Ecologists have long sought to understand the dietary habits of different animal species. In a recent study, researchers have explored the puzzling question of how competing herbivores in Yellowstone National Park, which feed on grasses, wildflowers, and trees, manage to find enough food to survive the winter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-strategies-of-yellowstone-s-herbivores-nbsp">Hunting strategies of Yellowstone’s herbivores&nbsp;</h2>



Over a two-year period, using advanced molecular biology tools and GPS tracking data, the research team was able to identify not only what herbivores in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-tourism-generates-over-1-megaton-carbon-annually/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone</a> consume, but also the strategies they use to find food throughout the year.



“In Yellowstone, we know vegetation changes across seasons, but until now, we didn’t know how these seasonal changes influenced what animals eat or how they sustained themselves when options were limited,” said lead author Bethan Littleford-Colquhoun, a postdoctoral research associate at <a href="https://www.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a>.&nbsp;



“It turns out that while species eat similar categories of food, their diets differ from one another in cryptic and nuanced ways. And an animal’s body size plays an important role in how this is achieved.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluctuating-food-supplies">Fluctuating food supplies</h2>



For years, ecologists have debated how wildlife should cope with fluctuations in their food supplies, explained co-author Tyler Kartzinel, an associate professor of ecology, evolution, and organismal biology at Brown.



Some experts propose that animals should diversify their diets to cater to their preferences when they have more choices in summer, Kartzinel said.&nbsp;



Others suggest that animals are more likely to diversify what they eat during challenging periods, like winter, when competition for food is fierce, and they might have to settle for less desirable options.



“These opposing predictions couldn’t both be true, so it wasn’t at all clear how Yellowstone's assemblage of herbivore species - with such a diversity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foraging behaviors</a> - could succeed in finding enough food throughout the year,” Kartzinel said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-behavior-of-competing-animals">Tracking the behavior of competing animals</h2>



To investigate, the researchers used two years of GPS tracking and dietary DNA data to explore how dietary variation changes during times of resource scarcity and abundance for five of Yellowstone’s most iconic species: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-influences-the-movement-of-plains-bison/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bison</a>, elk, deer, bighorn sheep, and pronghorn antelope.



Staff at Yellowstone tracked the animals, while researchers at Brown, including many undergraduate students supervised by Littleford-Colquhoun, analyzed fecal samples using a sophisticated molecular technique called metabarcoding. This method helped determine what foods the animals had eaten.



The study revealed that all species took advantage of the seasonal abundance of wildflowers in summer. However, in winter, each species focused its foraging efforts on the specific plant types it was best suited to compete for.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-behaviors-are-linked-to-animal-size-nbsp">Feeding behaviors are linked to animal size&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers also found that feeding behaviors were linked to the animal's body size. Smaller species, like deer and sheep, spread out across summer meadows, significantly broadening their diets before gathering in sheltered valleys to survive the winter on leftover vegetation.&nbsp;



In contrast, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger animals</a>, such as bison, displayed the opposite behavior: in winter, their size allowed them to avoid competing for dwindling resources, so they ventured into deep snow to access food reserves that were out of reach for smaller species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competing-animals-are-surprisingly-adaptable">Competing animals are surprisingly adaptable</h2>



“The study showed that these species can feed far more adaptably than anyone had previously assumed,” Littleford-Colquhoun said.&nbsp;



“All species switch the ways they search for food, but the opportunities an individual bison has to fuel its migration or survive a hard winter might only work for it because it’s big. Meanwhile, other species might need to group together for protection in winter because they’re small.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



So, should animals diversify their diets in summer or winter? According to Kartzinel, the answer depends on the species.



“Because of the variety of ways animals behaved in our study, we learned that both hypotheses about how animals fuel their migrations were right, but in different ways and at different times,” Kartzinel said.&nbsp;



“So the question that biologists should have been bickering about for the past generation shouldn't have been, ‘Which foraging strategy is right?’ but rather, ‘When does each strategy work best for a given group of animals?’”



Kartzinel hopes that these more refined insights into foraging behaviors will encourage scientists to adopt a more tailored approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-conservation-can-help-stabilize-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife conservation</a>.



“If we want to help wildlife populations thrive, we should be maintaining a diversity of habitats and plant resources across their migratory corridors so that many animals, each with their own preferences, personalities and needs, can find what's best to fuel their journey,” Kartzinel concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.240136" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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How do competing animals manage to find enough food?

Ecologists have long sought to understand the dietary habits of different animal species. In a recent study, researchers have explored the puzzling question of how competing herbivores in Yellowstone National Park, which feed on grasses, wildflowers, and trees, manage to find enough food to survive the winter. Hunting strategies of Yellowstone’s herbivores&nbsp; Over a two-year period, using advanced molecular biology tools and GPS tracking data, the research team was able to identify not only what herbivores in Yellowstone consume, but also the strategies they use to find...

Dinosaurs dominated the land habitats of Earth for over 100 million years during the Mesozoic era. At the peak of their success, they included species that were herbivorous, like the long-necked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sauropods-walked-more-like-hippos-than-elephants/">sauropods</a>, and others that were dedicated carnivores like Tyrannosaurus rex&nbsp;and its relatives. However, they were not always the grand and impressive reptiles with which we are so familiar.&nbsp;&nbsp;



When dinosaurs first evolved, way back in the early Triassic Period (some 230 million years ago), they were not initially very successful or diverse. They were mostly small and lived in the shadow of the much more successful crocodile-like archosaurs. Scientists do not know how diverse they were in terms of their diets and ecology, but they do know that something happened during their early evolution in the Triassic, that enabled them to adapt to a wide range of habitats and lifestyles.&nbsp;



At the end of the Triassic Period, a mass extinction event occurred that wiped out the crocodile-like competitors, but most of the early dinosaurs survived. After this event, the dinosaurs were able to adapt and evolve into a diverse array of species that dominated the earth until their extinction, 66 million years ago.&nbsp;



Significant ways in which the early dinosaurs changed involved the shapes of their skulls and the morphology of their teeth. This is thought to indicate that they began to diversify their diets and eat different foods. By looking at the tooth shapes of the earliest dinosaurs and simulating their tooth function with computational modelling, a team of researchers has now been able to compare them to living reptiles and their diets. Their findings are published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



“Soon after their origin, dinosaurs start to show an interesting diversity of skull and tooth shapes. For decades, this has made paleontologists suspect that different species were already experimenting with different kinds of diets," explained study lead author&nbsp;Dr. Antonio Ballell&nbsp;from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>.



The researchers compared the fossilized teeth of early dinosaurs to those of modern lizard species and tried to infer what the dinosaurs ate, based on the similarities with modern lizard species, for which the diets are known.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We investigated this by applying a set of computational methods to quantify the shape and function of the teeth of early dinosaurs and compare them to living reptiles that have different diets," said Dr. Ballell. "This included mathematically modeling their tooth shapes and simulating their mechanical responses to biting forces with engineering software.”



“With this battery of methods, we were able to numerically quantify how similar early dinosaurs were to modern animals, providing solid evidence for our inferences of diets. Theropod dinosaurs have pointy, curved and blade-like teeth with tiny serrations, which behaved like those of modern monitor lizards," explained study co-author Professor Mike Benton. "In contrast, the denticulated teeth of ornithischians and sauropodomorphs are more similar to modern omnivores and herbivores, like iguanas.”



The innovative study used machine learning models to classify the earliest dinosaurs into the different diet categories, based on their tooth shape and mechanics. The researchers found that some of the species, such as Thecodontosaurus (one of the earliest and oldest known dinosaurs), had teeth that were perfectly adapted for a diet of plants. However, many groups that ended up being herbivorous actually had ancestors that were omnivorous. And the long-necked herbivores, such as Diplodocus, had ancestors that ate meat.&nbsp;



The researchers suggest that this ability to diversify their diets early in their evolution likely explains the evolutionary and ecological success of the dinosaurs.



“Our analyses reveal that ornithischians - the group that includes many plant-eating species like the horned dinosaurs, the armored ankylosaurs and the duck-billed dinosaurs - started off as omnivores. And another interesting finding is that the earliest sauropodomorphs, ancestors of the veggie long-necked sauropods like&nbsp;Diplodocus, were carnivores. This shows that herbivory was not ancestral for any of these two lineages, countering traditional hypotheses, and that the diets of early dinosaurs were quite diverse," said study co-author Professor Emily Rayfield.



Dr. Ballell concluded: “It seems that one of the things that made the first dinosaurs special is that they evolved different diets throughout the Triassic, and we think this might have been key for their evolutionary and ecological success.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Dinosaurs' ability to adapt to new diets may explain their success

Dinosaurs dominated the land habitats of Earth for over 100...

Australia is home to a vast variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-remains-unclear-which-mammals-can-survive-climate-change/">mammals</a>, with over 350 native species, half of which are marsupials such as the kangaroos, wombats, koalas, and Tasmanian Devils. Scientists believed for nearly two centuries that placental mammals and related marsupials (a group of animals known as “Theria”) had originated in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



But now, a new study led by the <a href="https://australian.museum/">Australian Museum</a> proposes that the ancestors of Theria evolved in Gondwana – a supercontinent encompassing today’s Australia, New Zealand, South America, Antarctica, Africa, Madagascar, and India - 50 million years before migrating to Asia during the early Cretaceous Period around 126 million years ago.&nbsp;



“This new research has completely revised and turned on its head our understanding of early mammal evolution. It’s the most important piece of palaeontological research, from a global perspective that I’ve ever published, but it may take some time to find full acceptance among Northern Hemisphere researchers,” said study lead author Timothy Flannery, an Honorary Associate at the Australian Museum.



“Our research indicates that Theria evolved in Gondwana, thriving and diversifying there for 50 million years before migrating to Asia during the early Cretaceous. Once they arrived in Asia they diversified rapidly, filling many ecological niches,” added study senior author Kristofer Helgen, a chief scientist at the same museum.



According to Helgen, teeth are a useful tool in identifying mammals, and advances in imaging techniques have significantly helped clarifying where fossils fit in the wider evolutionary picture. “A key component to the evolutionary success of Theria lies in their teeth. With their sophisticated molars, known as tropospheric molars, they were able to crush, puncture, and cut through food simultaneously.”&nbsp;



These astonishing discoveries have significantly changed our long-held theories about mammal evolution, suggesting that they evolved in the Southern Hemisphere in the Early Jurassic, about 50 million years prior to their earliest dated occurrence in the Northern Hemisphere. Unfortunately, human habituation and rapid climate change have had a major impact on Australia’s flora and fauna, leading to the extinction of many mammal species.



“If we can change the planet so profoundly, it is in our capability to rectify and stem the loss. We now know more about how our mammals evolved, and now we have to ensure that what is left pulls through the current extinction crisis we humans have triggered,” Helgen concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03115518.2022.2132288">Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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New study changes our understanding of mammal evolution

Australia is home to a vast variety of mammals, with...

Although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asexual-reproduction-can-negatively-impact-evolution/">asexual reproduction</a> – a process called “parthenogenesis” that allows some female animals to fertilize an egg with their own genetic material - is common for animals such as starfish, stick insects, or deep-sea worms, it is a rare phenomenon among vertebrates. Scientists have long assumed that female vertebrates which usually reproduce sexually turn to parthenogenesis as a last-ditch effort at reproduction when there aren’t enough males around.&nbsp;



However, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum of Natural History</a> in Chicago were surprised to discover recently that a female zebra shark in an aquarium reproduced via parthenogenesis, even though there were healthy, reproductive males in the same enclosure. These findings have implications not only for the continued care of zebra sharks in aquariums and zoos, but also for conservation efforts of their wild conspecifics.



“We've known for several years that parthenogenesis occurs in animals like sharks, but some aspects of it remain unknown, like why it occurs and what triggers it,” said study lead author Kevin Feldheim, a researcher at the Field Museum. “This latest paper is just another step in learning why these ‘virgin births’ happen.”



“As we started to see successful breeding of zebra sharks at Shedd in 2004, we also began genetic testing to confirm which of the sharks were the parents of the offspring,” added study senior author Lise Watson, the assistant director of Animal Operations and Habitats at the <a href="https://www.sheddaquarium.org/">Shedd Aquarium</a>. “By confirming the lineage of the offspring, we could more soundly make decisions on future breeding efforts to maintain maximum genetic diversity while supporting the Association of Zoos and Aquarium’s Species Survival Plan for zebra sharks.”



Unfortunately, shark pups born by this type of “virgin birth” tend to have a short life expectancy, since they are likelier to experience rare recessive genetic conditions. Yet, although the pups examined in this study survived just a few months, the fact that they were born at all challenges long-standing biological theories.



“This is only the second case that we know of where sharks have been born by parthenogenesis even when there were healthy mates available,” said Feldheim. “This discovery throws a wrench in what we thought we knew about how and why parthenogenesis happens, and it illustrates a key aspect of science: we’re continually learning.”



“This study is just the beginning of our understanding of the occurrence of this genetic phenomenon in zebra sharks. Zoos and aquariums like Shedd have a key role to play in the conservation of species like zebra sharks, which are nearly extinct in some parts of the world. Knowing more about parthenogenesis and confirming the genetic makeup of our populations in zoos and aquaria is crucial to making informed decisions that fuel this work,” Watson concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfb.15268">Journal of Fish Biology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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"Virgin births" discovered in zebra sharks

Although asexual reproduction – a process called “parthenogenesis” that allows...

Across the animal kingdom, female genitalia are often overlooked by scientists in comparison to their male counterparts. In the case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-snakes-evolved-from-just-a-few-surviving-species/">snakes</a>, researchers have assumed for a long time that the clitoris (hemiclitores) is either absent or a non-functional anatomical part. However, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/">University of Adelaide</a> in Australia has recently provided the first anatomical description of the female snake clitoris, thus changing our understanding of these animals’ physiology and behavioral traits.



The experts examined female genitalia in adult snake specimens across nine species, and compared them to adult and juvenile male snake genitalia. “We found the heart-shaped snake hemiclitores is composed of nerves and red blood cells consistent with erectile tissue - which suggests it may swell and become stimulated during mating. This is important because snake mating is often thought to involve coercion of the female – not seduction,” reported study co-author Kate Sanders, an associated professor of Biological Sciences at Adelaide.



“Through our research we have developed proper anatomical descriptions and labels of the female snake genitalia. We can apply our findings to further understand systematics, reproductive evolution and ecology across snake-like reptiles, such as lizards.”



“We are proud to contribute this research, particularly as female genitalia across every species are unfortunately still taboo,” added study lead author Megan Folwell, a doctoral student in Biology at the same university.



According to the researchers, snake hemiclitores have functional significance in mating and clearly show that they are not just underdeveloped hemipenes or scent glands – as it was erroneously thought for a long time. Instead, they may have a crucial role in transducing sensation to the female snake during courtship and copulation, which might promote longer and more frequent mating leading to increased fertilization success.



“Further investigation into the sensory features of snake hemiclitores and hemipenes are needed to determine potential tactile sensitivity. Comparative morphological investigations of hemiclitores and hemipenes within and among taxa would also provide insight into the possible coevolution of male and female genitalia,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.1702">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Scientists found the snake clitoris

Across the animal kingdom, female genitalia are often overlooked by...

One of the features that sets <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-struggle-to-predict-aggression-in-dogs-and-other-humans/">humans</a> apart from all other apes is the way they move around on the ground. They walk upright, placing one foot after the other and holding the torso erect. Other apes may adopt an upright stance at times, and may walk on two back legs for a short distance, but none of them has committed fully to bipedal locomotion. Since this was the first major adaptive change from the apelike ancestors of modern humans, it would be helpful to know why bipedalism evolved.&nbsp;



The savanna-based theory is one that is commonly used to suggest why early hominids began to walk upright. It postulates that climate change led to a reduction in forests and a proliferation of more open, savanna habitats. In savannas, a bipedal posture and locomotion would have allowed hominins (human ancestors) to watch over tall grasses, carry things, hunt effectively and be more aware of predators. This theory has had a lot of support over the years, but has also had its detractors.&nbsp;



In a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>, the University of Kent, and Duke University, USA, the behaviors of wild chimpanzees living in the Issa Valley of western Tanzania, have been observed over a 15-month period. Chimpanzees are our closest living relatives, but are not on the same evolutionary line as modern humans. Instead, chimpanzees and humans share a common ancestor that lived somewhere around 7 million years ago.&nbsp;



The Issa Valley falls within the East African Rift Valley region and has a vegetation type known as “savanna-mosaic." This&nbsp;a mix of dry open land with few trees, interspersed with patches of dense forest, and is considered very similar to the habitat in which our earliest human ancestors lived. The researchers chose to study chimpanzees in this particular habitat to explore whether the&nbsp;openness of this type of landscape&nbsp;could have encouraged bipedalism in hominins.



The study is the first of its kind to explore if savanna-mosaic habitats would account for increased time spent on the ground by the Issa chimpanzees, and compares their behavior to other studies on forest-dwelling chimpanzees in other parts of Africa.



The researchers recorded more than 13,700 instantaneous observations of positional behavior from 13 chimpanzee adults (six females and seven males), including almost 2,850 observations of individual locomotor events (e.g., climbing, walking, hanging). In particular, they noted each time a chimpanzee stood upright on its back legs and recorded whether this was associated with being on the ground or in the trees.&nbsp;



The results of the study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add9752">Science Advances</a>, showed that the Issa chimpanzees did not spend more time on the ground, as the researchers had expected. In fact, they spent as much time in the trees as other chimpanzees that live in dense forests, despite the fact that open savanna habitat was available.&nbsp; Furthermore, although the researchers expected the Issa chimpanzees to walk upright more often in the open savanna vegetation, where they cannot easily travel via the tree canopy, more than 85 percent of instances of bipedalism took place in the trees, when chimpanzees reached up to pick food or balanced themselves against upright trunks.&nbsp;



The authors say that their findings contradict the widely accepted theory that it was an open, dry savanna environment that encouraged our prehistoric human relatives to walk upright. Instead, their results suggest that early hominins may actually have evolved to walk on two feet in order to move around in the trees.



“We naturally assumed that because Issa has fewer trees than typical tropical forests, where most chimpanzees live, we would see individuals more often on the ground than in the trees. Moreover, because so many of the traditional drivers of bipedalism (such as carrying objects or seeing over tall grass, for example) are associated with being on the ground, we thought we’d naturally see more bipedalism here as well. However, this is not what we found," said study co-author Dr. Alex Piel.



“Our study suggests that the retreat of forests in the late Miocene-Pliocene era around five million years ago, and the more open savanna habitats, were in fact not a catalyst for the evolution of bipedalism. Instead, trees probably remained essential to its evolution – with the search for food-producing trees a likely a driver of this trait,” he added.



“To date, the numerous hypotheses for the evolution of bipedalism share the idea that hominins came down from the trees and walked upright on the ground, especially in more arid, open habitats that lacked tree cover. Our data do not support that at all," said study co-author Dr. Fiona Stewart.



“Unfortunately, the traditional idea of fewer trees equals more terrestriality (land dwelling) just isn’t borne out with the Issa data. What we need to focus on now is how and why these chimpanzees spend so much time in the trees - and that is what we’ll focus on next on our way to piecing together this complex evolutionary puzzle.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Early humans may have begun to stand upright in trees

One of the features that sets humans apart from all...

Each year, about half a million people in sub-Saharan Africa suffer from snake bites, which lead to an estimated 7,000 to 20,000 deaths. Many snake species native to this region, such as the highly feared black mamba, are currently classified as species of the highest medical importance by the World Health Organization. Thus, using systematic approaches to better understand the composition and function of these creatures’ venom is a medical priority.



Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.bioengineering.dtu.dk/english/researchny/center-for-antibody-technologies">Center for Antibody Technologies</a> from the Technical University of Denmark has systematically analyzed and compared the protein compositions and functions of the venoms of the 26 medically most important snake species in sub-Saharan Africa. The snakes belong to two main categories – elapids, including the black and green mambas and the ring-necked spitting cobra, and vipers, such as the Puff adder and the Gabon viper.



The analysis revealed that the composition and function of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-protein-in-our-saliva-shares-an-origin-with-snake-venom/">snake venoms</a> is highly complex and varies significantly from species to species. Elapid venoms, for instance, contain large amounts of a type of proteins called “three finger toxins” that act by blocking neuronal transmission or by killing cells, as well as phospholipases A2&nbsp;(PLA2s), a class of enzymes which is found in many animal venoms.&nbsp;



On the other hand, the viper venoms seem to be dominated by a different mixture of protein, including PLA2s, but also substantial quantities of other enzymes like the Snake Venom Metalloproteinases and the Snake Venom Serine Proteinases.



While the venoms of most of these snake species have been described before, those of two species – the Anchieta’s cobra (Naja anchietae) and of the white-bellied carpet viper (Echis leucogaster)&nbsp;– have now been characterized for the first time.&nbsp;



Furthermore, while previous studies have typically focused on just a handfuls of species each – and often with little or even no data on functional aspects – the present study is an integrated approach that provides a solid foundation for further investigations of snake biology, and could be of crucial importance in the development of efficient antivenoms.



“Overall, this study provides a foundation for further studies on snake biology and evolution, for which we recommend an integrated approach combining genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics to provide information on gene expression and other molecular mechanisms linked to phenotypic diversity," said the researchers.



"Moreover, the toxicovenomic profiles elucidated in this study may aid in the development of effective antivenoms through better understanding of the behavior of snake venoms and their roles as drug targets."



The research results are published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/gigascience/giac121">GigaScience</a>.



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Study provides a new understanding of snake venom

Each year, about half a million people in sub-Saharan Africa...

Race,Horses,With,Jockeys,On,The,Home,Straight.,Shaving,Effect.

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-04206-x">Nature Communications: Biology</a> has identified a critical set of genes linked to successful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-engineering-race-horses/">racehorses</a>. By comparing the genomes of Thoroughbred, Arabian, and Mongolian racehorses to horses bred for other sports or leisure, the experts managed to pinpoint a set of genes which play a significant role in muscle, metabolism, and neurobiology. These genes were clearly different in racing horses, and were common to all racing breeds compared to horses from non-racing breeds.



“Since the discovery of the ‘Speed Gene’ in 2009, we have generated genetic data for thousands of Thoroughbreds and horses from other breeds,” said study senior author Emmeline Hill, a horse geneticist at the <a href="https://www.ucd.ie/">University College Dublin</a> (UCD). “This is the first time this set of genes has been linked to the success of racing breeds. Two of the genes were previously identified for performance in Thoroughbreds and Arabians, but the approach we took was to ask what genes were common to all racing breeds and different from non-racing breeds.”&nbsp;



The large variety of horse breeds developed over the last few hundreds of years all over the world have been carefully shaped by selective breeding for different traits, leading to tall horses, small horses, strong draft horses, useful riding horses, and fast racing horses.&nbsp;



“We have discovered a set of genes common to racing horses, but not all horses within a racing breed have the advantageous gene version, so these findings will be useful to identify the most suitable individuals within a breed for racing or for breeding,” Hill explained.



&nbsp;“Although racing is a multifactorial trait, with management and training having a considerable influence on the success of a racehorse, this study provides good evidence for major-effect genes shaping the racing trait in horse populations,” added study co-author David MacHugh, a professor of Functional Genomics at UCD.&nbsp;



The scientists compared the genomes of racing horses with those of 21 non-racing breeds - including breeds such as Clydesdale, Connemara pony, Hanoverian, Morgan, Norwegian Fjord, Paint, Shetland, and Shire - and identified seven essential genes for racing. Among the top genes was NTM, which has a major role in brain development and influences learning and memory. This gene was most likely selected during the horse domestication process, and in Thoroughbred racehorses, for instance, it even influences whether a horse ever races or not.&nbsp;



“This finding suggests that equine neurological systems perturbed by natural and artificial selection associated with domestication may overlap with adaptive traits that are required for racing,” said MacHugh.



“By integrating these two different data sets we fine-tuned the list of racing genes to those that were most biologically relevant to racing. One of these genes was MYLK2 which is required for muscle contraction. In humans, MYLK2 is associated with exercise-induced muscle damage,” Hill concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Experts have identified the key genes of racehorses

A new study published in the journal Nature Communications: Biology...

Wombats are iconic Australian marsupials that move ponderously, have very slow metabolic rates and dig extensive burrow systems. There are three living species in the family Vombatidae, all of which are herbivorous. The evolutionary history of wombats is not very well understood, but their lineage goes back millions of years to the early Miocene, and includes a number of species that were very large. A new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-fossil-found-to-be-an-early-relative-of-pterosaurs/">fossil</a> skull from one of the rarest of these giant wombats has now been described from a cave in Rockhampton, Queensland.&nbsp;



The complete skull is estimated to be around 80,000 years old and, although it was discovered in 2000, it has been described for the first time by a team of scientists led by&nbsp;<a href="https://experts.griffith.edu.au/8418-julien-louys">Professor Julien Louys</a>&nbsp;from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/australian-research-centre-human-evolution">Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution</a> at <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/">Griffith University</a>.



He explains that the skull was from Ramsayia magna, one of three species of giant wombats that scientists are aware of.



“They're closely related to the modern wombats but they're much larger than the current species,” Associate Professor Louys&nbsp;said. “[There are] about a dozen specimens across the entirety of the continent of Australia, so it’s incredibly rare.” The team's analysis of the ancient skull has been published in the scientific journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/spp2.1475">Papers in Palaeontology</a>.&nbsp;



Confusingly, there is another extinct large marsupial that is far more commonly found in fossil deposits in Australia, and that is known locally as the “giant wombat.” This huge marsupial, named Diprotodon, dates back to the Pleistocene Period in Australia, but is not a true wombat and is not a member of the Vombatidae family.&nbsp;



“Although one of the most charismatic of the giant mammals to go extinct, Diprotodon is commonly referred to as a ‘giant wombat.’ But this is incorrect as Diprotodon belongs to an entirely different family – equivalent to saying a hippo is just a giant pig,”&nbsp;explained Professor Louys.



“There were, however, true giant wombats. These have traditionally been poorly known, but the discovery of the most complete skull of one of these giants, Ramsayia, has provided us with an opportunity to reconstruct what this creature looked like, where and when it lived, and how the evolution of giant wombats took place in Australia.”&nbsp;



The cranium and mandible of the Ramsayia magna fossil was discovered from the rear of the front chamber of Lower Johansons Cave in Rockhampton, in the early 2000s, but it was only through subsequent excavations and analysis by Associate Professor Louys’s team that is was confirmed as belonging to this previously described but very poorly known species.&nbsp;



The paleontologist explained that previous fossil remains consisted mostly of fragments of jaws and teeth, from which very little about these “gentle giants” and their habits could be deduced. However, this new and almost complete specimen gives more information for the scientists to work with.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We’re able to determine not just what it looked like, but most likely what it ate, and we’ve made some inferences into some of its behavioral adaptations,” said Professor Louys.



The giant wombat was twice the size of modern wombats, approximately the same size as a sheep. It had a rounded skull with sinuses (air spaces) at the back, which is a feature not found in modern wombats. The researchers say that air pockets like this can indicate instances where the skull of a species grows large while the brain stays relatively small. The associated sinuses fill in the space without adding too much extra weight. Alternatively, a large skull with sinuses may increase the surface area for muscle attachment, indicating that the animal had to chew tough food.&nbsp;



The new skull also has an unusual vertical spine of bone protruding from the giant wombat’s nose. Called a “premaxillary spine,” it most likely developed to provide structural support for a large, fleshy nose; not quite a trunk, but certainly a sizeable nasal appendage.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Louys said the Ramsayia skull contrasts remarkably with the modern wombats, which have a much flatter skull. "We think that this giant wombat, with a more domed skull, perhaps wasn’t living in burrows like the modern wombat does.”



The researchers show in their paper that the true giant wombats evolved large body size first, then individually became quite specialized to eat different types of grasses.&nbsp;“Once these giant wombats became giant, then they became even more specialized, focusing on different aspects of the environment, of the grasses that were around in Australia at the time,”&nbsp;Louys said.



“We also dated this species as being about 80,000 years old. This is the first date for this species and is much earlier than human arrival in Australia, although we still don’t know exactly when or why this species became extinct."



Image Credit: Eleanor Pease



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Fossil of sheep-sized giant wombat found in Queensland cave

Wombats are iconic Australian marsupials that move ponderously, have very...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> have discovered that apple waste can be fed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-chickens-cancer-therapies/">chickens</a> to boost their health. According to the experts, the study demonstrates the potential for apple pomace to improve gut and intestinal health.



“Apples are one of the top fruits produced in the United States and we have long been aware of their health benefits,” said study lead author Cydney Jackson.



“In our study, we were able to see how an apple - specifically, the Empire apple developed at Cornell in the 1940s - improved the intestinal health of production broilers, and we observed signs for the overall good health of the bird."



For the investigation, the team injected juice, pulp and other waste from Empire apples into chicken eggs. After the eggs hatched, the researchers collected samples for analysis.



The results showed that the apple pomace supported the growth of potentially beneficial gut bacteria, boosted microbes in the large intestine, improved the bioavailability of iron, and increased the chick’s transport system for amino acids.



“Apples are comprised of bioactive constituents such as phytochemicals and prebiotics that could help intestinal health and the gut microbiome,” said study senior author Professor Elad Tako.



According to the U.S. Apple Association, approximately 33.4 million bushels of apples were produced in 2021-2022, including nearly 175,350 metric tons of apple pomace. This waste is typically tossed into landfills, where it is damaging to the environment.



“Pomace is treated like industrial waste now. If we can potentially use the pomace, which is rich in nutrients, we can add it to the diet of broilers,” said Professor Tako. “We can improve the nutrition in their feed and achieve productivity in a more natural way – and potentially reduce the use of added dietary chemicals.”



The study authors noted that this was an initial study to demonstrate the potential for adding apple waste to chicken feed. They said that further research, including long-term studies, are needed.&nbsp;



Funding for the research was provided by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu14234955">Nutrients</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Apple waste can improve the intestinal health of chickens

Researchers at Cornell University have discovered that apple waste can...

As food systems in the United States become more complex and interconnected, products such as beef often impact the environment in unpredictable ways. Now, a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a> has found that, although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-supply-from-icy-mountains-will-become-less-reliable/">water</a> is needed throughout the entire food supply, the beef industry is the least efficient in using it.



The experts designed a model to investigate the beef industry’s impact on virtual water flows – the hidden movement of water in food production – by tracing supply chains from calf production to beef consumption across the entire U.S.



“Understanding beef demands and the spatial distribution of both feed and cattle production are key for evaluating the environmental sustainability of food systems and developing improvement strategies,” said Vikas Khanna, a civil and environmental engineer at Pittsburgh.&nbsp;



Scientists have long known that all food production requires vast amounts of water, most of it used to produce feed. The irrigation process for feed requires water found in surface and ground reservoirs (so-called “blue water”).&nbsp;However, using this type of water exclusively can lead to environmental problems such as water depletion, soil degradation, or salinization.



By using an optimization-based framework and datasets on supply and demand, the researchers discovered a marked disconnect between consumption and production counties, with over 22 billion cubic meters of blue water transferred in 2017 alone (thus, a higher quantity than the Great Salt Lake, which has about 19 billion cubic meters of water).



“Typically, real-world networks have a skewed degree of distributions with few connected intersections. We observed this in our network as the majority of counties have few connections, while a small number of counties have a large number of connections,” Khanna explained.



&nbsp;“This research reflects the complexity of environmental systems and how important it is to take that complexity into account with a systems perspective,” added Bruce Hamilton, a program director in National Science Foundation’s Directorate for Engineering.&nbsp;



In the future, the scientists aim to apply this framework to better understand the environmental impacts of other animal-based production practices, and to identify opportunities for improvement.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://beta.nsf.gov/now-leaving-b6080ec977d9f697b9b745cc03?external_url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1021%2Facs.est.2c03986&amp;back_url=https%3A%2F%2Fbeta.nsf.gov%2Fnews%2Fimpact-us-beef-network-water-resources%3Futm_medium%3Demail%26utm_source%3Dgovdelivery">Environmental Science and Technology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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US beef industry is inefficient in using water resources

As food systems in the United States become more complex...

A new study led by <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/">Dartmouth College</a> may finally settle a long-standing debate over what caused five major mass extinctions, including the event that ultimately wiped out the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-impact-crater-dates-back-to-the-end-of-the-dinosaurs/">dinosaurs</a>. While some scientists argue that mass extinctions were the result of comet or asteroid impacts, the new study supports the theory that volcanic activity was the key driver of the biggest extinction events in Earth's history.



According to the researchers, four of the five mass extinctions are contemporaneous with a type of volcanic outpouring called a flood basalt. These eruptions are known to flood vast areas, even entire continents, leaving behind what scientists refer to as “large igneous provinces.”&nbsp;



To fit into this category, a large igneous province must contain at least 100,000 cubic kilometers of magma.&nbsp;



As a point of reference, the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens involved less than one cubic kilometer of magma. Most of the volcanoes represented in the study erupted on the order of a million times more lava than that, noted the researchers.



“The large step-like areas of igneous rock from these big volcanic eruptions seem to line up in time with mass extinctions and other significant climatic and environmental events,” said study lead author Theodore Green.



For example, the Deccan Traps is a large igneous province in west-central India that dates back to the time when dinosaurs were wiped out 66 million years ago, which is also the same time that the Chicxulub impact crater was formed.&nbsp;



“All other theories that attempted to explain what killed the dinosaurs, including volcanism, got steamrolled when the Chicxulub impact crater was discovered,” said study co-author Professor Brenhin Keller. However, he noted that there's very little evidence of similar impact events that coincide with the other mass extinctions despite decades of exploration.



In collaboration with study co-author Professor Paul Renne, the researchers set out to quantify the apparent link between volcanic eruptions and extinctions. They discovered that this link was far greater than it would be by random chance.&nbsp;



“While it is difficult to determine if a particular volcanic outburst caused one particular mass extinction, our results make it hard to ignore the role of volcanism in extinction,” said Professor Keller.&nbsp;



“Our results indicate that in all likelihood there would have been a mass extinction at the Cretaceous tertiary boundary of some significant magnitude, regardless of whether there was an impact or not, which can be shown more quantitatively now,” said Professor Renne. “The fact that there was an impact undoubtedly made things worse.”



Green explained that the eruption rate of the Deccan Traps in India suggests that the stage was set for widespread extinction even without the asteroid. The impact was the double whammy that loudly sounded the death knell for the dinosaurs, he said.



“While the total amount of carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere in modern climate change is still very much smaller than the amount emitted by a large igneous province, thankfully, we’re emitting it very fast, which is reason to be concerned," said Professor Keller.



Green pointed out that carbon dioxide emissions are uncomfortably similar to the rate of the environmentally impactful flood basalts they studied. He said that this places climate change in the framework of historical periods of environmental catastrophe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Volcanoes were the key driver of Earth's mass extinctions

A new study led by Dartmouth College may finally settle...

A remarkable new study published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a> reveals that marmosets begin practicing vocalizations to call for their parents before they are even born. The researchers found that baby marmosets practice the mouth movements needed to call out to their family while they are still in the womb.&nbsp;



According to the experts, the findings may also apply to humans, as ultrasounds have shown developing babies making mouth movements that are used for crying during the third trimester of pregnancy.



"Human and non-human primates produce rhythmical sounds as soon as they are born. These early vocalizations are important for soliciting the attention of caregivers. How they develop, remains a mystery," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



Beyond crying out for help, these early vocalizations and interactions are laying the foundation for more complex communication later in life, noted the researchers.



Study lead author Darshana Narayanan conducted the study as a graduate student in the Department of Psychology at Princeton University. “We wanted to know how those very first neonatal vocalizations develop,” said Narayanan.



For the investigation, the researchers conducted ultrasounds in four pregnant marmosets two or three times per week. The screening started when the face first became visible and ended the day before birth.&nbsp;



The experts used the images to observe the head, face and mouth movements of developing marmosets. These observations were compared with the movements that the marmosets made during vocalizations as newborns.&nbsp;



An analysis of the images showed that the head and mouth movements of the developing marmosets were synchronized at first, but then the mouth movement gradually became distinct.



By the end of the pregnancy, the mouth movements of developing marmosets were nearly identical to those made by crying newborn marmosets when they were separated from their mothers.



“Our experiments show that marmosets begin practicing the movements needed for important social calls even before they can generate a sound,” explained Narayanan. She said that studying these movements further in marmosets may help scientists learn more about the development of social vocalizations in other primates, including humans.



“Marmoset monkeys offer a special opportunity to study primate vocal development,” said study senior author Professor Asif Ghazanfar. “Like humans, marmosets are very social and learn to vocalize through interactions with their parents.”



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Marmosets practice crying out for help before they're born

A remarkable new study published in the journal eLife reveals...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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