Urban coyotes are thriving in cities, but not for the reasons one might expect. A recent study reveals that human-related factors, rather than access to natural habitats, have a stronger impact on their survival.&nbsp;



Researchers tracking coyotes in Chicago discovered that densely populated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-living-causes-chronic-stress-for-some-coyotes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human areas</a> are linked to longer coyote lifespans, overturning the conventional belief that wildlife fares better in more natural settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-presence-plays-a-surprising-role">Human presence plays a surprising role</h2>



“What we found was really interesting, in that the societal characteristics seem to play a much more important role in predicting coyote survival time than the environmental characteristics,” said Emily Zepeda, the study’s lead author and a postdoctoral scholar at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ohio State University</a>.&nbsp;



“And then we found this positive effect of human population density on survival time. Both of those things are unexpected because we usually associate human activity with detrimental effects on wildlife.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-urban-coyote-research-project">The Urban Coyote Research Project</h2>



The study, recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11252-024-01643-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Urban Ecosystems</a>, stems from the Urban Coyote Research Project, a long-term study of coyote ecology in the Chicago Metropolitan Area.&nbsp;



This research, led by wildlife ecologist Stan Gehrt, has monitored the behavior and ecology of Chicago’s estimated 4,000 coyotes, offering rare insights into how they adapt to urban life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-coyote-survival">Tracking coyote survival</h2>



For this study, researchers analyzed movement data from 214 coyotes tracked between 2013 and 2021. Using the length of time each coyote was monitored as a proxy for survival, they evaluated societal and environmental factors such as neighborhood income, human density, road density, and proximity to parks.



The findings revealed that human population density positively influenced coyote survival. Coyotes in areas with low human density tended to have shorter lifespans, while those in densely populated areas lived longer. Interestingly, the interaction between income and density also played a role.&nbsp;



In low-density areas, income had little effect on survival, likely due to the lack of human presence. However, in moderate- to high-density neighborhoods, coyotes in lower-income areas were 1.5 times more likely to survive to age two than those in wealthier areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resources-and-competition-in-urban-settings">Resources and competition in urban settings</h2>



The researchers theorize that higher human population density provides urban coyotes with essential resources like food and shelter, helping them endure harsh conditions such as Chicago winters.&nbsp;



“We’ve hypothesized that population density may have a positive effect because it’s actually providing resources like human-related structures or food that allow coyotes to weather the harsh conditions of the winter, which is a major mortality factor for Chicago coyotes,” Zepeda explained.



However, these benefits may come at a cost in higher-income areas, where vegetation and better waste management can attract more coyotes, leading to increased competition and disease transmission.&nbsp;



“There might be more individuals in those areas, but survival time may be shorter there,” Zepeda said. “You might die younger in an area where there are a lot of competitors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptability-of-coyotes">Adaptability of coyotes</h2>



Surprisingly, the study found no significant link between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-species-are-shifting-their-habitats-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural habitats</a> and coyote survival. Parks and nature preserves, often assumed to be ideal environments for coyotes, did not seem to offer a survival advantage.&nbsp;



“Anecdotally, we see really high densities of coyotes in nature preserves and urban parks. That’s often where you see coyotes in the city if you see them at all,” Zepeda said.



The researchers speculate that this finding could result from a variety of factors, including limitations in how habitat types are classified on city maps or more frequent hunting and trapping in natural areas.&nbsp;



Alternatively, it may highlight the adaptability of coyotes, which seem capable of thriving in urbanized environments despite their preference for natural habitats.&nbsp;



“It could speak to how adaptable they are that they might prefer natural habitat, but at least in terms of survival, they can do just as well in more urbanized areas,” Zepeda added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-societal-factors-and-urban-ecosystems">Societal factors and urban ecosystems</h2>



This study adds to growing evidence that societal factors affecting human populations also influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-biodiversity-is-not-a-luxury-it-is-attainable-for-everyone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban ecosystems</a>. The presence or absence of humans, combined with the conditions in which they live, may overshadow natural influences on wildlife survival.&nbsp;



Gehrt’s long-term research emphasizes the importance of understanding these dynamics as urban areas expand.



As urban ecosystems continue to evolve, studies like this provide critical insights into how wildlife interacts with human populations.&nbsp;



Further research could explore specific societal factors - such as waste management practices or public attitudes toward coyotes - and their influence on urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>.



By better understanding these relationships, cities can develop strategies to foster coexistence between humans and animals, creating urban environments where both can thrive.



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Coyotes live longer in densely populated human areas

Urban coyotes are thriving in cities, but not for the reasons one might expect. A recent study reveals that human-related factors, rather than access to natural habitats, have a stronger impact on their survival.&nbsp; Researchers tracking coyotes in Chicago discovered that densely populated human areas are linked to longer coyote lifespans, overturning the conventional belief that wildlife fares better in more natural settings. Human presence plays a surprising role “What we found was really interesting, in that the societal characteristics seem to play a much more important...

As humans, we have developed an emotional response called disgust that helps us avoid disease. But do other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-change-impact-cold-blooded-animals/">animals</a> have similar protective mechanisms? This question has been largely overlooked in the field of animal behavior, where fear and predator avoidance have captured much attention.



However, an international team of scientists has now set up a framework to test disgust and its associated disease avoidance behaviors across various animal species, social systems, and habitats.&nbsp;



Study lead author Cécile Sarabian, a former JSPS postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en">Kyoto University</a>, notes that over 30 species have been reported to exhibit disease avoidance strategies in the wild. "We provide predictions for seven others that were previously overlooked and that could serve as new model species."



The team's predictions take into account models of specific ecological niches, sensory environments, and social systems for a number of species, including the native common octopus and the invasive red-eared slider, which are both relevant to Japan.



"The various costs and benefits involved in experiencing disgust and avoiding illness depend on the social system and ecology of the species," explained study co-author Professor Andrew MacIntosh.&nbsp;



Disgust can be triggered by sensory cues associated with disease risk, such as the sight of diarrhea, which releases a set of behavioral or physiological responses that help animals avoid parasites, pathogens, and toxins. The levels of disgust behavior vary from species to species depending on their social systems and ecological niches.



For example, solitary species have relatively fewer social interactions and resulting disease transmission, so they are less adapted than group-living species in recognizing and evading such life-threatening risks.



"Some species living in colonies, such as rabbits and penguins, go further in tolerating diseased mates since a community immunity strategy ensures the colony's survival," said MacIntosh.



The implications for human health are significant, as expected disgust-driven behaviors can be applied to the study of the Covid-19 pandemic. "Beyond fundamental research, it's important to keep promoting the creation of a database that gathers disease-avoidance evidence in animals and its applications in relevant conservation and wildlife management strategies," said Sarabian.



This research highlights the importance of understanding disease avoidance behaviors in animals and how they can inform our own responses to disease outbreaks.&nbsp;



Infectious diseases are a significant threat to human health, causing millions of deaths each year. From the Spanish Flu to the COVID-19 pandemic, history has shown us that infectious diseases can have devastating consequences for societies and economies. As we continue to face new and emerging infectious diseases, it's essential that we learn from nature and the animal kingdom to help protect ourselves.



By studying these behaviors in animals, scientists can gain insights into how diseases spread and develop. For instance, research on how avian influenza spreads among wild bird populations has helped scientists develop strategies for containing the spread of the disease in domestic bird populations. This knowledge is crucial for protecting both animal and human populations from the potential dangers of such diseases.



In addition, understanding animal disease avoidance behaviors can help us develop more effective strategies for preventing the spread of infectious diseases in humans. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries implemented social distancing measures to help slow the spread of the virus. This approach is based on the observation that animals living in groups are more susceptible to disease transmission, and therefore social distancing can help break the chain of transmission.



Furthermore, studying animal behavior can also inform our efforts to develop vaccines and other treatments for infectious diseases. For instance, researchers have studied the immune systems of bats, which are known to carry many deadly viruses without showing any signs of illness. This research has led to the development of new antiviral drugs that could help prevent and treat diseases such as Ebola, SARS, and COVID-19.



However, there are limitations to studying animal behavior in the context of infectious diseases. Animals are not perfect models for human disease, and there are many differences between how diseases affect animals and humans. Therefore, it's essential to interpret animal behavior research in the context of human health carefully.



In conclusion, the study of animal behavior can provide valuable insights into how diseases spread and how we can better protect ourselves from them. By studying the behavior of animals, we can gain insights into how to prevent the spread of infectious diseases in both animal and human populations, develop more effective treatments, and develop strategies for containing the spread of emerging diseases.&nbsp;



The research is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13903">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



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Disgust plays a large role in disease avoidance by animals

As humans, we have developed an emotional response called disgust...

New research led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> has revealed that the spiny pollen of plants in the sunflower family can reduce infection of a common bee parasite by up to 94 percent. The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.14320">Functional Ecology</a>, has significant implications for pollinator health and the wider ecosystem.



Insect pollinators, including bees, are responsible for fertilizing crops that contribute over $200 billion in annual ecosystem services worldwide. However, many species are in decline due to habitat loss, pesticide use, and other factors. The decline of pollinators poses a significant threat to global food security and biodiversity.



Led by Laura Figueroa, incoming assistant professor of environmental conservation at UMass Amherst, the research team aimed to understand why certain species of flowers, including sunflowers, can help pollinators resist disease infections. In particular, they investigated sunflowers’ effectiveness at combatting the widespread pathogen Crithidia bombi, which lives in a bee’s gut.



“We know that the health benefits from some foods come from the specific chemicals in them. But we also know that some foods are healthy because of their physical structure - think of foods high in fiber,” said Professor Figueroa.



To investigate how sunflowers help bumblebees withstand C. bombi, Figueroa and her team separated the spiny outer shell of the pollen from the chemical metabolites in the pollen’s core. They then mixed the spiny sunflower shell, with the chemistry removed, into the pollen fed to one group of bees. Another group was fed wildflower pollen sprinkled with sunflower metabolites and no sunflower shells.



The researchers discovered that the bees that ate the spiny sunflower pollen shells had the same response as bees feeding on whole sunflower pollen. These bees had a markedly reduced risk of C. bombi infection compared to those fed sunflower metabolites. In fact, they suffered 87% lower infections from C. bombi than the control group.



Additionally, bees fed pollen from ragweed, cocklebur, dandelion, and dog fennel – all members of the sunflower family and with similarly spiny pollen shells – had similarly low rates of C. bombi infection. This raises the possibility that such disease-fighting medicinal effects may be common to plants in the sunflower family.



The findings have significant implications for efforts to protect pollinators, which play a vital role in maintaining healthy and diverse ecosystems. “We depend on them for diverse, healthy, nutritious diets,” said Figueroa. “Understanding how sunflowers protect bees from disease could help us identify other flowers that have similar protective properties.”



Although sunflower pollen is not particularly nutritious due to its low protein content, it has been shown to protect bumblebees from gut pathogens such as C. bombi, which is known to affect the queen bees and their ability to produce offspring.



Study senior author Professor Lynn Adler explained that it is essential to look at the bigger picture of bee health, not just focus on individual factors such as gut pathogens. "It's no good curing the common cold if you starve the patient. We need to look at the community level, as well as what's happening in bees' guts, to know how to help them respond to stressful environments," said Professor Adler.



To determine the impact of sunflower pollen on colony health, Adler and her team placed commercial colonies of bumblebees on twenty different farms in Western Massachusetts that grew varying amounts of sunflowers. Over several weeks, the team collected samples of pathogens in the bees' guts, weighed the colonies to determine whether or not they were thriving, and counted the number of daughter queens.



The study found that infection decreased as sunflower abundance increased, and that queen bee production increased by 30 percent for every order of magnitude increase in the availability of sunflower pollen. "It's really exciting to show that sunflower not only reduces disease but positively affects reproduction," said Rosemary Malfi, lead author of the study.



Adler and Malfi cautioned that more research needs to be done to fully understand why sunflower pollen benefits queen bees, and that this study only focused on one common species of bumblebee that is not endangered. However, the findings suggest that the sunflower family may play a crucial role in maintaining pollinator health, which ultimately benefits our food systems.



The study provides much-needed food for thought in the ongoing effort to reverse the decline of pollinators worldwide. The results show that the physical structure of pollen can have significant impacts on bee health, which could inform new strategies for supporting pollinator populations.



This research was supported by the US National Science Foundation and Department of Agriculture.



Why bumble populations are declining



Bumblebees, vital pollinators of crops and wildflowers, are experiencing a rapid decline in their populations worldwide. While there are several factors contributing to this decline, the primary reasons are habitat loss, climate change, and pesticide use.



Habitat loss due to urbanization and agricultural intensification is the biggest threat to bumblebees. As natural habitats are converted into farmlands, forests, and urban areas, bumblebees lose their food sources, nesting sites, and breeding grounds. This reduces their population size and genetic diversity, making them more vulnerable to disease and environmental stress.



Climate change is also taking a toll on bumblebees. As temperatures rise, bumblebees are forced to move further north to cooler climates, which can affect their ability to find food and nesting sites. Changes in rainfall patterns can also impact the availability of nectar and pollen, making it difficult for bumblebees to survive.



Pesticide use is another significant threat to bumblebees. Pesticides like neonicotinoids, which are widely used in agriculture, have been linked to declines in bumblebee populations. These chemicals are highly toxic to bees and can impair their navigation, foraging, and immune systems, leading to reduced reproductive success and increased mortality.



The decline of bumblebees is a cause for concern because they play a crucial role in pollinating crops and wildflowers. Without them, we would lose the diversity of fruits, vegetables, and flowers that we rely on for food and aesthetic value. Therefore, it is important to take action to conserve and protect bumblebee populations by reducing pesticide use, restoring natural habitats, and mitigating climate change.



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Sunflowers are a ‘superfood’ for bumblebees

New research led by scientists at the University of Massachusetts...

<a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> scientists have conducted research into how coral reefs are affected by different kinds of natural disasters. The study, led by doctoral student Kai Kopecky and published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19399170">Ecology</a>, found that coral is less likely to recover from bleaching than from storms, even when the mortality rate is similar between the two events.



“Natural disasters can devastate a region, abruptly killing the species that form an ecosystem’s structure,” wrote the researchers. “While fires scorch the landscape to the ground, a heatwave leaves an army of wooden staves in its wake. Storm surges and coral bleaching do something similar underwater.”



Most shallow-water <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-additives-reduce-breeding-success-of-corals/">corals</a> host symbiotic algae that provide them with food in exchange for a safe home and nutrients. However, extreme conditions can cause the coral to expel the algae, known as bleaching, which can be fatal.



The researchers studied coral and their reef ecosystems around the island of Moorea, French Polynesia, where they have been conducting research since the late 1980s. During Kopecky’s second visit to the island, a major bleaching event occurred, and he noticed that seaweed, a major competitor with coral for space on the reef, began colonizing the bleached skeletons left behind.



Kopecky wondered whether the presence of the skeletons was setting the reef on a pathway toward a more algae-dominated state. Previous work at Moorea had shown that tropical reefs can host either coral- or seaweed-dominated communities.&nbsp;



These distinct states are resilient to small disturbances, but a large shock can flip the ecosystem from one to the other in a process called hysteresis, after which the reef won’t revert to its previous state even if conditions do. The system finds a new equilibrium.



To compare reef dynamics after a bleaching event, which leaves skeletons in place, and after a storm, which scours the reef bare, Kopecky developed a mathematical model using a system of five differential equations to capture the transition between empty space, live and dead branching coral, and seaweed cover on the reef.



“The results were telling,” said Kopecky. “Just the fact that those skeletons are left on the reef results in these fundamentally different patterns of recovery.”



Coral skeletons play a protective role for young algae by shielding them from herbivores that would otherwise consume them. The crevices in the coral structure provide a safe haven for the algae to grow and spread, which is not possible in the open reef.&nbsp;



However, this protection does not appear to provide the same benefits to young coral. The authors of the study suggest that coral does not face as much pressure from predators as algae does. Furthermore, algae can outgrow coral when given the opportunity.



Holly Moeller, an assistant professor of ecology, evolution, and marine biology, explained: "Coral is literally laying down rock, while the algae are mostly just fast-growing, soft, leafy material."



Reef buildup is a slow process, and new growth incorporates dead skeletons into the larger reef structure. However, bleaching kills a lot of coral at once, particularly the oldest and youngest, and the skeletons eventually become brittle through erosion. This is not a sturdy foundation for young coral to build upon.



The idea of removing dead coral skeletons to promote coral recovery is gaining popularity in other ecosystems.&nbsp;



"Think of prescribed fires or the thinning of dead trees in forests so that the system is more resilient to future disturbances," explained Kai Kopecky, a postdoctoral researcher at UC Santa Barbara.



However, coral skeletons provide numerous benefits, including providing habitats for various types of animals. Additionally, some evidence suggests that the structural complexity of a reef correlates with faster coral recovery. "The effect really depends on what the nature of that structure is," Kopecky said. "Those aspects need to be taken into consideration before you go out and just start jackhammering the reef."



The researchers have ongoing experiments in Moorea, including one that examines how the reef recovers when dead coral skeletons are removed. Others are testing the assumptions Kopecky used to create his model. For example, how much does dead coral actually reduce herbivory? And how do the skeletons affect the growth of living corals?



Moeller believes that the study is a classic example of the value of mathematical models in ecology. Coral can live for hundreds of years, and reef recovery can take decades. "That's just not an experiment that you can realistically do," she said. "But if you have a model, and you trust the way you set that model up because you've done other experiments, then you can make these projections decades into the future."



Coral reefs are incredibly diverse ecosystems that are home to many different species of marine animals and plants. However, these ecosystems are under threat from a phenomenon known as coral bleaching. Coral bleaching occurs when the coral's symbiotic algae, which provide them with food and color, are expelled due to changes in temperature, light, or nutrients.



When coral bleaches, it turns white, loses its color and may eventually die. The loss of coral has serious implications for the ocean's biodiversity, as well as the millions of people who depend on these ecosystems for food and income.



Climate change is the primary cause of coral bleaching. As ocean temperatures rise, the coral becomes stressed, which can cause it to expel its algae. Other factors that can cause bleaching include pollution, overfishing, and nutrient runoff.



Scientists are working to understand how to protect coral reefs from bleaching. One approach is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which would help slow the rate of warming oceans. Another is to reduce pollution and overfishing in coral reef areas.



In summary, coral bleaching is a serious problem that threatens the health of coral reefs and the many species that depend on them. While there is no easy solution to this problem, scientists are working hard to find ways to protect these important ecosystems from further damage. It's up to all of us to take action to protect the ocean's biodiversity and the millions of people who rely on it.



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Coral skeletons improve reef recovery after bleaching

UC Santa Barbara scientists have conducted research into how coral...

New research from the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) has uncovered an intriguing connection between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/california-mountain-lions-are-not-fully-protected-from-humans/">humans</a> and rats: both species appear to fall victim to the same type of logical fallacy, known as the conjunction fallacy. This groundbreaking study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/13423">Psychonomic Bulletin and Review</a>, suggests that the underlying cognitive mechanisms behind this fallacy may be shared across species, opening up the possibility of using rats as research models for studying certain psychopathological conditions.



The conjunction fallacy is a well-documented psychological phenomenon, famously exemplified by the "Linda problem" designed by Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman and his colleague Amos Tversky in the 1980s. They presented participants with a scenario describing a woman named Linda, who is highly educated, socially conscious, and politically active. Participants were then asked to decide whether it was more probable that Linda was a bank teller, or a bank teller active in the feminist movement. Most chose the latter option, despite the fact that it is logically less probable.



This error in reasoning is thought to arise from the use of mental shortcuts, or heuristics, when estimating the likelihood of an event. In the case of the Linda problem, participants may have relied on the representativeness heuristic, assessing how similar the event is to a mental model they already have in their minds. This cognitive process, believed to be unique to humans, involves a combination of memory, imagination, and reasoning.



However, the recent study from UCLA challenges the idea that the conjunction fallacy is exclusive to humans. Valeria González, a postdoctoral psychology researcher at UCLA and the study's first author, explains: "The classical research has all been done with humans, so the usual explanation for the effect attributes it to a departure from rationality distinct to humans. Our work shows that maybe there is a more general mechanism shared between humans and rats."



The discovery that rats, like humans, are susceptible to the conjunction fallacy has significant implications for the field of psychology. If rats indeed share this cognitive bias with humans, they could potentially serve as useful models for studying psychopathological conditions characterized by false beliefs or the perception of nonexistent events, such as schizophrenia and certain anxiety disorders.



The conjunction fallacy occurs when people believe that the combination of two events is more likely than just one of those events occurring. Some researchers have argued that this fallacy arises due to language, particularly people's uncertainty about the meaning of words like "likely" and "probability." Others have attributed the fallacy to the influence of detailed backstories on decision-making. Additionally, previous research has indicated that humans are prone to conjunction fallacies when performing physical tasks.



To investigate whether the fallacy is necessarily tied to language and whether it is unique to humans, González and psychology professor Aaron Blaisdell designed an experiment involving rats in a physical, rather than social, task. The rats were trained in two scenarios where they had to judge the likelihood of a sound being present or both a light and sound being present in order to receive a food reward.



In the first scenario, the rats received sugar pellets if they pressed a lever when a tone played and a steady light was on. If the tone played but the light was off, they received no food. In the second scenario, the rats received pellets if they pressed a lever while a white noise played and a flashing light was off. However, they received nothing if they pressed the lever when the noise played and the flashing light was on.



The researchers then played the different sounds, a tone or white noise, with the light bulb unobscured but turned off. The rats reacted accordingly, tending to avoid pressing the lever in response to the tone and pressing it in response to the white noise. However, when the researchers obscured the light bulb with a piece of metal and played the sounds, the rats were forced to predict whether the light was on or off in hopes of receiving the food reward.



Interestingly, the rats were much more likely to predict that the obscured light was on, regardless of whether the light had previously signaled the presence or absence of food when accompanying the sound. This tendency to overestimate the likelihood that both sound and light were present, even if it meant no reward, demonstrates that rats, like humans, can exhibit the conjunction fallacy.



"Until now, researchers said this is unique to human cognition only because we haven't looked for it in animals," Blaisdell said. "If humans and other animals consider alternative states of the world during ambiguous situations to help decision-making, we might expect systematic biases such as the conjunction fallacy to show a broader distribution in the animal kingdom."



By demonstrating that the conjunction fallacy is not solely the province of humans, the UCLA researchers have opened up new avenues for investigation and potential treatments for these disorders. Furthermore, this study serves as a reminder that even in the realm of cognitive biases and heuristics, humans may not be as unique as previously thought.



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Rats have the same cognitive biases as humans

New research from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)...

A recent study published in the CABI journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/hai.2023.0011">Human-Animal Interactions</a> reveals that young dog owners tend to cope well when their dogs misbehave. This is despite previous research suggesting that up to 90 percent of dogs display undesired behaviors such as aggression and disobedience.&nbsp;



However, little is known about the impact of this on young people’s experiences and emotions. To shed light on this issue, a team of scientists from Brock University, Ontario, Canada, interviewed young dog owners aged 17 to 26 years to determine their experiences with their pets and their coping strategies in response to bad behavior.



The study focused on undesired behaviors such as occasional and persistent barking and, in extreme cases, being aggressive towards other dogs and people.&nbsp;



Renata Roma of Brock University and her colleagues found that young people prefer proactive coping styles when dealing with their dogs' undesired behavior.&nbsp;



The researchers also discovered that the severity of their dogs’ behavioral issues was associated with the strength of their emotions in response, with more severe behavioral issues eliciting more intense emotions.



The experts argue that increasing our understanding of coping mechanisms in response to pets’ perceived misbehavior is important for several reasons. One of which is to explore how young people handle stressful situations with their dogs and whether any coping styles adopted by young people can decrease the likelihood of experiencing continued stress in their interactions with their dogs.



The study also revealed that young people varied in their emotional reactions and perceptions about the severity of their dog’s behavioral issues. While most dog owners indicated moderate discomfort with their dog’s behavioral issues, only one highlighted severe discomfort. This participant had a dog that exhibited severe behavioral issues, including persistent aggressive behavior.



The researchers noted that future studies could explore whether the amount of time living with a dog influences young people’s ability to handle challenging situations with their dogs. “It is possible that none of the participants in this study revealed severe discomfort with their dog’s behavioral issues because they learned new strategies over time.”



Overall, the study addresses the gap in the literature by examining links and similarities between young people’s coping styles towards their dogs and towards people emotionally close to them.&nbsp;



The experts suggest that their findings could be used to develop interventions aimed at improving young people’s coping strategies for managing their dogs' undesired behavior.



Dogs have been man's best friend for thousands of years, but they are more than just loyal companions. Studies have shown that dogs can have a positive impact on the lives of young adults in a variety of ways, from improving mental health to promoting social interaction and physical activity. In this article, we will explore the science behind the positive impact dogs have on young adults.



Mental Health



According to the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI), one in five adults in the United States experience mental illness each year. Young adults, in particular, are vulnerable to mental health issues, with one in three college students experiencing symptoms of depression. However, research has shown that owning a dog can help improve mental health and reduce stress levels.



A study published in the International Journal of Workplace Health Management found that employees who brought their dogs to work reported lower stress levels throughout the day than those who did not. Another study conducted by the University of Missouri-Columbia found that interacting with a dog can increase levels of oxytocin, a hormone that helps regulate stress and anxiety.



In addition, owning a dog can provide a sense of purpose and meaning, which can be especially important for young adults who may be struggling to find their place in the world. Caring for a pet can provide a sense of responsibility and accomplishment, which can improve self-esteem and overall well-being.



Social Interaction



Young adulthood is a time of transition, with many individuals leaving the safety and familiarity of their family homes to pursue education or employment opportunities. This can be a lonely and isolating experience, but dogs can provide a source of social interaction and connection.



A study conducted by researchers at the University of Liverpool found that dog owners were more likely to engage in social activities and have a stronger social network than non-dog owners. In addition, dogs can serve as a conversation starter, making it easier for young adults to meet new people and form connections.



Physical Activity



Physical activity is important for maintaining overall health and well-being, but many young adults struggle to find the motivation to exercise regularly. However, owning a dog can provide a powerful incentive to get moving.



A study conducted by researchers at the University of Missouri-Columbia found that dog owners were more likely to engage in regular physical activity than non-dog owners. In addition, dogs provide a source of accountability, as they need to be walked and exercised regularly.



In conclusion, dogs can have a powerful impact on the lives of young adults. From improving mental health to promoting social interaction and physical activity, dogs can provide a source of comfort, companionship, and motivation during a time of transition and change. If you are a young adult considering getting a dog, be sure to do your research and choose a breed and temperament that is compatible with your lifestyle and needs. With the right care and attention, a dog can be a valuable and rewarding addition to your life.



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Young dog owners cope well when their pups misbehave

A recent study published in the CABI journal Human-Animal Interactions...

Human beings are known for their complex social behavior, diverse communication skills, and highly developed tool use. Researchers have long been fascinated by the evolution of these traits, and a recent study from the <a href="https://www.mpi.nl/">Max Planck Institute</a> has now offered a unique perspective on the matter.&nbsp;



The study proposes that human evolution might resemble the process of animal domestication, where less aggressive animals are favored through natural selection. In a similar vein, human evolution may be the result of selecting for more prosocial and cooperative individuals, who are more likely to interact with others and form complex communities where learning from one another is possible.



However, according to study first author Limor Raviv, the theory of self-domestication is difficult to prove. "This is because only one other species besides humans has been argued to be self-domesticated: bonobos."&nbsp;



Raviv and her colleagues sought to explore whether elephants could serve as the first non-primate animal model for self-domestication. In doing so, they investigated similarities between elephants, bonobos, and humans, and conducted genetic analyses to identify potential underlying mechanisms.



The research team discovered that elephants exhibit many of the hallmarks of domestication. Like humans and bonobos, elephants display low levels of aggression, high levels of empathic and prosocial behavior, an extended juvenile period, and increased playfulness and curiosity.&nbsp;



Elephants are known to form coalitions, "babysit" calves, provide protection and comfort to others, and aid dying or ill members of their herds - and even occasionally outsiders. Elephants also demonstrate self-awareness and sensitivity to the needs and wants of others.



Another key aspect of domestication is the ability to learn from one another. In elephants, behaviors that are often innate in other animals - such as diet selection or raising offspring - are socially transmitted. Elephants also possess a sophisticated multimodal communication system with a wide-ranging vocal repertoire, including trumpets, roars, and low-frequency rumbles.&nbsp;



For instance, elephants in Kenya have different alarm calls for humans and bees, and their diverse and combined calls even exhibit signs of grammar. Additionally, the researchers identified several candidate genes associated with domestication in elephants.



Raviv and her team speculate that self-domestication in elephants could be linked to their enormous size and relative strength. "This means that elephants are generally less worried about evading or fighting other animals for their survival," explained Raviv. "This kind of 'safe environment' could relax selective pressures for aggression, free cognitive resources, and open up more opportunities for exploration, communication, and play."



The findings have important implications for future research in other species. "Our hypothesis of self-domestication in elephants has exciting potential for future research in other species," said Raviv. "It can inform our understanding of the evolution of prosocial behavior across evolutionarily distant species, providing important insights into convergent evolution."&nbsp;



The identification of elephants as a possible model for self-domestication broadens our understanding of the factors that contribute to the development of prosocial behaviors and offers a fresh perspective on the evolution of complex social structures.



About elephants



Elephants are the world's largest land mammals, and their unique characteristics have captured the interest of scientists and wildlife enthusiasts alike.&nbsp;



Anatomy



Elephants possess several distinctive features:



<ol>
<li>Trunk: The trunk, or proboscis, is a fusion of the upper lip and nose. It is a highly flexible and muscular organ used for various purposes such as breathing, smelling, drinking, and grasping objects.</li>



<li>Tusks: The tusks are elongated incisor teeth, which continue to grow throughout an elephant's life. They are used for digging, stripping bark from trees, and as weapons in fights or defense.</li>



<li>Ears: Elephant ears are large and thin, helping with thermoregulation by dissipating heat. The ears also play a role in communication, as elephants can detect low-frequency sounds through the skin and bones of their skull.</li>



<li>Size: Elephants are massive, with the African Elephant reaching up to 13 feet in height and weighing up to 14,000 pounds, while the smaller Asian Elephant can reach 11 feet in height and weigh up to 11,000 pounds.</li>
</ol>



Behavior



Elephants are known for their complex social structures, intelligence, and emotional depth. They live in matriarchal family groups called herds, led by the eldest female. Elephants exhibit remarkable memory and are known to mourn the death of their kin. They communicate using a wide range of vocalizations, including infrasound, which can travel over long distances.



Diet



Elephants are herbivores, feeding on a diverse diet of leaves, grasses, fruits, and bark. They consume up to 300-600 pounds of food per day and need to drink large quantities of water, up to 50 gallons, to stay hydrated.



Conservation Status



Elephant populations are under threat due to habitat loss and poaching for their ivory tusks. The African Elephant is listed as Vulnerable, the African Forest Elephant is classified as Endangered, and the Asian Elephant is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Conservation efforts include habitat protection, anti-poaching measures, and raising awareness about the importance of elephants to their ecosystems.



Conclusion



Elephants are fascinating creatures that play a crucial role in their ecosystems. By understanding their taxonomy, anatomy, behavior, and conservation status, we can better appreciate the unique qualities that make them the gentle giants of the animal kingdom.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2208607120">PNAS</a>.



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Elephant behavior provides new insights into human evolution

Human beings are known for their complex social behavior, diverse...

Dogs, known as man's best friend, can provide their owners with immense joy and companionship. Unfortunately, when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegan-diet-for-dogs-given-the-thumbs-up-by-scientists/">dogs</a> are in pain, they are unable to verbally communicate their distress. This can make it challenging for owners to determine when their pets need medical attention.&nbsp;



However, a recent study conducted by a team of researchers from <a href="https://en.ankara.edu.tr/">Ankara University</a> in Turkey has shed light on the ways dogs express their pain, giving their owners a "sixth sense" to better understand their pets' needs.



The experts surveyed 124 dog owners, asking them about their perceptions of their dogs' pain and any associated behaviors. Of the 35 behavioral indicators examined, 13 were significantly more prevalent in dogs thought to be experiencing chronic pain. Moreover, specific positions, such as lowering their tails and ears when jumping on or off furniture, were more commonly observed in dogs suffering from pain.



The authors of the study highlighted the importance of recognizing pain-related behaviors and postures in dogs, suggesting that "simple pain scales which can be filled by owners and include basic parameters such as movement-based behaviors and ear-tail positions in daily contexts can be developed to evaluate chronic pain in dogs."&nbsp;



Early identification of pain can improve a dog's quality of life, reduce financial burdens associated with delayed treatment, and protect the well-being of both dogs and their caregivers.



Detecting pain in pets can be difficult, as dogs and cats often attempt to hide their pain as a protective mechanism. Nonetheless, owners can play a vital role in early diagnosis by observing changes in their pets' behavior at home. Despite this, the researchers found limited existing research on how dogs perceive chronic pain.



To address this gap, the experts aimed to identify the most noticeable pain-related gestures and behavioral changes in dogs.&nbsp;



After analyzing the survey results, the team divided the dogs into two groups: those with chronic pain and those without. Among the dogs in pain, most suffered from orthopedic pain, but other types included neurological pain, gastro-abdominal pain, and excessive itching.



Owners of dogs in pain reported reduced general activity and excessive licking of body parts in 70.3% and 64% of cases, respectively. Decreased social behaviors, such as tail wagging and delays in welcoming owners at the door, were also observed in dogs experiencing pain. Interestingly, this finding contradicted the expectation that dogs would mask their pain in social situations for potential benefits or perceived threats.



The study revealed that certain behaviors were more common in senior dogs, while others were more prevalent in young adult and mature adult dogs. In particular, young adult dogs exhibited the most behavioral changes, possibly because difficulties are highly unexpected at this age. Only four behavioral changes were found to be more significant in senior dogs with chronic pain.



Significant differences in ear and tail positions during specific activities were also observed between dogs in pain and those not in pain. According to the researchers, "ear and tail positions can give clues to predict emotions and such as pain, stress, and fear that the dog experiences." Dogs in pain tended to lower or partially lower their ears during activities like getting up, going up or down stairs, and jumping on or off furniture.&nbsp;



In contrast, dogs not in pain maintained neutral ear positions during these activities. Similarly, dogs in pain were more likely to point their tails down during these activities, while healthy dogs kept their tails in a relaxed or upward position.



This groundbreaking research is the first to demonstrate that owners can recognize pain-related behavioral changes in their dogs. The authors stress the importance of owners having a solid understanding of these behaviors, as they must explain their concerns to veterinarians.&nbsp;



The study's findings could potentially be used to develop a chronic pain scale for dogs, focusing on behavioral indicators that can be easily understood and used by owners to help their furry friends.



Dogs and humans have shared a close bond for thousands of years. The domestication of dogs is believed to have begun between 20,000 to 40,000 years ago. Genetic evidence suggests that modern dogs diverged from a now-extinct population of wolves, with whom they share a common ancestor.



The exact circumstances surrounding the initial domestication of dogs are still debated among researchers. However, a widely accepted theory is that the process began when wolves were attracted to human campsites due to the availability of food, such as leftover scraps. Over time, humans and wolves developed a mutually beneficial relationship, with the wolves helping humans in hunting and providing protection, while humans offered food and shelter in return.



As the relationship between humans and wolves evolved, selective breeding took place, resulting in tamer, more docile wolves that eventually became the first domesticated dogs. These early dogs played various roles in human societies, including hunting, herding, and companionship.



The strong bond between humans and dogs has continued to develop over the millennia, and today, dogs are not only valued as working animals but also as beloved pets and members of the family. This unique bond is a testament to the deep connection and shared history between our two species.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/journal-of-veterinary-behavior">Journal of Veterinary Behavior</a>.



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Study reveals body positions that indicate your dog is in pain

Dogs, known as man's best friend, can provide their owners...

Diagnostic imaging, including X-rays, MRIs, and CT scans, has long been a crucial tool in monitoring human and animal health. However, for researchers studying wild populations, administering these common tests can be challenging.&nbsp;



In an effort to overcome this obstacle, a collaborative project has been initiated by scientists at the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) and colleagues at the Cincinnati Zoo &amp; Botanical Garden, as well as other zoos and aquariums. The team is currently testing the use of thermal video and image analysis to measure heart and respiration rates in a variety of animals in a controlled environment.&nbsp;



The ultimate goal of this research is to advance the development of non-invasive techniques for assessing the health of animals in the wild, particularly threatened and endangered species for which more invasive diagnostic procedures might carry prohibitive risks.



A new paper detailing the team's work was published today in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/">BMC Biology</a>. The study highlights the importance of understanding an animal's metabolic rate, or energetic expenditure, as it provides crucial insight into a species' reproductive and survival chances.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, collecting these benchmark measurements from wild populations is logistically complex and frequently invasive. Even more straightforward tests, such as obtaining heart and respiration rates, often necessitate immobilizing the animal, which can pose its own risks. Additionally, attaching tracking devices can be both expensive and invasive.



The research, led by MIT-WHOI graduate student Caroline Rzucidlo, is investigating the potential of infrared thermography (IRT) combined with Eulerian video magnification (EVM) software to measure the vital rates of exotic wildlife species.&nbsp;



Eventually, the team wants to apply this technique to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weddell-seals-sacrifice-diving-energy-to-give-iron-to-their-pups/">Weddell seal</a> populations in Antarctica, assessing whether these animals will be physiologically prepared to survive and reproduce in rapidly changing environments.



"Heart and respiration rates are often used as proxies for determining metabolic rate," explained Rzucidlo. "Thermal cameras can detect changes in skin temperature associated with blood flow and changes in air temperature associated with exhalation. Thus, determining if thermal cameras could non-invasively capture these temperature changes in animals was the first step."



While thermal video cameras can easily measure heat and body temperature, as evidenced by the technology used to screen humans for fever at airports, the question remained whether this approach could be applied to exotic animals. Taking their work directly into the field was not feasible, as the researchers first needed to validate the accuracy and precision of the method, which required a controlled setting.&nbsp;



"We had no idea how effectively we could measure temperature fluctuations with the thermal camera, including how close or far away from the animal we needed to be, and how fur, fat, or scale thickness would affect the readings," explained Rzucidlo.



The Cincinnati Zoo &amp; Botanical Garden offered the perfect setting for testing various animals under diverse conditions, allowing researchers to refine their methods. Collaborating with Erin Curry, a reproductive physiologist, and other animal care specialists, Rzucidlo dedicated months to collecting thermal video data on an array of terrestrial and marine creatures at the facility.&nbsp;



The study also encompassed work conducted at other locations, such as the Louisville Zoo (Kentucky), Columbus Zoo and Aquarium (Ohio), and the Salisbury Zoo (Maryland). Overall, 58 individual animals, ranging from Komodo dragons to polar bears, participated in the research.



“Being able to monitor individual animals under human care created a controlled setting to validate this technology that is impossible to replicate in the wild,” said Rzucidlo.



“Zoos offer a unique setting to develop technologies that can contribute to the conservation of wildlife populations. Animals in zoos have regular veterinary check-ups and some individuals are even trained to participate voluntarily in wellness exams, so using a stethoscope to obtain true heartrates while concurrently collecting infrared video of a variety of species was a very achievable goal,” added Curry.



It soon became obvious to the team that the thermal video alone wasn’t enough. “Capturing heat and temperature is one step, but we needed the EVM computer software to amplify changes&nbsp; in temperature associated with respiration rate and heartbeat,” explained Rzucidlo. “Using the two together was the winning combination and offered us an unprecedented view of animal health.”&nbsp;



While thermal cameras have previously been employed to obtain vital rates in a select few species (primarily hairless ones), this groundbreaking study represents the first application of this technology to an extensive array of exotic animals. Additionally, the research identifies the specific traits that render a species suitable for acquiring measurements through thermal imaging.&nbsp;



“This new study takes thermal imaging data in a controlled setting and allows us to build benchmarks across a suite of species. Having developed and fine-tuned these methods in the zoological setting, we can then take these imaging techniques and apply it to answer much broader ecological questions in the wild,” said Michelle Shero, an associate scientist at WHOI.



“We’ve even been using this method in Antarctica to study energy dynamics in Weddell seal populations. We can use these newly developed methods to start asking how an animal’s energetic expenditure may change if environmental conditions change, or what the energetic demands are for reproduction.”



“What’s more, is that using non-invasive and quickly acquired imagery tools will allow us to make better measurements with less disturbance, and for a lot more animals than would ever have been possible using traditional techniques. This is what is really needed to start asking questions about population health.”



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Thermal imaging can help monitor animal health in the wild 

Diagnostic imaging, including X-rays, MRIs, and CT scans, has long...

A groundbreaking study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40793-023-00467-z">Environmental Microbiome</a> suggests that urban honeybees could hold the key to unlocking insights into the microbiomes of cities around the world, providing valuable information about both hive and human health. As cities are designed for human habitation, they also host a myriad of other living species.&nbsp;



Understanding this diverse landscape is crucial for urban planning and human health. However, sampling the microbial landscape in a way that covers vast urban areas can be labor-intensive and challenging.



Lead researcher Elizabeth Hénaff and her team delved into the potential of honeybees to help gather samples of microorganisms across cities. Honeybees are known to forage daily up to one mile from their hives in urban environments.&nbsp;



The researchers conducted a pilot study in New York, where they sampled various materials from three hives. They discovered diverse genetic information, including environmental bacteria, in the debris accumulated at the bottom of the hives.&nbsp;



Further samples of hive debris from Sydney, Melbourne, Venice, and Tokyo revealed that each location possesses a unique genetic signature as seen by honeybees.



In Venice, the genetic data was predominantly composed of fungi related to wood rot and date palm DNA. Melbourne's sample was dominated by Eucalyptus DNA, while the Sydney sample showed little plant DNA but contained genetic data from a bacteria species that degrades rubber (Gordonia polyisoprenivorans). Tokyo samples included plant DNA from Lotus and wild soybean, as well as the soy sauce fermenting yeast Zygosaccharomyces rouxii.



The experts also identified genetic material from the hive debris for Rickettsia felis ('cat scratch fever'), a pathogen spread to humans through cat scratches. Although these findings highlight the potential of using this method for surveillance, they are currently too preliminary to suggest its effectiveness in monitoring human diseases.



Moreover, the hive debris contained bee-related microorganisms, likely originating from honeybee parts present in the debris. Based on 33 samples from hives across the four subsequent cities, the authors found known bee microorganisms indicating a healthy hive. In some cases, bee pathogens such as Paenibacillus larvae, Melissococcus plutonius, or the parasite Varroa destructor were detected. These findings suggest that debris analysis could also be employed to assess the overall health of honeybee hives.



In conclusion, the study demonstrates that honeybee hive debris offers a snapshot of the microbial landscape of urban environments. This innovative approach could be used alongside other measures to assess the microbial diversity and health of cities and honeybees alike, helping researchers better understand the complex interactions between humans, bees, and urban ecosystems.



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Honeybees can shed light on the health of cities

A groundbreaking study published in the journal Environmental Microbiome suggests...

A new study has shed light on a surprising exception to the pattern of uniformity across the Indo-West Pacific, the largest and most biodiverse marine ecosystem on Earth. While many species in this region have comparably wide ranges, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-jellyfish-are-more-nutritious/">fish</a> and shells noted by Charles Darwin, the same pattern has been observed in crabs. 



Chlorodielline crabs, common on coral reefs, have long been difficult to distinguish based solely on appearance, as they look so similar. However, a team of researchers has now discovered that chlorodielline crab species with non-overlapping ranges are often nearly identical, but those that occupy the same region have a unique feature.



The study, which was led by Robert Lasley, former postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, revealed that the key to distinguishing these similar-looking crabs lies in their specialized appendages used for reproduction, called gonopods. These complex and species-specific structures have evolved multiple times in different arthropod groups, including crustaceans, moths and butterflies, and millipedes, and are variously used for sperm transfer and clasping.



“They all look the same, until you compare their gonopods, which are structurally complex and very species-specific,” explained Lasley.



In crabs, the gonopods sometimes come equipped with elaborate frills that give them the appearance of a spatula with a mohawk. Lasley wanted to understand if there was any pattern to the variation in these gonopods, which led him to study species across the Indo-West Pacific. Over the course of more than a decade, he collected specimens during numerous marine field forays in the Red Sea, Singapore, Australia, and the Phoenix Islands, searching for crabs hiding among the coral bric-a-brac.



The study's findings indicate that the key to distinguishing closely related species of chlorodielline crabs is in their gonopods, rather than their external appearance. While the gonopods of species with non-overlapping ranges are often nearly identical, those of species occupying the same region have unique structures, suggesting that their evolution is influenced by interactions with other closely related species.



Chlorodielline crabs are one of the most abundant crustaceans in coral reef ecosystems, where they occupy the base of the food chain. These tiny crabs, most of which are no larger than a kernel of corn, are especially diverse in the coral triangle, a region that stretches from Indonesia to the Solomon Islands and supports 76 percent of the world's coral species and more than a quarter of all coral reef fishes. Despite their importance, chlorodielline crabs have long been difficult to distinguish based on appearance alone.



The researchers sought to understand why chlorodielline crabs have such wildly different gonopods, specialized appendages used for reproduction. To do this, Lasley first had to determine how chlorodielline species are related to each other, which he accomplished through an analysis of DNA extracted from museum specimens. The experts then added information regarding the range of each species and the shape of their gonopods.



The study's findings shed light on one of marine biology's most perplexing mysteries: how do marine invertebrates, such as crabs, remain isolated long enough for evolution to generate diversity? While roaming animals on land become isolated all the time, the larval stage of many marine invertebrates makes this step in the speciation process more difficult to achieve. Naturalists like Charles Darwin saw the Indo West Pacific as one vast body of water, uninterrupted by geographic barriers that would otherwise act as a catalyst in the process of speciation.



However, the results of this study suggest that sheer distance and time can also act as barriers. Many chlorodielline crabs have ranges that extend across the entirety of the Indo-West Pacific, and the genetic analysis revealed that these cryptic species have slowly accumulated differences in their DNA over millions of years. But it wasn't until close relatives were reunited after an extended separation that those genetic differences visibly manifested in a single, peculiar way. In almost every case, close relatives with overlapping ranges had uniquely shaped gonopods but otherwise looked exactly the same.



“What we can say is these crabs start genetically diverging in different geographic areas, and then the divergence of gonopods is an important piece of the speciation process that happens at the tail end of things,” Lasley said.



The findings of this study have important implications for our understanding of marine biodiversity, as they suggest that far more variation exists in the Indo-West Pacific than previously suspected. The engine driving this diversity has yet to be entirely discovered, but Lasley intends to test his hypothesis that the way these crabs reproduce may play a role in the evolution of their unique gonopods in future studies.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2023.107710">Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</a>.



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Hidden crab diversity discovered in coral reefs

A new study has shed light on a surprising exception...

During the Late Permian period, about 250 million years ago, South Africa was home to a species of large predatory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-link-mysterious-amphibians/">amphibians</a> with bodies similar to today’s crocodiles or big salamanders. Although these animals – called rhinesuchid temnospondyls – are known mainly from skeletal remains, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/">University of the Witwatersrand</a> in South Africa has recently discovered a set of trace fossils that provide key insights into how these creatures moved through their environment.



The remains were discovered in a site called the Dave Green paleosurface, in the KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa, on a rocky surface which was the floor of a tidal flat or lagoon of the ancient Karoo Sea during the Late Permian. By analyzing seven body impressions (resting traces), along with several tail-marks (swimming traces), the experts inferred that they were likely made by one or two two-meters-long rhinesuchid temnospondyls swimming from one resting place to another, or searching for prey.



The sinuous shapes of the tail-marks provide evidence that the amphibians propelled themselves through the water with continuous side-to-side tail motions, which is remarkably similar to how modern crocodiles and salamanders move. Moreover, the shape of their body impressions, along with a relative lack of footprints alongside the traces, suggests that they tuck their legs against their bodies while swimming, just like today’s crocodiles. Finally, these fossils indicate an active lifestyle characterized by behaviors such as swimming or bottom-walking, and are extremely valuable for better understanding the structure of Permian ecosystems.



“The findings of the study are significant because they help to fill in gaps in our knowledge of these ancient animals.&nbsp;The remarkable tracks and traces preserved on the Dave Green palaeosurface are a window&nbsp;onto&nbsp;the shoreline of the Karoo Sea roughly 255 million years ago, and&nbsp;provide direct evidence of how these animals moved and interacted with their environment. In addition to its remarkable scientific contribution, this study also demonstrates how important paleontological discoveries are often made by curious people bringing their findings to the attention of paleontologists,” the authors concluded.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282354">PLoS ONE</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Ancient amphibians swam like modern crocodiles

During the Late Permian period, about 250 million years ago,...

A survey of body sizes of Earth’s organisms conducted by <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a> has found that, although life may be found in all shapes and sizes, the most extreme sizes are predominant in nature. The research shows that our planet’s biomass – the material making up all living organisms – is concentrated at either end of the size spectrum.



“This conclusion – that life on Earth comes packaged predominantly in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-smallest-animals-extinction/">largest and smallest sizes</a> – was a discovery that surprised us,” said study co-author Malin Pinsky, an associate professor of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources at Rutgers.



“Sometimes it seems like mosquitoes or flies or ants must run the world, and yet, when we did the numbers, we found that our world is dominated by the microbes and the trees. These are the silent partners that recycle the nutrients and replenish the air all around us.”



Over a period of five years, the researchers compiled and analyzed data about the size and biomass of each type of living organism on our planet, ranging from unicellular organisms such as soil archaea and bacteria to large organisms like blue whales or sequoia trees. The analysis revealed that the pattern favoring either large or small organisms can be found in all types of species, although it seems to be more pronounced in land-based organisms.



“The largest body sizes appear across multiple species groups, and their maximum body sizes are all within a relatively narrow range,” said lead author Eden Tekwa, a research associate at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>, who conducted the study during a fellowship at Rutgers.



“Trees, grasses, underground fungi, mangroves, corals, fish, and marine mammals all have similar maximum body sizes. This might suggest that there is a universal upper size limit due to ecological, evolutionary, or biophysical limitations.” According to Tekwa, humans belong to the size comprising the highest biomass, which is a relatively large body size.



"Body size is a fundamental feature of life, governing everything from metabolic rates to birth rates and generation times. Cataloging which body sizes are most common is a key step towards understanding the world around us,” Pinsky concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283020">PLoS ONE</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Largest and smallest sizes are dominant in nature

A survey of body sizes of Earth’s organisms conducted by...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...