SECORE International has developed a coral seeding method that utilizes assisted reproduction - breeding corals to help restore reefs. This approach has been implemented across the Caribbean through a network of training and partners.&nbsp;



A recent study confirms that the coral seeding method is making a significant impact: during the severe 2023 heatwave in the Caribbean, young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-corals-and-reefs-are-showing-surprising-resilience-as-global-waters-warm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals</a> that were bred through SECORE's efforts remained healthy, while many wild corals bleached and died.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-seeding-in-the-caribbean-nbsp">Coral seeding in the Caribbean&nbsp;</h2>



The summer of 2023 brought devastation to many coral reefs in the Caribbean Basin. An unprecedented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-heatwaves-escalate-coral-bleaching-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heatwave</a>, both in intensity and duration, hit the region, leading to widespread coral bleaching. 



With high seawater temperatures persisting, many corals were unable to recover and perished.&nbsp;



However, during this time of crisis, a hopeful discovery was made by SECORE’s Restoration Coordinator in Mexico, Sandra Mendoza Quiroz.&nbsp;



While conducting a routine dive to monitor their outplanted corals, she found that the young corals they had bred were healthy, standing out among the bleached and dying reefs.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assisted-reproduction-and-coral-survival">Assisted reproduction and coral survival</h2>



Similar findings were reported by SECORE’s team in Curaçao, where another species of bred coral had withstood the heat.



“We were excited to observe this pattern showing another benefit of using assisted coral recruits in restoration,” said Margaret Miller, research director of <a href="https://www.secore.org/site/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SECORE</a>.



The team in Curaçao and Mexico, working with Coralium Lab at the <a href="https://www.unam.mx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México</a>, collected data on the health of various species and groups of outplanted corals. 



The experts reached out to partners across their Caribbean Restoration Network, including the Dominican Foundation for Marine Studies, the <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Conservancy in the Caribbean</a>, and Reef Renewal Foundation Bonaire. 



Together, the researchers confirmed that young corals bred for restoration were significantly more resistant to bleaching compared to their wild counterparts across six coral species at 15 reef sites in five different Caribbean nations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-seeding-builds-resilience-nbsp">Coral seeding builds resilience&nbsp;</h2>



This study marks the first scientific evidence that corals restored using natural reproduction methods demonstrate greater resistance to extreme sea temperatures than wild or fragmented corals.



Miller, who has been breeding corals in the Caribbean for over 30 years, expressed optimism about the findings.&nbsp;



“These results provide a lot of encouragement and confirmation that restoration using assisted coral recruits can play an important role in orchestrating coral persistence into our warmer future,” said Miller.&nbsp;



“Nonetheless, truly securing the future of coral reefs is absolutely dependent on humankind’s success in controlling global warming.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-producing-millions-of-coral-embryos-nbsp">Producing millions of coral embryos&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-sounds-the-melodic-key-to-coral-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral restoration</a> methods have evolved significantly in the past decade. Traditionally, corals were propagated by breaking fragments off source colonies and growing them in nurseries before manually transplanting them onto the reef. 



Today, SECORE’s coral seeding approach, which breeds corals specifically for restoration, is widely implemented throughout the Caribbean.&nbsp;



This method involves collecting coral spawn from wild corals, fertilizing the eggs and sperm in a controlled environment (either on a boat or beach), and producing millions of coral embryos.&nbsp;



The coral larvae are grown in ocean enclosures and settled on special substrates before being outplanted onto the reef.



Each generation of corals that reproduces naturally receives a new combination of genes, enhancing their ability to adapt.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-the-new-breeding-efforts">Importance of the new breeding efforts</h2>



The study revealed that the young corals produced through breeding showed greater resistance to bleaching than adult coral colonies and fragments.&nbsp;



However, due to the recruitment failure of many reef-building species in the Caribbean, natural offspring are rare, which further underscores the importance of SECORE’s breeding efforts.



Dirk Petersen, the founder of&nbsp; SECORE, is thrilled with the study’s positive results.&nbsp;



“Our coral seeding approach is an important contribution to help coral reefs deal with climate change,” said Petersen. “Our investment over the past five years to build a large network for coral restoration in the Caribbean has paid off.”&nbsp;



“This network not only produces and outplants tens of thousands of corals every year but could also immediately assess how these corals responded to this unprecedented heatwave. Our priority is now to further scale efforts to the ecosystem level.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-chance-for-coral-reefs-to-survive">A chance for coral reefs to survive</h2>



Coral restoration, however, is not a solo endeavor. It requires collaboration across various disciplines, from science and engineering to on-the-ground implementation.&nbsp;



The process involves logistics, effectiveness, and thorough training, and must be grounded in strong management strategies that engage local communities.&nbsp;



While coral restoration is crucial, it alone cannot solve the broader challenges posed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-study-provides-answers-to-how-coral-reefs-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. Still, it provides vital time to help coral populations survive in the face of environmental pressures.



“Our Caribbean Training and Capacity Building Program has turned out to be a successful model, which we urgently need to take to other regions across the world,” Petersen said.&nbsp;



In his view, as extreme weather events continue to increase in frequency and severity, regions beyond the Caribbean will also be affected.&nbsp;



“Restoration measures are best implemented at an early stage to strengthen the reefs. Once degradation has reached a critical level, restoration becomes much more challenging,” said Petersen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-coral-restoration-efforts">Expanding coral restoration efforts</h2>



SECORE is now expanding its efforts globally. In 2023, the organization hosted its first training session for participants from U.S. jurisdictions in the Western Pacific and plans to establish a team in Mauritius by the end of the year.&nbsp;



This new base will serve as a hub for restoration training in the Indian Ocean. “Restoration truly is a cooperative effort - let’s all work together to give these valuable ecosystems a future!” Peterson concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309719" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



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‘Coral seeding’ increases resistance to extreme heatwaves

SECORE International has developed a coral seeding method that utilizes assisted reproduction - breeding corals to help restore reefs. This approach has been implemented across the Caribbean through a network of training and partners.&nbsp; A recent study confirms that the coral seeding method is making a significant impact: during the severe 2023 heatwave in the Caribbean, young corals that were bred through SECORE's efforts remained healthy, while many wild corals bleached and died. Coral seeding in the Caribbean&nbsp; The summer of 2023 brought devastation to many coral...

The southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis), also known as the California sea otter, is a threatened subspecies of marine predator that inhabits the coastal waters of central California. Before legal protection of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bird-species-are-less-competitive/">species</a> was introduced, sea otters were hunted for their fur and their populations plummeted. It is estimated that only 50 individuals of this subspecies remained 1n 1911, when hunting was first prohibited. Since then, their numbers have increased slowly, although they remain endangered.



Sea otters are ecologically important because they prey on marine species that graze algae and kelp. Otter foraging keeps the kelp forests in balance and prevents them from being overgrazed. In the absence of sea otters, sea urchins and other herbivorous invertebrates graze kelp forests to the ground, leaving barren and depauperate ecosystems. The small size of the sea otter population (around 3,000 individuals) means that the subspecies is still threatened and needs all the help it can get.



The <a href="https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/">Monterey Bay Aquarium</a> has a sea otter surrogacy program that helps pair stranded pups with non-releasable female otters, with the aim of preparing the pups to be reintroduced into the wild. In a study published in the journal Biological Conservation, Aquarium researchers have evaluated the success of the program’s methods to help identify approaches that maximize the chances of successful release of young otters and contribute to the recovery of the species.



“These findings describe everyday, life-threatening challenges experienced by sea otter pups, and help us identify optimal conditions for returning orphaned otters to the wild, where they may benefit population and ecosystem recovery,” said lead author Teri Nicholson, Senior Research Biologist for Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Sea Otter Program. “Because of our surrogate females’ strong nurturing behavior, three-quarters of the orphaned pups in our program reacclimate to the wild after release. What we are learning from this study will increase this success.”



The Program makes use of the fact that female sea otters demonstrate a natural tendency to behave maternally towards orphaned young otters, even when in captivity. These pups learn to groom, socialize, avoid humans, and forage on a variety of hard-shelled invertebrates (including mussels, clams, crabs, and urchins), skills that are essential for surviving in the wild. Over 20 years, the Program has released 64 pups, with a survival rate comparable to that of wild populations.&nbsp;



Along the way, the researchers have learned which approaches maximize the rate of success. In the current study, Nicholson and her colleagues examine 34 key rehabilitation components that make up the five phases of a stranded pup’s journey to release: stranding, stabilization, surrogacy, pre-release and release. The researchers determine the modifications that would contribute most to improving successful outcomes in the wild. These results will inform decisions about when and where to release sea otters within the species’ historical range, in order to maximize their chances for survival.



The results also form a foundation for other aquariums that may wish to start a similar program. For example, the Aquarium of the Pacific joined the surrogacy program in 2020 and has been building a specialized area for pairing stranded sea otter pups with surrogate mothers.



“By sharing more details about sea otters within our program, and our common challenges, we hope to inspire stronger connections with these wildlife populations and stewardship of our shared ocean environment,” Nicholson said.



The study highlights the following key conclusions:



<ul><li>Surrogacy draws from the natural behavior and adaptability of sea otters, resulting in 75 percent success reacclimating orphans to the wild, regardless of their stranding age, origin, early development, surrogate mother idiosyncrasies, weaning age, and pre-release conditioning.</li></ul>



<ul><li>Release conditions – such as favorable seas and mild weather – represented the strongest modeled drivers of success.</li><li>Low daily swimming distances by released individuals, and less competitive local population dynamics were additional factors that contributed to success.</li><li>Comparable success rates among a variety of sites and habitats, such as estuary seagrass meadows and open-coast kelp forests, demonstrate the potential for broader application of these methods throughout California, where release conditions are favorable.</li></ul>



Successful surrogacy methods can give orphaned pups another chance at survival in the wild, which helps benefit wild populations and restore coastal ecosystems. For this reason it is important to evaluate the outcomes to develop the most successful strategies for rearing and releasing the young otters.&nbsp;



The results of this study may also be applied to the recovery of other threatened or endangered species, and may provide a blueprint for nature-based solutions that strengthen ecosystem resilience in the face of increasing impacts from climate change.



“Our surrogacy program is effective, and results from this study build our confidence that we’ll be able to increase the number of animals we can return to the wild through key partnerships,” said Jess Fujii, the sea otter program manager at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. “The study also provides valuable insights for when and where we can release rescued otters with the best chance of success.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Strong maternal drive helps sea otters survive

The southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis), also known as...

Changing environmental conditions could make it difficult for marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solitary-mammals-live-shorter-lives-than-social-species/">mammals</a> to find prey, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ele.14193">Ecology Letters</a>. The research shows how gradual reductions in prey could have profound implications for animal populations.



For female elephant seals, reproductive success depends on the ability to find prey and gain weight. Researchers at <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a> studied the relationships between elephant seal behavioral strategies in the open ocean, weight gain, and lifetime success at producing pups.



The findings reveal a relationship between mass gain and pup production, suggesting a tipping point at which insufficient mass gain leads to reproductive failure.



“We found that diving deeper during foraging allowed the females to gain more mass, and gaining more mass led to a marginal increase in their chances of survival and a massive increase in the number of pups they produced in a lifetime,” said Professor Roxanne Beltran.



The team used 25 years of data to investigate the influence of behavioral strategies and foraging success on survival and reproduction in female northern elephant seals. Migration activities were recorded, including where the seals went and the depth of their dives. Data collected on the beach at Año Nuevo told researchers which animals survived, how much weight they gained, and how many pups they had.



“Conceptually it makes sense that an individual would have to gain enough energy to survive and reproduce, but we were able to demonstrate how entwined these are and suggest when survival may be prioritized over reproduction,” said study co-first author Keith Hernandez.



Female elephant seals give birth to a single pup in winter. They spend four weeks on the beach nursing their pup, relying on stored energy until they can return to the ocean to feed. After the winter breeding season, they head out to sea for two months before returning to the colony to molt. Then they leave on a long migration across the North Pacific Ocean over seven to eight months.



During foraging trips, seals pursue their own strategies such as traveling different distances from the coast, diving to different depths, and targeting different prey. The researchers found that deeper diving seals migrated farther and had more energy-rich diets than shallower diving seals.



Mass gain was found to directly affect female seal reproduction. The threshold is around 205 kilograms (450 pounds): animals that gained less rarely had a pup, while those gaining more than 260 kilograms (573 pounds) almost always reproduced.



<a href="https://news.ucsc.edu/2019/09/supermoms.html">Previous research</a> has shown that a relatively small number of long-lived female elephant seals produce most pups in the colony. These “supermoms” may live as long as 23 years and produce more than 15 pups in their lifetime. The strategies that allow these moms to be so successful, however, have long been a mystery.



“We discovered that an additional 5 percent of foraging success led to a 300 percent increase in lifetime pup production due to the effects of mass gain on both survival and giving birth and raising a pup each year,” said Professor Beltran. “These findings tell us which strategies allow these long-lived mammals to succeed at their most important job, which is to stay alive and contribute to the next generation.”



After being hunted to near extinction during the 19th century, the northern elephant seal population has recently increased by about four percent each year. They do, however, face new threats. Climate change is impacting ocean environments and the fishing industry is exploring areas where elephant seals find most of their prey.&nbsp;



“Elephant seals are incredibly successful now, but that could change as their environment shifts in the coming years.” said Professor Beltran.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Elephant seals prioritize survival over reproduction

Changing environmental conditions could make it difficult for marine mammals...

Honey bees are famous for their “waggle dance," the behavior they use to tell hive mates that they have found a good source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-think-insects-will-become-a-sustainable-food-source/">food</a>. The dance has several different components that indicate the distance to the food, the direction to fly and the richness of the find.&nbsp;



Although the bees combine these elements to communicate useful and quite complex information to other foragers in the hive, scientists have stopped short of calling this a “language.” After all, language is always learned, but bees are born knowing this behavior and do not have to learn it. Well, that was the thinking until the publication of a new study by researchers from the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden (XTBG) of the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, and UC San Diego.



The experts observed how a successful foraging bee returns to the hive and performs a waggle dance to communicate that it has located a good source of pollen, nectar or water, and provides information about the presence, quality, identity, direction and distance of the source so that nest mates can find and use it. The other foraging bees gather round the recently returned individual and watch its behavior, sometimes following in its tracks as it dances, in order to learn the details of the resource.&nbsp;



This type of learning is known as social learning, when one individual learns by observing or interacting with another. It has been shown that bees learn about details of a resource by observing the waggle dance and interacting with the dancer. However, it is not known whether young and inexperienced bees are also perhaps learning how to dance by watching the dancing individual.&nbsp;



In the new study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.ade1702">Science</a>, the researchers set out to test whether bees can use the waggle dance effectively without ever having seen it performed before by others.&nbsp;



The experts populated five experimental hives with a cohort of one-day-old bees. In some of the hives there were other foraging bees that performed waggle dances, and in others there were no waggle-dancing bees. The researchers monitored the introduced cohort until they began to show their own waggle-dance behavior and then assessed the effectiveness of this behavior.&nbsp;



“As these bees aged, we monitored the colonies until we observed the first waggle dances and then observed the same dancers 20 days later when they had more foraging and dancing experience,” said Dr. DONG Shihao, first author of the study.



The team found that young bees that had witnessed others doing waggle-dances before were better at performing the behavior themselves. Those that did not have the opportunity to follow any dances before their own first dance display produced significantly more disordered dances with larger errors in waggle angle and incorrectly encoded distance.



“When the same bees were older and had experience of dance following and dancing, they significantly reduced divergence angle errors and produced more orderly dances. However, they were never able to produce normal distance encoding,” said Dr. DONG.



The results indicate that waggle-dance behavior is not completely genetically pre-programmed. Although bees are born with the innate knowledge of how to perform the components of the dance, they refine their skills and become more proficient by learning from others. This is important because this complex communication can save foraging bees time and energy by allowing them to fly directly to a resource, rather than having to search around for it in the environment.&nbsp;



But why should honey bees use social learning to improve their waggle dancing, rather than being born with a fully programmed instinctive ability?



“Learning is a useful way to refine behaviors for local conditions. We suggest that the unique topologies of each colony’s dance floor make it advantageous for novice dancers to learn from more experienced ones. Another possibility is that experienced dancers may transmit distance encodings based on local optic flow to nest mates,” said TAN Ken of XTBG.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Honey bees refine their dancing skills by watching others

Honey bees are famous for their “waggle dance," the behavior...

A new study from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> reveals that animals in the Brazilian Amazon are threatened by climate change and the gradual transition of the tropical rainforest into savanna, also known as savannization.&nbsp;



"Climate change will affect species persistence and distribution, particularly in high-diversity ecosystems like the Amazon. Studies predict that as temperature and deforestation increase and precipitation patterns change in the Amazon, areas along its southern and eastern borders will suffer large-scale savannization, the conversion of tropical forest to degraded savannah-like vegetation," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Here, we aim to identify the terrestrial mammal species potentially most at risk from savannization by studying their use of natural forest and savannah habitats within four protected areas, using camera-trap surveys and community occupancy models."



The experts determined that most land-based mammals in the Brazilian Amazon, from jaguars to capybara, will struggle for survival once they lose their forest habitat. In addition, the researchers found that even animals that use both forest and savanna habitats - like pumas - are vulnerable to savannization.



“We’re losing Amazon forest as we speak,” said study lead author Daniel Rocha. “The Amazon’s biodiversity is very susceptible to climate change effects. It’s not just local; it’s a global phenomenon. We cannot stop this just by law enforcement, for example. These species are more susceptible than we realized, and even protected areas can’t protect them as much as we thought.”



While monkeys and other animals that live in trees will certainly be impacted by savannization, the UC Davis team wanted to investigate how this transition will affect land-based mammals.



The experts used camera traps to conduct surveys of 31 land-based mammal species in the southern Brazilian Amazon, which consists of both rainforest and savanna. Based on community occupancy models, the analysis revealed that only a few species preferred the savanna habitat.



Rocha pointed out that the savanna used in the modeling study is pristine - not degraded - so the negative effects of savannization among animals will likely be even stronger.



“Unfortunately, there are more losers than winners,” said Rocha, who is currently an assistant professor at Southern Nazarene University in Oklahoma. “Most Amazon species, when they can choose between good forests and good savanna, they choose the forest. That’s true even for species considered ‘generalists,’ which use both habitats.&nbsp; As we lose forests, they suffer, too.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/acv.12853">Animal Conservation</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Amazon animals will suffer as the rainforest turns into savanna

A new study from UC Davis reveals that animals in...

Big,Lion,Lying,On,Savannah,Grass.,Landscape,With,Characteristic,Trees

The theory of sexual selection proposes that, where males have to compete to mate with females, the males may develop indicators of "good genes," in order to impress and gain access to females. Indicators may include things such as large body size, impressive horns or feathers, or the ability to win physical fights. In theory, the males with the best genes will sire more offspring and thereby their impressive traits will spread within the population, leading to increased success for all.&nbsp;



Past field studies have sometimes shown that this is not how it works in nature. In fact, males can sometimes go to extremes to demonstrate their fitness and this may impact females negatively and lead to less successful reproduction for them. In the end, with fewer offspring being born to the females, recruitment into the population may diminish to the extent that the population may even collapse completely.&nbsp;



Scientists from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> and the University of Lausanne have now developed a model that explains how so-called "good genes" in males can sometimes be disadvantageous for females and, indeed, for an entire population. The model, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2211668120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, tested theories of sexual competition and compared the results with data from various population experiments, in order to provide a possible explanation for why sexual selection can improve male condition while, at the same time, being disadvantageous for female fitness and population viability.



“Where males evolve selfish traits that help them individually win, they can actually end up causing the population to crash – it’s a form of evolutionary suicide. Even when females evolve to counter male harm and prevent population collapse, the population still decreases significantly, reducing its viability," said study first author Dr. Ewan Flintham.



A prime example of this is the phenomenon of infanticide in lion prides. Dominant males may kill offspring sired by other males, leading to lower reproductive rate for females and, potentially, lower recruitment into lion populations. Other examples include the mating practice of male bed bugs that inseminate females by piercing holes directly into the body cavity, courting antelope that chase and harass females to the point of exhaustion, and brawling male elephant seals that trample pups to death while defending a harem of females.



The team’s model considered different scenarios where individuals vary in their condition. Good condition is considered to be evidence of good genes, but male animals in good condition will experience more intense sexual conflict as they compete more for access to females. If this competition has the effect of harming females, it may well end up backfiring and generating a negative association between male condition and population size.&nbsp;



The new model provides an explanation for why some experiments show male condition improving, without female fitness or population viability improving alongside. This occurs because sexual selection favors genes that improve condition, which can then lead to more sexual conflict and more significant harm to females. Population decline or crash can result from this situation, according to the predictions of the model. This finding contrasts with the common view that sexual selection on good genes also improves mean fitness of the population.



Sexual interactions like these are an important component of understanding population demographics and conservation. For example, where there are more males, sexual competition intensifies, meaning harm towards females is more likely. This is also true in human-managed populations, for example domestic carp, where males and females must be isolated during spawning season.



Dr. Flintham completed the study as part of his research at the <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/qmee-cdt/">Centre for Doctoral Training in Quantitative and Modelling Skills in Ecology and Evolution</a>&nbsp;at Imperial. His project supervisor and study co-author was Professor Vincent Savolainen, director of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/georgina-mace-living-planet/">Georgina Mace Centre for the Living Planet&nbsp;</a>at Imperial.



“Male harm evolved in nature as something that was supposed to be good, but is detrimental to females and the whole population. Questions like how and why this happens can only be answered with quantitative methods – data and mathematical models – which can be just as important as field studies,” said Savolainen.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Good genes do not always lead to evolutionary success

The theory of sexual selection proposes that, where males have...

In social groups, male and female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ostriches-double-kneecap/">ostriches</a> are affected differently by cooperation and competition. According to a new study from <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a>, this depends on males and females having different interests and could determine which group sizes work best.



To understand the pros and cons of living in a group, the research team studied ostriches over a seven-year period in different sized groups. At the start of each breeding season, various numbers of males and females were placed inside of enclosures to create experimental groups similar to those seen in the wild. 



For the study, natural incubation behavior was prevented by temporarily removing ostrich eggs. This allowed the researchers to measure the effect of group size and cooperation on reproductive success based on the number of offspring born.



“We decided to study the ostriches under controlled conditions in order to distinguish the effect of individual differences from group attributes on reproductive success and find out how competition and cooperation changed with the size of the group,” explained study co-author Julian Melgar.



The results showed that males and females have different interests. In particular, males wanted to continue mating even when the females had already started thinking about incubating eggs. This resulted in many eggs being crushed.



During the study, males were driven by competition while females were driven by cooperation. These results have identified that males thrive in relatively small groups of their own gender, while females can cooperate with others and thrive in larger groups.&nbsp;



“The difference in interests between the sexes could help us to explain why the size of ostrich groups varies so much in nature,” said Melgar. The optimal group size appears to depend on the balance between the sexes, competition and cooperation within the group.



Ostriches parent through cooperation. Groups breed in a communal nest and individuals take turns to incubate the eggs. This cooperative breeding comes at a price – there can be tough competition for mates and for whose eggs get incubated.



“As the importance of our results applies not only to ostriches, but also to other organisms that form groups, the results could help us to improve our understanding of the evolutionary driving forces behind the emergence of group living and cooperation,” concluded Melgar.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.77170">eLife</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Male ostriches are driven by competition, not cooperation

In social groups, male and female ostriches are affected differently...

Pollinator populations are rapidly declining all around the world, causing a vast variety of plant species to vanish too. In North America, for instance, some pollinator species have fallen by over 95 percent along with many native plants, while in some parts of Europe, wild pollinator diversity has more than halved, and a third of bee, butterfly, and hoverfly species are currently facing extinction. Due to this worrisome global situation, better methods to monitor pollinators are urgently needed.&nbsp;



Now, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/">Curtin University</a> in Australia has examined DNA traces – known as “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-dna-can-help-track-endangered-species/">environmental DNA</a>” (eDNA) - left by animal pollinators on native flora in the Helena and Aurora Range in western Australia, and were surprised to discover traces of not only insect pollinators, as expected, but also mammal and bird ones. While highlighting the benefits of using eDNA to examine the interaction between plants and their pollinators, these findings suggests that the range of pollinators may be larger than previously thought.



“We know the significant role that animal pollinators play in the reproduction of about 90 percent of flowering plants, but this crucial relationship is under threat as many of these species are experiencing declines across the globe,” said study lead author Joshua Newton, a PhD student in Molecular and Life Sciences at Curtin. “That means effective pollinator monitoring methods are now more important than ever before, as we search for new, fast, and accurate ways of safeguarding the future of endangered flora.”



The analysis of eDNA helped scientists identify five mammal species (including the western pygmy possum), eight bird species (including singing honeyeaters and yellow-throated miners), and 57 arthropod species (including several moth species previously unknown to act as pollinators). The native flowers that attracted the greatest diversity of animal visitors were the larger, more generalist species Banksia arborea (commonly known as Yilgarn dryandra) and&nbsp;Grevillea georgeana.



“We were especially pleased to find evidence of a western pygmy possum visiting a flower because at the time it was the first eDNA metabarcoding based identification of an interaction of a mammal or bird species with flowers, to our knowledge,” said study co-author Bill Bateman, a wildlife biologist at Curtin.



“This finding shows us that the eDNA metabarcoding of flowers offers a more complete set of floral visitors and may prove an effective tool for monitoring rare plant species that are growing in remote regions, receive relatively few pollinator visits, or are visited by cryptic animal species.”



The use of eDNA is currently in the early stage of application in terrestrial systems, but soon it may help identifying not only pollinators, but also multiple other species - such as pests or invasive spies - that interact in various ways with plants.



“eDNA offers an opportunity to explore and monitor ecosystems at multiple levels - not just what we are able to easily see, hear, and identify under a microscope,” concluded senior author Paul Nevill, a molecular ecologist at Curtin.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/26374943">Environmental DNA</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Environmental DNA can help monitor pollinators

Pollinator populations are rapidly declining all around the world, causing...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> has found that even small aquatic organisms such as mussels play a crucial – yet often underappreciated - role in protecting and building <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-ecosystems-are-important-carbon-sinks/">coastal ecosystems</a>. These animals serve as “ecosystem engineers” - organisms that directly or indirectly drive habitat construction and control the availability of resources for other organisms.



“As sea levels rise, coastal ecosystems have to adapt and evolve to changing conditions,” said study lead author Sinéad Crotty, an expert in Ecosystem Restoration and Environmental Engineering at Yale. “This study shows that small and innocuous animals that live within an ecosystem can play a critical role in helping coastal systems persist in the face of climate change.”



For instance, mussels (Geukensia demissa) help keeping rivers and streams clean by absorbing heavy metals and filtering harmful silt and particulates as they breathe and feed in aquatic ecosystems. Moreover, their shells provide habitat and nesting sites for a variety of insects, small fish, and plants. Finally, through their feeding process, they also deposit large amounts of material on marsh surfaces, thus helping marshes grow through a process called “accretion,” which refers to the natural action of sand, soil, and silt washing up to the land from rivers or the seashore.



The experts designed a series of experiments to examine mussels’ impact on accretion from small, local scales to whole landscape scales, with the largest one involving the relocation of over 200,000 mussels from one landscape to another and measuring changes to the marsh elevation over a period of three years. “We found that, in reality, the effects of mussels are far greater than predicted by the models, and occur at large, landscape scales,” Crotty reported.



Since similar trends are likely to occur with other fauna engineers, such as worms or bioturbating crabs, including these ecosystem engineers in future modeling and ecosystem management is crucial as sea levels continue to rise.&nbsp;



“This study can help us think through how we prioritize certain marsh areas for protection. Given that mussels are disproportionately important in driving accretion and other ecosystem functions, we should prioritize their protection, or outplanting, as a means to promoting all of their associated benefits,” Crotty concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-36444-w">Nature Communications</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Aquatic animals protect coastal ecosystems

A new study led by Yale University has found that...

A new study published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLoS Biology</a> reveals that bumblebees learn new “trends” by watching other bumblebees, and that these trends can spread throughout a colony. The study, led by researchers at <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a>, suggests that social learning plays a significant role in bumblebee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-behavior-is-influenced-by-the-unconscious-mind/">behavior</a>, particularly when it comes to foraging.



The researchers conducted multiple experiments which involved training “demonstrator” bees to either push a red tab clockwise or a blue tab counterclockwise to open a puzzle box containing a sucrose solution reward. In one experiment, “observer” bees were able to watch their comrades being trained. When it was the observer bees’ turn to perform, they chose the method they had seen the “demonstrator” bees use.



There was also a control group that didn’t include a demonstrator bee. This group rarely managed to open the puzzle box. While the group with demonstrator bees opened 28 boxes per day, the control group opened only one puzzle box.



In a second experiment, “blue” and “red” demonstrators were released into the same populations of bees. The researchers noticed that the bees overwhelmingly used the red method in the first population. However, in the second population, the blue method became more popular. The experts say this demonstrates how trends can develop.



The study authors believe that these findings open up the possibility that bees, like primates and birds, are capable of social learning and perhaps culture.



“Bumblebees - and, indeed, invertebrates in general - aren’t known to show culture-like phenomena in the wild. However, in our experiments, we saw the spread and maintenance of a behavioral “trend” in groups of bumblebees - similar to what has been seen in primates and birds," said study lead author Dr. Alice Bridges.



“The fact that bees can watch and learn, and then make a habit of that behavior, adds to the ever-growing body of evidence that they are far smarter creatures than a lot of people give them credit for," said study co-author Professor Lars Chittka.



"Our research shows, however, that new innovations can spread like social media memes through insect colonies, indicating that they can respond to wholly new environmental challenges much faster than by evolutionary changes, which would take many generations to manifest.”



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Bumblebees learn new trends by watching others

A new study published in PLoS Biology reveals that bumblebees...

Diving birds such as puffins and penguins face a higher risk of extinction compared to non-diving birds, according to a study from the Milner Centre for Evolution at the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a>. The researchers explained that a highly specialized foraging strategy makes these birds less capable of adapting to changing environments.



"Given the new evolutionary pressures being applied to the world's biodiversity by climate change, understanding if highly specialized taxa are evolutionarily ‘trapped’ in their current niches is of great interest," wrote the study authors.



Dr. Jane Younger and Joshua Tyler studied the evolution of diving in modern waterbirds. They set out to investigate how diving has impacted the morphology of these birds, how the species evolved to increase diversity, and the risk of extinction among waterbirds.&nbsp;



"We show that diving has been acquired independently at least 14 times within waterbirds, and this acquisition is apparently irreversible, in a striking example of asymmetric evolution," said the study authors.



The experts determined that body size evolved differently among waterbirds depending on the type of diving they did. They also found that diving traits were not reversed by evolution.



"Three key diving techniques are employed within waterbirds: wing-propelled pursuit diving (e.g. penguins), foot-propelled pursuit diving (e.g. cormorants) and plunge diving (e.g. gannets)," explained the researchers.&nbsp;



The study revealed that wing divers and foot divers tend to have larger body sizes adapted for swimming. On the other hand, plunge divers tend to be more constrained in their body size, as they were better adapted for flying than swimming.



“Our work shows that rather than being a random process, there are predictable patterns to evolution," said Tyler. “Waterbirds were grouped together as being highly related following genetic analysis of the bird family tree in 2015, so I wanted to investigate how evolving to be able to dive had affected their body shape, niche adaptation and evolutionary diversity."



“For example, penguins are highly adapted for their environment - they have a torpedo body shape that helps them swim fast, but they don’t fly and they can’t move that well on land."



“This means they can’t easily adapt to other environments or types of diet. In contrast, plunge divers like gulls are more generalists - they eat anything from fish to Cornish pasties - and we found they are exploding in diversity."



“Our data show that the specialist birds are in more trouble in terms of future extinction, and may be evolving into an evolutionary dead end.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.2056">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Diving birds face a greater risk of extinction

Diving birds such as puffins and penguins face a higher...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-can-effectively-adapt-to-urban-environments/">Urban</a> areas are bursting with both human and animal life. Although some of the smallest life forms, such as insects, spiders, and ants are easily overseen, their presence or absence in cities can have wide-reaching effects on a variety of ecosystems. Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.uibk.ac.at/en/">University of Innsbruck</a> in Austria has examined the correlation between the presence of arthropods – invertebrate animals with exoskeletons including bees, insects, and spiders – and levels of urbanization.



“In this study, we compared how different indexes of urbanization shape arthropod communities,” said lead author Marion Chatelain, a postdoctoral fellow in Urban Ecology at Innsbruck. “We show that richness and diversity of arthropods on trees and bushes decreases along the rural-urban gradient. More specifically, we show that urbanization disfavors wingless groups, particularly so on trees. Indeed, web spiders and springtails are less likely to be found in the city, where, on the contrary, aphids, woodlice, and flies are common.”



The scientists collected arthropod samples at 180 sites within an area covering 56.5 square kilometers in and around the city of Innsbruck, from three types of micro-habitats – the canopy, the tree bark, and the bush layer – at each site. Then, they estimated the level of urbanization within 100, 500, and 1000 meters around each site by measuring the percentage of paved-over and built-up area compared to vegetation or trees, and tested its impact on the total number of arthropods (abundance), the number of taxonomic groups (richness), and the types of arthropods present.



The analysis revealed a significant correlation between the level of urbanization and total arthropod numbers in the bush layer, with higher urbanization levels linked to more bark lice and crab spiders in the shrubs (most likely due to more nutritious leaves in urban bushes). In the canopy, the number of winged arthropods such as flies increased in more urbanized areas, while certain species of spiders were found less frequently, suggesting a possible advantage of winged arthropods in cities, due to their increased ability to move between isolated green spaces.&nbsp;



The researchers also observed reduced numbers of web-building spiders in comparison to species that actively hunt, suggesting that the increase or decline of spider groups correlates with their hunting modes.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



While certain arthropod groups seem to have adapted better to urban life than others, no effect on total bug numbers were found. “Because some groups thrive while other are filtered from urban areas, there are at least as many arthropods in the city as in the rural surrounding,” Chatelain explained. “In fact, in bushes, arthropods, especially bark lice and crab spiders, are actually more abundant in the city.”



Further research is needed to better understand how arthropod distribution and abundance in urban areas may impact insect-eating bird communities. “Our results suggest that urbanization affects the availability of arthropod prey, which is expected to have consequences on predator nutritional status, foraging behavior, reproduction success, survival, and distribution within the urban landscape. This study is part of a larger project aiming at understanding the effects of urbanization on food availability, diet, and nutritional status of great tits and blue tits,” Chatelain concluded.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2023.980387">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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How does urbanization shape arthropod communities?

Urban areas are bursting with both human and animal life....

Chinstrap,Penguin,,Antarctica,,January,2019

On February 21, 2023, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-sea-ice-levels-are-at-their-lowest-on-record/">Antarctic sea ice</a> extent dropped to its lowest level since satellite observations began 45 years ago, marking the second year in a row with an ice area below two million km2. These worrisome findings raise the question of whether this change is merely a brief anomaly – since sea ice in the Southern Ocean is known to be highly variable, both seasonally and interannually – or an early sign of a transition to a long-term decline comparable to the current situation in the Arctic.



After the 2022 minimum of 1.924 million km2, massive heatwaves in mid-March contributed to further declines – particularly in East Antarctica and coastal areas – and since late May, the pace of seasonal ice growth had slowed dramatically, mostly due to anomalous northerly and northwesterly winds in parts of the eastern Pacific, western Atlantic, and central Indian Oceans that transported warm air southwards. Later in the year, the seasonal ice melt continued to increase in response to a stronger seasonal warming anomaly, culminating in the seasonal minimum of 1.788 million km2 measured in February.



According to an analysis published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.34133/olar.0007">Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Research</a>, this new record low could be a sign that Antarctic sea ice might enter a new regime, involving “a robust transition from long-term increasing Antarctic sea ice to decreasing sea ice, in which anthropogenic forcing outweighs natural variability.”



“Concern about a tipping point is enhanced by the fact that the latest generation of climate and earth system models projects a large decrease in Antarctic sea ice associated with increased greenhouse gases during the 21st century,” the authors explained.



If sea ice continues to dwindle at such a rate, Antarctica will likely witness more frequent climate extremes and severe instability of its ice shelves, phenomena that will disastrously impact the local food chains and wildlife populations, and have major global consequences such as sea level rise and carbon cycle feedback.



“The question is, has climate change reached Antarctica? Is this the beginning of the end? Will the sea ice disappear for good in the coming years in the summer?” asked Christian Haas, head of the Sea Ice Physics Research Section at the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/">Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research</a> in Germany.&nbsp;



However, since until now Antarctica’s response to climate change has been highly different from the Arctic’s, it is not yet clear how Antarctic sea ice will evolve during the following years. “The downward trend in sea ice may be a signal that global warming is finally affecting the floating ice around Antarctica, but it will take several more years to be confident of it,”&nbsp;concluded Ted Scambos, a senior research scientist at the <a href="https://cires.colorado.edu/">Cooperative Institute for Research in the Environmental Sciences</a> (CIRES).



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Antarctic sea ice hits a new record low this year

On February 21, 2023, Antarctic sea ice extent dropped to...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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