A team of researchers have recently witnessed behavior in the wild that could offer critical clues about how the endangered whale shark reproduces.&nbsp;



This surprising discovery, made by a research team off northwestern Australia, could be pivotal for the species’ conservation.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Whale sharks</a>, recognized as the world’s largest fish, have long posed a challenge for scientists who strive to understand the details of their life cycles - particularly their mating rituals.&nbsp;



Given that whale sharks are currently listed as endangered, every insight into their reproductive strategies is essential for crafting effective measures to protect them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collecting-data-on-whale-shark-behavior">Collecting data on whale shark behavior </h2>



At Ningaloo Reef, a <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> on the northwestern coast of Western Australia, annual expeditions have taken place each May from 2009 to 2024. This specific timeframe captures the peak period when whale sharks migrate to the region and aggregate in considerable numbers.&nbsp;



Scientists have used these field seasons to observe and collect data on the behaviors of whale sharks, hoping to uncover patterns that would illuminate everything from feeding habits to potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fascinating-mating-behaviors-of-leopard-seals-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating rituals</a>.



During the 2024 expedition, a research team documented a mature male whale shark engaging in what appeared to be following and biting behaviors toward a smaller female shark.&nbsp;



Although it remains unclear if this encounter culminated in mating, the new observations provide a rare glimpse into the courtship interactions of these elusive giants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-hand-accounts-of-unusual-behavior">First-hand accounts of unusual behavior</h2>



“Following and biting are common copulation behaviours in other species within the subclass of cartilaginous fish that the whale shark belongs to,” explained PhD candidate Christine Barry, a member of <a href="https://www.murdoch.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Murdoch University</a>’s Harry Butler Institute and the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a>.&nbsp;



Barry and her colleagues noted that these behaviors have been observed in several other cartilaginous fish, including various shark species. Such actions typically denote an attempt by the male to stabilize or secure the female’s position during mating.



“This is also consistent with previous reports by fishers recounting behaviours they’d observed out on the water of sexually mature males towards females at different aggregation sites,” Barry added.&nbsp;



These anecdotes, now supported by direct evidence, add weight to the idea that whale sharks’ mating rituals may mirror those of other large sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-mating-clues">Piecing together mating clues</h2>



The research team, led by Barry alongside Dr. Mark Meekan of the University of Western Australia, published their conclusions in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1507072/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.&nbsp;



According to Barry, it is unlikely that the encounter during this expedition resulted in a successful mating event. Nonetheless, the instance of following and biting strongly suggests that whale shark mating behavior follows a pattern akin to many other shark species.



By placing these newly documented behaviors in the broader context of whale shark biology, scientists can form hypotheses regarding the mating process of the species.&nbsp;



Additionally, the research group underscores that knowledge of how whale sharks court and reproduce can significantly boost conservation efforts, particularly as populations remain vulnerable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avoidance-behavior-by-female-whale-sharks">Avoidance behavior by female whale sharks </h2>



Whale sharks, which can grow up to 12 meters or more in length, have a global distribution in warm temperate and tropical waters. Despite their widespread presence, many aggregation sites show an overwhelming number of males.&nbsp;



“At Ningaloo Reef, and many aggregation sites around the world, males outnumber females with a ratio of one female to three males,” Barry said. The reasons behind this imbalance have puzzled scientists for years.



“This could explain why female whale sharks may be avoiding aggregation sites. Particularly for juvenile female sharks, the energetic costs of unwanted attention from males could imply a reason for strong male biases,” Barry added.&nbsp;



Female whale sharks, particularly younger ones, might seek refuge in areas with fewer adult males to steer clear of the stress and energy demands associated with repeated courtship attempts.&nbsp;



This avoidance behavior could be a crucial factor influencing whale shark population structures at various aggregation points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



One pressing question is what these findings mean for managing whale shark populations worldwide. As an endangered species, whale sharks already face numerous challenges, including interactions with fisheries, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/basking-sharks-are-exceptionally-vulnerable-to-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vessel strikes</a>, and habitat degradation.&nbsp;



Understanding their mating behavior, including how males and females interact at aggregation sites, can aid biologists and policymakers in deciding how to protect critical habitats - such as identifying areas where females can avoid male-dominated gatherings.



The annual expeditions at Ningaloo Reef also serve as a model for studying whale sharks in their natural environment without relying on anecdotal sightings.&nbsp;



By systematically gathering data and applying scientific methods, researchers can more accurately identify patterns and track changes in whale shark behavior over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-continuation-of-whale-shark-research">Continuation of whale shark research</h2>



This new information about potential mating interactions is just the latest in a series of findings by Christine Barry, Dr. Meekan, and other scientists at Murdoch University’s School of Environmental and Conservation Sciences and partner institutions.&nbsp;



Their previous studies have covered topics ranging from the impact of tourism on whale shark well-being to prey dynamics in waters frequented by these fish.



Moving forward, the researchers intend to broaden their focus to include additional observational and genetic studies, in hopes of confirming how often such pre-mating behaviors occur and what leads to successful reproduction.&nbsp;



In this way, the data gleaned at Ningaloo Reef and other aggregation sites may help scientists develop clearer conservation strategies tailored to the unique reproductive needs of whale sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-largest-fish-in-the-sea">Saving the largest fish in the sea</h2>



The newly documented behaviors at Ningaloo Reef represent a pivotal step in unraveling one of the great mysteries of marine biology: how whale sharks reproduce.&nbsp;



While much remains to be learned about courtship and mating in these gentle ocean giants, the direct observations of following and biting offer valuable context for a species that has long eluded scientific understanding.



With further research, scientists hope to clarify whether female whale sharks avoid highly male-dominated sites as a means to reduce the stress and energy costs of unwanted attention.&nbsp;



Such knowledge could shape guidelines for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-marine-protected-areas-boost-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine protected areas</a> and responsible ecotourism that minimize disturbances to whale shark breeding practices.&nbsp;



Ultimately, uncovering the nuances of whale shark mating is a vital piece of the puzzle in ensuring the survival of these endangered animals for generations to come.



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Whale shark mating behaviors observed for the first time in the wild

A team of researchers have recently witnessed behavior in the wild that could offer critical clues about how the endangered whale shark reproduces.&nbsp; This surprising discovery, made by a research team off northwestern Australia, could be pivotal for the species’ conservation.&nbsp; Whale sharks, recognized as the world’s largest fish, have long posed a challenge for scientists who strive to understand the details of their life cycles - particularly their mating rituals.&nbsp; Given that whale sharks are currently listed as endangered, every insight into their reproductive strategies is...

A mystery surrounding the deaths of 35 African <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=elephants&amp;start=0">elephants</a> in Zimbabwe is one step closer to being solved. New research suggests that a bacterium closely associated with deadly septicaemia is responsible for six of the deaths, as well as fatalities in neighboring countries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-botswana-mortality-event">Botswana mortality event</h2>



The casualties in Zimbabwe, which occurred in August and September of 2020, were preceded by the baffling deaths of approximately 350 elephants in northern Botswana just months earlier.



Government officials in Botswana said the deaths were caused by an unspecified cyanobacterial toxin, with no further details. Some of the affected elephants were observed walking in circles before literally dropping dead - often collapsing on their faces.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



In a unique collaboration, experts from the Victoria Falls Wildlife Trust, the Animal and Plant Health Agency UK, the University of Surrey, and South African laboratories set out to investigate.



"The sudden mortality of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Botswana and Zimbabwe in 2020 provoked considerable public interest and speculation," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Poaching and malicious poisoning were excluded early on in the investigation. Other potential causes included environmental intoxication, infectious diseases, and increased habitat stress due to ongoing drought."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-investigation-nbsp">Challenging investigation&nbsp;</h2>



The team, led by Dr. Chris Foggin, faced challenges in identifying and examining the elephant carcasses. The experts had to consider initial suspicions of anthrax or other diseases posing risks to human health.



The complexity of conducting post-mortem examinations in field conditions on such large animals added to the difficulty of the investigation.&nbsp;



“Investigating this mortality in the wildlife areas in north-west Zimbabwe proved challenging. Identifying and then reaching the carcasses in time to obtain useful samples is one problem we often face in this type of work," explained Dr. Foggin.



“However, we also didn’t know what disease we may be dealing with, although we initially suspected that it could be anthrax, which is known to occur in the area; or possibly some other disease that might pose a risk to human health."



"We therefore had to be cautious when undertaking the post-mortem examinations on elephant which, in itself, is a difficult task with such a big animal, especially working in field conditions.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights">New insights</h2>



Poaching was ruled out as a cause of death since the elephants' tusks were intact, and toxicology analyses in Zimbabwe and the UK revealed no traces of poisons.



The breakthrough came when veterinarians and scientists identified a septicaemic infection caused by a little-known bacterium, provisionally named Bisgaard taxon 45, from the Pasteurellaceae family, in six elephants.&nbsp;



This discovery was confirmed through bacterial isolation and genetic analysis, marking the first time this bacterium has been associated with elephant deaths. Limited sample availability restricted the extent of these examinations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



Professor Falko Steinbach, head of virology at APHA, emphasized the significance of identifying this bacterium and its potential for transmission, especially considering the social nature of elephants.&nbsp;



“The identification of this bacterium is a significant step forward in learning more about why these elephants died, and I was pleased to be part of the team at APHA that could corroborate these important findings.," said Professor Steinbach.



“Transmission of the bacteria is possible, especially given the highly sociable nature of elephants and the link between this infection and the stress associated with extreme weather events such as drought, which may make outbreaks more likely."



“Further research is needed to learn more about the bacteria and its long-term implications for the African elephant population and other wildlife.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Arnoud van Vliet, senior lecturer in Veterinary Microbiology at the University of Surrey, highlighted the international collaboration in this research. The discovery of Bisgaard taxon 45's role in bacterial septicaemia adds to the growing list of threats to elephant conservation.



The African savanna elephant is already an endangered species with an estimated 350,000 remaining in the wild and an ongoing eight percent annual population decline.



The research not only uncovers a potential cause of the recent mysterious deaths but also emphasizes the importance of continued investigation for the future of African elephants.



This research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-41987-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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African elephants suddenly dropped dead in 2020, and questions remain

A mystery surrounding the deaths of 35 African elephants in...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-sea-turtles-have-returned-to-the-same-place-to-eat-for-3000-years/">Green sea turtles</a> (Chelonia mydas), are listed as endangered on the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species</a>. They face extinction risks from poaching, boat collisions, habitat destruction, and accidental capture in fishing gear. Yet, another insidious threat linked to climate change is emerging: temperature-dependent sex determination.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hundreds-of-females-for-every-male">Hundreds of females for every male</h2>



As temperatures rise, an increasing number of embryos develop into females. In the northern Great Barrier Reef off Australia, this has led to a significant skew, with hundreds of females born for every male.



Adding to this concern, researchers have now shown that pollution may compound the risk of extinction due to a lack of male green sea turtles.&nbsp;



“Here we show that contaminants from human activities may also influence the sex ratio of developing green sea turtles, increasing the already extant bias towards females,” said lead author Arthur Barraza, a researcher at the Australian Rivers Institute at <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/">Griffith University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The study focused on the effects of pollution on green sea turtles on Heron Island, a small coral sand cay in the southern Great Barrier Reef. This site, where 200 to 1,800 females nest annually, has a more balanced sex ratio than locations closer to the equator, with approximately two to three females hatching for every male.



The researchers collected 17 entire clutches shortly after laying and monitored temperatures with automatic probes. Upon emergence, the hatchlings were euthanized, their sex determined, and liver contaminants measured using ICP-MS and bioassays on cultured sea turtle cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-various-pollutants-nbsp">Various pollutants&nbsp;</h2>



The study focused on metals like chromium, antimony, barium, and organic pollutants such as PAHs, PCBs, and PBDEs, known or suspected as "xenoestrogens."



“Accumulation of these contaminants by a female turtle happens at the site where she forages. As eggs develop within her, they absorb the contaminants that she accumulated. These then are sequestered in the liver of the embryos, where they can stay for years after hatching,” Barazza explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heavy-metals-nbsp">Heavy metals&nbsp;</h2>



The experts found a direct correlation between the amount of heavy metals antimony and cadmium in the hatchlings’ liver and a bias towards females within the nest. These contaminants mimic estrogen, influencing developmental pathways towards females.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-ratio">Sex ratio&nbsp;</h2>



“As the sex ratio gets closer to 100 percent females, it will get harder and harder for adult female turtles to find a mate. This becomes especially important as climate change will continue to make nesting beaches warmer and more female-biased,” Barazza said.



“Determining which specific compounds could change the hatchling sex ratios is important for developing strategies to prevent pollutants from further feminizing sea turtle populations,” added senior author Jason van de Merwe, a marine biologist and ecotoxicologist at Griffith.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications </h2>



“Since most heavy metals come from human activity such as mining, runoff, and pollution from general urban center waste, the best way forward is to use science-based long-term strategies to reduce the input of pollutants into our oceans.”



This study - published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1238837">Frontiers in Marine Biology</a> - highlights the multifaceted threats to green sea turtles, emphasizing the urgent need for comprehensive strategies to mitigate the impacts of both climate change and pollution on these endangered species.



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Sex ratio of green sea turtles is approaching 100 percent females due to pollution

Green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas), are listed as endangered on...

Researchers have revealed new insights into the dietary habits of mosasaurs, giant marine reptiles from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colossal-new-dinosaur-was-hidden-in-spains-early-cretaceous-fossils/">Cretaceous</a> period. The study reveals that these ancient creatures were surprisingly selective in their feeding habits.



The study was conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en/home-en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> and the Natural History Museum Maastricht, along with colleagues from the University of Leicester.



Focusing on the wear marks on mosasaur teeth, the experts uncovered intriguing details about the food preferences of mosasaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-background">Geological background</h2>



The Maastricht limestones, renowned as the cradle of palaeontology, have been a focal point of research since the discovery of the first Mosasaurus in 1766.&nbsp;



This area, straddling the Dutch-Belgian border near the Limburg capital, offers a rich window into the Cretaceous period, which ended 66 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



"We were curious whether different species of mosasaurs around Maastricht were really getting in each other's way in their choice of food, or whether this was not so much of a problem," explained Dr. Femke Holwerda, a palaeontologist at the Utrecht University Faculty of Geosciences.&nbsp;



With a lack of stomach content data, the researchers analyzed minute scratches on mosasaur teeth from southern Limburg and near Eben-Emael, Belgium.



The experts used a novel approach, first making silicone rubber casts of the teeth, followed by 3D scanning. "This technique had already been used in dinosaurs, but we were the first to look at the teeth of mosasaurs in the same way," explained study co-author Anne Schulp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



"It seems that the various species of mosasaur reveal differences in diet. We noted these differences mainly between the smaller species - by mosasaur standards - of about three to seven meters in overall size, and the larger ones, eight to fifteen meters in length," said Dr. Holwerda.



There were also some dietary differences among the larger species. “Prognathodon in particular, with its large cone-shaped teeth, appears to have had a surprising amount of shellfish in its diet, so it apparently loved its seafood buffet."



"Another species, Plioplatecarpus, with narrow pointed teeth, showed a striking number of signs of wear. Perhaps this species was also fond of fish with strongly scaled bodies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



This research adds crucial pieces to the puzzle of the Cretaceous world's ecosystem. "We wish to understand diversity better," said Schulp. "And that is made easier for us because the animals studied all come from the same rocks, and therefore the same period. So instead of describing just one species, we look at the ecosystem as a whole."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maastricht-limestones">Maastricht limestones</h2>



The soft limestone deposits around Maastricht are particularly valuable for paleontologists.&nbsp;



"Nowhere else in the world is the habitat of mosasaurus as well preserved as here. You can find them in very soft limestone, so wear and tear of the teeth from other causes may be ruled out," said Schulp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amateur-paleontologists-nbsp">Amateur paleontologists&nbsp;</h2>



John Jagt, curator at the Natural History Museum Maastricht, emphasized the positive role of amateur paleontologists.



"Amateur literally means 'enthusiast' and thanks to 250 years of intensive research by these enthusiasts, we have learnt a lot about mosasaurs and other extinct life forms," said Jagt. "A museum like ours benefits greatly from this. What also helps is that this kind of amateur science is stimulated in the Netherlands: it is simply allowed by law. That's not the case everywhere."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosasaurs">Mosasaurs</h2>



Mosasaurs were a group of large, marine reptiles that thrived during the Late Cretaceous period, approximately 82 to 66 million years ago. They were among the dominant marine predators of their time, filling a role similar to that of modern-day killer whales.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-and-diversity">Evolution and diversity</h3>



Mosasaurs are believed to have evolved from semi-aquatic squamates, a group that includes snakes and lizards. Over 40 species have been identified, ranging in size from about 1 meter to over 17 meters in length.



There was significant diversity in their body shapes and adaptations, reflecting a range of habitats and dietary preferences.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



They had elongated bodies, large heads with powerful jaws, and paddle-like limbs adapted for swimming.&nbsp;



Mosasaur teeth varied among species, with some adapted for crushing shellfish, while others were more suited for slicing through flesh.



Many species had a bi-lobed tail, similar to sharks, which suggests they were powerful swimmers.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-diet">Habitat and diet</h3>



Mosasaurs inhabited a wide range of marine environments, from nearshore to open ocean.



Their diet was diverse, including fish, ammonites, smaller reptiles, and mollusks. As apex predators, they played a crucial role in their ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-nbsp">Reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



Mosasaurs were viviparous, giving birth to live young in water, which is a trait shared with some modern lizards and snakes.



Little is known about their growth rates and lifespan, but it's likely that they grew rapidly to reach their large sizes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinction">Extinction</h3>



Mosasaurs, along with many other marine reptiles, went extinct during the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event about 66 million years ago, which also wiped out the dinosaurs.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h3>



Fossils of mosasaurs, including complete skeletons, have been found on every continent, including Antarctica. Studying these fossils can provide valuable insights into the marine ecosystems of the Cretaceous period.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42369-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Mighty predators: Uncovering the dietary secrets of mosasaurs 

Researchers have revealed new insights into the dietary habits of...

A recent study from <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a> (CSU) has highlighted the crucial role earthworms play in global food production, a significant yet often overlooked aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-soils-may-be-deeply-changed-by-global-warming/">soil biodiversity</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earthworms-contribution">Earthworms' contribution</h2>



The research, led by Dr. Steven Fonte and his team, reveals that earthworms contribute to about 6.5% of global grain yield and 2.3% of legumes produced each year.



The researchers found that earthworms account for an estimated 140 million metric tons of food produced annually.



This figure is comparable to the cereal grains produced annually by Russia, the world's fourth-largest producer.



"This is the first effort that I'm aware of that's trying to take one piece of soil biodiversity and say, 'this is the value of it; this is what it's giving us on a global scale,'" said Dr. Fonte, the study's lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-productivity-nbsp">Plant productivity&nbsp;</h2>



Earthworms promote healthy soils in different ways. They enhance soil structure, optimize water retention, and enrich the soil by churning organic matter, making essential nutrients more accessible to plants.



In fact, the presence of earthworms has been linked to a surge in plant productivity by an estimated 25 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-variations-nbsp">Geographic variations&nbsp;</h2>



The impact of earthworms on food production is more pronounced in the global south, accounting for up to 10% of grain yield in sub-Saharan Africa and 8% in Latin America and the Caribbean.



The greater impact in certain regions is attributed to the reliance on earthworm-rich organic matter, as opposed to chemical fertilizers and pesticides.



"Earthworms are contributing a lot in these areas where we have fewer chemical inputs," said Fonte.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The team, including Nathan Mueller and Marian Hsieh (supported by a U.S. National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship), conducted their analysis by overlaying maps of earthworm abundance with data on soil properties, fertilizer rates, and crop yields.



The study focused on four grain crops (rice, maize, wheat, barley) and a range of legumes, including soybeans, peas, chickpeas, lentils, and alfalfa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-biodiversity-nbsp">Soil biodiversity&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Fonte noted that soil biodiversity has historically been undervalued, and he hopes this work will bring more attention to how healthy soils can have positive, tangible impacts on crops.  &nbsp;



 “If we manage our soils in a more sustainable way, we can better harness or leverage this biodiversity and produce more sustainable agroecosystems,” said Dr. Fonte. “This work highlights that potential.” &nbsp;



Dr. Fonte also noted that other recent research has shown that soils contain as much as half the world’s biodiversity, a significant increase from previous estimates of approximately 25 percent.&nbsp;



“Soils are just such an intricate habitat,” he said. “But there’s really been very few efforts to understand what that biodiversity means to our global crop yields.”  



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



According to Dr. Fonte, insights from this study could also have implications in future efforts to mitigate drought and erosion. For example, he said, earthworms can improve soil porosity, aiding in the beneficial capture and retention of water.  



The researchers emphasized that they are not advocating for anyone to transplant earthworms into places they do not already exist.&nbsp;



Dr. Fonte hopes this work shows how improved management of soil biology in places where earthworms already call home has the potential to enhance agricultural productivity and reduce our reliance on agrochemicals. He said the study marks an important first step.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-41286-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Earthworms are unseen heroes in food production

A recent study from Colorado State University (CSU) has highlighted...

A recent study by <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> (MSU) has explored the role of pets in influencing human well-being during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-made-covid-19-patients-sicker-for-longer/">COVID-19</a> pandemic.&nbsp;



Pets have been long recognized for their positive impact on human well-being, both mentally and physically. Previous research suggests that pets increase levels of hormones such as dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin in humans, which are associated with feelings of happiness​​.&nbsp;



Additionally, interacting with pets has been shown to reduce blood pressure, slow heart rates, and decrease cortisol levels, a hormone related to stress​​.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perceived-benefits-of-pets">Perceived benefits of pets</h2>



The study involved 767 participants and was conducted over three periods in May 2020. The goal was to understand the impact of pet ownership on well-being during some of the most challenging weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic.



Pet owners in the study often reported positive experiences with their pets, such as increased positive emotions, affection, and companionship. They believed their pets made them happier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contrasting-data">Contrasting data</h2>



Despite these positive sentiments, the study found no significant difference in well-being between pet owners and non-pet owners.&nbsp;



This finding was consistent regardless of the type of pet, the number of pets owned, the closeness with the pet, or the personality of the owner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights">New insights</h2>



William Chopik, an associate professor in MSU’s Department of Psychology and co-author of the study, expressed that although people believe pets boost happiness, the study's measurements did not support this notion.&nbsp;



“People say that pets make them happy, but when we actually measure happiness, that doesn’t appear to be the case,” said Chopik. “People see friends as lonely or wanting companionship, and they recommend getting a pet. But it’s unlikely that it’ll be as transformative as people think.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-well-being-nbsp">Emotional well-being&nbsp;</h2>



The research team speculated that non-pet owners might have other sources of happiness in their lives. Chopik emphasized the importance of not relying solely on pets for emotional well-being and considering other avenues that could contribute to happiness.



“Staking all of your hope on a pet making you feel better is probably unfair and is maybe costly given other things you could do in your life that could improve your happiness,” said Chopik.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The study challenges the widely held belief that pets are a surefire way to enhance one’s happiness, particularly in times of crisis like the pandemic. It suggests that while pets can provide emotional support and companionship, they may not significantly impact overall well-being compared to other factors in a person's life.&nbsp;



Further research is needed to explore the complex relationship between pet ownership and human happiness, especially in varying contexts and life situations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-pet-ownership-nbsp">Benefits of pet ownership&nbsp;</h2>



Despite the finding that pets did not improve well-being during the pandemic, the benefits of pet ownership are well-documented.



Previous studies indicate that pet owners tend to have healthier hearts, are less likely to stay home sick, make fewer visits to the doctor, get more exercise, and are less prone to depression compared to non-pet owners.&nbsp;



Furthermore, pets - especially dogs and cats - are known to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression, ease loneliness, encourage exercise and playfulness, and even improve cardiovascular health. The role of pets is particularly significant in the development of children and the companionship they provide to older adults.&nbsp;



Caring for an animal can help children grow up to be more secure and active, and for older adults, pets offer valuable companionship​​.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/01461672231203" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin</a>.



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Pets did not improve emotional well-being during the pandemic

A recent study by Michigan State University (MSU) has explored...

A team of Chinese researchers has reported the first live birth of a chimeric monkey, a significant stride in the field of biomedicine and genetic engineering.&nbsp;



The chimeric monkey, composed of cells from two distinct embryonic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finally-a-cure-for-baldness-scientists-regrow-hair-using-stem-cells/">stem cell</a> lines of the same monkey species, represents a major advancement. Until now, this had only been achieved in rats and mice.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pioneering-effort">Pioneering effort</h2>



The research team, led by Zhen Liu of the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> (CAS), heralds this success as a "long-sought goal in the field."



“This research not only has implications for understanding naive pluripotency in other primates, including humans, but it also has relevant practical implications for genetic engineering and species conservation," said Liu.



"Specifically, this work could help us to generate more precise monkey models for studying neurological diseases as well as for other biomedicine studies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The team focused on cynomolgus monkeys, which are widely used in biomedical research. By establishing nine stem cell lines from 7-day-old blastocyst embryos and enhancing their pluripotency, the researchers set the stage for a groundbreaking experiment.&nbsp;



The pluripotent cells, marked with green fluorescent protein, were injected into early monkey morula embryos and implanted in female macaques, leading to 12 pregnancies and six live births.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-successful-results">Successful results</h2>



The experts confirmed that one live-born monkey and one fetus that was miscarried were substantially chimeric, containing cells that grew out of the stem cells throughout their bodies.&nbsp;



These stem cells, present across various tissues including the brain, heart, kidney, liver, and gastrointestinal tract, accounted for 21% to 92% of the live monkey.&nbsp;



In both animals, the researchers found stem-cell-derived cells in the testes and cells predestined to become sperm, underscoring the comprehensive nature of this chimerism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



“In this study, we have provided strong evidence that naive monkey pluripotent stem cells possess the capability of differentiating in vivo into all the various tissues composing a monkey body,” said study co-author Miguel Esteban of BGI Research and CAS. “This study deepens our understanding of the developmental potential of pluripotent stem cells in primate species.”



“This work helps us to better understand naive pluripotency in primate cells,” added study co-author Qiang Sun of CAS. “In the future, we will try to increase the efficiency of this method for generating chimeric monkeys by optimizing the culture conditions for the stem cells, the cultures for the blastocysts where the stem cells are inserted, or both.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-chimeric-monkeys-nbsp">More about chimeric monkeys&nbsp;</h2>



A chimeric monkey refers to an individual monkey that is made up of cells from two different embryos, essentially combining genetic material from two distinct sources within the same species. In this context, the term "chimeric" is derived from "chimera," a creature from Greek mythology that was a combination of different animals. In biological terms, a chimera is an organism that contains cells with different genetic compositions.



In the case of the chimeric monkey discussed in the CAS study, it was created by injecting cells from monkey embryonic stem cell lines into a monkey embryo at an early stage of development. These stem cells were derived from a different individual than the embryo into which they were injected.&nbsp;



As the embryo developed, it incorporated these stem cells, resulting in an organism where some of the cells have one genetic makeup and others have a different genetic makeup. This process creates a unique individual with a mix of cells from two genetically distinct sources.



Image Credit: Cell/Cao et al.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.10.005" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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World first: Live birth of a chimeric monkey created with stem cells

A team of Chinese researchers has reported the first live...

According to two new studies led by the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a>, the poison frog Allobates femoralis, while not possessing the toxicity of some of its relatives, is remarkable for its varied behavioral traits. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eu-responsible-for-extinction-of-frog-populations/">frogs</a> appear to have distinct personalities, with individuals exhibiting boldness, aggression, or a tendency to explore. Notably, these character traits are present from an early stage, even in tadpoles.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproductive-strategies">Reproductive strategies</h2>



Unlike the highly poisonous frogs used by indigenous Colombians for hunting, Allobates femoralis frogs are not venomous. However, they exhibit distinct personality traits, influencing their reproductive strategies. With multiple partners during a reproductive period, the character traits of both males and females play a significant role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



Previous studies typically focused on the impact of personality on a single aspect of reproductive success. However, the new studies from the University of Bern’s Institute of Ecology and Evolution offer a broader perspective.&nbsp;



The team examined the effects of different combinations of personality traits on various components of reproductive success, including mating success and the survival of offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-experiments-nbsp">Behavioral experiments&nbsp;</h2>



An intriguing aspect of these studies is the discovery that personality traits in Allobates femoralis are already present at the tadpole stage and persist through metamorphosis. This was established through field and laboratory behavioral experiments.



The research team, led by Eva Ringler, a professor at the Institute of Ecology and Evolution at the University of Bern, studied a wild population of these frogs in French Guiana. This unique environment allowed for a comprehensive understanding of individual behavioral differences and their reproductive success.&nbsp;



Experiments were also conducted at the Hasli Ethological Research Station of the University of Bern to observe personality trait stability post-metamorphosis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-important-insights">Important insights</h2>



The findings indicate that no single behavioral type ensures reproductive success. Personality traits like boldness, aggression, and explorativeness have varying impacts depending on the context. For instance, males attracting multiple females tended to be either non-aggressive and non-exploratory, or very aggressive and exploratory.



“The two studies demonstrate the importance of considering individual differences in ecological and evolutionary research. They also provide important insights into the mechanisms that both generate animal personality and maintain it over evolutionary time,” Ringler explained.&nbsp;



The results further suggest that personality traits may have a physiological and/or a genetic basis. “Future studies should investigate the extent to which personality is inherited in poison frogs to better understand how genetic factors may constrain behavioral variation,” she added.



These studies - published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.1551">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a> - offer a comprehensive look at how individual behavioral traits can influence reproductive strategies and success, showcasing the complexities of animal behavior and its evolutionary implications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-allobates-femoralis">More about Allobates femoralis</h2>



Allobates femoralis, commonly known as the brilliant-thighed poison frog, is a species of frog in the family Aromobatidae. It is found in the Amazon rainforest in South America, particularly in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. This species is known for its striking appearance and unique reproductive behaviors.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-nbsp">Appearance&nbsp;</h3>



Allobates femoralis has a distinctive coloration that varies among individuals and populations. Generally, they exhibit a combination of black, brown, and yellow or orange hues. The most notable feature is the bright coloration on their thighs, which can be yellow, orange, or red. These vibrant colors serve as a warning to predators about their toxicity.



In terms of size, these frogs are relatively small, with adults typically measuring between 2 to 3 centimeters in length. They have a slender build and smooth skin, which is typical for many poison dart frogs.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-nbsp">Reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



Allobates femoralis is also known for its unique reproductive behavior. Unlike many other frog species that lay their eggs in water, the females of this species lay their eggs on land, usually in moist leaf litter.&nbsp;



After the eggs are fertilized, the male takes on the responsibility of guarding them until they hatch. Once the tadpoles emerge, the male carries them on his back to a nearby water source, such as a stream or a pool, where they continue their development into froglets.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



In terms of habitat, Allobates femoralis prefers tropical rainforests with high humidity and access to fresh water. They are typically found in lowland forests but can also inhabit secondary forests and disturbed areas.



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Poison frogs have distinct personalities that influence reproduction

According to two new studies led by the University of...

Hummingbird,In,Flight,,Green,Forest,Nature,Habitat,,White-tailed,Hillstar,,Urochroa

In the intricate dance of the forest, where every gap and leaf presents a potential barrier, the hummingbird performs with a grace and skill that defy the limitations of its rigid wings. 



Unlike other birds that bend their wings to navigate the dense foliage, hummingbirds have devised a remarkable set of maneuvers to traverse the tightest of spaces. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a> have uncovered the secrets of these extraordinary feats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hummingbird-wings-navigate-tight-spaces">Hummingbird wings navigate tight spaces</h2>



The study reveals that hummingbirds employ two distinct strategies when faced with narrow passageways in their leafy realms. When confronting slits too slim for their wingspan, these avian acrobats sidestep through. Incredibly, they are able to maintain their elevation with continuous flaps. 



For smaller openings or familiar routes, they adopt a more aerodynamic pose. This strategy involves tucking in their wings and gliding through before resuming their flapping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-study-hummingbird-wings">How to study hummingbird wings</h2>



The amazing research is surprising in its revelation of the hummingbird's lateral motion and intricate wing adjustments. It was led by <a href="https://berkeleyflightlab.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Robert Dudley</a>, a professor of integrative biology at UC Berkeley. 



"For us, going into the experiments, the tuck and glide would have been the default. How else could they get through?" said Dudley. "This concept of sideways motion with a total mix-up of the wing kinematics is quite amazing -- it's a novel and unexpected method of aperture transit. They're changing the amplitude of the wing beats so that they're not dropping vertically when they do the sideways scooch."



Dudley's team included <a href="https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~badger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marc Badger</a>, who completed his Ph.D. at UC Berkeley. They observed that the birds alter their wingbeat amplitude to avoid vertical drops during these maneuvers. The sideways scooch, in particular, might offer the birds a better chance to evaluate and avoid obstacles, which could reduce collision risks.



"Learning more about how animals negotiate obstacles and other 'building-blocks' of the environment, such as wind gusts or turbulent regions, can improve our overall understanding of animal locomotion in complex environments," noted first author Badger. "We still don't know very much about how flight through clutter might be limited by geometric, aerodynamic, sensory, metabolic or structural processes. Even behavioral limitations could arise from longer-term effects, such as wear and tear on the body, as hinted at by the shift in aperture negotiation technique we observed in our study."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hummingbird-obstacle-course">Hummingbird obstacle course</h2>



Other members of the team included UC Berkeley students Kathryn McClain, Ashley Smiley, and Jessica Ye. They ingeniously trained hummingbirds to navigate through variable-sized apertures using high-speed cameras and a computer program developed by Badger. 



They discovered that the birds hover momentarily to assess an aperture before engaging in their unique transit methods. Video of their experiment can be see <a href="https://youtube.com/shorts/ViKSLFMsujI?feature=share" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>.



"We set up a two-sided flight arena and wondered how to train birds to fly through a 16-square- centimeter gap in the partition separating the two sides," Badger said, noting that the hummingbirds have a wingspan of about 12 centimeters (4 3/4 inches). "Then, Kathryn had the amazing idea to use alternating rewards."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted-0">How the study was conducted</h2>



The research team's innovative approach to studying these birds involved alternating rewards with flower-shaped feeders. This compelled the hummingbirds to repeatedly pass through the testing apertures. This method provided a clear view of how hummingbirds manage to maintain lift and thrust even with asymmetrical wing movements.



"The thing is, they have to still maintain weight support, which is derived from both wings, and then control the horizontal thrust, which is pushing it forward. And they're doing this with the right and left wing doing very peculiar things," Dudley said. "Once again, this is just one more example of how, when pushed in some experimental situation, we can elicit control features that we don't see in just a standard hovering hummingbird."



The experiment also demonstrated the birds' capability to adapt their strategies. The faster 'ballistic buzz-through' approach was employed more frequently as the birds grew accustomed to the test setup. Yet, in the face of the smallest gaps, the hummingbirds resorted to the 'tuck and glide' move. This adaptation indicates a versatile and adaptive approach to obstacle navigation.



"They seem to do the faster method, the ballistic buzz-through, when they get more acquainted with the system," Dudley said.



The findings also highlight the birds' resilience. Only 8% of the hummingbirds experienced wing clipping, and even then, they quickly recovered and continued their flight.



"The ability to pick among several obstacle negotiation strategies can allow animals to reliably squeeze through tight gaps and recover from mistakes," Badger noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-applications-through-biomimicry">Real world applications through biomimicry</h2>



The implications of these findings stretch far beyond biological curiosity. Understanding how birds like hummingbirds navigate cluttered spaces could inform the design of drones capable of better maneuvering in complex environments. 



Badger suggests that the flapping wings and sensory prowess of birds might offer insights that could revolutionize how drones interact with their surroundings, especially in turbulent or obstructed areas.



"Current remote control quadrotors can outperform most birds in open space across most metrics of performance. So is there any reason to continue learning from nature?" said Badger. "Yes. I think it's in how animals interact with complex environments. If we put a bird's brain inside a quadrotor, would the cyborg bird or a normal bird be better at flying through a dense forest in the wind? There may be many sensory and physical advantages to flapping wings in turbulent or cluttered environments."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-avian-flight-research">Next steps for avian flight research</h2>



Dudley's team aims to delve deeper into the mystery of avian navigation by testing the birds with a series of varied apertures, seeking to understand how they address multiple obstacles in succession. Their research stands as a testament to the hummingbird's ingenuity, revealing the intricate strategies these tiny creatures employ to thrive in their complex habitats.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article-abstract/226/21/jeb245643/334536/Sideways-maneuvers-enable-narrow-aperture" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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Hummingbirds adjust their wings to fly through very tiny spaces

In the intricate dance of the forest, where every gap...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/undergraduate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> has revealed an intriguing aspect of avian reproductive behavior, specifically in desert birds known as white-browed sparrow weavers. The researchers discovered that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diving-birds-face-a-greater-risk-of-extinction/">birds</a> lay larger eggs when more female helpers are present to assist in feeding the chicks.&nbsp;



The study emphasizes the non-breeding female helpers' influence on the mother's egg size, contrasting with the negligible impact of male helpers who feed chicks less frequently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-energy-to-invest-nbsp">More energy to invest&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Pablo Capilla-Lasheras, the lead author from the University of Exeter and now affiliated with the University of Glasgow, pointed towards a reduction in the maternal workload at the chick-feeding stage as a probable explanation for this phenomenon.&nbsp;



“We don’t yet fully understand why helped mothers are laying heavier eggs, but our results point towards one likely explanation,” said Dr. Capilla-Lasheras. “Helpers may allow mothers to invest more in offspring at the egg stage by lightening maternal workloads at the chick-feeding stage."



“Our findings support this, as mothers with more female helpers did indeed enjoy significantly lighter workloads at the chick-feeding stage.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperative-species">Cooperative species</h2>



This research is one of the first to show that cooperatively breeding birds actually change the size of their egg according to their social environment.



“Helpers feed offspring after they hatch in birds, or are born in mammals, but our findings highlight that helpers could have hitherto unexplored beneficial effects on offspring even before they are born, by triggering an increase in maternal investment before birth,” said study senior author Dr. Andy Young.



“This discovery has potential implications for other cooperative species too, including ourselves, because this maternal strategy of increasing investment in offspring before birth when helped, whether in the egg or in the womb, could be something that occurs more widely across cooperative species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-context-of-the-study">Context of the study</h2>



The insights stem from a comprehensive ten-year field study involving 40 family groups of white-browed sparrow weavers at the Tswalu Kalahari Reserve in South Africa.&nbsp;



The study's context is particularly compelling given the harsh and unpredictable environment of the region, with cooperative breeding seen as a strategy to ensure the reliable rearing of chicks.



Sparrow weavers stand out for their impressive level of cooperation, with up to 10 helpers assisting a breeding pair. The helpers completely give up their own reproduction, remaining within their family as non-breeding adults for up to six years while helping to raise their parents’ young.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-browed-sparrow-weavers">White-browed sparrow weavers</h2>



White-browed sparrow weavers (Plocepasser mahali) are fascinating birds native to the arid savannas and semi-deserts of eastern and southern Africa. These birds are noted for their distinct social structure and cooperative breeding behavior. Here are some key points about them:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-structure-nbsp">Social structure&nbsp;</h3>



They live in family groups where typically only one pair breeds, while others, usually their grown offspring, act as helpers.



Breeding pairs are assisted by up to ten helpers, which is quite a high number for cooperative breeding birds.



Helpers, particularly females, play a significant role in rearing chicks, which influences the breeding pair's reproductive strategies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nesting-and-habitat">Nesting and habitat</h3>



Their nests are large, community structures made of grass and twigs, with separate chambers for each pair. These nests can be used year-round, providing shelter from extreme weather and predators.



The birds inhabit regions where the climate is harsh and resources can be scarce, requiring a collaborative effort to survive and reproduce.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



The sparrows' diet mainly consists of insects, seeds, and grains, which they forage for on the ground or in low shrubbery. The need to find sufficient food for the chicks is a driving factor for the cooperative nature of their breeding.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-and-conservation">Research and conservation</h3>



The species is of interest to researchers studying the evolution of social behavior and cooperative breeding in birds.



While currently not endangered, they provide valuable insights into the ecological balance of their habitats and the potential impacts of climate change on arid-zone birds.



The long-term study of these birds, like the one conducted in the Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, adds to our understanding of their complex social behavior and reproductive strategies, and how these are influenced by environmental factors.



The research was funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC).



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002356" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Andrew Young



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Sparrows lay larger eggs when they have help and support 

A new study from the University of Exeter has revealed...

A recent study has revealed a link between the common, cat-borne parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) and the onset of frailty in older adults. The study sheds new light on the potential long-term impacts of this parasitic infection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-health-risks">Significant health risks</h2>



The study's authors, including Professor Christopher Lowry of <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a>, emphasize that a causal relationship has not been proven, but the strong association suggests that further research is needed to understand the implications of T. gondii on aging.



“We often think of T. gondii infection as relatively asymptomatic, but this study highlights that for some people it may have significant health consequences later on,” said Professor Lowry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



In the study, blood samples and health markers related to frailty were analyzed from over 600 older adults. Frailty is a condition that is characterized by unintentional weight loss, exhaustion, reduced mobility, muscle loss and cognitive decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis revealed that 67 percent of the study participants had signs of a latent infection. The experts discovered that higher antibody levels against the parasite correlated with an increased likelihood of being frail.



According to the researchers, higher antibody levels could reflect a more virulent or widespread infection, multiple infections or recent reactivation of a latent infection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



“This paper is important because it provides, for the first time, evidence of the existence of a link between frailty in older adults and intensity of the response to T. gondii infection,” said co-author Professor Blanca Laffon.



This association has raised questions about the parasite's role in age-related inflammation and muscle wasting.&nbsp;



While T. gondii is often harbored in the body without notice, its long-term presence, especially when reactivated, could lead to serious health implications, including mental health issues and increased risk-taking behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-parasite-is-spread">How the parasite is spread</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-have-a-better-quality-of-life-if-you-play-with-them/">Cats</a>, as the definitive hosts of T. gondii, can spread the parasite through their feces. When a cat is infected, the parasites form oocysts that are shed in the cat's feces. These oocysts can survive in the environment for many months and can infect humans and other animals if ingested.&nbsp;



The infection can occur through handling cat litter or soil that contains cat feces, contaminated food or water, and undercooked meat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-silent-threat">Silent threat</h2>



Up to 15 percent of Americans have been infected with T. gondii at some point, and these rates are higher among older individuals. In some countries, more than 65 percent have been infected.&nbsp;



The parasite can remain dormant for years, and calls for more investigation into how it might be managed or prevented from causing harm, particularly among vulnerable populations like the elderly or those with compromised immune systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The findings suggest a need for further research into how T. gondii infection could exacerbate "inflammaging," a term referring to the chronic inflammation that accompanies aging.



The researchers hope their work will spur further exploration into the T. gondii-frailty connection and lead to strategies that mitigate the parasite's negative effects on health.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, they advise caution to avoid infection. It’s especially important for pregnant women and immunocompromised individuals to take precautions.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/advance-article/doi/10.1093/gerona/glad228/7334598?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



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Common cat parasite linked to frailty in older adults

A recent study has revealed a link between the common,...

The intricate stripes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-with-more-white-spots-are-more-likely-to-survive-their-migration-journey/">spots</a> found in animal patterns have long been a subject of scientific curiosity. In a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a> provide new insights that might explain this natural phenomenon.&nbsp;



The study points towards a process known to help clean laundry as a potential factor in the development of these patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



“Many biological questions are fundamentally the same question: How do organisms develop complicated patterns and shapes when everything starts off from a spherical clump of cells,” said study first author Benjamin Alessio. “Our work uses a simple physical and chemical mechanism to explain a complicated biological phenomenon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-nbsp-of-animal-patterns">Formation&nbsp;of animal patterns</h2>



This perspective aligns with the early speculations of mathematician Alan Turing who, even before the discovery of the DNA double helix, suggested that pattern formation could be the result of a reaction-diffusion model where chemical agents interact to create spots and inhibit their spread to form space between them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diffusiophoresis">Diffusiophoresis</h2>



However, Turing's model does not account for the sharpness of the patterns observed in nature. It was during a visit to the Birch Aquarium that Alessio noted the precise patterns on a boxfish which seemed to parallel the results of his computer simulations showing sharply defined stripes through a process called diffusiophoresis.&nbsp;



This phenomenon occurs when molecules move in response to concentration gradients and thereby influence the movement of other molecules.&nbsp;



It's a principle evident in everyday life, such as when dirt is removed from laundry. Soap diffuses into less concentrated water and pulls the dirt out with it, a process not occurring if the water's soap concentration is already high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted-nbsp">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The team ran simulations with Turing's equations alone, which produced blurry patterns, unlike what is observed in nature. When diffusiophoresis was incorporated, the results showed sharp and vivid patterns akin to those on the boxfish.&nbsp;



The implication of their findings is that as chemical agents spread through tissue, they could be dragging pigment-producing cells into clear, sharp formations through diffusiophoresis - much like soap captures dirt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-nbsp-of-animal-patterns">Significance&nbsp;of animal patterns</h2>



This new theory has the potential to extend beyond just explaining animal patterns. It offers new insights that could spur developments in engineering, materials science, and even medical research.&nbsp;



Study co-author Professor Ankur Gupta hopes that continuing this research can also improve the understanding of pattern formation, inspiring scientists to develop&nbsp; innovative materials and even medicines.&nbsp;



“Our findings emphasize diffusiophoresis may have been underappreciated in the field of pattern formation," said Gupta.



"This work not only has the potential for applications in the fields of engineering and materials science but also opens up the opportunity to investigate the role of diffusiophoresis in biological processes, such as embryo formation and tumor formation."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adj2457" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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How animals got their patterns of spots and stripes

The intricate stripes and spots found in animal patterns have...

An extraordinary discovery has been made in the Dallas-Fort Worth area of Texas, as experts have identified a new dinosaur species that lived approximately 96 million years ago. The species, named Ampelognathus coheni, is particularly significant because herbivorous dinosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plesiosaur-fossils-are-the-first-evidence-of-jurassic-vertebrates-in-texas/">fossils</a> are seldom found in North Texas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



According to the researchers, Ampelognathus coheni is the first small-bodied ornithopod dinosaur discovered from the Lewisville Formation.



“The significance of this discovery is that it provides a previously missing but predicted element of that ancient ecosystem,” study co-author Christopher Noto told Sci News. “Naming a new species is always exciting, because it means we’re adding new information to science.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-initial-discovery-nbsp">Initial discovery&nbsp;</h2>



The initial discovery was made in 2020 near Lake Grapevine, where a two-inch-long fragment of the dinosaur's jawbone was unearthed. Subsequent analysis confirmed that it was indeed a new species, as reported in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2023.2257238" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-the-fossil-record">Changes in the fossil record</h2>



Paleontologists from the <a href="https://www.perotmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perot Museum of Nature and Science</a> who have been studying Ampelognathus coheni noted the major changes that occurred in the fossil record during the time of its existence.&nbsp;



"The ‘mid’ Cretaceous marked a time of great change in North American terrestrial ecosystems. Vertebrate taxa with Asian origins began traversing the newly established connection of Beringia and appear in the North American fossil record, angiosperms were on their rise to dominance in terrestrial floras, and previously diverse North American groups declined or disappeared from the fossil record," wrote the study authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-size">Small size</h2>



The experts estimate that Ampelognathus coheni would have been comparable in size to a border collie and weighed between 20 and 60 pounds.&nbsp;



"It's a little bitty animal," Ron Tykoski, vice president of science at the Perot, told the Dallas Morning News. "You could almost hold its head in your hand."



The name of the species pays tribute to both the location where it was found, with "Ampelos" meaning vine in Greek, and to Murray Cohen, the volunteer who discovered the fossil.



At first, the experts believed the jawbone was from a small crocodile. "It wasn't until we got it back to the lab and got under a microscope and cleaned it up using little pins and needles that we realized it was not like a little crocodile, but instead it was a new little kind of dinosaur," said Tykoski.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-anatomy-nbsp">Unique anatomy&nbsp;</h2>



The unique jaw anatomy of Ampelognathus coheni set it apart from any other known species, indicating it was not just a smaller variant of a previously identified dinosaur.



"The newly described dentary is similar in overall form to those of non-iguanodontian ornithopods such as Nanosaurus agilis, Hypsilophodon foxii, Changchunsaurus parvus, and Haya griva," wrote the researchers.



"However, the combination of low coronoid process, number of dentary tooth positions, lack of diastema between predentary contact and first dentary alveolus, proportions and orientation of predentary facets, and torsion of the dentary on its long axis distinguish it from these other taxa."



Image Credit: Ron Tykoski



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'Little bitty' dinosaur species found in North Texas

An extraordinary discovery has been made in the Dallas-Fort Worth...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...