found to use both stone anvils (for example exposed boulders) and wooden anvils, usually in the form of living tree roots that were often part of the nut tree itself.&nbsp;&nbsp;



All of the hammerstones and stone anvils showed evidence of use wear, mostly in the form of pitting and depressions on the surface. There were also places where the surface grain had been crushed, flakes had been accidentally detached and nut residue was present. The hammerstones and anvils were made of different types of rock, reflecting what was present in the local environment, and the hammers were of different sizes, reflecting the fact that some of the nuts are easier to crack open than others.&nbsp;



When the hammerstones and anvils used by the Taï Forest chimpanzees were compared with those used by chimpanzees from the Bossou Forest in Guinea, there were several noticeable differences. The Taï Forest tools were larger in size overall and showed different patterns of wear. The researchers feel that, although this represents a clear pattern of difference between chimpanzee groups, this may be driven by a combination of stone choice, stone availability, and the nut species eaten.



As a result of their use of stone tools, chimpanzees have doubtless left a durable archaeological record of their own. Previous research has shown that, for some groups of chimpanzees this record may date back at least 4,300 years. This means that the assemblages may represent a useful comparative model for early hominin tool use, specifically when it involves tools for pounding.



“The ability to identify regional differences in stone tool material culture in primates opens up a range of possibilities for future primate archaeological studies,” said Proffitt.



It has been hypothesized that a simple technology, like nut cracking, was a precursor to more complex stone technologies during the early stages of our own evolution more than three million years ago. “By understanding what this simple stone tool technology looks like, and how it varies between groups, we can start to understand how to better identify this signature in the earliest hominin archaeological record," said Proffitt.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.220826">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Did early hominins use stone tools like chimpanzees do today?

Our earliest hominin ancestors used a variety of tools to...

A new study led by <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> (WSU) has discovered the genetic factors structuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hibernating-bears-could-help-humans-prevent-muscle-loss/">hibernating bears</a>’ insulin control – a major scientific advance that could ultimately lead to the treatment of diabetes. Although the experts observed thousands of changes in gene expression during hibernation, they managed to narrow this multitude of genetic changes down to only eight key proteins that play a fundamental role in bears’ insulin control during hibernation.



“There seem to be eight proteins that are working either independently or together to modulate the insulin sensitivity and resistance that’s seen in hibernating bears,” said study corresponding author Joanna Kelley, an evolutionary geneticist at WSU. “All of these eight proteins have human homologues. They’re not unique to bears. The same genes are in humans, so that means maybe there’s a direct opportunity for translation.”



The scientists examined changes in bear cell cultures which were exposed to blood serum drawn from grizzly bears housed at the WSU Bear Center. Both the cells and the blood serum were drawn from the bears during active and hibernating seasons, as well as from an interrupted hibernation period when the scientists woke the bears and fed them honey-water.&nbsp;



The serum extracted during this period helped the most in identifying the eight proteins. “By feeding the bears just for two weeks during hibernation, it allowed us to control for other things like daylength and temperature as well as food availability,” Kelley explained.



“This is progress toward getting a better understanding of what’s happening at the genetic level and identifying specific molecules that are controlling insulin resistance in bears,” added study co-lead author Blair Perry, a postdoctoral fellow in Functional and Evolutionary Genomics at WSU.&nbsp;



In future research, the scientists aim to investigate how these proteins work to reverse insulin resistance – which is a key factor in allowing bears to hibernate for several months – in order to find new ways of preventing and treating human diabetes.



“There's inherent value to studying the diversity of life around us and all of these unique and strange adaptations that have arisen. By understanding the genomic basis of these adaptations, we gain a better understanding of what we share with other species, and what makes us unique as humans,” Perry concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105084">iScience</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

How hibernating bears could help treat human diabetes

A new study led by Washington State University (WSU) has...

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/">University of Hong Kong</a> (HKU) has recently provided an estimate of how many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-show-signs-of-cognitive-sophistication/">ants</a> currently live on our planet. 



The result is staggering: 20 quadrillion – or 20,000,000,000,000,000 – ants roam the Earth, meaning that for each human being, there are about 2.5 million ants. 



According to the experts, if all the ants were plucked from the ground and weighted, they would outweigh all the mammals and wild birds put together.



“I was amazed that the ants’ biomass was higher than that of wild mammals and birds combined, and that it reaches 20 percent of the human biomass. That gives you an understanding of the scale of their impact,” said study co-lead author Sabine Nooten, an insect ecologist at HKU.



“It’s unimaginable,” added study lead author Patrick Schultheiss, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/home/">University of Würzburg</a> in Germany. “We simply cannot imagine 20 quadrillion ants in one pile, for example. It just doesn’t work.”



Like humans, ants have spread almost all over the Earth. Although they are most abundant in tropical and subtropical regions, they can be found nearly everywhere besides the coldest parts of our planet. These insects play important roles in the proper functioning of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-farming-ants-work-hard-to-maintain-healthy-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variety of ecosystems</a>. 



For instance, they aerate the soil and drag seeds underground to sprout, they serve as food for a variety of birds, mammals, and arthropods, and they help decomposing dead wood and other types of matter.



“Some ants can certainly be very annoying, but that’s a very human-centered perspective,” Schultheiss explained. 



“Most ants are actually highly beneficial, even to us humans. Think about the amount of organic matter that 20 quadrillion ants transport, remove, recycle, and eat. In fact, ants are so essential for the smooth working of biological processes that they can be seen as ecosystem engineers. The late ant scientist E.O. Wilson once called them ’the little things that run the world.’”



While scientists are already seeing troubling declines in insect populations all over the world – caused by habitat destruction, climate change, and increased use of pesticides – they are not yet sure whether ants’ numbers are falling down too. 



“We did not yet attempt to show this temporal shift in ant abundance. That would be something that would come next,” Nooten concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2201550119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

There are 2.5 million ants for each human on Earth

A team of researchers from the University of Hong Kong...

Well-known for their eight arms, octopuses leverage all of these appendages to move through the water and capture <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-pythons-eat-prey-as-large-as-a-deer/">prey</a>. Although their movements can look awkward and seemingly unplanned most of the times, a new study led by the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota</a> (UMN) has found that octopuses preferred certain arms over others when hunting, rather than using all arms equally, depending on the type of prey they aimed to capture.



“Normally when you look at an octopus for a short while, nothing is repeatable. They squirm around… and just look weird in their exploratory movements,” said study senior author Trevor Wardill, an assistant professor of Biology at UMN.&nbsp;



Together with his team, Wardill studied the behavior of the California two-spot octopus (Octopus bimaculoides), which lives about two years and grows to the size of tennis balls. By dropping different types of prey – including crabs and shrimp – into the tanks where the octopuses where kept, the scientists discovered that each type of prey required different hunting techniques.&nbsp;



Although no matter what type of prey came by, octopuses started their attack by using the second arm from the middle, when hunting crabs they pounced on the prey with a cat-like movement, while, when hunting the much faster shrimps, they were more careful to avoid spooking their prey, and used neighboring arms two and three to secure it.



The researchers were amazed to see how exceedingly repeatable the hunting behavior of octopuses was, and how predictably they began prey capture with the second arm. Better understanding how these creatures operate their tentacles could provide inspiration to engineers aiming to design bio-inspired robots.



“Octopuses are extremely strong. For them, to grasp and open a door is trivial, given their dexterity. If we can learn from octopuses, then we can apply that to making an underwater vehicle or soft robot application,” Professor Wardill concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.08.080">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Octopuses adjust their hunting strategy according to prey

Well-known for their eight arms, octopuses leverage all of these...

Woodlice, known to scientists as isopods and to the rest of us by a number of common names including "roly-poly" and "pill bug," are fascinating creatures that are often overlooked. Despite their commonplace and diminutive appearance, woodlice have life histories that are anything but mundane.



Woodlice live for only a year and mate once during that time. Females dig burrows and males compete for the affection of a female and her digs. After mating, a pair of woodlice live together in the burrow with their 60 to 70 offspring. Both of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotional-eating-by-teens-is-influenced-by-their-parents/">parents</a> care for their extensive brood and all members of the family clean and enlarge the burrow.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Typically, males seem to prefer larger females and the larger males tend to overcome smaller competitors and mate with these females. Researchers at the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/en">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> wondered if a large female with a burrow in a risky area might be less desirable to males.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The scientists observed woodlice mating in two different plots in the Negev Desert, one area near a dangerous Israeli gold scorpion burrow and one a safe distance from scorpions. The researchers found that risky den sites made large males less keen to compete for large females in the area.&nbsp;



“Using this manipulative field experiment, we found that desert isopods under risk of scorpion predation maintained ‘size assortative mating,' but that males that chose and fought over females were on average smaller for a given female size,” explained Dr. Viraj Tosekar.



Smaller males still often ended up with the worst of both worlds, mating with smaller females near scorpion habitat. Medium-sized males split their choices between medium-sized females in safe areas and larger females in dangerous areas, showing that these were viewed as equally fit.&nbsp;



"This supported our novel hypothesis that the males anticipated the future risk of predation," noted Torsekar.



Overall, woodlice show a preference for burrows in safe locations, showing they can anticipate danger. Furthermore, the risk of danger can also weigh into how attractive a potential mate is.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.20412015.v1">Ecology</a>. &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The secret love lives of woodlice

Woodlice, known to scientists as isopods and to the rest...

The dinosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greater-temperature-changes-linked-to-worse-extinction-events/">extinction</a> 66 million years ago was likely caused by a large asteroid that hit the Earth, leaving birds as the only living descendants. During the Cretaceous period, dinosaurs lived all over the world. However, scientists have debated whether dinosaurs were already in a state of decline before their extinction. 



Did dinosaurs go out with a bang or a whimper? Researchers at the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, have an answer -&nbsp; dinosaurs were not diverse before extinction and were already in decline during the end of the Cretaceous period.



Most of the data from this period comes from North America, suggesting that dinosaurs in this area were thriving. However, other research suggests that dinosaurs were dwindling, which set the stage for their mass extinction. For the current study, the IVPP team examined the dinosaur record in China to determine if the declining trend extended to Asia.



The research was focused on over 1,000 fossilized dinosaur eggs and egg shells from the Shanyang Basin. Computer modeling was applied to 5,500 geographic samples to determine age estimates of the rock layers. This created a timeline of nearly two million years representing the period right before extinction, allowing direct comparisons with data from around the world.



Based on this data, a decline in dinosaur diversity was found. The dinosaur egg fossils represented only three different species: Macroolithus yaotunensis, Elongatoolithus elongatus, and Stromatoolithus pinglingensis. Two of the three dinosaur eggs species are from a group of toothless dinosaurs known as oviraptors, while the other is from the plant-eating hadrosaurid group (also known as duck-billed dinosaurs).



Additional bones showed that tyrannosaurs and sauropods also lived in the area between about 66.4 and 68.2 million years ago. This low diversity in central China occurred during the last two million years before the mass extinction, far from the world depicted in Jurassic Park.



The results suggest that dinosaurs were likely in a global decline before their extinction. This decline may have been caused by global climate fluctuations and volcanic eruptions leading to ecosystem instability, which would have left dinosaurs vulnerable to mass extinction.



The findings were published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2211234119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaurs were in a state of decline before their extinction

The dinosaur extinction 66 million years ago was likely caused...

Studies of singing in birds have revealed that some birds are capable of vocal learning. This means they modify their own vocalizations in response to hearing the songs of other birds. Until recently, vocal learning had only been identified in three out of more than 40 orders of birds: the songbirds, parrots and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-mimic-males-to-avoid-violence/">hummingbirds</a>. In each of these groups, the ability to update and modify song is supported by the existence of particular regions in the brain, each one with gene expression specializations.&nbsp;



Birds that are incapable of vocal learning have thus far been found to lack these specialized brain regions, or to have rudimentary regions without the necessary expression of the relevant genes. This means that their vocalizations are innate and do not get modified by the bird’s experiences of the songs or sounds around it.



In a new study published in the open access journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001751">PLoS Biology</a>, scientists from the U.S. and Denmark analyzed the brains of seven species of birds representing lineages that are assumed to be incapable of vocal learning – these comprised a hawk, turaco, flamingo, penguin, emu, duck and woodpecker. Apart from looking for the specialized brain regions typical of vocal learners’ brains, the scientists also looked for the gene parvalbumin (PV), which codes for a small, stable protein and which shows up-regulation (increased activity) in the forebrain song regions of all avian vocal learners identified to date.



Scientists study songbirds because human language and birdsong have many similarities. Both are learned when young, require complex muscle coordination, and are controlled by specialized regions of the brain. Both humans and songbirds express the marker gene PV&nbsp;in these regions while it has never been found in the forebrains of their closest non-learning vocal relatives.&nbsp;



The researchers, led by Matthew Fuxjager at Brown University and Eric Schuppe at Wake Forest University, did not expect to find any evidence of specialized brain regions for vocal learning in the seven selected species in this study. Although the sample size was only one individual for each of the species, the results showed no forebrain regions with elevated levels of PV expression – except for the woodpecker, that is.



In response to this unexpected finding, the researchers extended their sample to include several more species of woodpeckers and found they all had specialized regions of the brain that make the protein parvalbumin. In addition, these areas were similar in number and location to several of the forebrain nuclei that control song learning and production in songbirds. But when they followed this up with field tests on woodpeckers, the researchers found that activity in these brain areas was not stimulated by vocalization behavior but by the characteristic, rapid drumming of the woodpecker’s beak on a tree trunk.



Woodpeckers use drumming as a form of communication, just as songbirds use song. Drumming is performed to generate specific patterns of sounds that can indicate territorial claims and it is different from the use of the beak for feeding or excavating a nest hole. Drum patterns encode information about species identity, and even about the individual making the sounds. Woodpeckers can apparently recognize the drumming of a neighbor as compared to that of a newcomer in the area.&nbsp;



Just like birdsong, drumming is a form of acoustic communication. It requires rapid and complex motor movements, and must be adaptable when birds compete with each other. The findings of this study indicate that the specialized brain areas usually associated with vocal learning in some avian groups are used in woodpeckers to produce and control their elaborate drumming behavior.&nbsp;



One of the implications of this finding is that woodpeckers might actually acquire components of their drumming repertoire through learning. Although scientists have not yet established that drumming is a learned behavior, this new evidence from the brain predicts that it is. Finding this system for non-vocal communication that is both neurologically and functionally similar to the song system can help us understand how existing brain systems evolve and become co-opted for new, but similar functions.



“Woodpeckers have a set of specialized brain areas that control their ability to drum, or rapidly hammer their bill on trees (and gutters!), during fights with other birds," said Fuxjager. "Furthermore, these brain areas look remarkably similar to the parts of the brain in songbirds that help these animals learn to sing.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Woodpeckers learn to drum just as songbirds learn to sing

Studies of singing in birds have revealed that some birds...

From the 1980s to the mid-1990s, a fungal pathogen called&nbsp;Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (or “Bd”) dispersed across Costa Rica, wreaking havoc among amphibian populations, and continued its path eastward across Panama during the 2000s. Globally, this deadly pathogen led to the extinction of over 90 amphibian species, and the decline of at least 500 additional species. 



Shortly after this gruesome mass die-off of amphibians in Costa Rica and Panama, both countries experienced significant spikes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-malaria-colder-areas/">malaria</a> cases. According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a>, this spike in malaria was caused by the amphibian die-off.&nbsp;



“Stable ecosystems underpin all sorts of aspects of human wellbeing, including regulating processes important for disease prevention and health,” said study lead author Michael Springborn, a professor of Environmental Sciences and Policy at UC Davis. “If we allow massive ecosystem disruptions to happen, it can substantially impact human health in ways that are difficult to predict ahead of time and hard to control once they’re underway.”



Since many frogs, salamanders, and other amphibians consume hundreds of mosquito eggs per day, their massive die-off caused by the fungal pathogen led to a large increase in mosquito populations, which are vectors for malaria. By combining their knowledge of amphibian ecology with newly digitized public health record data and data-analysis methods developed by economists, the researchers discovered a clear connection between the time and location of the spread of the fungal pathogen and the time and location of the spikes in malaria cases.&nbsp;



Moreover, no evidence of other variables which could both drive malaria and follow the same pattern of die-offs has been found. Although tree cover loss is also associated with increases in malaria cases (by 0.12 cases per 1,000 people), the massive spike witnessed in Costa Rica and Panama (1 extra case per 1,000 people) was most likely caused by the amphibian die-off.



The researchers argue that measures to help prevent the spread of pathogens to wildlife – such as updating trade regulations to better target major host species – are necessary. “The costs of putting those protective measures in place are immediate and evident, but the long-term&nbsp;benefits of avoiding ecosystem disruptions like this one are harder to assess but potentially massive, as this paper shows,” Professor Springborn concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1748-9326">Environmental Research Letters</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Massive spike in malaria linked to amphibian die-off

From the 1980s to the mid-1990s, a fungal pathogen called&nbsp;Batrachochytrium...

Dogs’ ability to show affection towards humans is well-known. Some scientists argue that such a capacity to form strong attachments with humans arose in dogs only after their domestication 15,000 years ago. However, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.su.se/cmlink/stockholm-university">Stockholm University</a> in Sweden has now found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-improve-the-genetic-fitness-of-moose-populations/">wolves</a> are also capable of exhibiting attachment behaviors towards human caregivers – a surprising discovery that could help contradict the domestication hypothesis.



After raising wolf and dog puppies from the age of ten days to 23 weeks, the scientists performed a series of behavioral tests designed to quantify attachment behaviors in canids. The tests revealed that both species were able to spontaneously discriminate between a familiar person and a stranger and displayed more proximity seeking and affiliative behaviors towards the familiar person. Moreover, the presence of the familiar person acted as a social stress buffer for the wolves, helping them calm down during stressful situations.



“It was very clear that the wolves, as the dogs, preferred the familiar person over the stranger. But what was perhaps even more interesting was that while the dogs were not particularly affected by the test situation, the wolves were,” said study lead author Christina Hansen Wheat, a behavioral ecologist at Stockholm University.



“They were pacing the test room. However, the remarkable thing was that when the familiar person, a hand-raiser that had been with the wolves all their lives, re-entered the test room, the pacing behavior stopped, indicating that the familiar person acted as a social stress buffer for the wolves. I do not believe that this has ever been shown to be the case for wolves before and this also complements the existence of a strong bond between the animals and the familiar person.”



According to Dr. Hansen Wheat, these similarities between wolves and dogs can shed more light on where the behaviors we now see in dogs originated. “Together with earlier studies making important contributions to this question, I think it is now appropriate to entertain the idea that if variation in human-directed attachment behavior exists in wolves, this behavior could have been a potential target for early selective pressures exerted during dog domestication. Wolves showing human-directed attachment could have had a selective advantage in early stages of dog domestication,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.9299">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Wolves can show attachment toward humans

Dogs’ ability to show affection towards humans is well-known. Some...

Due to a variety of factors, including habitat loss and the use of pesticides, many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-native-bees/">bees</a> are currently endangered, together with the plants that depend on them for pollination. Now, a research team led by <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a> has found that simply saving a greater number of bees may not be enough to solve these problems. According to the experts, the biodiversity of bee populations is most critical to maintaining the ecosystem function of crop pollination.&nbsp;



“We found that biodiversity plays a key role in the stability of ecosystems over time,” said study lead author Natalie Lemanski, a postdoctoral fellow in Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources at Rutgers. “You do actually need more bee species in order to get stable pollination services over a growing season and over years.”



By studying various bee populations at dozens of farms in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and California, the researchers discovered that different bee species pollinated the same types of plants at different times of the year, and that different bee species were the dominant pollinators on the same kind of plants in different years. Thus, due to natural fluctuations in bee populations, all these bee species were necessary to maintain a minimum threshold of pollination, particularly during lean years.



“This research shows that abundance [of a species] matters, but bee diversity matters even more,” said Michelle Elekonich, the deputy division director of the National Science Foundation’s <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=BIO">Directorate for Biological Sciences</a>, which funded this research. “It’s not the same bees that are abundant at a given point in time, and variety is necessary to provide balance during a growing season – and from year to year.”&nbsp;



These findings offer evidence for what ecologists refer to as the “insurance hypothesis,” which argues that ecosystems benefit the most when nature “diversifies the portfolio,” supporting multiple animal or plant species rather than relying on one dominant species.&nbsp;



“We found that two to three times as many bee species were needed to meet a target level of crop pollination over the course of a growing season compared to a single date,” Dr. Lemanski reported. “Similarly, twice as many species were needed to provide pollination over the course of six years compared to a single year.”



“The magnitude of increase in species needed over multiple years was remarkably consistent among crop systems when considered over the same interval of time. In addition, the fact that the relationship between timescale and the number of species needed did not level off suggests that even longer time series, spanning multiple seasons, may further bolster the need for biodiversity to ensure reliable ecosystem service,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01847-3">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Bee diversity is critical to ecosystems

Due to a variety of factors, including habitat loss and...

A study from the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> has revealed that non-biting flies are underestimated in their ability to transmit diseases to humans. Biting flies are known to spread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-heightens-risk-of-most-infectious-diseases/">diseases</a> by transferring infected blood from host to host. The new research suggests that the vomit of non-biting flies poses an even greater risk to human health.



“I’ve been working on synanthropic flies since I was a graduate student in the 1960s,” said John Stoffolano, a professor of entomology at UMass Amherst’s Stockbridge School of Agriculture. “And synanthropic flies have largely been ignored. Blood-feeding flies have taken the limelight, but we should pay attention to the ones that live among us because they get their nutrients from people and animals that shed pathogens in their tears, feces and wounds.”



For example, the common house fly may eat foods such as roadkill, animal dung, or rotting garbage before entering a home. Each time the fly feeds, it fills its crop.



“The crop is like a gas tank, a place to store food before it makes its way into the digestive tract where it will get turned into energy for the fly," explained Stoffolano.



The crop is used for storage - not for digestion.&nbsp; According to the researchers, there are very few digestive enzymes or antimicrobial peptides present to neutralize most pathogens. This means that the crop essentially becomes a place to store disease-producing pathogens.



The experts explained that, as the fly then takes off,&nbsp; it gets rid of excess water in its crop by regurgitating the water. If the fly has landed on a sandwich, it will empty its crop onto the bread.&nbsp;



Stoffolano noted that we still don’t know many of the basics about these flies. “It’s the little things that cause the problems. Our health depends on paying closer attention to these flies that live with us.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects13090776">Insects</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Non-biting flies pose a bigger threat to public health

A study from the University of Massachusetts Amherst has revealed...

Millions of people around the globe are currently facing malnutrition or even famine, while the production of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feed-livestock-reduce-land-use/">feed for livestock</a> and fish is tying up limited natural resources which could be used to produce food for people. A new study led by <a href="https://www.aalto.fi/en">Aalto University</a> in Finland has shown how certain adjustments to animal feed could maintain production while also making more food available for people. According to the experts, implementing a series of relatively simple changes could increase the global food supply substantially, providing calories for 13 percent more people without requiring increases in natural resource uses or major dietary changes.



Currently, about a third of cereal crop production is used as animal feed, while a quarter of captured fish are not used to feed people. To find ways of solving these pressing problems, the researchers investigated the potential of using crop residues and food by-products in livestock and aquaculture production, thus freeing-up a significant amount of material that could feed people.



“This was the first time anyone has collected the food and feed flows in this detail globally, from both terrestrial and aquatic systems, and combined them together. That let us understand how much of the food by-products and residues is already in use, which was the first step to determining the untapped potential,” said study senior author Matti Kummu, an associate professor of Global Water and Food Issues at Aalto.



By analyzing the flow of food and feed – together with their by-products and residues – through the global food production system, the researchers identified ways of changing these flows to produce better outcomes for people. For instance, livestock and farmed fish could be fed with food system by-products, such as citrus pulp or sugar beet, rather than with materials that are also fit for human use.&nbsp;



With these changes, between 10 and 26 percent of total cereal production and 17 million tons of fish could be redirected from animal feed to human use, which would lead to gains in food supply of 6-13 percent in terms of caloric content and 9-15 percent in terms of protein content.&nbsp; “That may not sound like a lot, but that’s food for up to about one billion people,” said study lead author Vilma Sandström, a postdoctoral fellow in Food Systems Sustainability and Transformation at Aalto.



However, implementing such changes would require significant adjustments in supply chains. “For example, we’d need to reorganize the food system so that the industries and producers with by-products can find the livestock and aquaculture producers who would need them. And some of the by-products would need processing prior to using them as feed,” Dr. Sandström explained.



“I don't think there’s any serious problem with doing this. What we’re suggesting is already being done on a certain scale and in some areas, so it’s not something that would have to be developed from scratch. We just need to adjust the current system and increase the scale of those practices," concluded Professor Kummu.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00589-6">Nature Food</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Changing animal feed could supply food for one billion people

Millions of people around the globe are currently facing malnutrition...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...