A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities worldwide are on the rise, with Washington, D.C. emerging as the biggest hotspot. 



The study, which was focused on rat sighting reports from 16 global cities, attributes the increasing rat populations to warming temperatures, urbanization, and other human activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rat-sightings-on-the-rise">Rat sightings on the rise</h2>



The researchers conducted a first-of-its-kind analysis using publicly submitted rat complaint data. They discovered that in 11 of the 16 cities analyzed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-have-a-very-complex-social-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rat</a> sightings have increased in recent years. 



Based on individual city trends, Washington D.C. led the pack, followed by San Francisco, Toronto, New York City, and Amsterdam. According to the study, the rat reporting trend in Washington D.C. was three times greater than that of Boston. 



Only three cities - New Orleans, Louisville, and Tokyo - experienced significant decreases in rat reports, with New Orleans showing the largest drop. The experts suggest that New Orleans’ strategies could serve as a model for other cities seeking to control rat populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-drivers-of-rat-population-growth">Key drivers of rat population growth </h2>



The research team performed statistical analyses of rat sighting reports and concluded that a little over 40% of the rising trend is due to warming temperatures. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-surge-in-global-warming-may-have-an-unexpected-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> is primarily a result of burning coal, oil, and natural gas, which leads to milder winters and longer foraging periods for rats. 



Study lead author Jonathan Richardson, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.richmond.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Richmond</a>, explained the mechanism.



“We're seeing these increasing trends in rats in cities that are warming the fastest, probably because this is a small mammal that has physiological challenges in the cold weather months,” said Richardson.&nbsp;



“If we're warming the climate and winter starts a week or two later and spring arrives a week or two earlier, that's one, two, maybe even three or four weeks across the entire year where those rats can be above ground foraging, acquiring more food and maybe squeezing out one or two more reproductive cycles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urbanization-and-higher-population-density">Urbanization and higher population density </h2>



Even a few extra weeks of activity can have a dramatic effect, given that female rats can produce a litter every month. With each litter consisting of eight to 16 pups, this additional time significantly accelerates population growth.



In addition to the effects of warming, the study identified increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> and higher population densities as major factors. Rats thrive in built environments where food waste is abundant and human activity creates numerous shelters.&nbsp;



The experts note that these conditions allow rats to flourish in areas where people and their refuse provide a constant source of sustenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-nature-s-ultimate-urban-survivors">Rats: Nature’s ultimate urban survivors</h2>



Rats have evolved to be remarkably adaptive in urban settings. New York City rat czar Kathleen Corradi stated during a conference that the rat is the third most successful mammal behind humans and house mice. So it evolved and engineered to live alongside us.&nbsp;



“They followed humans, Homo sapiens, across the continents and are in every single continent except Antarctica. So it's considered a wicked problem.”



Their ability to adapt and survive in close proximity to humans explains why rat populations are expanding even as cities implement various control measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-rising-rat-populations">Consequences of rising rat populations</h2>



While rats are undeniably adaptable, their increasing numbers pose serious risks. When rodent populations soar, public health and urban infrastructure can suffer. 



"When rodent populations are high, people get sick, motor vehicles become disabled, mental health declines, fires are started and foods fouled," said Houston rat expert Michael Parsons, who was not involved in the study.



This statement captures the multifaceted impact of rat infestations. High rat populations can lead to increased transmission of diseases, disruption of transportation systems, and other societal challenges. 



People are understandably disturbed by rats, primarily due to an instinctive fear of creatures that can transmit disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-city-rats">Quantifying city rats</h2>



Rats are notoriously difficult to count accurately due to their secretive and elusive nature. The study did not count rats directly; instead, it analyzed rat sighting complaints submitted by city residents. 



Although these reports may not reflect the actual number of rats, they provide valuable insight into trends over time. Richardson emphasized that the long-term consistency of the reporting methods used in the study lends credibility to the observed trends.



Even though Washington D.C. exhibited the highest rate of increase, Richardson clarified that this does not necessarily mean the city has the most rats overall - it simply indicates that the number of rat complaints is rising faster than in other cities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prevention-over-poison">Prevention over poison</h2>



The study's findings suggest that traditional methods of rat control, such as poisoning and trapping, may not be sufficient to combat the escalating problem. 



Instead, prevention measures appear to be more effective. In cities like New Orleans, public authorities are taking proactive steps. 



For instance, educational workshops and community campaigns focus on reducing conditions that attract rats, such as improper waste management and excess food availability.



“In New Orleans they make a big effort to get out into neighborhoods and do educational workshops and campaigns to talk to residents about what makes a property less likely to have rats,” Richardson said.



Similarly, New York City has initiated innovative strategies, including replacing street garbage bags with rat-resistant containers and forming an elite volunteer group known as the “NYC rat pack.” 



Early results from these initiatives are promising, although comprehensive data have yet to fully reflect their impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-complex-urban-challenge">A complex urban challenge</h2>



While it is possible to better manage rat populations through improved urban planning and public education, complete eradication is unrealistic. 



As <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> conservation scientist Neil Carter pointed out, we can fight them better, but in the end “people need to coexist with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-addresses-the-global-need-for-human-wildlife-coexistence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> in urban environments, even with rats.”



“Zero rats is impossible," noted Richardson. “But I think an expectation that we need to live with the number of rats that we're seeing in many of these cities is also an unhealthy perspective on this problem.”



In conclusion, this study offers a critical, data-driven look at the complex factors driving rat population growth in urban environments. 



As cities continue to warm, expand, and densify, the challenge of managing rat populations will require innovative and sustainable approaches that focus on prevention and public awareness.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ads6782" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



Image Credit: AP Photo/Mary Altaffer



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Rat populations are increasing in cities as temperatures rise

A new study reveals that rat infestations in many cities worldwide are on the rise, with Washington, D.C. emerging as the biggest hotspot. The study, which was focused on rat sighting reports from 16 global cities, attributes the increasing rat populations to warming temperatures, urbanization, and other human activities. Rat sightings on the rise The researchers conducted a first-of-its-kind analysis using publicly submitted rat complaint data. They discovered that in 11 of the 16 cities analyzed, rat sightings have increased in recent years.  Based on individual city...

Howling is a characteristic form of communication in wolves that helps them send messages across long distances, mark territory boundaries, and identify the position of other wolves. Among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-ancestry-traced-to-two-populations-of-ancient-wolves/">dogs</a> - the wolves’ domestic relatives - the situation is more complicated. While some breeds, such as wolf-like sled dogs, howl frequently, even in “reply” to irrelevant sounds like bells, sirens, or music, other types of dogs never engage in such behavior.



Now, a team of ethologists from the <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/">Eötvös Loránd University</a> (ELTE) in Hungary has examined the phenomenon of dog howling by testing the reaction of 68 purebred family dogs to recorded wolf howls. To test the effect of a dog's breed, the experts measured its genetic similarity to wolves.



“According to our results, breeds which are genetically more similar to wolves (“ancient breeds”), are more prone to reply with their own howls to wolf howl playbacks. On the other hand, breeds more distantly related to wolves (“modern breeds”) typically reacted with barking instead of howls. It seems that although howling is present in most breeds’ repertoire, it lost its functionality due to the changed social environment, thus, modern breeds do not use it in adequate situations,” reported study lead author Fanni Lehoczki, a postdoctoral researcher in Neuroethology at ELTE. “Additionally, we found that breeds which howl more also show more stress-related behaviors in this situation.”



“We assume that more ancient breeds, which are genetically closer to wolves, can process the information encoded in wolf howls better than modern breeds. Thus, ancient breeds of our study might become stressed by intruding on a pack’s territory and use howling for the sake of avoidance, just as wolves do,” added study lead author&nbsp;Tamás Faragó, a postdoctoral fellow in Ethology at the same university.



“Interestingly,&nbsp;this genetic effect on howling occurs only among older dogs (&gt;5 years), for which an experience- or some age-related personality effect can be a plausible explanation. It is possible that - in line with our hypothesis, that howling appearing with a higher level of stress is a fear reaction - older dogs are more fearful, which was already suggested by previous studies, but these speculations require further investigation.”



Besides the breed and age of the dogs, the scientists also tested the effect of other features such as sex or reproductive status. The analysis revealed that, while there was no difference between intact and spayed females, intact dogs behaved differently from neutered ones.&nbsp;



“Neutered males, which are in lack of testosterone, howl more in response to the playbacks. As neutered males are suggested to be more fearful, this result can be in line with our findings about responsiveness and more stressed behavior. Thus, the dog howl may mean ‘I am scared, don't come closer,’” Lehoczki explained.



These findings support the hypothesis that domestication and selective breeding by humans significantly changed dogs’ vocal repertoire, including the perception and production of howls.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-023-04450-9">Nature Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Why do some dogs howl, but others don't?

Howling is a characteristic form of communication in wolves that...

A fungus that can cause deadly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-disrupts-gut-health-increasing-risk-of-other-infections/">infection</a> in salamanders and newts has a secret weapon that makes it more dangerous, according to a study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. The experts report that a fungus called Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) contains multiple copies of “jumping genes," which can essentially duplicate themselves.&nbsp;



Jumping genes, known by scientists as transposons, are DNA sequences that move from one location on the genome to another. While possessing repeated parts of DNA can be harmful to an organism, the researchers have found a possible evolutionary advantage of jumping genes in Bsal.



The team found different versions of jumping genes repeated multiple times in the genome of Bsal. Furthermore, the transposons appear to have duplicated another group of genes that play a role in the severity of an infection.&nbsp;



“Bsal and related fungal species infect amphibians worldwide, and have been responsible for more than 90 extinctions,” explained study first author Theresa Wacker.&nbsp;



“Bsal infects the skin of salamanders and newts and causes severe wounds. It emerged in Asia, where many newts and salamanders have some tolerance, but it has spread to Europe and is causing European salamander populations to decline."



“Using new sequencing technologies, we found that Bsal has undergone a genome expansion compared to related species - that is to say, it now has a bigger genome with more genes and also more of these ‘jumping gene’ transposons.”



The experts determined that the ability of jumping genes to "copy and paste" themselves has contributed to the expansion of the Bsal genome.



“If you think of an organism’s genome as a blueprint, transposons are like having many identical pages,” said Wacker. “And sometimes, during the process of copying and pasting, other parts of the book are also copied.”



"It appears that this copying and pasting caused by repetitive jumping gene transposons has also amplified some skin-destroying genes. Having more of these skin-destruction genes allow the fungus to destroy the skin of salamanders more quickly, making it more deadly.”



Study senior author Dr. Rhys Farrer noted that this kind of gene repetition is probably more widespread in nature than we currently realize. “If, as appears to be the case, it confers an evolutionary advantage for the pathogen by making it more virulent, it’s not clear why this isn’t much more common.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2212633120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: Jaime Bosch



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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A fungus has become more deadly thanks to jumping genes

A fungus that can cause deadly infection in salamanders and...

A recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/brv.12931">Biological Reviews</a> has found that over one in six bird eggs fail to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neon-gobies-decide-when-to-hatch-their-embryos/">hatch</a>, and hatching failure increases as bird species decline. Moreover, the experts discovered that hatching failure is a much bigger problem in the case of captive threatened species, with nearly half of their eggs failing to hatch. These findings provide evidence that conservation managers could use in their decision making for creating the best possible outcomes for endangered bird species recovery.



By assessing 241 bird species across 231 previous studies to examine hatching failure, the researchers discovered that almost 17 percent of bird eggs fail to hatch, which is nearly double than the number reported four decades ago. These values are even more worrisome in the case of endangered species, with 43 percent of eggs from threatened species bred in captivity being unsuccessful in hatching.



“Around 13 percent of bird species globally are currently threatened with extinction, and things are getting worse instead of better. Species on the verge of extinction have much higher levels of hatching failure compared to non-threatened species, and breeding birds in captivity appears to be having a negative impact,” said study co-author Nicola Hemmings, an expert in Biosciences at the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/">University of Sheffield</a>.



“There are important considerations that we need to make - does the benefit of captivity and other interventions outweigh the reduced reproduction of these species? For many species, these practices are absolutely vital for species survival, so we need to carefully weigh up the pros and cons of different approaches to ensure that we are doing everything that we can to protect birds from extinction.”



The scientists outlined four different conservation practices associated with lower hatching rates, including keeping birds in captivity, hatching eggs in artificial incubators, feeding the birds supplementary foods, and providing them with artificial nest boxes or sites. However, despite their potentially negative impact of hatching, some of these measures may still prove important to birds’ survival and reproduction. For instance, the eggs of some ground-nesting birds are at such a high risk of predation that leaving them in the wild would most likely result in their destruction.



“With this work we hope to provide vital evidence needed to understand how effective different management practices are at improving hatching success and aid population recovery,” said study senior author Patricia Brekke, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.zsl.org/science/users/patricia-brekke">Zoological Society of London</a> (ZSL).&nbsp;



“Conservation managers are doing an amazing job of preventing species decline, but they have an incredibly difficult job of making decisions when species are at the brink of extinction, on what tools to implement, and when. This kind of work provides the evidence necessary to improve decision making and hopefully improve recovery,” she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Hatching failure rates increase as bird species decline

A recent study published in the journal Biological Reviews has...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.uc.edu/">University of Cincinnati</a> (UC) has recently discovered a new species of frog in Tanzania’s Ukaguru Mountains. The Ukaguru spiny-throated reed frog (Hyperolius ukaguruensis) has a distinct feature: it is among the few species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-frogs-have-fused-forearms/">frogs</a> in the world that do not vocalize at all. Belonging to a group of “spiny throated” reed frogs, it is characterized by the presence of tiny spines on the male’s throat, which the frogs use to recognize other members of their species.



“It’s a very odd group of frogs,” said study lead author Lucinda Lawson, a conservation biologist at UC. “The male frogs don’t call like most other frogs do. We think they may use the spine as something like Braille for species recognition. “Without a call, they need some other way to recognize each other.”



H. ukaguruensis belongs to a family of nearly 200 species in the genus Hyperolius. According to the experts though, it may be significantly different from other species from this genus. “With any Hyperolius, I can probably tell by looking at it whether it’s new or potentially new,” Lawson explained. “Immediately it was clear that it was a spiny-throated reed frog. But this one was a golden, greenish brown instead of the green color found in the other species. Sometimes color variation doesn’t mean anything, but it might here.”



A combination of genetic and genomic analyses confirmed that this frog was distinct from other members of Hyperolius, while measurements shown that it had unique body proportions, with smaller eyes in relation to its head than other spiny-throated reed frogs.



As many of its relatives, H. ukaguruensis is a critically endangered species and should thus be considered of high conservation concern, particularly since amphibians are highly susceptible to human impacts, such as deforestation. “If a bird’s habitat is destroyed, they sometimes can fly to a new forest. But that’s hard for amphibians,” Lawson said.&nbsp;



Conservation measures are highly important because having a diversity of species is crucial to maintain healthy ecosystems. “We think about this question a lot: why does one species matter?” Lawson said.&nbsp;“If this one species goes extinct, nothing much happens. We just lose one more strand in the fabric of the ecosystem. But if you keep pulling out strands, the ecosystem becomes destabilized and the fabric unravels,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277535">PLoS ONE</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Image Credit: Christoph Liedtke



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Voiceless frog recently discovered in Africa

A team of researchers led by the University of Cincinnati...

Symbiotic relationships are everywhere in nature. Fungi enhance water and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-quality-threatened-by-nutrient-pollution-in-40-u-s-states/">nutrient</a> absorption for plants by feeding on their roots. Ants find food and shelter in tree structures, while insects defend the trees from being eaten. However, not all symbiotic relationships are created equal.&nbsp;



Some interactions are specific, where one host pairs off with only one other species. Others are general and flexible. Specific relationships have advantages, allowing the two species to reap mutual benefits and co-evolve. But this type of partnership can also come with a cost, where one partner exploits the other and takes more than it offers in return.



To investigate the evolutionary dynamics of specialization, researchers at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a> developed a model framework using game theory.



“Each interaction has very different dynamics,” said study senior author Erol Akçay. “Generalists may evolve to work better with more partners, specialists may be specializing to be more cooperative, and other specialists may be specializing to exploit better. Ours is the first study that gets at that dialectical nature of specialization, not just looking at specialization versus generalization.”



As an undergraduate student, Chris Carlson became interested in understanding why variations in generalism and specialism might persist.&nbsp;



Working with Akçay and Bryce Morsky, a model was developed that imagines the interactions of designated “hosts” with either general or specialized preferences and “symbionts” that provide and receive different benefits and costs from their interactions with various hosts.



The experts found that a cooperative partnering strategy, where both parties benefit, could persist in populations with one specialized host and a corresponding specialized symbiont. Depending on the benefits or payoffs, a generalist partnering strategy could also persist.



On the other hand, in partnerships where the host increased benefits while the symbiont reaped less, a more dynamic outcome arose. Different hosts and symbionts rise and fall in the population over time. Generalists were driven to extinction if the payoff was lower than that of being a specialist.&nbsp;



The researchers applied a spatial layer to their models to reflect that symbiotic relationships require that the two species involved encounter one another in space.



“Neighbors are going to be more likely to interact with neighbors, so who your neighbor is and how they interact can affect the outcome,” said Morsky



The team found that cooperative specialists could develop “patches” of dominance if they could move over short distances. If the payoff was high enough, generalists could persist around the periphery of these patches. If, however, hosts and symbionts could move over greater distances, just one host-symbiont pair could completely dominate a space.



“Let’s say you have a coral reef with different types of coral and different types of algae,” said Akçay. “If a host is a cooperative specialist, and the symbiont it specializes on gets fixed, the host does better, and therefore those hosts may expand. That creates specific spatial patterns that we were able to track.”



An overall takeaway is that cooperative specialization appears to be a valuable strategy, but it comes with risks. A host’s cooperating partner could go extinct, leaving the host without a symbiont.



The researchers hope their work lends insight into the variety of patterns of mutualisms that exist in nature and contribute to biodiversity.



“When people discuss specialization, this dualism is always in the background,” said Akçay. “This work helps bring it out and clarifies the tensions that exist between mutualisms.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/evolut/qpac056">Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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How do symbiotic relationships evolve between species?

Symbiotic relationships are everywhere in nature. Fungi enhance water and...

Mammals exhibit a wide variety of social structures, including solitary, pair-bonded and group-living species. They also show an extreme 100-fold range in longevity, from around two years in shrews and mice, to 200 years in bowhead <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-whales-help-mitigate-climate-change/">whales</a>. This led Professor ZHOU Xuming from the Institute of Zoology at the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> (CAS) to wonder whether these two variables were linked.&nbsp;



Along with other researchers from the Institute of Zoology at the CAS, Professor ZHOU undertook an analysis of various traits found in 1,000 mammalian species, such as their maximum lifespan, body mass, sociality, lifestyle, ecological factors, life history traits, and phylogenetic relationships. The scientists searched published literature for information on these traits, and used the data to determine whether there is a link between sociality and longevity, while taking into account the possible influence of the other factors.



Previous research has usually focused on the effect of sociality on longevity within a single species. For example, chacma baboon females with strong and stable social bonds within a troop live longer than those with weaker bonds, due to better health, reduced levels of stress and increased vigilance against predators. Similar results have also been found for rhesus macaques.&nbsp;



The researchers used only three categories of sociality, dividing the 974 mammalian species into three types of social organization: solitary, pair-living, and group-living. They then compared models with different evolutionary conjectures between social organization and longevity across the mammalian species, using a Bayesian framework.&nbsp;



The results of the analysis, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-35869-7">Nature Communications</a>, showed that group-living species live longer than solitary species. These results suggest a correlated evolution between social organization and longevity. Even species that live in pairs had greater life expectancies than the solitary species. And this relationship held, even when the researchers controlled for phylogeny, body mass and factors related to external mortality, such as activity (diurnal, nocturnal or others), lifestyle (terrestrial, aerial, arboreal, semi-arboreal, freshwater, marine, or terrestrial-marine), and fossoriality (living underground or above ground).&nbsp;



The researchers then conducted a comparative brain transcriptomic analysis of 94 of the mammal species to identify genes that could underpin the correlated evolution of social organization and longevity. They hoped to detect candidate genes and pathways associated with both social organization and longevity, in order to elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved in this relationship.&nbsp;



The experts found that hundreds of genes were significantly associated with solitary living, pair-living, or group-living, and a total of 262 genes were significantly correlated with longevity. However, they crucially identified 31 genes whose expression levels were significantly associated with both social organizations and longevity. Some of these genes were involved with hormone regulation, but many were associated with immunity pathways. The researchers propose that “hormonal regulation and immunity constitute the mechanistic foundation for the association between social organization and longevity.”



The findings indicate that mammals living in groups have better innate immune responses, perhaps precisely because diseases and parasites can be spread so easily between group members. Indeed, previous research has shown that in captive group-living macaques, individuals with more social connections have enhanced immune responses when compared to those living in isolation or with few social ties.



"Our study provides insights into the correlated evolution of social organization and longevity and serves as a basis for experimental validation and follow-up studies on the mechanistic drivers of this correlated evolution," concluded the researchers.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Solitary mammals live shorter lives than social species

Mammals exhibit a wide variety of social structures, including solitary,...

The kākāpō <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-zealand-worlds-largest-parrot/">parrot</a> (Strigops habroptilus) is the only flightless parrot in the world and possibly one of the world’s longest-living birds, with a reported lifespan of up to a century. It is a nocturnal, herbivorous, sexually dimorphic bird, with a low basal metabolic rate and no male parental care.



Currently, this species is critically endangered, consisting of a total known population of only 249 individuals which are confined to four small islands off the coast of New Zealand that have been cleared of predators. Factors such as infrequent breeding, high infertility, and low hatching success significantly hamper conservation efforts and, while habitat restoration and predator control are useful strategies for enhancing survival, the problems related to reproductive output are those that limit recovery the most.



Now, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.14675">PeerJ Life &amp; Environment</a> has provided critical insights into the factors that affect the fertility of the kākāpō in order to improve conservation management efforts. These findings highlight the need for a balanced approach to conservation management that takes into account both the short-term benefits and the potential long-term negative impacts of hand-rearing and other management strategies.



According to the experts, hand-rearing – in which animals are raised in captivity by humans – should be limited as much as possible for males, since although it undoubtedly increases chick survival, it reduces clutch fertility. Thus, hand-rearing appears to affect copulation behavior in males more than females, in accordance with imprinting behaviors found in hand-reared male but not female parrots.



In addition, population densities should be maximized so there is a sufficiently high number of males at leks to ensure adequate mate choice for females, but the male:female sex ratio is kept only as high as the habitat can efficiently support. Finally, artificial insemination should be continued in order to ensure sufficient sperm competition, while increasing founder representation.



These findings emphasize the critical importance of collecting comprehensive longitudinal data and assessing similar effects of hand-rearing and sex ratios in other endangered bird species.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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New insights will help protect the kākāpō parrot

The kākāpō parrot (Strigops habroptilus) is the only flightless parrot...

A new analysis of finds from the Neumark-Nord archaeological site complex near Halle in Germany has provided the first indisputable proof of active hunting of elephants by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-first-home/">Neanderthals</a>, changing our perception of these early hominins’ lifestyle and social organization.



The now extinct straight-tusk elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) – a gigantic creature with a height of up to four meters and a weight of nearly 13 tons – roamed the landscapes of Europe and Western Asia between 800,000 and 100,000 years ago. The remains of over 70 such elephants were unearthed in the 1980s and 1990s during archaeological excavations in a massive lignite pit in the vicinity of Halle.



By closely examining these fossils, the scientists were surprised to find that they were almost exclusively body parts of adult male individuals. Further detection of clear and unusual lesions in the bones helped the experts infer that they were most likely hunted by Neanderthals during a period of over 2,000 years, for dozens of generations. “This constitutes the first clear-cut evidence of elephant hunting in human evolution,” said study senior author Wil Roebroeks, an archeologist at <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en">Leiden University</a>.



According to the experts, since male adult elephants most likely kept to themselves, they were easier to approach closely without the protection of the herd, and were thus an easier catch for the early hominins. Moreover, since they were also larger, hunting them would have yielded more meat for significantly less risk.



Hunting and afterwards processing these massive beasts demanded close cooperation between the participating group members, suggesting that Neanderthals congregated in groups much larger than the approximately 25 individuals that scientists previously considered to be the maximum size of a local group. Moreover, the complexity of prey processing – entailing extensive butchering and drying products for long-term storage – provides evidence that Neanderthals may have had social and cultural means for large-scale food processing and storage.



“The intensity and nutritional yields of these well-documented butchering activities, combined with previously reported data from this Neumark-Nord site complex, suggest that Neanderthals were less mobile and operated within social units substantially larger than commonly envisaged,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add8186">Science Advances</a>.



&nbsp;—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Neanderthals hunted gigantic elephants for food

A new analysis of finds from the Neumark-Nord archaeological site...

In a new <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969722080044">study</a>, experts have investigated how chemicals leached from plastic particles may impact sea urchins during their embryonic and larval stages. The researchers found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-urchin-behavior-drives-destruction-of-kelp-forests/">sea urchin</a> larvae die from developmental abnormalities when raised in high levels of plastic pollution.



"Microplastics are now polluting all seas and, while studies have found numerous negative interactions between plastic pollution and marine animals, the effects on embryonic development are poorly understood," wrote the study authors. "A potentially important source of developmental ecotoxicity comes from chemicals leached from plastic particles to the marine environment."



The researchers placed fertilized urchin eggs in ocean water with varying levels of plastic pollution. They compared the effects of new PVC pellets (nurdles) with plastic fragments that had washed up on beaches.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Exposure to the newly made PVC pellets caused developmental abnormalities and death of all urchin larvae. This was the outcome regardless of the concentrations of PVC tested - one, five, or ten percent. At a concentration of ten percent, beach fragments also killed the larvae.



Lower concentrations of beach fragments did not kill the larvae, which suggests that new plastic - with a greater amount of chemicals that can leach out - has the potential to cause much greater harm to marine life.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, the plastic concentrations tested in the study are rare in the oceans, but could occur in areas where plastic pollution accumulates.



“The larvae affected by plastic pollution showed developmental abnormalities including malformation of the skeleton, neural and immune cells,” said study co-author Dr. Eva Jimenez-Guri from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.



“They also showed ‘radialization’ – meaning they lacked proper symmetrical structure, and were instead largely formless and therefore unable to survive."



“In these larvae, mitochondria (the ‘powerhouses’ of cells) didn’t work properly, and they showed signs of oxidative stress, which damages cells.”



The experts found that PVC nurdles leached high concentrations of zinc into the water, which caused the fatal abnormalities. For example, larvae exposed to 10-percent PVC pollution developed their gut outside their body.



The beach fragments did not release high levels of zinc because the chemical additives would have already been expelled into the ocean.



“Our findings point to clear and specific detrimental effects of marine plastic pollution on the development of sea urchin larvae,” said Dr. Jimenez-Guri. “We have identified the genes that are affected by these pollutants, and we know many animal species rely on the same genes for key early stages of development."



“So it’s possible that plastic pollution could cause similar abnormalities in other species, and we are already investigating this in the next stage of our research. While the levels of pollution assessed in the study are not common in the ocean, marine plastic pollution continues to increase at a rapid rate - with potentially serious consequences for marine life.”



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Sea urchin larvae cannot survive in water polluted with plastic

In a new study, experts have investigated how chemicals leached...

A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.montana.edu/">Montana State University</a> has recently conducted a comprehensive molecular analysis of large flightless birds such as ostriches and emus to clarify how these birds have evolved. The study shows that structural molecular analysis may complement other tools, such as genetic analysis, in accurately tracing the evolutionary history of various types of animals. The findings could also shed new light on the evolution of egg-laying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-dinosaurs-benefited-from-changes-in-global-climate/">dinosaurs</a>.



In recent years, genetic analyses have allowed scientists to rewrite the evolutionary history of palaeognathae, a group of birds including emus, ostriches, and rhea that are much more adept at running than at flying. However, combining the new genetic information with other modern tools like molecular analysis could provide even more information about how and why these animals evolved their unique features.



“We wanted to know if the three types of eggshells seen in palaeognaths were inherited from a common ancestor or evolved independently,” explained study lead author Seung Choi, a postdoctoral researcher in Earth Sciences at Montana.



By using X-ray crystallography, the scientists analyzed the microstructure of eggshells from modern palaeognath birds, such as the ostrich, rhea, emu, cassowary, kiwi, elephant bird, and two types of moa, as well as the structure of fossilized eggshells from this group of birds, along with fossilized eggs of bird-like dinosaurs. Then, they compared the findings with the eggshell structure of several modern flighted birds, including the common pheasant, the European green woodpecker, the northern goshawk, and the Japanese quail.



The analyses revealed that, while the wedge-like microstructures characterizing rhea eggshells can be traced back to ancient ancestors of palaeognath birds, the prism-like microstructures of ostrich and tinamous eggs most likely evolved independently later. “The pattern of evolution in palaeognath eggshells we revealed may help ornithologists decipher the trajectory of eggshell evolution among this group of flightless birds,” Choi said.



In addition, these findings could help scientists better understand the evolution of bird-like, egg-laying dinosaurs from the Mesozoic era (252 to 66 million years ago). Finally, since the eggshells of palaeognaths are often found among the remnants of ancient human settlements, they may also provide information to archaeologists studying how ancient humans used such eggs for food and their eggshells for artistic or other practices.



“Genetic and microstructural analysis of these living fossils’ eggshells may provide new insights on the evolution of birds and dinosaurs. It may also help us better understand how early humans lived and interacted with these fascinating creatures,” concluded senior author David Varricchio, a professor of Paleobiology at Montana.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.81092">eLife</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Eggshells of flightless birds evolved on different tracks

A team of researchers led by Montana State University has...

Vanessa,Cardui,Butterfly,(,Echinacea,Purpurea,)

Insects make up the majority of animal species across the globe. More than 80 percent of all animals are insects and yet, of the estimated 5.5 million insect species, only 8 percent appear in the list of assessed species for the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species</a>. This indicates that insects are overlooked, despite the fact that they pollinate the majority of plants and provide food for humans and countless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clash-of-the-top-predators-wolves-are-eating-sea-otters/">predators</a>, such as birds and bats. In fact, insects are crucial for ecosystem functioning but we don’t much consider them when planning conservation programs.&nbsp;



A new study by scientists from the University of Queensland, the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) and the Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada, has set out to quantify the extent to which current protected areas (PAs) actually protect insect species. Insects are in decline worldwide and are urgently in need of protection. Protected areas can safeguard threatened species, but only if these threatened species actually occur within the areas that are protected.&nbsp;



“It's high time we considered insects in conservation assessments,” said lead author Shawan Chowdhury, a conservation biologist at iDiv. “Countries must include insects in protected area planning and when managing the existing ones.”



Insect populations are threatened by human activities, including agriculture, climate change, urbanization, habitat loss, and habitat degradation, and their numbers are declining worldwide. Protected areas are generally effective in safeguarding habitats from loss and destruction, thereby enhancing the survival rates of species that occur within the boundaries. Although protected areas are known to actively shield many vertebrate species from key anthropogenic threats, the extent to which this is true for insects remains largely unknown.&nbsp;



To determine what proportion of insect species are safeguarded by protected areas, Chowdhury and colleagues overlaid species distribution data, obtained from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.gbif.org/">Global Biodiversity Information Facility</a>,&nbsp;with global maps of protected areas. They have published their findings in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2022.12.003">One Earth</a>.



The researchers found that 76 percent of global insect species are inadequately represented in protected areas, including several critically endangered insects such as the dinosaur ant, crimson Hawaiian damselfly, and harnessed tiger moth. Furthermore, the global distributions of 1,876 species from 225 families (around two percent) do not overlap with protected areas at all.



The authors were surprised by the extent of underrepresentation. “A lot of insect data come from protected areas, so we thought that the proportion of species covered by protected areas would be higher,” said Chowdhury.&nbsp;“The shortfall is also much more severe than a similar analysis that was conducted on vertebrate species, which found that 57 percent of 25,380 vertebrate species were inadequately covered.”&nbsp;



Species with low PA coverage occur predominantly in North America, Eastern Europe, South and Southeast Asia, and Australasia. In contrast, relatively large proportions of insect species achieve adequate protection status in Amazonia, Saharo-Arabia, Western Australia, the Neotropics, the Afrotropics, and Central Europe.



The researchers found it challenging to locate data on insect distributions during their study because, historically, insects have been overlooked in conservation programs. “Of the estimated 5.5 million insect species globally, we could only model the distributions of 89,151 species,” explained Chowdhury. Data on the remaining millions of species is too scarce or non-existent.&nbsp;



Even if insects live within protected areas, they may not be reaping the benefits of this “protection,” said Chowdhury. “Many insect species are declining within protected areas because of threats such as rapid environmental change, loss of corridors, and roads inside protected areas.”



“A number of steps can be taken to efficiently conserve insects, and participation from all sorts of people is essential. Citizen science could have an enormous impact in filling the data gap on insect distributions. Scientists and policy makers must now step up and help with this challenge of identifying sites of importance for insect conservation.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

More than 75 percent of insect species are not currently protected

Insects make up the majority of animal species across the...

Since more adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-dogs-are-more-likely-to-develop-transmissible-cancer/">dogs</a> die from cancer than from any other cause, detecting canine cancer earlier can enable more effective treatment. Although noninvasive blood tests can now detect tumor DNA long before other signs of cancer arise, formal guidelines for when dogs should be screened using these tests are still lacking.



To help establish such guidelines, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://petdx.com/">PetDx</a> – a molecular diagnostics company in La Jolla, California focused on the detection and treatment of cancer in pets – has determined the median age at cancer diagnosis of dogs with different features.&nbsp;



The analysis (which included 3,452 dogs with cancer in the U.S.) revealed that the median age at cancer diagnosis for dogs weighting over 75 kilograms was five years, compared to 11 years for canines weighting between 2.5 and five kilograms. Moreover, the mean diagnosis age for purebred dogs was 8.2, compared to 9.2 for mixed breeds.



Among the breeds analyzed, Mastiffs, Saint Bernards, Great Danes, and Bulldogs had the youngest median diagnosis age (about six years), while Irish Wolfhounds, Vizslas, and Bernese Mountain Dogs had median diagnosis ages ranging from 6.1 to seven years. The Bichon Frise was found to have the oldest median diagnosis age (11.5). Finally, female dogs were generally diagnosed with cancer at older ages than males, and neutered dogs were diagnosed later than intact ones.



The findings suggest that canine cancer detection could be improved through blood test-based screening beginning two years before a dog reaches the median diagnosis age specific to their breed or weight category.



“Dogs now have a new option for cancer screening called ‘liquid biopsy’ which, similar to the human version of this test, leverages next-generation sequencing technology to detect multiple types of cancer using a simple blood draw. However, the age to start screening for cancer in dogs can vary depending on their breed or weight. Our study, involving over 3,000 cancer-diagnosed dogs, found that all dogs should begin cancer screening at age seven, but certain breeds may benefit from screening starting&nbsp;as early as age four,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280795">PLoS ONE</a>.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

When should you begin cancer screening for your dog?

Since more adult dogs die from cancer than from any...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...