A team of researchers have recently witnessed behavior in the wild that could offer critical clues about how the endangered whale shark reproduces.&nbsp;



This surprising discovery, made by a research team off northwestern Australia, could be pivotal for the species’ conservation.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Whale sharks</a>, recognized as the world’s largest fish, have long posed a challenge for scientists who strive to understand the details of their life cycles - particularly their mating rituals.&nbsp;



Given that whale sharks are currently listed as endangered, every insight into their reproductive strategies is essential for crafting effective measures to protect them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collecting-data-on-whale-shark-behavior">Collecting data on whale shark behavior </h2>



At Ningaloo Reef, a <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> on the northwestern coast of Western Australia, annual expeditions have taken place each May from 2009 to 2024. This specific timeframe captures the peak period when whale sharks migrate to the region and aggregate in considerable numbers.&nbsp;



Scientists have used these field seasons to observe and collect data on the behaviors of whale sharks, hoping to uncover patterns that would illuminate everything from feeding habits to potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fascinating-mating-behaviors-of-leopard-seals-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating rituals</a>.



During the 2024 expedition, a research team documented a mature male whale shark engaging in what appeared to be following and biting behaviors toward a smaller female shark.&nbsp;



Although it remains unclear if this encounter culminated in mating, the new observations provide a rare glimpse into the courtship interactions of these elusive giants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-hand-accounts-of-unusual-behavior">First-hand accounts of unusual behavior</h2>



“Following and biting are common copulation behaviours in other species within the subclass of cartilaginous fish that the whale shark belongs to,” explained PhD candidate Christine Barry, a member of <a href="https://www.murdoch.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Murdoch University</a>’s Harry Butler Institute and the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a>.&nbsp;



Barry and her colleagues noted that these behaviors have been observed in several other cartilaginous fish, including various shark species. Such actions typically denote an attempt by the male to stabilize or secure the female’s position during mating.



“This is also consistent with previous reports by fishers recounting behaviours they’d observed out on the water of sexually mature males towards females at different aggregation sites,” Barry added.&nbsp;



These anecdotes, now supported by direct evidence, add weight to the idea that whale sharks’ mating rituals may mirror those of other large sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-mating-clues">Piecing together mating clues</h2>



The research team, led by Barry alongside Dr. Mark Meekan of the University of Western Australia, published their conclusions in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1507072/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.&nbsp;



According to Barry, it is unlikely that the encounter during this expedition resulted in a successful mating event. Nonetheless, the instance of following and biting strongly suggests that whale shark mating behavior follows a pattern akin to many other shark species.



By placing these newly documented behaviors in the broader context of whale shark biology, scientists can form hypotheses regarding the mating process of the species.&nbsp;



Additionally, the research group underscores that knowledge of how whale sharks court and reproduce can significantly boost conservation efforts, particularly as populations remain vulnerable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avoidance-behavior-by-female-whale-sharks">Avoidance behavior by female whale sharks </h2>



Whale sharks, which can grow up to 12 meters or more in length, have a global distribution in warm temperate and tropical waters. Despite their widespread presence, many aggregation sites show an overwhelming number of males.&nbsp;



“At Ningaloo Reef, and many aggregation sites around the world, males outnumber females with a ratio of one female to three males,” Barry said. The reasons behind this imbalance have puzzled scientists for years.



“This could explain why female whale sharks may be avoiding aggregation sites. Particularly for juvenile female sharks, the energetic costs of unwanted attention from males could imply a reason for strong male biases,” Barry added.&nbsp;



Female whale sharks, particularly younger ones, might seek refuge in areas with fewer adult males to steer clear of the stress and energy demands associated with repeated courtship attempts.&nbsp;



This avoidance behavior could be a crucial factor influencing whale shark population structures at various aggregation points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



One pressing question is what these findings mean for managing whale shark populations worldwide. As an endangered species, whale sharks already face numerous challenges, including interactions with fisheries, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/basking-sharks-are-exceptionally-vulnerable-to-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vessel strikes</a>, and habitat degradation.&nbsp;



Understanding their mating behavior, including how males and females interact at aggregation sites, can aid biologists and policymakers in deciding how to protect critical habitats - such as identifying areas where females can avoid male-dominated gatherings.



The annual expeditions at Ningaloo Reef also serve as a model for studying whale sharks in their natural environment without relying on anecdotal sightings.&nbsp;



By systematically gathering data and applying scientific methods, researchers can more accurately identify patterns and track changes in whale shark behavior over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-continuation-of-whale-shark-research">Continuation of whale shark research</h2>



This new information about potential mating interactions is just the latest in a series of findings by Christine Barry, Dr. Meekan, and other scientists at Murdoch University’s School of Environmental and Conservation Sciences and partner institutions.&nbsp;



Their previous studies have covered topics ranging from the impact of tourism on whale shark well-being to prey dynamics in waters frequented by these fish.



Moving forward, the researchers intend to broaden their focus to include additional observational and genetic studies, in hopes of confirming how often such pre-mating behaviors occur and what leads to successful reproduction.&nbsp;



In this way, the data gleaned at Ningaloo Reef and other aggregation sites may help scientists develop clearer conservation strategies tailored to the unique reproductive needs of whale sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-largest-fish-in-the-sea">Saving the largest fish in the sea</h2>



The newly documented behaviors at Ningaloo Reef represent a pivotal step in unraveling one of the great mysteries of marine biology: how whale sharks reproduce.&nbsp;



While much remains to be learned about courtship and mating in these gentle ocean giants, the direct observations of following and biting offer valuable context for a species that has long eluded scientific understanding.



With further research, scientists hope to clarify whether female whale sharks avoid highly male-dominated sites as a means to reduce the stress and energy costs of unwanted attention.&nbsp;



Such knowledge could shape guidelines for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-marine-protected-areas-boost-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine protected areas</a> and responsible ecotourism that minimize disturbances to whale shark breeding practices.&nbsp;



Ultimately, uncovering the nuances of whale shark mating is a vital piece of the puzzle in ensuring the survival of these endangered animals for generations to come.



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Whale shark mating behaviors observed for the first time in the wild

A team of researchers have recently witnessed behavior in the wild that could offer critical clues about how the endangered whale shark reproduces.&nbsp; This surprising discovery, made by a research team off northwestern Australia, could be pivotal for the species’ conservation.&nbsp; Whale sharks, recognized as the world’s largest fish, have long posed a challenge for scientists who strive to understand the details of their life cycles - particularly their mating rituals.&nbsp; Given that whale sharks are currently listed as endangered, every insight into their reproductive strategies is...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> (UQ) in Australia suggests that despite significant conservation endeavors, the illicit hunting of the critically endangered orangutans in Borneo might persistently endanger the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



Emily Massingham, a PhD student at UQ’s Faculty of Science, led a team of researchers that embarked on a journey across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/already-endangered-orangutans-now-face-new-threats-from-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bornean orangutan</a> habitat in Kalimantan, visiting 79 villages and engaging in one-on-one discussions with a total of 431 individuals.



“Our study builds on previous research which indicated killing was one of the key reasons for orangutan population decline, alongside habitat loss,” Massingham said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutan-killings">Orangutan killings</h2>



The primary objectives of their investigation were to ascertain the recent occurrences of orangutan killings, evaluate the efficacy of conservation initiatives in mitigating these killings, and understand the local community’s perspective and the reasons driving such actions.



“It has been almost 15 years since the previous study, and we did not find a clear decrease in killings despite Indonesia’s commendable efforts to reduce habitat loss,” she reported.&nbsp;



Disturbingly, a significant 30 percent of the visited villages reported instances of orangutan killings within the last five to 10 years. According to Massingham, these activities are both “illegal and taboo,” making it challenging to gauge their full extent accurately.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-decline-nbsp">Alarming decline&nbsp;</h2>



Highlighting the alarming decline in the orangutan population, Massingham argued that the numbers had plummeted by approximately 100,000 in recent times, with fewer than 100,000 of these creatures surviving in the wild.&nbsp;



“Our findings did not indicate that conservation projects are reducing killing, highlighting an urgent need to improve the collective approach to orangutan conservation,” she added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intrinsic-vulnerability-nbsp">Intrinsic vulnerability&nbsp;</h2>



One of the central concerns raised by the scientists is the species’ intrinsic vulnerability. Given their long life expectancy and slow reproductive rate, the death of mature apes can severely impede population growth.&nbsp;



“Our interviews revealed some of the situations which lead to the killing or displacement of individual orangutans,” she said. “They include protecting crops and taking infant apes to keep as pets.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts">Conservation efforts</h2>



To combat these challenges, the researchers provided several suggestions to bolster conservation efforts.&nbsp;



“Working with communities and collaborating across disciplines and projects will be key,” Massingham said. “Conservationists need to work closely with individual villages to understand their needs and perspectives, identify the social drivers of killing of orangutans and implement solutions that reduce human-orangutan conflict.”



The study - published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/csp2.13025">Conservation Science and Practice</a> - benefited from the involvement of a regional social development entity that aided in fieldwork facilitation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-orangutans-nbsp">More about orangutans&nbsp;</h2>



Orangutans are one of the world's most endangered primates and are found only in the rainforests of Borneo and Sumatra.&nbsp;



The Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) is one of the three species of orangutans. The other two are the Sumatran (Pongo abelii) and the Tapanuli orangutan (Pongo tapanuliensis), which is found only in a specific region of Sumatra.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-nbsp">Distribution&nbsp;</h3>



In Borneo, orangutans are distributed in fragmented forests mainly in the Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan and the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak.



The population of Bornean orangutans has declined significantly due to deforestation, habitat loss, hunting, and the pet trade.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



Various organizations and governments are working on conservation projects to protect the orangutans and their habitats. 



Facilities like the Sepilok Rehabilitation Centre in Sabah and the Samboja Lestari Rehabilitation Center in East Kalimantan work to rehabilitate and reintroduce rescued orangutans back into the wild.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecotourism">Ecotourism</h3>



Ecotourism, when practiced responsibly, can be a tool for orangutan conservation. Tourists are educated about the importance of conserving the species and their habitats. The revenue generated can be reinvested into conservation projects.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior">Behavior</h3>



Bornean orangutans are semi-solitary creatures. Adult males are particularly solitary, while females live with their offspring. They are known for their intelligence and have been observed using tools in the wild.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



Orangutans are primarily frugivores, meaning they consume mainly fruits. However, they also eat leaves, bark, insects, and, occasionally, smaller vertebrates.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



Female orangutans have a long inter-birth interval, only reproducing every 6-8 years, which is one reason why their populations are slow to recover from declines.



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Illicit hunting remains a major threat to orangutans

A new study led by the University of Queensland (UQ)...

Common,Frog,(rana,Temporaria),,Also,Known,As,The,European,Common

It appears that female frogs are not up for sexual activity at all times, and no self-respecting male frog wants to mate with a dead partner. Female frogs seem to have realized this and are now faking their death as a means to avoid unwanted advances from their male counterparts.



An extensive assessment of the mate avoidance behavior among European common frogs (Rana temporaria) has led to some interesting findings. A team of scientists recently discovered that female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-calls-and-voices-of-frogs-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> have developed a few distinct methods to escape pushy males. These include rolling, grunting, special calls, and even appearing dead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mating-behavior-of-frogs">Mating behavior&nbsp;of frogs</h2>



Breeding among European common frogs is quite unique. For instance, their breeding season is relatively short. They also mate simultaneously in large numbers, usually in ponds.



The mating population is such that there are more males than females in the ponds. This scenario means there are several male frogs to a single female frog. This mating behavior often endangers the lives of the female frogs, and can actually lead to their death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rejecting-unwanted-advances">Rejecting unwanted advances</h2>



Before now, little was known about if and how female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glass-frogs-wave-their-hands-and-feet-to-attract-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> could avoid this life-threatening situation. This research has now uncovered a number of avoidance tactics.



“We observed three female avoidance behaviors, namely ‘rotation,’ ‘release calls,’ and tonic immobility (death feigning),” the scientists wrote in their study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-frog-mating-habits">Studying frog mating habits</h2>



The study was focused on male and female European common frogs collected from a pond during the breeding season.&nbsp;



This population was separated into different tanks filled with water. There were two females and one male in each tank after the separation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-was-learned-about-female-frogs">What was learned about female frogs</h2>



The researchers observed that a total of 54 female frogs were grasped by the males. Eighty percent of the grasped female frog population rolled onto their backs to prevent intercourse.&nbsp;



The clinging males were also pushed back underwater, forcing them to leave the female frog.



For the females that the males mounted, 50 percent of them employed grunts and squeaks to avoid copulation.&nbsp;



The researchers also observed that about one-third of the females adopted tonic immobility. This group of females layed motionless on their backs and stretched their limbs for two minutes - an appearance that suggests they are dead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-and-experience-nbsp">Age and experience&nbsp;</h2>



These behaviors were also more common among the smaller females, with the older ones less likely to appear dead. "The smaller females also showed the full repertoire of behaviors more often than the larger females,” the researchers noted.



“Our observations suggest that female common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eu-responsible-for-extinction-of-frog-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> are not as passive as is usually assumed and that age and experience may play a key role in the performance of these behaviors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-questions-about-female-frogs">Unanswered&nbsp;questions about female frogs</h2>



Interestingly, the researchers could not determine why the female frogs adopted this method to escape mating. It may be a conscious behavior or a natural response to stress from the mating process.



Resolving this uncertainty may require a larger sample size, considering the males were only presented with two females during this experiment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-study-s-implications">The study's implications&nbsp;</h2>



This is not the first time we have seen species feigning deaths to escape predators. However, it is not common, and this is the first time it has been observed among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/color-evolution-ginger-pigment-found-in-10-million-year-old-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a>.



A better understanding of the mating behavior among European common frogs can contribute significantly to conservation efforts. It may also serve as a strong foundation for advanced inquiries into the mating behaviors among amphibians.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/en/institutes/leibniz-institutes-all-lists/museum-fuer-naturkunde-leibniz-institute-for-evolution-and-biodiversity-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science</a> carried out the study. Their findings are published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.230742" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Dropping dead: The new tactic female frogs employ to avoid male sexual advances

It appears that female frogs are not up for sexual...

Giant,Whale,Shark,Swimming,Underwater,With,Scuba,Divers

Millions of organisms contribute to global marine biodiversity, and most of them are in need of protection. Unfortunately, the planet has lost about 70% of its animal diversity in the last five decades.&nbsp;Indonesia, known for its rich marine diversity, is at the heart of this challenge. Researchers have discovered that Indonesian sharks and manta ray populations are vanishing at an alarming rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indonesian-sharks-and-rays">Indonesian sharks and rays</h2>



Sharks and rays are some of the biggest victims of declining marine biodiversity. Once considered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-diversity-survived-the-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apex predators</a>, these elasmobranchs have become vulnerable ocean inhabitants fighting for survival. The biological characteristics of sharks and rays also put them at a significant disadvantage. They grow relatively slowly, mature late, and reproduce at very low rates.&nbsp;



While this is a global crisis, Indonesia is taking a bigger hit than most countries worldwide. The country is home to over 220 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-in-the-fin-trade-have-a-high-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark</a> and ray species, translating to one-fifth of the global population. Having such a rich diversity of sharks and rays comes with a few economic benefits. For example, shark tourism in the country contributes at least $22 million annually to the national coffers.



Despite their economic value, only six species are protected from all forms of catch and trade in Indonesia. These include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-whale-shark-day-protecting-the-gentle-giants-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale sharks</a> (Rhincodon typus), giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-manta-day-celebrating-our-majestic-ocean-giants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">manta rays</a> (Mobula birostris), reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi), and three sawfish species.



The country also does not allow the export of four globally endangered species: three hammerhead shark species and oceanic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-shark-species-secretly-added-to-pet-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white-tip sharks</a> (Carcharhinus longimanus).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indonesian-fisheries-capture-86-of-sharks">Indonesian fisheries capture 86% of sharks</h2>



From 2007-2017, Indonesia's shark and ray fishery recorded an annual average catch of 110,737 metric tons. This is the largest in the world.



Interestingly, the larger part of this weight comes from unintentional bycatch rather than intentional or active fishing. This aligns with the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Conservation Society</a>'s 2018 observation that up to 86% of Indonesian fisheries incidentally capture sharks and rays.



This situation leaves Indonesia with a crucial but tricky choice to make between conservation and the socioeconomic benefits of shark fishing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-of-indonesian-sharks">Conservation efforts of Indonesian sharks</h2>



The recent efforts of Indonesian authorities indicate the readiness of the country to protect these endangered marine species from extinction.



According to a newly published study, the recent advancements in science and technology may offer the country a solution. New DNA-based diagnostic tools, such as the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963996920310607" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FASTFISH-ID</a> method, have advanced the process of wildlife identification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fastfish-id-shows-great-promise">FASTFISH-ID shows great promise</h2>



FASTFISH-ID is an advanced real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique that supports rapid and reliable species identification. It uses fluorescent probes to create unique genetic signatures for each species, offering precise identification.



Initially designed for bony fishes, FASTFISH-ID has shown promise for elasmobranchs. Hence, researchers used it to generate fluorescent signatures for 28 frequently traded elasmobranch species found below the surface of Indonesian waters.



These signatures allowed for accurate species identification, although with a few misclassifications. The deep machine learning approach achieved an impressive 79.41% accuracy in species identification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-game-changing-technology">Game-changing technology</h2>



Andhika P. Prasetyo, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.salford.ac.uk/international">University of Salford</a>, led this vital work. Based on their findings, the experts believe the FASTFISH-ID could be a game-changer - offering speed, portability, universality, and single nucleotide resolution when identifying elasmobranch species.



While limitations like misassignments and inconsistencies in hybridizations have been observed, the scientists hope the ongoing improvements and database expansions will improve the technology.



"With further refinement, this method can improve monitoring of the elasmobranch trade worldwide, without a lab or species-specific assays,” they noted.



The findings of this study were first published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(23)01142-2?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2589004223011422%3Fshowall%3Dtrue#secsectitle0055">iScience</a>.



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DNA-based technology could save Indonesian sharks

Millions of organisms contribute to global marine biodiversity, and most...

A recent study has revealed that tens of thousands of endangered sharks and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-two-thirds-of-coral-reef-sharks-and-rays-face-extinction/">rays</a> are caught annually by small-scale fisheries off the Republic of the Congo. 



Scientists conducting surveys at Songolo, home to over 60% of the country’s “artisanal” fishers, documented this alarming rate of catch over three years. This category of fishers operate small boats, equipped with small engines, and use hand-hauled lines and nets for their fishing activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



This extensive study, led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> (WCS) Congo Program and the Republic of the Congo’s fisheries department, recorded a total of more than 73,000 sharks and rays landed during the research period.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shocking-discovery-nbsp">Shocking discovery&nbsp;</h2>



A significant finding of this study was that most of these caught aquatic creatures were juveniles, with a staggering 98% of the individuals belonging to species that are listed as vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered on the IUCN Red List.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-encouraging-findings">Encouraging findings</h2>



However, the researchers also have some encouraging news to report. The area in and around Songolo is abundant with sharks and rays, including the African wedgefish and the smoothback angelshark, two species previously believed to be locally extinct.&nbsp;



This knowledge offers an opportunity for implementing measures that can protect these marine species while simultaneously supporting the livelihoods of the local fishers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-central-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Central focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Phil Doherty, the lead author of the study, emphasized that the goal isn’t to stop the artisanal fishers from fishing, as they rely on their catch for both food and income.&nbsp;



“The devastating impact of industrial fishing fleets is well documented, but much less is known about the importance of small-scale fisheries,” said Dr. Doherty. “These fishers depend on their catch for food and income, so we’re not here to tell them to stop fishing."



“Instead, by researching what they catch – including where and when – we can help to design measures that preserve shark and ray populations and ensure fishers’ livelihoods are sustainable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triple-threat">Triple threat</h2>



A concerning aspect noted by Dr. Doherty was the high proportion of juvenile sharks and rays in the catch, representing a “triple threat” to both fishers and biodiversity.&nbsp;



“It’s bad for fishers because these smaller animals have less meat, and smaller fins for the valuable fin market,” he said. “Catching juveniles is also bad for the population, as these sharks would be the future breeding adults."



“Thirdly, the high number of juveniles suggests this area may be a nursery ground for some species – and fishing in such an area could be disastrous for them.”



“Prolonged fishing by industrial fleets may have taken many of the larger individuals, meaning artisanal fishers have to settle for smaller ones. With many pressures faced by sharks and rays at different life stages, rapid population decline is highly likely.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effective-management-strategies-nbsp">Effective management strategies&nbsp;</h2>



The study played a supportive role in the establishment of the Republic of the Congo’s first marine protected areas last year.&nbsp;



"Buy-in, trust, cooperation and inclusion of the fishers and in-country researchers is the only way these projects can succeed, and the only way to generate important data – which is necessary to create effective management strategies," said Dr. Kristian Metcalfe, who has extensive experience working in the Republic of the Congo.



“For example, we found many juvenile scalloped hammerhead and blacktip sharks are caught at a certain time each year, so limiting fishing for these species at that time could allow populations to begin to recover.



“Changing equipment, such as adjusting the mesh size of gillnets to allow non-target species to escape, may be effective – as well as proposing the release of easily identifiable species such as the endangered African wedgefish.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers observed that the scalloped hammerhead and blacktip shark, listed as critically endangered and vulnerable respectively, were the most caught species, with over 50,000 individuals recorded.&nbsp;



Given that surveys were conducted only 14 days per month on average and that more than 30% of artisanal fishers operate from locations other than Songolo, the actual numbers of sharks and rays caught are likely significantly higher than the 73,268 individuals recorded.



The study was funded by the Darwin Initiative, the Waterloo Foundation, the Waitt Foundation and the Save Our Seas Foundation.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/25784854">Conservation Science and Practice</a>.



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Endangered sharks: Study reveals hidden crisis of overfishing

A recent study has revealed that tens of thousands of...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-what-killer-whales-like-to-eat/">Killer whales</a>, known for their majestic beauty and power, are apex predators of the oceans. However, even these formidable creatures are not immune to environmental pollutants.&nbsp;



A comprehensive study (the most extensive of its kind) on North Atlantic killer whales was recently published in <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS’ Environmental Technology</a> journal, examining the levels of both old and newly emerging pollutants in the blubber of 162 individual whales. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-persistent-organic-pollutants">Persistent organic pollutants</h2>



Interestingly, the contaminant levels and associated health risks were more influenced by the whales’ diet than their geographical location – a discovery that can prove pivotal for conservation strategies.



Killer whales, or orcas, belong to the dolphin family and are found all over the globe. While they face disruptions in their hunting and communication due to marine vessel traffic, another significant threat looms: the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in their surroundings.&nbsp;



Such pollutants include chlorinated hydrocarbons and flame retardants, which, due to a phenomenon termed biomagnification, tend to accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals higher up in the food chain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orca-populations-nbsp">Orca populations&nbsp;</h2>



Earlier investigations revealed that orca populations in the Pacific can have alarming levels of POPs in their blubber, leading to potential health concerns such as diminished immunity, hormonal disruptions, and reproductive complications.&nbsp;



However, a knowledge gap persisted regarding North Atlantic orcas. To address this, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> in Canada set out to determine the contaminants in killer whales ranging from Eastern Canada to Norway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



The team harvested skin and blubber biopsies from over 100 free-roaming killer whales spanning the vast expanse of the North Atlantic Ocean, covering regions from Canada and Greenland to Iceland and Norway.&nbsp;



They dissected half of each biopsy to probe for five categories of POPs, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The remaining sample was employed to discern the animals’ dietary patterns. Their data yielded some striking insights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



Orcas from the western North Atlantic demonstrated markedly elevated contaminant concentrations compared to their eastern counterparts. This trend defies previously noted POP patterns in other Arctic marine species.



Interestingly, dietary habits rather than geographic positioning accounted for this distribution. Orcas that fed primarily on fish registered the lowest POP concentrations. In contrast, those preying on marine mammals, such as seals or other whales, bore the highest levels.



Particularly alarming was that killer whales with a marine mammal-based diet exhibited PCB levels surpassing the critical threshold, indicating a pronounced risk of reproductive failure in females.



The readings for one particular POP, known as α-HBCDD, surpassed any prior records for marine mammals, notwithstanding its ban a decade prior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The findings highlight the urgency of implementing stringent waste management practices to hinder contaminants from seeping into marine food webs, thereby impacting apex predators.&nbsp;



The outcomes of this study stress the need of a call to action for safeguarding North Atlantic killer whales and their habitats.



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Killer whales’ dietary preferences expose them to pollutants

Killer whales, known for their majestic beauty and power, are...

Peregrine,Falcon,Close,Up,Of,Head,And,Shoulders,Showing,Yellow

Predation and survival are at the core of nature's circle of life. The dance between predators, like peregrine falcons, and their prey has fascinated biologists for ages. 



A prevailing theory, known as the Wolf-Mangel model, proposes an intriguing notion that predators might employ deceptive tactics, such as false attacks, to wear down their prey or compel them to adopt riskier behaviors. Until recently, empirical evidence supporting this model was scarce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tactical-advantage-of-peregrine-falcons">Tactical advantage of peregrine falcons</h2>



Recent observations of peregrine falcons have provided groundbreaking evidence. These raptors appear to intentionally exhaust their prey, thereby enhancing their subsequent hunting success.



Dr. Ronald Ydenberg from <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Simon Fraser University</a>, the lead researcher behind the study published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fetho.2023.1256380/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ethology</a>, commented on the general skepticism surrounding such sophisticated strategies in predators. He drew attention to a common depiction of intelligent predatory tactics in popular culture, referencing the cunning velociraptors of Jurassic Park. 



Ydenberg stated that these portrayals often fall into the realm of fiction for many empirical biologists. However, his observations of raptors, particularly behaviors such as conspicuous perching, resonated with the theoretical framework laid out by Wolf and Mangel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-of-pacific-dunlins">The world of Pacific dunlins</h2>



The study focused on the Pacific dunlins, birds known to flock in large numbers on temperate mudflats like Boundary Bay in British Columbia during winter. The geography of these mudflats and the tidal patterns play a significant role in the interaction between dunlins and their primary predator, the peregrine falcon. 



During high tide, the proximity of shore vegetation makes it more convenient for falcons to ambush the roosting dunlins. However, with the rising presence of falcons in the 1990s, the dunlins adapted, substituting roosting for over-ocean flocking to evade the predator's ambush. This adaptation, though effective, comes at the cost of energy and reduced foraging time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peregrine-falcons-and-the-wolf-mangel-model">Peregrine falcons and the Wolf-Mangel model</h2>



The Wolf-Mangel model theorizes that prey facing hunger might prioritize foraging over evading <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/4-fastest-birds-of-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>, presenting an exploitable vulnerability. Dr. Ydenberg, collaborating with Dr. Dick Dekker, embarked on testing this theory. 



Their research drew from an extensive repository of data meticulously gathered by Dekker over decades. The dedication and passion of Dekker, an independent scientist with a fervor for observing peregrines, were unparalleled, making his contribution invaluable.



Identifying genuine versus feigned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peregrine-falcons-mercury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">falcon</a> attacks posed a challenge. Thus, the research pivoted to studying dunlin behavior. Comprehensive observations spanning 34 days revealed that dunlins opted for over-ocean flocking 68% of the time, primarily during periods with heightened predation risk. 



However, a notable spike in successful kills by falcons was observed two hours post high tide. During this time, the exhausted dunlins weren't flocking despite the elevated danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategy-behind-the-hunt">Strategy behind the hunt</h2>



The behavioral patterns suggest that by inducing early flocking, peregrine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-of-peregrine-falcons-suggests-birds-have-a-migration-gene/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">falcons</a> strategically drain the dunlins' energy reserves, crippling their ability to flock during later, riskier periods. This manipulation, as inferred from the study, could amplify dunlin mortality rates by up to 45%.



A crucial question arose: Was this a reflection of the skill level among peregrines, or a consistent hunting strategy? Observations of another bird species in a different habitat, exhibiting similar behavior when threatened by peregrines, hinted towards the latter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications">Broader implications</h2>



Dr. Ydenberg emphasized the potential existence of other hypotheses. He believes that a comprehensive understanding would require detailed tracking of individual falcons, a challenge in the current environment. Nonetheless, he remains optimistic that these fundamental concepts could be tested in different ecosystems.



The findings spotlight the intricate, adaptive strategies predators employ to secure their next meal. While the Wolf-Mangel model presents a compelling explanation for the observed behaviors, the door remains open for further research and understanding in this dynamic domain of predator-prey interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-peregrine-falcons">More about peregrine falcons</h2>



The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), subject of the above research, effortlessly claims the title of the fastest bird in the skies. Sporting a sleek body and sharp talons, it dives at speeds exceeding 240 mph, making it the fastest animal on Earth during these stoops.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



Found on every continent except Antarctica, peregrine falcons have adapted to a wide range of habitats, from urban skyscrapers to remote cliffs. In cities, they often nest on tall buildings, treating them as cliff-like structures. They enjoy a varied diet but primarily hunt medium-sized birds, such as pigeons, by striking them mid-air with a clenched foot — a technique that stuns or kills the prey instantly.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-appearance">Physical appearance</h3>



These raptors boast a distinct appearance. Their dark blue-gray backs contrast with their white undersides, and a dark "moustache" marks their face. This combination not only gives them a fierce look but also aids in camouflage during their high-speed pursuits.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



Conservation efforts in the 20th century played a crucial role in the peregrine falcon's story. The widespread use of the pesticide DDT had severely reduced their numbers by causing eggshell thinning. 



However, intensive management, protective regulations, and public support led to a remarkable recovery. Today, peregrine falcons no longer sit on the U.S. Endangered Species List, marking a triumph for conservationists worldwide.



In summary, the peregrine falcon remains a testament to nature's marvels, blending speed, agility, and adaptability. Whether soaring over remote wilderness or navigating bustling cityscapes, it commands respect and admiration from all who witness its prowess.



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Peregrine falcons have a unique and successful hunting strategy

Predation and survival are at the core of nature's circle...

Stick,Insect,Or,Phasmids,(phasmatodea,Or,Phasmatoptera),Also,Known,As

In the diverse world of entomology, stick insects stand out for a peculiar reason -- their apparent ability to span vast distances despite being flightless. Their widespread presence across geographical barriers that would be daunting for most flightless species has long been a conundrum. 



However, a new study led by <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> has shed light on this puzzle, pointing to a surprising ally in their dispersal: birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-stick-insect-dispersal-enigma">The stick insect dispersal enigma</h2>



The majority of stick insect species lack wings, making their extensive distribution across various terrains seem perplexing. This anomaly led to the hypothesis that their eggs might be dispersed by birds, mirroring the method many plants utilize. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Birds-disperse-eggs-of-stick-insects-they-eat_Credit-Kobe-University_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The concept is simple</a>: birds consume fruits, and the seeds within pass through their digestive systems, emerging unharmed and often at great distances from their origin.



In an experimental setting, studies focusing on Ramulus mikado, a common Japanese stick insect, confirmed that such a dispersal mechanism could indeed be possible. Yet, without any direct observation in the wild, doubt lingered about its real-world applicability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-evidence-from-stick-insects">Genetic evidence from stick insects</h2>



To address this gap, biologist Suetsugu Kenji from Kobe University and his team embarked on an ambitious project. They analyzed genetic patterns in Ramulus mikado populations, leveraging the principle of "genetic isolation by geographic distance." 



This theory posits that in species with limited mobility, genetic mutations accumulate over time, leading to a correlation between genetic differentiation and geographical distance.



Their findings, published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2023.1708" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, were astonishing. While many genes showed predictable differences based on geographic distance, a select few exhibited close relations despite being separated by vast distances and formidable geographical barriers.



Kenji Suetsugu, the lead author, remarked, “Amidst a sea of limited active dispersal, we discovered identical genotypes jumping across vast distances, strongly indicating the past occurrence of passive long-distance genetic dispersal.” This discovery implies that these flightless insects may have, indirectly, taken to the skies through avian digestive systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-reproductive-mechanism">Unique reproductive mechanism</h2>



This begs the question: why is such a dispersal mechanism not more prevalent among other insects? The answer lies in the unique reproductive nature of some stick insect species. 



Most insect eggs are fertilized shortly before they are laid. However, certain stick insect species exhibit parthenogenesis, allowing females to produce viable eggs without fertilization. This reproductive peculiarity ensures the survival of stick insect offspring even when they embark on such perilous journeys.



Ironically, stick insects have earned their name due to their primary survival strategy: blending in with their environment to avoid predators. This is starkly different from plants that rely on their seeds being consumed and dispersed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-research">Implications and future research</h2>



The ramifications of this study extend beyond the life cycle of stick insects. Kenji Suetsugu emphasizes the broader significance of their findings, stating, "This result invites researchers to delve deeper into the mechanisms of dispersal in various species and challenge long-held assumptions about the fate of organisms devoured by predators."



This intriguing research underscores the intricate and often unexpected relationships that govern the natural world. As scientists continue to unravel these complexities, we are reminded of nature's ingenuity and resilience in the face of challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-stick-insects">More about stick insects</h2>



Stick insects, often referred to as walking sticks, are nature's true masters of camouflage. Belonging to the Phasmatodea order, these insects stand out for their remarkable ability to blend seamlessly into their surroundings.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



Native to various parts of the world, stick insects primarily inhabit tropical and subtropical rainforests. However, some species thrive in temperate regions as well. They owe their name to their uncanny resemblance to twigs, branches, or leaves, a disguise they expertly employ to evade predators.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



Most stick insects showcase a predominantly herbivorous diet. They feed on leaves, favoring particular plants depending on the species. Their feeding habits often lead them to play vital roles in controlling vegetation and contributing to their ecosystem's health.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



One of the most intriguing aspects of stick insects is their reproductive versatility. While many species mate conventionally, some exhibit a unique phenomenon called parthenogenesis. In this process, females produce viable eggs without needing to mate with males, allowing rapid reproduction when necessary.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defense-mechanisms">Defense mechanisms</h3>



In defense, besides camouflage, stick insects employ other tactics. When threatened, some species play dead, dropping to the ground and remaining motionless. Others might release a foul-smelling substance or make hissing sounds by rubbing their body parts together.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kept-as-pets">Kept as pets</h3>



For those keen on keeping exotic pets, stick insects make an interesting choice. They require a relatively simple habitat setup, often just a ventilated cage with appropriate foliage and regular misting. Their docile nature and easy care make them ideal for enthusiasts of all ages.



In summary, stick insects are a captivating group of creatures. Their unparalleled camouflage abilities, diverse habitats, and unique reproductive strategies make them an endless source of fascination for both scientists and nature enthusiasts alike.



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How do flightless stick insects spread their populations over vast regions?

In the diverse world of entomology, stick insects stand out...

The cataclysmic event that occurred 66 million years ago, when an asteroid struck the Earth, is infamous for leading to the demise of the dinosaurs. But what is perhaps less known is that this mass extinction event also marked the rise of a new class of mammals, our own distant relatives. 



The last mass extinction set the stage for the dominance of mammals on Earth. However, the commonly held beliefs about which types of mammals survived these challenging times are being rewritten.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-of-the-unspecialized">Survival of the unspecialized</h2>



For many years, the widely accepted theory among scientists was that mammals and their kin, which persevered through hard times like the mass extinctions, were generalists. In layman’s terms, these creatures could eat a variety of foods and adapt to diverse living conditions. 



This theory, known as the "survival of the unspecialized", has been prevalent since the 1800s. However, a new study delving into the family tree of mammals through several mass extinctions suggests that this might not be the complete picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traits-of-mammals-that-survive-mass-extinctions">Traits of mammals that survive mass extinctions</h2>



Ken Angielczyk, the MacArthur Curator of Paleomammalogy at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Field Museum</a> and the senior author of this revolutionary study, challenges the old paradigm. 



He explains, “The conventional wisdom is that generalized animals are the least likely to go extinct. But we found that the ones that survived more often only seemed generalized in hindsight, when compared with their later descendants.” 



These survivors, he points out, were fairly sophisticated for their era, possessing traits that not only aided their survival but also gave them an evolutionary edge.



This shattering of conventional wisdom comes as a result of rigorous research. Spencer Hellert, an Assistant Professor at <a href="https://www.colum.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia College Chicago</a> and a co-lead author of the study, paints a clearer picture of the preconceived notions. 



“What’s been thought previously is that every time a new group of mammals evolves, you start out with a small generalist animal,” he explains. He contrasts this with the case of a panda bear, a specialist which primarily feeds on bamboo, suggesting that such specialists were not the typical survivors of mass extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



The research undertaking was monumental. Hellert curated one of the most comprehensive family trees of synapsids – a group which encompasses all mammals and their extinct kin. This meticulous family tree, which encompasses numerous fossil records, was designed to summarize and amalgamate previous family trees in a more systematic manner. As Angielczyk pointed out, a colossal family tree was integral for testing their hypotheses.



David Grossnickle, another co-lead author and an Assistant Professor at the <a href="https://www.oit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon Institute of Technology</a>, earlier highlighted that small, insect-eating mammals were the ones often surviving challenging epochs. This current study was an attempt to check if such trends persisted among ancestral mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-research-team-learned">What the research team learned</h2>



However, the discoveries were astounding. The team, which included co-authors Graeme Lloyd and Christian Kammerer, found that synapsid evolution was not merely a story of "survival of the small and unspecialized". At various junctures, it was the larger synapsids that prevailed, and they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/incredible-discovery-some-mammals-attacked-dinosaurs-and-they-often-won-the-battle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weren’t confined to insect-eating</a>.



Grossnickle elucidates on the surprise: “We were pretty surprised— it’s pretty well-established that those mammal radiations go from these small insectivores into the bigger taxa repeatedly.” This pattern, however, began to vanish as the researchers delved deeper into synapsid history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-that-survived-the-dinosaur-mass-extinction">Mammals that survived the dinosaur mass extinction</h2>



A closer examination of the survivors showcased that these animals were more specialized than previously believed. A pertinent example lies in the dental adaptations of many <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Thrinaxodon_mammal_Credit-April-Neander_1medium.png" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals from the dinosaur era</a>. 



While most had teeth suited for tearing into prey, a select few possessed a more evolved tooth structure reminiscent of a mortar and pestle. This nuanced tooth design could have been crucial during times of scarce food, allowing these mammals to consume a diverse array of foods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mass-extinction-survivors-aren-t-generic">Mass extinction survivors aren't generic</h2>



The study's findings bring to light that the survivors of mass extinctions may not always be generic or unspecialized creatures. Grossnickle concludes, “You often need an extinction event like the one that killed the dinosaurs to knock out some of those older groups, and then it allows those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-coexisted-with-dinosaurs-yes-according-to-shocking-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fancier animals</a> to persist and diversify.”



The broader implications of this study shed light on our understanding of evolution. As Angielczyk aptly summarizes, "The fact that we see this complexity in the diversifications of mammals and their ancient relatives means we need to examine other groups to see if the situation in mammals is an exception, or business as usual."



In essence, this study not only challenges long-held beliefs but also paves the way for fresh inquiries into the annals of evolution. And as with all groundbreaking research, it leaves us with more questions than answers, pushing the boundaries of our knowledge and understanding.



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Mammals that survive mass extinctions aren’t always boring

The cataclysmic event that occurred 66 million years ago, when...

A recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.16208" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a> reveals that the world’s oceans are becoming increasingly noisy due to the changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dangerous-climate-feedback-loops-have-been-underestimated/">climate</a>.&nbsp;



Study lead author and <a href="https://www.nioz.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIOZ</a> oceanographer Luca Possenti noted that in some places, by the end of this century, the sound of ships, for example, will be five times as loud. "That will interfere with the behavior of many species of fish and marine mammals."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-noise-propagation">Ocean noise propagation </h2>



"Since the industrial revolution, oceans have become substantially noisier. The noise increase is mainly caused by increased shipping, resource exploration, and infrastructure development affecting marine life at multiple levels, including behavior and physiology," wrote the researchers.



"Together with increasing anthropogenic noise, climate change is altering the thermal structure of the oceans, which in turn might affect noise propagation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The study was based on mathematical modeling conducted in collaboration with Utrecht University. The researchers used moderate to extreme climate scenarios provided by the UN climate panel IPCC, exploring the effects of water temperature and acidity on underwater sound propagation.&nbsp;



The ongoing release of greenhouse gases is causing seawater to become more acidic. When combined with rising ocean temperatures, these factors are anticipated to allow underwater sounds to travel farther in the majority of ocean regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-temperature-layers-nbsp">Changes in temperature layers&nbsp;</h2>



Possenti explained that as warmer surface water supply to the northern Atlantic Ocean decreases, this will cause changes in temperature layers throughout the ocean.&nbsp;



“As a result of this, a separated ‘sound channel’ in the upper part of the North Atlantic may be formed. This will act as a kind of tunnel, which will carry sounds much further,” said Possenti.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underwater-noise">Underwater noise</h2>



Consequently, under a moderate climate scenario, the underwater sound level in this part of the oceans is expected to increase by seven decibels by the end of the century.



Although a 7 dB increase may seem minimal, it represents nearly a fivefold increase in underwater noise energy. Sounds from marine traffic and other sources, such as air guns utilized for seismic surveys, will be significantly amplified.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-profound-impacts-of-ocean-noise">Profound impacts of ocean noise</h2>



With an expected increase in marine traffic contributing to the total underwater noise, the impact of these changes is poised to be substantial, even under moderate climate scenarios.



The implications of this noise increase are profound for marine life, which relies heavily on sound for communication due to limited underwater visibility.&nbsp;



Possenti emphasized the critical importance of sound for these species, noting that increased human-generated noise will undoubtedly affect marine ecosystems.&nbsp;



"In the absence of good visibility underwater, fish and also marine mammals communicate mainly through sounds," said Possenti. "If fish can no longer hear their predators, or if whales have a harder time communicating with each other, this will affect the entire ecosystem."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Possenti and his colleagues from TNO and MARIN are actively measuring underwater sounds. Using glass spheres that break at great depths, they generate and record sounds used by marine mammals, capturing these noises from tens to hundreds of kilometers away.&nbsp;



This combination of theoretical and experimental research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the challenges posed by increased underwater noise, offering crucial insights for the protection of marine life.



"Much is still unknown about the exact effects of underwater conditions on the speed of sound. But because of the potentially profound effects on the ecosystem, that knowledge is essential if we want to understand what the changing climate may do to marine life," said Possenti.



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Ocean noise is getting louder: What does this mean for animals?

A recent study published in the journal PeerJ reveals that...

Researchers at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> have found that geomagnetic disturbances, often a result of solar flares and other energetic outbursts, can significantly impact the migratory patterns of nocturnal birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-magnetic-field-nbsp">Earth's magnetic field&nbsp;</h2>



Birds, and numerous other animals, depend on the Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-can-switch-their-perception-of-earths-magnetic-field-on-and-off/">magnetic field</a> for long-distance navigation during their seasonal migrations. However, the impact of periodic disruptions in this magnetic field have remained largely unknown.



The researchers analyzed information stored in long-term datasets from networks of U.S. Doppler weather radar stations and ground-based magnetometers. They found a startling link between space weather events and nocturnal bird migration.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The findings reveal a substantial 9-17% reduction in the number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/how-does-the-climate-affect-the-behavior-of-migratory-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrating birds</a> during significant space weather occurrences, observable in both spring and autumn seasons. 



Furthermore, birds that did choose to embark on their migration journeys during such geomagnetic disturbances faced increased navigational challenges, particularly in overcast conditions during the fall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncharted-relationships-nbsp">Uncharted relationships&nbsp;</h2>



The research sheds light on previously uncharted relationships between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-have-new-strategy-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird migration</a> and geomagnetic disturbances. 



"Our findings highlight how animal decisions are dependent on environmental conditions - including those that we as humans cannot perceive, such as geomagnetic disturbances - and that these behaviors influence population-level patterns of animal movement," said study lead author Eric Gulson-Castillo, a doctoral student in the U-M Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-on-wildlife">Impacts on wildlife</h2>



While it's understood that Earth's magnetic field experiences regular disturbances from solar outbursts, which manifest as breathtaking auroras and can interrupt satellite communications and power grids, the implications of these disturbances on wildlife remained largely speculative.&nbsp;



Previous research has suggested a potential link. For example, a study analyzing millions of bird banding records found increased incidents of migratory bird "vagrancy" - or birds getting lost during migration - correlating with geomagnetic disruptions.



These earlier studies, however, had a limited scope as far as their duration, geographic extent, and the number of bird species examined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-great-plains">The Great Plains</h2>



The current study involved a 23-year dataset spanning the vast stretch of the U.S. Great Plains, providing an unprecedented look at the migration patterns on a larger scale.&nbsp;



The chosen region for data collection, the central flyway of the U.S. Great Plains, is a significant migratory corridor extending over 1,000 miles from Texas to North Dakota. The area was chosen for its relatively flat topography, eliminating influences from mountains or extensive coastlines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The research team accessed images from 37 NEXRAD radar stations. These radar scans detected groups of migrating birds numbering in the hundreds to thousands, enabling estimations of migration intensity and flight directions.&nbsp;



The data was then compared with concurrent geomagnetic measurements obtained from superMAG, a global collection of geomagnetic ground stations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geomagnetic-disturbances-nbsp">Geomagnetic disturbances&nbsp;</h2>



Ben Winger, the study's senior author, noted the broad agreement in findings that migration intensity is diminished by intense geomagnetic disturbances.&nbsp;



"Our results provide ecological context for decades of research on the mechanisms of animal magnetoreception by demonstrating community-wide impacts of space weather on migration dynamics," said Winger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drifting-in-the-wind">Drifting in the wind</h2>



Further observations revealed that birds seem to drift more with the wind during geomagnetic disturbances, especially in the fall.&nbsp;



Strong solar storms under cloudy conditions reduced "effort flying" against the wind by 25%, suggesting that the combined effects of blocked celestial cues and magnetic disruptions might be impacting navigation.



"Our results suggest that fewer birds migrate during strong geomagnetic disturbances and that migrating birds may experience more difficulty navigating, especially under overcast conditions in autumn," said Gulson-Castillo. "As a result, they may spend less effort actively navigating in flight and consequently fly in greater alignment with the wind."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2306317120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Geomagnetic disturbances from solar flares throw nocturnal birds off migratory course

Researchers at the University of Michigan have found that geomagnetic...

In a world where change is often considered the only constant, many species surprisingly remain the same over long spans of time. Traditional biology explains this phenomenon by suggesting that natural selection favors moderate characteristics. This means that creatures with more extreme features might not fare as well as their more average counterparts.&nbsp;



However, a new study led by <a href="https://wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a> is shedding new light on our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/color-evolution-ginger-pigment-found-in-10-million-year-old-frogs/">evolution</a> in species that live in close proximity to each other. 



According to the research, these species occupy distinct “fitness peaks," which can best be described as part of a wider community “fitness surface” or landscape. This study fundamentally alters our perception of how species relate and remain distinct over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lizards-and-natural-selection">Lizards and natural selection</h2>



The experts closely observed the survival of various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-pushes-lizard-origins-back-35-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizard</a> species over time. Their results challenge the conventional wisdom that species undergo little change due to natural selection favoring moderate characteristics. 



“If species are adapted to their environment, and the environment doesn’t change, then you wouldn’t expect the species to change. However, when scientists have gone out and studied natural selection, they rarely find evidence of such stabilizing selection," explained study co-author Professor Jonathan Loso.&nbsp;



“Given this disconnect, we set out to study natural selection on the organisms we know so well, Anolis lizards, to measure selection over several years and try to understand what’s going on."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The research was focused on Anolis lizards living on a small island within the Fairchild Tropical Botanical Garden near Miami. This site was identified by James Stroud of <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Tech</a>, who was working as a postdoctoral researcher in Losos’ lab at WashU at the time.



Stroud and his team caught, tagged, and measured thousands of individual lizards, closely monitoring their survival and physical traits over 2.5 years (two to three generations of these lizards). This data allowed for a detailed analysis of survival in relation to physical traits such as leg length.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coexisting-lizard-species">Coexisting lizard species </h2>



“What is special about this study is that we simultaneously measured natural selection on four coexisting species, something that has rarely been accomplished,” said Losos, who also serves as the director of the Living Earth Collaborative.&nbsp;



“By coincidence, just as our paper was published, another group published a similar study on Darwin’s famous finches of the Galapagos Islands.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



In the Florida lizards, Losos and Stroud found that the stabilizing form of natural selection - that which maintains a species’ average features - was extremely rare. In fact, natural selection varied massively through time.&nbsp;



Some years, lizards with longer legs would survive better, and other years, lizards with shorter legs fared better. For other times, there was no clear pattern at all.



“The most fascinating result is that natural selection was extremely variable through time,” said Stroud. “We often saw that selection would completely flip in direction from one year to the next. When combined into a long-term pattern, however, all this variation effectively canceled itself out: species remained remarkably similar across the entire time period.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



Professor Losos elaborated on the significance of these insights. He emphasized that even though species might appear unchanged, evolution is consistently at work beneath the surface.&nbsp;



The variability in selection was emphasized as a particularly intriguing outcome of the study, underscoring the complex and dynamic nature of evolutionary processes.



“Evolution can and does happen - it’s this ongoing process, but it doesn’t necessarily mean things are constantly changing in the long run,” said Stroud. “Now we know that even if animals appear to be staying the same, evolution is still happening.”



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2222071120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Coexisting lizards challenge what we know about natural selection

In a world where change is often considered the only...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a> have recently discovered unexpected changes in bird communities within protected areas due to climate change. The study was focused on shifts in Canadian bird communities from 1997 to 2019.



"An increasing number of species are under threat from climate change and many populations are at risk of decreasing in abundance. Consequently, some species have become endangered," wrote the study authors.



"Therefore, predicting how the range, distribution, abundance, and phenology of species may change in response to a warming climate is a timely and important step in planning actions to mitigate the negative impacts of climate warming."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasingly-similar-trends">Increasingly similar trends</h2>



The experts found that bird communities in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protected-areas-provide-a-thermal-buffer-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protected and unprotected areas</a> are becoming increasingly similar, with both witnessing a rise in southern species and a decline in northern species. 



One significant observation was that during the breeding season, communities within protected spaces began to mimic those in unprotected spaces in terms of their climate requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-are-not-immune-to-climate-change-nbsp">Protected areas are not immune to climate change&nbsp;</h2>



“Protected areas are more effective in helping cold-dwelling northern bird species, but it was surprising to discover that southern species increased faster in abundance inside than outside protected areas,” explained Leena Hintsanen of the <a href="https://www.luomus.fi/en/natural-history-museum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Finnish Museum of Natural History</a>.



This finding highlights that the impact of climate change in protected areas is greater than previously anticipated.



For example, while protected areas continue to be crucial for the conservation of northern species like the Lapland longspur, these spaces are not immune to the alterations brought about by climate change.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-requirements-nbsp">Climate requirements&nbsp;</h2>



The 22-year study documented that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-birds-dream-of-flying-scientists-say-they-now-know-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> communities within protected areas are increasingly reflecting those in non-protected areas due to their similar climate requirements.



Hintsanen explained that the trend poses significant challenges for conservation efforts aimed at preserving the vitality of various bird species in the face of global warming. 



Communities that have comparable climate requirements tend to have a balanced proportion of species that prefer cold and warm climates, respectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-southern-species-moving-north">Southern species moving north</h2>



Furthermore, the researchers noted that the observed changes in bird communities in both protected and unprotected areas are primarily driven by southern species, such as the grass wren and the northern cardinal.&nbsp;



These species are expanding their habitats further north as the climate warms, seeking environments that are conducive to their survival.



“This indicates that protected areas, in particular, are highly significant for the northern spread of southern species. However, protected areas cannot entirely guarantee protection for declining northern species,” explained Hintsanen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-changes">Rapid changes</h2>



Past studies conducted in various countries, including Finland, have shown that protected areas generally slow down alterations in species communities.&nbsp;



However, the recent findings highlight the overwhelming influence of climate change on these areas, leading to faster-than-expected changes in bird communities.&nbsp;



According to Hintsanen, a complex network of factors might be contributing to the rapid changes observed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-negatively-impact-wildlife-even-in-protected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protected areas</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-data-nbsp">Long-term data&nbsp;</h2>



Long-term data from bird surveys conducted since the 1960s in North America have been crucial for this kind of research, providing valuable insights into the effects of climate change on bird populations.&nbsp;



The digitalization of decades-old data has further empowered researchers to gain a better understanding of these impacts, shedding light on the subtle yet significant changes unfolding in the avian world due to the changing climate.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cobi.14134" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology</a>.



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Bird communities in protected areas are rapidly changing

Researchers at the University of Helsinki have recently discovered unexpected...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...