Researchers recently revealed a stunning new species of sea slug glowing in the ocean's darkest depths. Known as the "mystery mollusk" or&nbsp;Bathydevius caudactylus, this nudibranch inhabits the ocean's midnight zone, one of Earth's least-explored realms.



This discovery is more than just a new name on a species list - it's an illuminating dive into our planet's vast, hidden ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-mollusk-in-the-midnight-zone">Mystery mollusk in the midnight zone</h2>



The "mystery mollusk," Bathydevius caudactylus as the scientists officially named it, inhabits the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/highly-unusual-bacteria-discovered-in-deep-sea-corals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean's deep abyss</a>, also known as the midnight zone.



But this isn't just about a new species - it's about an exciting lifeline into understanding our planet's largest habitat in more depth.



Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (<a href="https://www.mbari.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBARI</a>) Senior Scientist Bruce Robison steered this explorative venture.



“Thanks to MBARI’s advanced underwater technology, we were able to prepare the most comprehensive description of a deep-sea animal ever made," noted Robison.



"We've invested more than 20 years in understanding the natural history of this fascinating species of nudibranch. Our discovery is a new piece of the puzzle that can help better understand the largest habitat on Earth."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-mystery-mollusk">Identifying the mystery mollusk</h2>



This unusual sea creature was first spotted in the year 2000, during an expedition using the institute's remotely operated vehicle (ROV) named Tiburon. It was found gliding through the waters offshore of Monterey Bay at a depth of 2,614 meters (8,576 feet).



Confusion arose when the team initially struggled to identify this creature due to its anomalous appearance - a voluminous hood, a flat tail fringed with numerous, finger-like projections, and a set of colorful internal organs.



But after years of research and countless ROV sightings, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-pigs-unicumbers-strange-stunning-creatures-discovered-abyssal-plains-ccz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mystery</a> was solved - this strange creature is, in fact, a nudibranch or sea slug.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="rLItWTv9qr-4019991-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-nudibranch-unlike-any-other">A nudibranch unlike any other</h2>



The mystery mollusk isn't your ordinary nudibranch. It's the first of its kind known to dwell in the immense open waters of the bathypelagic zone, a region 1,000 to 4,000 meters (3,300 to 13,100 feet) below the ocean surface.



Also, the sightings of this fascinating creature span the Pacific coast of North America, from Oregon to as far south as Southern California. Plus, similar creatures spotted by NOAA researchers in the Mariana Trench hint at the mollusk's potentially widespread existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-techniques-of-the-sea-slug">Survival techniques of the sea slug</h2>



Surviving in such harsh environments is no easy feat. How does the mystery mollusk manage? Interestingly, it has evolved unique survival strategies.



For instance, unlike most sea slugs that feed by rasping prey off the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-life-100-new-sea-creatures-found-in-chile/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seafloor</a>, it uses its cavernous hood to trap crustaceans, much like a Venus flytrap plant would do.



Moreover, to avoid predators, it has a clear body that blends with the surrounding waters and can emit a bright bioluminescence to deter and distract hungry predators. 



“When we first filmed it glowing with the ROV, everyone in the control room let out a loud ‘Oooooh!’ at the same time. We were all enchanted by the sight,” said MBARI senior scientist Steven Haddock.



“Only recently have cameras become capable of filming bioluminescence in high-resolution and in full color. MBARI is one of the only places in the world where we have taken this new technology into the deep ocean, allowing us to study the luminous behavior of deep-sea animals in their natural habitat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nudibranch-family-tree-expands">Nudibranch family tree expands</h2>



Beyond its captivating appearance and survival tactics, what really stood out during the research was the mollusc's genetic uniqueness. 



Detailed examination of specific gene sequences emphasized that the mystery mollusk is distinct enough from other known nudibranchs to merit the creation of a new family, Bathydeviidae.



"What is exciting to me about the mystery mollusk is that it exemplifies how much we are learning as we spend more time in the deep sea, particularly below 2,000 meters," said Haddock.



"For there to be a relatively large, unique, and glowing animal that is in a previously unknown family really underscores the importance of using new technology to catalog this vast environment. The more we learn about deep-sea communities, the better we will be at ocean decision-making and stewardship.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wealth-of-deep-sea-discoveries">Wealth of deep-sea discoveries</h2>



This discovery is just one exciting piece in the puzzle of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea exploration</a>. MBARI's state-of-the-art technology has unveiled over 250 previously unknown deep-sea species to date, encouraging us to plunge deeper into these fascinating, otherworldly realms.



“Deep-sea animals capture the imagination. These are our neighbors that share our blue planet. Each new discovery is an opportunity to raise awareness about the deep sea and inspire the public to protect the amazing animals and environments found deep beneath the surface,” said Robison.



Indeed, each new discovery brings us one step closer to fully understanding and protecting our fascinating blue planet. And with this latest revelation of the mystery mollusk, we get to marvel at another fascinating dweller of the deep.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967063724001845?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Deep Sea Research</a>.



Image/ Video Credit: MBARI



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Mystery mollusk: Glowing sea slug found in the deep sea

Researchers recently revealed a stunning new species of sea slug glowing in the ocean's darkest depths. Known as the "mystery mollusk" or&nbsp;Bathydevius caudactylus, this nudibranch inhabits the ocean's midnight zone, one of Earth's least-explored realms. This discovery is more than just a new name on a species list - it's an illuminating dive into our planet's vast, hidden ecosystems. Mystery mollusk in the midnight zone The "mystery mollusk," Bathydevius caudactylus as the scientists officially named it, inhabits the ocean's deep abyss, also known as the midnight zone....

It seems that spinning around in order to get dizzy is a universal human phenomenon. Children do it on swings, merry-go-rounds and carousels, while adults whirl during dances, circus acts and trances. In fact, some people earn their living by performing pirouettes, such as ballet dancers and suspended rope acts, while Ukrainian hopak dancers and Sufi whirling dervishes attest to the cultural and religious significance of spinning around.



Thanks to the structure of our inner ears, spinning around leads to the perception of a spinning world, light-headedness, head rushes, elation and altered states of mind, mood and consciousness. And, after scientists from the University of Warwick and the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> became aware of a viral video of a male gorilla spinning in a pool, they wondered whether the universal human enjoyment of twirling might have ancient roots in our ancestors and whether they perhaps also sought the altered mental states induced by spinning.&nbsp;



“Every culture has found a way of evading reality through dedicated and special rituals, practices, or ceremonies," said co-lead author Dr. Adriano Lameira. "This human trait of seeking altered states is so universal, historically and culturally, that it raises the intriguing possibility that this is something that has been potentially inherited from our evolutionary ancestors.&nbsp;If this was indeed the case, it would carry huge consequences for how we think about modern human cognition capacities and emotional needs.”&nbsp;



The scientists searched for YouTube videos showing apes spinning voluntarily. They identified 40 such videos that showed chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas or orangutans spinning around on the end of a rope. The footage showed a total of 132 bouts of spinning, composed of a total of 709 revolutions. The longest bout of spinning involved 28 revolutions, and the fastest revolution was measured at 5 rps.&nbsp;



The researchers found that on average, the primates in the videos revolved 5.5 times per spinning episode, with an average speed of 1.5 revolutions per second. The primates carried out three consecutive spins, on average. When compared with the spinning speeds of professional dancers and circus artists, the apes managed to rotate just as fast. But did they also suffer the consequences of dizziness and light headedness?



“Spinning alters our state of consciousness, it messes with our body-mind responsiveness and coordination, which make us feel sick, lightheaded, and even elated as in the case on children playing on merry-go-rounds, spinner-wheels, and carousels," explained Dr. Lameira.



“What we wanted to try to understand through this study is whether spinning can be studied as a primordial behavior that human ancestors would have been able to autonomously engage in and tap into other states of consciousness. If all great apes seek dizziness, then our ancestors are also highly likely to have done so."



“We asked ourselves what role these behaviors play when it comes to the origins of the human mind.&nbsp;The apes were doing this purposefully, almost as if they were dancing – a known mechanism in humans that universally facilitates mood regulation, social bonding and heightens the senses&nbsp;and&nbsp;is based on rotation movements. The parallel between what the apes were doing and what humans do was beyond coincidental."



The results showed that, when apes spun for a higher number of revolutions, they were more likely to let go of the rope or let it go slack at the end of the bout, suggesting that they experienced dizziness. “Closer inspection of the 43 cases when individuals released the rope revealed further evidence of dizziness: in 30 of the bouts, the animal immediately sat or laid down; in seven of the bouts, the animal moved a short distance and then sat or laid down; and in only six bouts did the animal keep its balance and remain on its feet," said the researchers.



When the team members self-experimented by spinning at these speeds and durations, they found it difficult to achieve the third bout of spins that the apes succeeded at, due to the induced dizziness. The researchers concluded that the apes continued spinning until they reach a state of dizziness.



“This would indicate that the primates deliberately keep spinning, despite starting to feel the effects of dizziness, until they are unable to keep their balance any longer,” explained study co-lead author Dr. Marcus Perlman.



Although the spinning apes could not verify this, the dizziness was likely to be accompanied by an altered state of mind. Previous studies which attempted to understand human motivation for self-inducing dizziness focused on the use of substances, such as alcohol or drugs. It is not known whether these substances were available to our human ancestors, but it is possible that they used spinning and induced dizziness to achieve alternative views of the world. The scientists say this new study could be more relevant to explain the role of altered states on the evolution of the human mind.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The further back in human history you look, the less certain we can be about the role that substance-induced experiences played in our evolution. It’s not clear whether our ancestors had access to mind altering substances, or if they had the tools and knowledge to create the substance,” explained Dr. Lameira. “For example, people may have had access to grapes, but you cannot assume they have the tools or the knowledge to create wine.”&nbsp;



The experts say that further research is needed to understand primates’ motivations for engaging in these behaviors, to understand why our own ancestors might also have been driven to seek out these spinning and mind-altering experiences. &nbsp;



“There could be a link to mental health here, as the primates we observed engaging in this behavior were mostly captive individuals, who may be bored and trying to stimulate their senses in some way.&nbsp;But it could also be a play behaviour. If you think about a child’s playground, almost all the playground apparatus – swings, slides, seesaws and roundabouts or merry-go-rounds – they are all designed to challenge your balance or disrupt the body-mind responses," said Dr. Lameira.



"There are some interesting parallels that should be investigated further, in order to understand why people are motivated to engage in these behaviors. It could very well be that we have been seeking and engaging in mind-altering experiences before we were even modern humans.”&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10329-023-01056-x">Primates</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Great apes spin to experience altered states of mind

It seems that spinning around in order to get dizzy...

Whooper swans (Cygnus cygnus) spend their summers in subarctic Europe and Siberia, where they breed each year. But at the start of winter, they migrate many thousands of kilometers south to where the conditions will be less harsh. The estimated 16,000 whooper swans that overwinter in the United Kingdom come all the way from Iceland each year. Since their wetland habitats are threatened more and more, they rely heavily on protected areas for overwintering in the UK.



A new research study has investigated just how important these protected areas are for the survival of the Icelandic whooper swans. The team analyzed 30 years of data on swans from 22 UK sites, three of which are nature reserves managed by the <a href="https://www.wwt.org.uk/">Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust</a> (WWT). In total, the study used observations of 10,000 whooper swans over the 30 years.&nbsp;



The results, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2212035120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, show that swan survival rates are 30 times higher in the nature reserves than they are in unprotected areas. Swans in the nature reserves had a lower annual probability of breeding, but the researchers stress that these birds have more lifetime opportunities to breed and will produce more offspring on average. Based on these findings, the research team project that nature reserves could help double the number of whooper swans wintering in the UK by 2030.



Not only were survival rates significantly higher at nature reserves, but population growth was so strong that many swans moved into non-protected sites as the density in the protected areas increased.These encouraging findings highlight the importance of nature reserves in terms of conservation, even when the areas protected are relatively small and are only used during short periods of a species’ life cycle.&nbsp;



“Protected areas are the main tool being used to stem declines in biodiversity, and there is a growing consensus that 30 percent of the planet’s surface should be protected by 2030,” said Dr. Andrea Soriano-Redondo from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/undergraduate/">University of Exeter</a>.



“However, the effectiveness of protected areas is not always clear - especially when species move between protected and non-protected areas throughout their lives. Our findings provide strong evidence that nature reserves are hugely beneficial for whooper swans, and could dramatically increase their numbers in the UK."



Swans make use of the protected areas for many different reasons, and the WWT nature reserves in the study have implemented a range of measures to help wintering swans, including fox fences, supplementary food, managed roosting sites and hunting bans. These interventions have had a large impact on population growth that is crucial for this species that is listed as a species of conservation concern in the UK.



“The annual population growth rate inside nature reserves was 6 percent, compared to 0.2 percent outside reserves,” said Dr. Richard Inger from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/cornwall/research/facilitiesandcentres/cec/">Centre for Ecology and Conservation</a>&nbsp;on Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall. “This population boost is not restricted to the nature reserves – it created a higher population density, which led some swans to move to non-protected areas. Young swans were most likely to do this, meaning the benefits of nature reserves spill over to other areas too.”



“Overall, our study demonstrates the huge benefits of localized protection for highly mobile animal species,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://biosciences.exeter.ac.uk/staff/profile/index.php?web_id=stuart_bearhop">Professor Stuart Bearhop</a>. “It also shows that targeted measures during key periods of the life cycle can have disproportionate effects on conservation.”



“This research shows how safe havens for wetland wildlife, like those at WWT Caerlaverock, Welney and Martin Mere, can help a species survive and succeed when their traditional homes are under threat," said David Pickett, Centre &amp; Reserve Manager at WWT Caerlaverock Wetland Centre. “Many wild birds rely on our sites for food and shelter and we are committed to creating and restoring more of these healthy wetland habitats, which the U.K. has lost so many of in our recent history."



—



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Nature reserves are crucial for whooper swans 

Whooper swans (Cygnus cygnus) spend their summers in subarctic Europe...

Orcas populations were decimated in the early 20th century due to their capture for display in aquariums and theme parks. Thankfully, that practice ended in the 1970s, and many populations have been slowly recovering.&nbsp;



However, the southern resident orca population in the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia has dwindled back down to their mid-1970s levels, with only 73 orcas left. Much of this is attributed to numerous pregnancies ending in miscarriage or newborn death.



The situation is perplexing because while the southern population is declining, the northern population is increasing, with 300 current individuals. In a new paper published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arad002">Behavioral Ecology</a>, researchers from the University of Washington and NOAA Fisheries have proposed that this contrast could be due to differences in hunting behavior.



“For northern resident orcas, females were hunting and capturing more prey than males. For southern resident orcas, we found the opposite: The males were doing more hunting and capturing than females,” explained study lead author Jennifer Tennessen.



Dams affecting the salmon population and other human disturbances could be the cause of these shifts, especially with young mothers.



“In both populations, a mother with a young calf foraged less than other females, possibly due to the risk of leaving the calf temporarily with ‘a babysitter’ - another adult - while she hunts, or because of the time demands of nursing a calf,” said Tennessen. “But for southern resident females, which are more prone to disturbance and stress from vessel traffic, there was an outsized effect: Our study found no instance of a southern resident female with a young calf who successfully carried out a hunt.”



The experts also uncovered differences in female orca behavior towards their sons. In the northern population, adult males living with their mothers hunted less than those without mothers. However, researchers confirmed the opposite in the southern population - adult males with mothers hunted more.



“These unexpected differences left us scratching our heads. It is possible that southern resident adult males could be sharing with other members of their group, including their mothers, to help out, especially since an adult male’s survival is strongly linked to his mother’s survival,” said Tennessen.



“Understanding how healthy populations behave can provide direction and goals for management of unhealthy populations. Future comparisons to healthy fish-eating orca populations could help us understand whether the divergent behavior we’re seeing in the southern residents is indicative of a population trying to survive.”



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Southern orca decline may be tied to hunting behaviors

Orcas populations were decimated in the early 20th century due...

Usually, the arrival of the new year is a perfect time for Antarctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabirds-have-different-strategies-to-survive-storms/">seabirds</a> - such as the south polar skua, the Antarctic petrel, or the snow petrel - to build their nests and lay their eggs. However, from December 2021 to January 2022, scientists found nearly no nests in regions such as Svarthamaren or Jutulsessen, which were previously home to two of the world’s largest Antarctic petrel colonies and essential nesting grounds for south polar skua and snow petrels. 



According to the experts, this worrisome phenomenon was likely caused by unusually strong snowstorms – triggered by climate change - that interfered with the birds’ ability to breed.



“We know that in a seabird colony, when there’s a storm, you will lose some chicks and eggs, and breeding success will be lower,” said study lead author Sebastien Descamps, a marine scientist at the <a href="https://www.npolar.no/en/">Norwegian Polar Institute</a>. “But here we’re talking about tens if not hundreds of thousands of birds, and none of them reproduced throughout these storms. Having zero breeding success is really unexpected.”&nbsp;



While from 1985 to 2020, Svarthamaren was home to between 20,000 and 200,000 Antarctic petrel nests, around 2,000 snow petrel nests, and more than 100 skua nests annually, in 2021-2022 there were only three breeding Antarctic petrel, a few snow petrels, and no skua nests – a situation resembling that in Jutulsessen, where no Antarctic petrel nests were found in that period despite having shown tens of thousands of active nests in the previous years.



“It wasn’t only a single isolated colony that was impacted by this extreme weather. We’re talking about colonies spread over hundreds of kilometers. So these stormy conditions impacted a really large part of land, meaning that the breeding success of a large part of the Antarctic petrel population was impacted,” Descamps explained.



Since these birds lay their eggs on bare ground, massive snowfall makes egg-laying and chick-raising impossible. Moreover, such storms also have a thermoregulatory cost, forcing birds to spend all their available strength keeping warm, sheltering, and conserving energy.



Although there were no obvious signs of climate change in Antarctica until recently, over the past few years an increasing number of extreme weather events have shown that the southmost regions of our planet are not spared from the devastating effects of global warming either.&nbsp;



“I think our study shows in a very strong way that these extreme events do have a very strong impact on seabird populations, and climate models predict that the severity of these extreme events will increase,” Descampes concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.12.055">Current Biology</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Extreme snowstorms impact breeding success of petrels

Usually, the arrival of the new year is a perfect...

When an invasive animal species arrives in a previously uncolonized territory, it may outcompete local species by breeding more successfully, growing faster, dispersing more easily or having better defenses against predators or diseases. It is not often that a new arrival becomes established because it eats the local residents. But this is what appears to be happening with brown widow spiders (Latrodectus geometricus) in the southern states of the U.S.&nbsp;



Brown widows are thought to have evolved in Africa, although they were first described in the 1800s from specimens identified in South America. Today, they have a cosmopolitan tropical and subtropical distribution, with established populations in Hawaii, Florida, some Caribbean Islands, parts of Australia, South Africa, Japan, and Cyprus.&nbsp;In the U.S., the spiders remained restricted to the Florida peninsula for decades, but after 2000 they began to show up in other Gulf Coast states. Brown widows are now known from South Carolina to Texas, and are also well-established in California.



The problem with the arrival of brown widow spiders in these states is that they are rapidly replacing the indigenous black widows (Latrodectus hesperus). The two species of spiders appear to have very similar ecological niches, feeding on the same types of prey – insects and small vertebrates such as lizards and mammals. It is possible that prey resources are limited and that competition between the two species occurs, with the brown widows winning out.&nbsp;



However, a new research study, conducted by scientists at the University of Southern Florida (USF), suggests that this is not a simple case of one species being better at hunting or at occupying the habitat. Instead, the brown widows appear to be targeting the indigenous black widows and killing them out.&nbsp;



“We have established brown widow behavior as being highly aggressive towards the southern black widows, yet much more tolerant of other spiders within the same family,” said Louis Coticchio, who led the study as part of his undergraduate research at USF.



Coticchio spent the first part of his career as a zookeeper specializing in venomous animals in California and returned to Florida to earn a degree in biology, channeling a passion for spiders into his research projects. While collecting wild spiders in Florida, he noticed brown widows displacing black widows but not other, related species.&nbsp;



“I had a sneaking suspicion that Florida in particular provided plenty of food and habitat for both the brown and black widow, and that there was possibly some other area such as behavioral differences that were playing a role,” said Coticchio. “My observations in the field showed that brown widows appeared to be much more tolerant of other species outside of their genus, and so if resources were the main factor, then we should have seen the same behavior with other spiders competing for the same resources, but that did not seem to be that case.”



Coticchio devised a three-part study to investigate the reasons why brown widows were able to displace black widows. He collaborated with spider expert Richard Vetter of UC Riverside and Dr. Deby Cassill, an associate professor in the Department of Integrative Biology at USF.



Initially, the researchers used mathematical modeling to evaluate the risk factors that spiders face in terms of their survival. They found that both brown and black widows are far more likely to die by predation than by starvation. In other words, “competition for scarce resources is not a significant cause of mortality among spiderlings for either species."



Next, the experts compared rates of growth and fertility between brown and black widows, finding that brown widow females were 9.5 percent larger than black widow females, and reached reproductive maturity 16 percent earlier. Male brown widows also reached reproductive maturity earlier (21 percent) than male black widows, but the brown males were considerably smaller (25 percent) than the black males. One consequence of these differences in life history patterns is that brown widow females are about twice as fertile as black widow females, with brown widows often producing multiple egg sacs in comparison with black widows that produce just one.



Finally, the researchers placed captive female brown widow spiders in close proximity with other species of spiders and monitored what happened. When brown widows were paired with red house spider (Nesticodes rufipes) females, peaceful cohabitation occurred in 50 percent of instances, while in 40 percent the brown widows were killed and eaten by the red house spider females. Brown widows cohabitated with triangulate cobweb spiders (Steatoda triangulosa) in 80 percent of pairings and were killed in just 10 percent.&nbsp;



But the situation was totally different when brown and black widow females were paired. In the case of sub-adult spiders, brown widows killed and consumed the black widows in 80 percent of pairings. In pairings of adults, black widows were killed in 40 percent of trials, while they defensively killed brown widows in 30 percent of trials and cohabitated in the remaining 30 percent.



Throughout the experiments, brown widow spiders regularly ventured into black widow webs, the researchers say. Red house spiders and triangulate cobweb spiders also showed such “bold” behavior, but black widows were never observed as aggressors. Stereotyping black widow spiders as fearsome and aggressive is clearly not appropriate.&nbsp;



However, characterizing brown widows as “aggressive” is also somewhat misleading. They may be the aggressors against black widow spiders but humans have no need to fear them. Their venom is less dangerous than that of a black widow and they life peacefully in close proximity with humans. In fact, they tend to be “very shy when harassed by humans or larger animals that are not considered prey," according to Coticchio. “They will run or roll up into a ball and play dead when being attacked or harassed by most other animals outside of their prey range.”&nbsp;



It is not yet understood why brown widow spiders behave in this way towards black widows. Certainly, it is of concern because this may lead to a shift in species composition – already, the increased incidence of brown widows in the southern U.S. is matched by noticeable declines in the numbers of black widows, potentially threatening the status of the indigenous black widows in their normal range.&nbsp;



“One question I would love to answer is how brown widows interact with other species of spiders, more specifically black widows, in Africa, where brown widows are believed to have originated,” said Coticchio. “I would love to see if their behavior and displacement of black widows is something that they have adapted here in North America, or if this behavior is something they exhibit naturally, even in areas where they have coevolved with black widows for much longer periods of time.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aesa/saad003">Annals of the Entomological Society of America</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Black widows are being targeted by invasive brown widows

When an invasive animal species arrives in a previously uncolonized...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> has recently analyzed fragments of a variety of stone tools used by long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in the Phang Nga National Park in Thailand to crack open hard-shelled nuts. Since these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aging-female-monkeys-focus-more-on-meaningful-relationships/">monkeys</a> frequently break their hammerstones and anvils, the assemblage of broken stones is quite significant and widespread in many parts of the landscape.&nbsp;



To their surprise, the experts found that many of these artifacts have features that are similar to some of the earliest hominin stone artifacts currently known. Thus, in the absence of behavioral observations, the macaque tools would have likely been identified as anthropogenic in origin and interpreted as evidence of intentional tool production.



“The ability to intentionally make sharp stone flakes is seen as a crucial point in the evolution of hominins, and understanding how and when this occurred is a huge question that is typically investigated through the study of past artefacts and fossils. Our study shows that stone tool production is not unique to humans and our ancestors,”&nbsp;explained lead author Tomos Proffitt, a Paleolithic archeologist at Max Planck.&nbsp;



“The fact that these macaques use stone tools to process nuts is not surprising, as they also use tools to gain access to various shellfish as well. What is interesting is that, in doing so they accidently produce a substantial archaeological record of their own that is partly indistinguishable from some hominin artifacts.”



By comparing these accidentally produced stone fragments to those produced by early hominins, the experts showed that many of the artefacts produced by macaques are virtually indistinguishable from the human-made ones. These findings shed new light on how one of the first known technologies may have emerged, suggesting that its origins could in fact be significantly older than previously thought and related to similar nut cracking behaviors.



“Cracking nuts using stone hammers and anvils, similar to what some primates do today, has been suggested by some as a possible precursor to intentional stone tool production. This study, along with previous ones published by our group, opens the door to being able to identify such an archaeological signature in the future,”&nbsp;said senior author Lydia Luncz, the head of the Technological Primates Research Group at Max Planck.



“This discovery shows how living primates can help researchers investigate the origin and evolution of tool use in our own lineage.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ade8159">Science Advances</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Monkey stone tools look like early human artifacts

A team of researchers led by the Max Planck Institute...

Squid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-fishers-and-dolphins-benefit-from-fishing-together/">fishing</a> is increasingly expanding into unregulated spaces, despite growing concerns over stock status, according to a new study led by <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/">Global Fishing Watch</a>.



The researchers investigated the activities of global squid fleets across three oceans from 2017 to 2020. The experts discovered that as these fisheries expand, they shift locations into the high seas, where no particular nation has jurisdiction.&nbsp;



“These squid fisheries are highly mobile, fishing multiple oceans within a given year,” said study lead author Professor Katherine Seto of UC Santa Cruz. “While some conservation and management measures are in place to regulate this type of fishing, our research found that actors may take advantage of these fragmented regulations to maximize resource extraction."



"To address this, we need to address the factors that promote the growth and expansion of fishing efforts, and increase data sharing and communication between management entities.”



The research was conducted through a partnership between Global Fishing Watch, the Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security at the University of Wollongong, and the Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency.



The team used satellite imagery, vessel tracking, and data monitoring to determine that squid fishing activities increased by 68 percent during the three-year study period.



Squid fishing vessels were found to conduct 86 percent of their activities in unregulated areas. The researchers noted that while unregulated fishing is not necessarily illegal, it presents many challenges, such as fisheries sustainability.



"By synthesizing data from multiple sources, we created a robust picture of the fishing activity of the high seas squid fleets. Our analysis highlights the interconnectedness of fishing grounds used by the fleets,” said study co-author Nate Miller. “It demonstrates the critical importance of comprehensive data sharing agreements between regional bodies for improving understanding of the movements of these vessels and quantifying their impacts on squid stocks.”



“These unregulated fishing activities require urgent action," said study co-author Quentin Hanich from the University of Wollongong. "They occur in our global commons, shared by all, yet few receive any benefit, and neighboring coastal States are increasingly concerned regarding the impact on their own shared fish stocks."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add8125">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Squid fishing vessels take advantage of unregulated waters

Squid fishing is increasingly expanding into unregulated spaces, despite growing...

A recent study has revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-differences-in-fish-are-important-for-conservation/">conservation</a> efforts in Antarctica are insufficient to protect local wildlife. The research, led by Jasmine Rachael Lee at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>, predicts population declines for 65 percent of all Antarctic wildlife by the end of the century.



"We find that implementing ten key threat management strategies in parallel, at an estimated present-day equivalent annual cost of US$23 million, could benefit up to 84 percent of Antarctic taxa," wrote the study authors.



"Climate change is identified as the most pervasive threat to Antarctic biodiversity and influencing global policy to effectively limit climate change is the most beneficial conservation strategy."



"However, minimizing impacts of human activities and improved planning and management of new infrastructure projects are cost-effective and will help to minimize regional threats. Simultaneous global and regional efforts are critical to secure Antarctic biodiversity for future generations."



The researchers set out to investigate which plant and animal species are most vulnerable and to identify the best actions.



The team analyzed existing data to evaluate threats and conservation strategies for Antarctica's wildlife. The scientists also asked 29 experts to define potential management strategies that are cost effective.&nbsp;



According to the results, the most serious threat to Antarctic biodiversity is climate change. If global warming exceeds the target of two degrees Celsius, 65 percent of Antarctic wildlife populations will be in s state of decline by the year 2100.



The experts said that as Antarctica faces increasing pressure from climate change and human activities, a combination of regional and global conservation efforts is needed to preserve Antarctic biodiversity and ecosystem services for future generations.



“What this work shows is that climate change is the greatest threat to Antarctic species and what we need is global mitigation efforts to save them," said study lead author Jasmine Lee. "This will not only help to secure their future, but also our own.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001921">PLoS Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Conservation efforts are not enough to save Antarctic wildlife

A recent study has revealed that conservation efforts in Antarctica...

Ornate,Wrasse,Thalassoma,Pavo,And,Mediterranean,Sea,Star,Echinaster,Sepositus

A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has recently investigated how environmental variation drives the distribution of marine species from Southern Portugal to northern Norway. By analyzing 198 marine fish species from 23 surveys, together with 31,502 samples collected by fisheries scientists between 2005 and 2018, the experts found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-ocean-temperatures-are-steadily-rising/">temperature</a> is a critical driver of large-scale spatial variation in fish assemblages across Europe’s marine regions.



“This unique study brings together fisheries survey data from across this vitally important marine ecosystem. Using this information, we are able to conclusively demonstrate the broad scale importance of sea temperature in controlling how fish communities assemble,” said senior author Martin Genner, a professor of Evolutionary Ecology at Bristol.



Although temperature proved to be the most critical variable for determining where marine species are found, water depth and salinity were also important factors. In addition, by combining data on the current distribution of marine fish with future climate projections under multiple emissions scenarios, the scientists provided estimates of how fish will respond to climate change over the coming decades.&nbsp;



The results indicate that, although global warming will lead to shifts in species communities across the entire region, the largest community-level changes are expected at locations with greater warming, with the most pronounced effects most likely at higher latitudes.



&nbsp;“The study adds to a growing body of evidence indicating that future climate-driven warming will lead to widespread changes in fish communities, potentially resulting in changes to the catches of commercial fisheries across the region,” said co-author Stephen Simpson, a marine biologist and fish ecologist at Bristol.



“With further predicted changes to fish communities, evaluating the effects of temperature on stocks may help to support appropriate management, although this may be challenging, given that precise mechanisms by which temperatures affect stocks are typically not clear. Where species distributions are predicted to change, and potentially move between existing management areas, internationally coherent management approaches will be needed to enable sustainable harvesting and conservation under a changing climate,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16633">Global Change Biology</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Sea temperatures drive the distribution of European fish

A team of scientists led by the University of Bristol...

Scientists have long known that, after a period of intense physical exertion, vertebrates (including humans) need a period of recovery to lower their heart rates and allow the organism to repair injured muscles. However, more recent studies have shown that intensive physical activity can also affect immune defenses, and that rest is crucial for boosting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/organ-regeneration-offers-new-clues-about-the-immune-system/">immune system</a> too. Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a> in Sweden has found that this is also true in the case of migratory birds.



When they migrate, birds regularly stop in one place for a few days to eat and rest – a behavior previously thought necessary to build up new fat reserves which provide fuel for the rest of the migration process. However, scientists have now shown that, during such “pitstops,” they also boost their immune systems.



“This is the first time that this has been demonstrated in wild migratory birds. Our study shows that migratory birds’ stops serve other purposes, besides just ‘refueling.’ They also need other physiological systems to recover. You could compare it to pulling off the motorway into a service station. That is not just for the purpose of refueling, you might also need to recover,” said study senior author Arne Hegemann, a biologist at Lund.



Together with his team, Hegemann examined a variety of small migratory birds such as chaffinches, dunnocks, and common redstarts to assess how their immune systems change when they take breaks during migration. By collecting and comparing data from different individuals and species, they discovered that free-flying migratory birds usually restore several parameters of immune function during their stopovers.



“If you see a little bird in your garden or in the park during the autumn and you know that it is heading to southern Europe or Africa, it is fascinating to think about why it is&nbsp;taking&nbsp;a break. If they do not get food or rest, their immune systems cannot recover – which is when they risk becoming ill. This provides an important part of the puzzle of how migratory birds cope with the physiological challenges they are faced with on their long journeys,” Hegemann concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2022.0518">Biology Letters</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Migratory birds take breaks to boost their immune system

Scientists have long known that, after a period of intense...

Jewel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reconstructing-300-million-years-of-beetle-evolution/">beetles</a> are a striking species of insects that can be easily recognized by their metallic sheen and vivid colors. They possess a highly developed visual system that helps them engage in a variety of behaviors, such as finding mates and host plants, and their color vision is different from ours, with special genes allowing them to see ultraviolet (UV), as well as blue and green light.&nbsp;



To shed more light on the complexity of these insects’ vision, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota</a> has recently investigated their evolutionary history and discovered that jewel beetles have duplicated some of the ancestral genes responsible for color perception, allowing them to detect more complicated and diverse color signals.



The experts built on a previous study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-00061-7">Nature</a> showing that, before the evolution of modern beetles, their ancestors lost the ability to see blue light around 300 million years ago, most likely because they became nocturnal or started living in low-light conditions. Later on, as they diversified, beetles evolved duplicates of the ancestral genes allowing them to detect the UV and green spectrum.



In the current study, the researchers set to find out whether these duplicate genes have evolved, allowing modern beetles to see colors that their ancestors were not able to detect. Since jewel beetles are notoriously difficult to keep and work with in the laboratory, the scientists copied the genes and inserted them into fruit flies, replacing their normal visual genes. Then, by using electrophysiology, they tested the color sensitivity these genes produced in the flies, focusing on genetic changes underlying the shifts in color sensitivity.



The analysis revealed that jewel beetles have evolved additional blue and orange sensitivity by duplicating their UV and green visual genes, enabling complex tetra-chromatic color sensitivity to UV, blue, green, and orange wavelengths (similar to the color sensitivity of various species of colorful birds). When visual genes were modified and retested, the newly evolved genetic changes related to color detection were not found to shift sensitivities.



In future studies, the scientists aim to better understand the molecular bases of beetles’ color sensitivity and – according to lead author Camilla Sharkey, an expert in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior at Minnesota – “determine if specific types of color vision can be predicted from genes and how color vision is used by insects to better manage pest and pollinator insects, thus improving crop production.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msad023">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How did jewel beetles’ visual systems evolve?

Jewel beetles are a striking species of insects that can...

The southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis), also known as the California sea otter, is a threatened subspecies of marine predator that inhabits the coastal waters of central California. Before legal protection of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bird-species-are-less-competitive/">species</a> was introduced, sea otters were hunted for their fur and their populations plummeted. It is estimated that only 50 individuals of this subspecies remained 1n 1911, when hunting was first prohibited. Since then, their numbers have increased slowly, although they remain endangered.



Sea otters are ecologically important because they prey on marine species that graze algae and kelp. Otter foraging keeps the kelp forests in balance and prevents them from being overgrazed. In the absence of sea otters, sea urchins and other herbivorous invertebrates graze kelp forests to the ground, leaving barren and depauperate ecosystems. The small size of the sea otter population (around 3,000 individuals) means that the subspecies is still threatened and needs all the help it can get.



The <a href="https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/">Monterey Bay Aquarium</a> has a sea otter surrogacy program that helps pair stranded pups with non-releasable female otters, with the aim of preparing the pups to be reintroduced into the wild. In a study published in the journal Biological Conservation, Aquarium researchers have evaluated the success of the program’s methods to help identify approaches that maximize the chances of successful release of young otters and contribute to the recovery of the species.



“These findings describe everyday, life-threatening challenges experienced by sea otter pups, and help us identify optimal conditions for returning orphaned otters to the wild, where they may benefit population and ecosystem recovery,” said lead author Teri Nicholson, Senior Research Biologist for Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Sea Otter Program. “Because of our surrogate females’ strong nurturing behavior, three-quarters of the orphaned pups in our program reacclimate to the wild after release. What we are learning from this study will increase this success.”



The Program makes use of the fact that female sea otters demonstrate a natural tendency to behave maternally towards orphaned young otters, even when in captivity. These pups learn to groom, socialize, avoid humans, and forage on a variety of hard-shelled invertebrates (including mussels, clams, crabs, and urchins), skills that are essential for surviving in the wild. Over 20 years, the Program has released 64 pups, with a survival rate comparable to that of wild populations.&nbsp;



Along the way, the researchers have learned which approaches maximize the rate of success. In the current study, Nicholson and her colleagues examine 34 key rehabilitation components that make up the five phases of a stranded pup’s journey to release: stranding, stabilization, surrogacy, pre-release and release. The researchers determine the modifications that would contribute most to improving successful outcomes in the wild. These results will inform decisions about when and where to release sea otters within the species’ historical range, in order to maximize their chances for survival.



The results also form a foundation for other aquariums that may wish to start a similar program. For example, the Aquarium of the Pacific joined the surrogacy program in 2020 and has been building a specialized area for pairing stranded sea otter pups with surrogate mothers.



“By sharing more details about sea otters within our program, and our common challenges, we hope to inspire stronger connections with these wildlife populations and stewardship of our shared ocean environment,” Nicholson said.



The study highlights the following key conclusions:



<ul><li>Surrogacy draws from the natural behavior and adaptability of sea otters, resulting in 75 percent success reacclimating orphans to the wild, regardless of their stranding age, origin, early development, surrogate mother idiosyncrasies, weaning age, and pre-release conditioning.</li></ul>



<ul><li>Release conditions – such as favorable seas and mild weather – represented the strongest modeled drivers of success.</li><li>Low daily swimming distances by released individuals, and less competitive local population dynamics were additional factors that contributed to success.</li><li>Comparable success rates among a variety of sites and habitats, such as estuary seagrass meadows and open-coast kelp forests, demonstrate the potential for broader application of these methods throughout California, where release conditions are favorable.</li></ul>



Successful surrogacy methods can give orphaned pups another chance at survival in the wild, which helps benefit wild populations and restore coastal ecosystems. For this reason it is important to evaluate the outcomes to develop the most successful strategies for rearing and releasing the young otters.&nbsp;



The results of this study may also be applied to the recovery of other threatened or endangered species, and may provide a blueprint for nature-based solutions that strengthen ecosystem resilience in the face of increasing impacts from climate change.



“Our surrogacy program is effective, and results from this study build our confidence that we’ll be able to increase the number of animals we can return to the wild through key partnerships,” said Jess Fujii, the sea otter program manager at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. “The study also provides valuable insights for when and where we can release rescued otters with the best chance of success.”



—



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Strong maternal drive helps sea otters survive

The southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis), also known as...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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