In a constantly changing world, animals, including humans, must adapt quickly to their environment and make decisions that lead to the best possible outcomes.&nbsp;



Typically, this type of learning occurs through direct experience, where animals rely on past experiences involving the same choices when faced with a decision between two specific options.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-experience-and-knowledge">Balancing experience and knowledge</h2>



However, animals with more advanced brains, such as apes and monkeys, are capable of inferring the outcome of a decision based on their knowledge of similar past situations, even if they have not directly experienced those particular options before.&nbsp;



This means that decision-making often involves a balance between experience-based strategies and knowledge-based strategies. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visually-striking-primate-features-ease-tension-and-reduce-conflict/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a>, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is responsible for managing this balance. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-role-in-decision-making-nbsp">The brain’s role in decision-making&nbsp;</h2>



The orbitofrontal cortex not only plays a direct role in decision-making but also helps to “update” the internal values primates use to evaluate the potential benefits of any given option.&nbsp;



Moreover, the OFC is essential for assessing options that an individual has not directly experienced.&nbsp;



Despite this understanding, the precise roles of the OFC in decision-making and whether these roles rely on separate neuronal pathways have remained unclear and difficult to study.



Fortunately, a research team from Japan has made significant progress in shedding light on this issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selectively-activating-neuronal-pathways-nbsp">Selectively activating neuronal pathways&nbsp;</h2>



The team was led by Kei Oyama and Takafumi Minamimoto from the <a href="https://www.qst.go.jp/site/qst-english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology</a>. 



The researchers used a cutting-edge approach they previously developed to selectively activate and deactivate different neuronal pathways originating from the OFC in monkeys during specially designed behavioral tasks. This innovative method allowed the experts to uncover the independent functions of these pathways.



In these behavioral experiments, macaque monkeys were presented with two images to choose from, and depending on their choice, they received a predetermined amount of juice as a reward. The monkeys quickly learned to associate specific images with the amount of juice they would receive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capacity-to-learn-from-experience-nbsp">Capacity to learn from experience&nbsp;</h2>



To further test the monkeys' decision-making abilities, the researchers periodically changed the set of images presented and reversed the reward values, meaning the worst options became the best and vice versa.&nbsp;



These tasks assessed the monkeys’ capacity to learn from experience (via trial and error) and to handle familiar situations (via knowledge-based inference).



As the monkeys performed these tasks, the researchers employed a genetically introduced chemical switch called a chemogenetic receptor, which could turn specific OFC neurons on or off upon the administration of a drug.&nbsp;



Using computed tomography, positron emission tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging to guide their procedures, the team locally injected a drug to temporarily silence distinct neuronal pathways originating from the OFC.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specific-functions-of-the-neuronal-pathways-nbsp">Specific functions of the neuronal pathways&nbsp;</h2>



By observing changes in the monkeys' performance, the researchers determined the specific functions of these pathways.&nbsp;



The experts discovered that the OFC pathway connecting to the caudate nucleus is critical for experience-based adaptation, while the pathway linking to the mediodorsal thalamus plays a key role in knowledge-based adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-decision-making-in-humans">Understanding decision-making in humans</h2>



Given that monkey brains are remarkably similar to human brains in structure, the study's findings hold important implications for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human behavior</a>.



“One key implication of our work is that it could help explain why individuals approach the same situation in different ways. Some people may rely more on trial-and-error, while others prefer a more systematic approach based on prior knowledge,” Minamimoto explained.



“These differences in thinking styles, or 'thought patterns,' might be linked to how each person's brain activates these specific circuits, and understanding these variations could help us develop personalized strategies for improving decision-making and problem-solving skills for those who might struggle with one particular type of thinking.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding the specific roles of brain structures also has significant implications for the study of neuropathologies and psychiatric disorders.



“Our findings could contribute to new treatments for mental and neurological disorders like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocd-disconnect-knowledge-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obsessive-compulsive disorder</a>, where patients have difficulty adapting to changing situations,” said Oyama.



“By targeting the specific brain circuits involved in these two strategies, we may be able to create more effective therapies that help restore balanced thinking.”



Furthermore, the research has potential applications in the fields of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-boosts-creativity-but-reduces-variety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a> and robotics, where insights into brain circuits could inspire the development of more adaptable systems capable of switching between different problem-solving methods depending on the situation.



Although the brain remains one of the most complex puzzles in the known universe, studies like this represent important progress toward a deeper understanding of how it operates, both in humans and other animals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-50505-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Optimal decision-making is a balance of experience and knowledge

In a constantly changing world, animals, including humans, must adapt quickly to their environment and make decisions that lead to the best possible outcomes.&nbsp; Typically, this type of learning occurs through direct experience, where animals rely on past experiences involving the same choices when faced with a decision between two specific options. Balancing experience and knowledge However, animals with more advanced brains, such as apes and monkeys, are capable of inferring the outcome of a decision based on their knowledge of similar past situations, even if they...

The mysterious tale of the pygmy right whale has been a topic of heated scientific debate for decades. These elusive creatures, the smallest members of the baleen whale family, possess a tank-like skeleton, an aspect that sets them apart from other whales and has shrouded their evolutionary origins in mystery.&nbsp;



However, an international team of researchers may have finally put this debate to rest by delving into the depths of the whale's genetics, morphology, and paleontology.



The pygmy right whale, scientifically known as Caperea marginata, has long been a source of contention among scientists due to its unique skeletal structure and the lack of comprehensive understanding regarding its ecological behaviors. However, a breakthrough study recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mms.13047">Marine Mammal Science</a> has shed light on this ancient evolutionary puzzle.



<h2 id="h-distinct-lineage">Distinct lineage&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Felix Marx, co-author of the study and curator of marine mammals at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, suggests that the skull shape of the pygmy right whale is likely adapted for skim-feeding. This feeding style involves the whale swimming with its mouth open at the water's surface, collecting food as it goes.



"This is very similar to the larger true right whale, leading some scientists to believe the two whales are closely related, hence their similar names. However, others believe the pygmy right whale is more closely related to species like the blue whale, which take big gulps of water to collect food instead of skimming," explained Dr. Marx.



"After 150 years of anatomical orthodoxy and decades of dispute, genomics now shows beyond reasonable doubt that Caperea is a distinct lineage and not related to right whales. Like river dolphins and sperm whales, Caperea is the sole guardian of a unique piece of evolutionary heritage. It’s not just another weird right whale – it truly is the last survivor of an otherwise lost family that once played a much bigger role in Earth’s history."



Dr. Kieren Mitchell, co-lead author of the study and a scientist at Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research, emphasized how new genetic information often leads scientists to reevaluate why certain animals exhibit more or fewer similarities. "When DNA and anatomy seem to be at odds about the relationship between species, usually that means there's an even deeper and more interesting story to be discovered about their evolution," said Dr. Mitchell.



<h2 id="h-convergent-evolution">Convergent evolution</h2>



Dr. Nic Rawlence, Otago Palaeogenetics Laboratory Director, describes the case of the Caperea as a prime example of convergent evolution. This phenomenon is when two unrelated species begin to bear greater resemblance to each other as they adapt to similar environmental pressures.&nbsp;



"Caperea has historically been aligned with right whales because they look the same due to similar feeding strategies, when, in fact, it’s probable that Caperea is the last surviving member of an ancient group of whales called cetotheres," said Dr. Rawlence.



<h2 id="h-future-research">Future research</h2>



With the pygmy right whale's evolutionary position finally affirmed, scientists are eager to delve deeper into the specifics of this whale’s lineage. Dr. Ludo Dutoit, co-lead author and a scientist at Otago’s Department of Zoology, said researchers can now start to explore the lineage of Caperea and identify significant past events that shaped its evolution.



Dr. Marx noted that Caperea may serve as another example of how unique adaptations can ensure survival. "River dolphins likely survived the demise of their marine relatives because they invaded freshwater habitats; sperm whales persisted when their toothed relatives disappeared because they were deep-diving suction specialists; and Caperea survived because it adapted to be a skim filter feeder, when most of its relatives presumably didn’t.”



This groundbreaking study highlights the remarkable power of genomics in resolving long-standing evolutionary debates, unraveling the mysteries of nature's enigmatic creatures, and illuminating the extraordinary resilience of life in Earth’s diverse habitats.



<h2 id="h-more-about-pygmy-right-whales">More about pygmy right whales</h2>



The pygmy right whale (Caperea marginata) is a baleen whale, part of the cetacean species which also includes dolphins and porpoises. It is the smallest of the baleen whales, typically reaching lengths of 6-7 meters (approximately 20-23 feet).



Distinctively, it is the only member of its family, Neobalaenidae. The species was first described in 1846 and it's known to inhabit the Southern Hemisphere's temperate and subpolar waters, particularly around New Zealand, South Africa, and South America.



The pygmy right whale's physical appearance differs quite significantly from the other right whales. It has a dark gray or black color on top and a lighter underbelly, along with a curved, falcate dorsal fin located far down its back. One of its most distinguishing features is its narrow, arching rostrum (upper jaw).



Like other baleen whales, the pygmy right whale feeds by filtering small organisms such as zooplankton and krill from the water using its baleen plates.



Despite being known to science for nearly two centuries, the pygmy right whale is one of the least studied of all whale species, partly due to its elusive behavior and preference for open ocean habitats. Hence, details about its population, life cycle, behaviors, and threats are still somewhat unclear.



—-



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The unique evolutionary journey of the pygmy right whale

The mysterious tale of the pygmy right whale has been...

Biologists have long known that many species of birds use human-made, often sharp materials to build their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-behavior-beak-shape-can-predict-nest-materials/">nests</a>. With the first report of a crow’s nest made of barbed wire dating back to 1933, and recent observations of the use of materials such as nails, screws, and even drug users’ syringes in nest building, birds seem highly proficient in adapting to urban life by taking advantage of a variety of anthropogenic objects they find in the environment.&nbsp;



Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.naturalis.nl/en">Naturalis Biodiversity Center</a> in Leiden and the <a href="https://www.hetnatuurhistorisch.nl/en/">Natural History Museum</a> in Rotterdam has discovered an even more surprising and innovative type of bird nests, made – quite ironically - from anti-nesting spikes.



<h2 id="h-crazy-bird-nests">Crazy bird nests</h2>



In cities, anti-bird spikes are found on many buildings. Although these sharp metal spikes are used to scare away birds, and stop them from building nests, the scientists have recently collected nests of a carrion crow (Corvus corone) and a Eurasian magpie (Pica pica) that were largely constructed with these materials originally designed to deter birds.&nbsp;



“It’s like a joke, really,” said lead author Auke-Florian Hiemstra, a biologist at Naturalis. “Even for me as a nest researcher, these are the craziest bird nests I’ve ever seen.”



“Just when you think you’ve seen it all after half a century of studying natural history, these inventive crows and magpies really surprise me again,” added co-author Cornelis Moeliker, the director of the Natural History Museum Rotterdam.



<h2 id="h-using-the-tools-to-their-advantage">Using the tools to their advantage&nbsp;</h2>



One of these nests was spotted in a courtyard of a hospital in Antwerp, Belgium by a patient. This enormous magpie nest consisted of nearly 1,500 metal spikes pulled from as many as 50 meters of anti-bird pins. “An impregnable fortress because the magpies appear to be using the pins exactly the same way we do: to keep other birds away from their nest,” Hiemstra explained.



Magpies usually look for thorny plants to construct roofs that prevent the robbery of eggs and offspring by other birds. However, urban life seems to be rich in other possibilities - not only for magpies in Belgium, but also for other species, such as crows, in the Netherlands or Scotland. Besides anti-bird spikes, other materials the scientists discovered include barbed wire, knitting needles, condoms, fireworks, cocaine wraps, windshield wipers, and sunglasses.



“This innovative use of bird spikes for nest construction can be seen as a modification of a pre-existing natural behavior and shows the flexibility of nest-building behavior and use of materials," wrote the researchers.



"In today’s Anthropocene epoch, there is more anthropogenic material present than natural biomass, and it may thus not come as a surprise that these spikey alternatives are being adopted by urban birds. If even bird deterring material is used as nesting material, anything may become part of a bird’s nest today."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.hetnatuurhistorisch.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/documents-nmr/Publicaties/Deinsea/Deinsea_21/Deinsea_21_17_25_2023_Hiemstra_et_al.pdf">Deinsea</a>. The huge magpie nest discovered in Antwerp can be seen from July 11 as a new highlight in the LiveScience room of Naturalis, while a crow’s nest built of anti-bird pins is now featured at the Natural History Museum Rotterdam as part of the recently opened exhibition “National Park Rotterdam.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-bird-nests">More about bird nests</h2>



Bird nests are structures that birds create for laying eggs and raising their offspring. The size, shape, and materials used for the nest vary greatly depending on the species of bird.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-types-of-bird-nests">Types of bird nests</h3>



<h4 id="h-cup-nests">Cup nests</h4>



These are the typical nests most people envision when they think of bird nests. They are usually built in the forks of trees or shrubs and are shaped like a cup. They are often made of twigs, grass, and mud, and are lined with soft materials like feathers or moss. Examples of birds that build cup nests include robins and finches.



<h4 id="h-platform-nests">Platform nests</h4>



These nests are usually larger and flatter than cup nests. They're often built on tree branches or on the ground, and can also be found on human structures like telephone poles or buildings. Eagles, hawks, and ospreys typically build platform nests.



<h4 id="h-cavity-nests">Cavity nests</h4>



Some birds prefer to nest in cavities, which can be natural (like a hollow in a tree) or man-made (like a nest box). They may also excavate their own cavities in softwood trees or termite nests. Examples of cavity nesters include owls, woodpeckers, and some species of ducks.



<h4 id="h-pendant-nests">Pendant nests</h4>



Some birds, like the oriole or weaver bird, construct elaborate hanging nests that resemble a pendant. These nests are woven from plant fibers and hung from tree branches.



<h4 id="h-mound-nests">Mound nests</h4>



Certain bird species, such as the mallee fowl and brush turkey, build large mound nests on the ground. These nests are often made from leaves, soil, and compost, and they use the heat generated from the composting process to incubate their eggs.



<h4 id="h-burrow-nests">Burrow nests</h4>



Some birds, like kingfishers and puffins, dig burrows in the ground, in riverbanks, or even in snowbanks for their nests.



<h4 id="h-scrape-nests">Scrape nests</h4>



These are simple nests that involve scraping a shallow depression in the ground or on a cliff ledge. The bird may line the scrape with pebbles or vegetation. Many shorebirds, like plovers and gulls, make scrape nests.



Nests not only serve as a place for laying eggs and rearing young, but also provide some degree of protection against predators. Different bird species have evolved different strategies for their nests, reflecting the diversity of environments and survival challenges they face.



—--



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Rebellious birds use anti-bird spikes to build their nests

Biologists have long known that many species of birds use...

An,Adult,Eastern,Diamondback,Rattlesnake,(crotalus,Adamanteus),In,Mid-strike,,Revealing

Climate change is turning up the heat in Georgia, and the state's snake population is responding with an uptick in venomous snake bites. A disturbing <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GH000781">study</a> reveals that for every degree Celsius rise in daily temperature, the rate of snake bites swells by roughly 6%.



This alarming correlation has recently been unveiled in <a href="https://connect.agu.org/geohealth/home">GeoHealth</a>, a leading journal that highlights studies exploring the interconnection between human and planetary health, aiming for a sustainable future.



Our globe's temperatures are creeping upward. As this happens, cold-blooded creatures such as snakes, which are more active in the warmer weather, are becoming more prevalent.



Noah Scovronick, a health and environmental scientist at <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html">Emory University</a>, spearheaded the study. He states, “Venomous snake bites are classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a high-priority neglected tropical disease.”



<h2 id="h-venomous-snake-bites-are-a-global-concern">Venomous snake bites are a global concern</h2>



It's no small issue. Every year, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exotic-snakebites-have-increased-over-the-last-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes bite</a> approximately 5 million people worldwide. These bites result in up to 138,000 deaths, according to WHO data.



The relationship between weather fluctuations and human-snake encounters remains largely unknown. This is partly due to a lack of reliable data on the causes of sickness and death in areas where snake bites are most deadly.



Scovronick further commented, “We don’t know much about how weather — meaning short term changes in meteorology — drive human-snake interactions.”



<h2>Studying snake bite trends</h2>



Georgia holds the unfortunate distinction of being a hotspot for snakes in the United States. Georgia has an abundance of snake species. These include 17 types of venomous snakes, seven of which are dangerous enough to be medically concerning. This fact makes it an ideal state to investigate the phenomenon.



Scovronick, alongside his team, sifted through statewide hospital records between 2014 to 2020. They discovered 3,908 visits to hospitals during this period were due to venomous snake bites.



By comparing these instances to daily weather reports, they found notable correlations between snake bite occurrences and maximum air temperatures. The study also considered variables like the month and day of the week.



<h2>What scientists learned about venomous snakes</h2>



The researchers made an interesting observation. While summers recorded the highest snake bite numbers, spring showed the strongest link between temperatures and snake bites.



It's speculated this might be due to snakes becoming more active and reproducing in spring, while the heat of summer could potentially slow them down. Still, Scovronick admits this hypothesis requires further research.



Scovronick emphasized that this study didn't make future predictions about snake bite rates. However, he stressed the importance of conducting similar studies in other states to get a comprehensive view of the risk on a national level.



Scovronick believes even with modest data and the use of established epidemiological methods, significant insights can be gleaned about snake bite patterns.



However, it's important to note that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rattlesnakes-may-benefit-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">higher temperatures</a> in Georgia don't automatically mean an increase in hospital admissions due to snake bites.



<h2>More education is key</h2>



Co-author of the study and Emory University herpetologist, Lawrence Wilson, explains that the pivotal factor in mitigating these unfortunate encounters is education. By being aware of the favored habitats of snakes, such as areas with dense ground cover, people can take precautions.



"Snakes and people can live compatibly, even venomous snakes, as long as we respect and understand their habitats and needs,” says Wilson.



Still, the odds of human-snake encounters are on the rise. This unfortunate fact is fueled by the dual forces of climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snake-bites-kill-dogs-much-faster-than-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban expansion</a>.



Wilson notes, “As human development in Georgia and especially the Atlanta area are expanding rapidly, human-snake encounters are going to continue to increase and already have.”



While the study's specific findings pertain to Georgia, it underscores an urgent need for similar research in other regions with different climatic conditions and snake species, asserts Scovronick.



<h2>More about venomous snakes</h2>



Venomous snakes inhabit environments worldwide. They belong to a few key families: Viperidae, Elapidae, Hydrophiidae, and Atractaspididae.



These snakes use venom to immobilize their prey. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-provides-a-new-understanding-of-snake-venom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a> is a mix of proteins and enzymes, varying by species. Some venoms are neurotoxic, affecting the nervous system and potentially causing paralysis. Other venoms are cytotoxic or hemotoxic, causing tissue damage or disrupting blood clotting.



<h3>How snakes use their venom</h3>



Venomous snakes deliver their venom through specialized fangs. Vipers have long, foldable fangs, while elapids have shorter, fixed fangs.



The impact of a snake's bite depends on its species and size, the bite's location and depth, and the amount of venom injected.



<h3>Venomous snake bites occur all around the world</h3>



These snakes live across the globe, but they most densely populate warm, tropical regions. Many sport vivid colors and patterns as a warning to predators.



Usually, venomous snakes only bite humans when threatened. Most bites occur when humans inadvertently step on a snake or come too close, or when humans try to handle or kill the snake. Globally, snake bites kill tens of thousands annually, and many more suffer injuries.



<h3>Behavior of venomous snakes</h3>



Venomous snakes display interesting behaviors. For example, female rattlesnakes care for their newborns, and king cobras, the world's longest venomous snake, build nests for their eggs.



Scientists find medical potential in snake venom, with some components used in drugs treating high blood pressure, heart conditions, and diabetes.



The conservation status of venomous snakes varies by species and region. Some are common, while others are endangered due to habitat loss and persecution. Despite public fear and misunderstanding, venomous snakes play crucial roles in their ecosystems and need our respect and understanding.

Venomous snake bites are more likely to occur in warmer weather

Climate change is turning up the heat in Georgia, and...

A new study from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> has revealed that same-sex sexual behavior (SSB) in macaque monkeys is not just prevalent, but may actually lead to evolutionary advantages.&nbsp;



Over three years, the researchers observed a wild colony of 1,700 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-structure-of-rhesus-macaques-is-shaped-by-social-interactions/">rhesus macaques</a> on the tropical island of Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico. The experts gained fascinating insights that challenge some long-standing beliefs about non-human animal behavior.



“We found most males were behaviorally bisexual, and that variation in same-sex activity was heritable," said study first author Jackson Clive from the Georgina Mace Centre for the Living Planet at Imperial. He noted that such behavior has potential evolutionary underpinnings, suggesting that it is not solely the product of unusual environmental conditions or a rarity in the animal kingdom.



<h2 id="h-social-benefits">Social benefits&nbsp;</h2>



Clive pointed to the possibility of social benefits linked to same-sex activity. "We also found that males that mounted each other were also more likely to back each other up in conflicts," he said. "Our research therefore shows that same-sex sexual behaviors can be common amongst animals and can evolve. I hope our results encourage further discoveries in this area.''



The researchers meticulously recorded all social "mountings" among 236 males, both same-sex and different-sex interactions. The results revealed that same-sex mountings were more common than different-sex mountings, with 72% of males engaging in the former and only 46% in the latter.



<h2 id="h-ongoing-debate">Ongoing debate</h2>



Despite the frequency of same-sex sexual behavior being noted in various animal species, ranging from insects to penguins, there is still debate and speculation over its purpose.&nbsp;



Theories include its role in establishing dominance, the effect of a shortage of different-sex partners, or its use as a method to defuse tension post-aggression. However, empirical data has often been insufficient to lend credence to these hypotheses.



In this regard, the macaque study made significant strides. The researchers discovered a strong correlation between same-sex sexual behavior and "coalitionary bonds" within the macaque colony, suggesting that male pairs often engaging in SSB were more likely to support each other during conflicts. This, in turn, implies that SSB can enhance an individual's social standing and survival prospects within the group.



<h2 id="h-reproductive-success">Reproductive success&nbsp;</h2>



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02111-y">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>, unearthed new evidence regarding the heritability of same-sex sexual behavior.&nbsp;



The team found no correlation between SSB and a decrease in offspring. Rather, it appeared that males engaging in same-sex sexual behavior may have higher reproductive success, possibly due to the advantages of stronger coalitionary bonds.&nbsp;



Genetic data from the study showed SSB to be 6.4% heritable, a rate comparable to other heritable behaviors like grooming and sociality.



The results challenge the idea that same-sex sexual behavior is counter to nature and evolution, also known as the "Darwinian Paradox."&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-genetic-basis">Genetic basis&nbsp;</h2>



Furthermore, the researchers discovered a genetic correlation between the tendency of certain males to be "mounters" or "mountees" during same-sex sexual behavior. This suggested that these behaviors might have a common genetic basis and were not related to an individual's social position or a method of asserting dominance within the group.



While the researchers caution against drawing direct comparisons between macaque behavior and human sexual orientation, they believe their study provides substantial evidence to challenge the belief that SSB is unusual or rare in non-human animals.



<h2 id="h-natural-behavior">Natural behavior&nbsp;</h2>



Professor Vincent Savolainen, the lead researcher and Director of the Georgina Mace Centre for the Living Planet at Imperial, pointed to the implications of these findings. "Unfortunately there is still a belief amongst some people that same-sex behavior is 'unnatural,' and some countries sadly still enforce the death penalty for homosexuality. Our research shows that same-sex behavior is in fact widespread amongst non-human animals."



Savolainen emphasized the team’s mission to deepen our understanding of same-sex sexual behavior, including its potential benefits in the animal kingdom. "Amongst the macaques we looked at in this study, more than two-thirds displayed same-sex behaviour and this behavior strengthened the bonds within the community."



While more research is needed, this study highlights a poorly understood aspect of animal behavior. By highlighting the prevalence and potential benefits of same-sex sexual behavior in non-human primates, it challenges widely held beliefs and opens the door for further investigation.



—-



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Same-sex sexual behavior is very prevalent and linked to evolutionary advantages in monkeys

A new study from Imperial College London has revealed that...

In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists have identified a new extinct species of small penguins that lived in New Zealand three million years ago. These creatures, described as "ridiculously cute," are ancestors of little penguins that continue to thrive today along the coasts of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.



After careful examination of two fossilized skulls - one belonging to an adult, the other to a juvenile - the researchers named the new species Wilson's little penguin. The study was published last month in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-paleontology/article/pliocene-fossils-support-a-new-zealand-origin-for-the-smallest-extant-penguins/A722D072F8EE3B5FC194A33EF7DBC47F">Journal of Paleontology</a>.



According to Bob Yirka of Phys.org, the newly discovered species represents the oldest-known extinct little penguin. Given that the researchers have only the skulls of the extinct animals at their disposal - not their entire skeletons - certain details about the Wilson's little penguins remain uncertain.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-evolution-of-little-penguins">Evolution of little penguins&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers speculate that the size of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diving-birds-face-a-greater-risk-of-extinction/">birds</a> may have paralleled that of contemporary little penguins, standing approximately 13.5 inches tall and weighing around two pounds. 



Notably, the experts found that the extinct penguins had somewhat narrower skulls compared to their modern counterparts.



The discovery of this ancient species broadens our understanding of the lineage and evolution of little penguins. The data suggest that we can trace back the origins of this avian group to New Zealand, or Aotearoa.



The relatively static nature of this penguin lineage, which has remained virtually unchanged despite significant environmental shifts over millions of years, is particularly intriguing. 



Paleontologist Daniel Ksepka, a co-author of the study, discussed this surprising constancy in a recent <a href="https://fossilpenguins.wordpress.com/2023/06/26/a-tiny-fellow-joins-the-march-of-the-fossil-penguins/">blog post</a>.



Study co-author Daniel Thomas, a zoologist at New Zealand’s Massey University, emphasized the importance of this research in understanding the biodiversity and evolution of Aotearoa. 



"This is important when thinking about the origins of these penguins, the evolution of the seabird diversity of Aotearoa, and the dynamic environment in which they live,” he stated. 



Thomas drew attention to the changing climate throughout the penguins' long history, emphasizing that "this lineage has been robust to those changes."



<h2 id="h-climate-concerns">Climate concerns</h2>



The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) categorizes today's little penguins as a species of "least concern," estimating that around 470,000 of these birds are still in existence.&nbsp;



However, there are indications that climate change may be beginning to impact these hardy creatures. Instances of mass mortality events, such as the discovery of hundreds of starved or hypothermic little penguins on northern New Zealand coasts last summer, hint at a shifting balance.



Scientists link these fatalities to rising ocean surface temperatures, which drive fish - the penguins' primary food source - into deeper, cooler waters. Little penguins, despite being competent swimmers, are limited by their diving depth of 100 feet. This unfortunate limitation leaves them at risk of starvation.



Concerned about the impact of escalating global warming, researchers are studying past climate change patterns to predict the potential consequences for Zealandia's flora and fauna. The skulls of Wilson's little penguins are set to play a vital role in this investigation.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-biodiversity-forecast">Biodiversity forecast&nbsp;</h2>



A team led by Alan Tennyson, the vertebrate curator at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa and a study co-author, will examine these fossils to gather data on the species that existed in warmer climates in the region's distant past.



This analysis forms the foundation for what Thomas describes to NZ Herald's Jamie Morton as a "biodiversity forecast." The researchers plan to use this ancient data to project potential future changes to the ecosystem as temperatures continue to rise.



"With millions of years of environmental change now being compressed into just a few human lifetimes, rising temperatures are enabling tropical animals to expand their ranges, leading to potentially irrevocable changes in wildlife communities in Aotearoa and other higher latitude locations,” Thomas told the NZ Herald.



The same research team recently made another significant discovery: they unearthed evidence of the largest-known penguin species on Earth. These colossal birds, weighing in at 340 pounds, roamed New Zealand approximately 50 million years ago.



<h2 id="h-more-about-little-penguins">More about little penguins</h2>



Little penguins, also known as blue penguins or fairy penguins, are native to the coastlines of southern Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. In New Zealand, they are also known by the Maori name kororā. They are particularly well-known residents of Phillip Island in Victoria, Australia, where a popular tourist attraction, the Penguin Parade, allows visitors to observe their nightly return to shore from the sea.



Little penguins are monogamous and usually mate for life. They build their nests in burrows, under shrubs, or in crevices on the coastal mainland and islands. In these nests, they typically raise one to two chicks at a time, feeding them a diet of small fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans.



As nocturnal creatures, little penguins spend their days at sea hunting for food, and they come ashore after sunset. Despite their small size, they are surprisingly good swimmers and can dive up to about 100 feet deep when foraging for food.



While the discovery of the Wilson's little penguin has provided scientists with an invaluable glimpse into the evolutionary history of these charming birds, it also underscores the need for ongoing research and conservation efforts to ensure their survival in a rapidly changing world.



—-



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Little penguins that once lived in New Zealand were ridiculously cute

In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists have identified a new extinct...

By balancing effort with the possibility of risks and rewards, honey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-brains-size/">bees</a> make extremely rapid and accurate assessments of which flowers are most likely to provide them high-quality food – an amazing capacity that emerged after millions of years of evolution, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/">University of Sheffield</a>.&nbsp;



The researchers created a model of decision-making in bees and outlined the neural pathways that enable this capacity. As a result, the experts hope to enhance our understanding of both insect brains and how our own brains have evolved, while opening new pathways toward designing better robots.



“Decision-making is at the core of cognition,” said study senior author Andrew Barron, a professor of Biological Sciences at the <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/">Macquarie University</a> in Australia. “It’s the result of an evaluation of possible outcomes, and animal lives are full of decisions. A honey bee has a brain smaller than a sesame seed. And yet she can make decisions faster and more accurately than we can. A robot programmed to do a bee’s job would need the back up of a supercomputer.”



“Today’s autonomous robots largely work with the support of remote computing. Drones are relatively brainless, they have to be in wireless communication with a data center. This technology path will never allow a drone to truly explore Mars solo – NASA’s amazing rovers on Mars have travelled about 75 kilometers in years of exploration.”



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



In their daily lives, bees are forced to work quickly and efficiently, finding nectar and returning it to their hives, while avoiding a variety of predators. To accomplish this, they need to make fast decisions regarding which flowers have nectar and what are the possible risks of predation while landing on these flowers.



“We trained 20 bees to recognize five different-colored ‘flower disks.’ Blue flowers always had sugar syrup. Green flowers always had quinine [tonic water] with a bitter taste for bees. Other colors sometimes had glucose,” explained lead author HaDi MaBouDi, a research fellow in Complex Systems at Sheffield.&nbsp;



“Then we introduced each bee to a ‘garden’ where the ‘flowers’ just had distilled water. We filmed each bee then watched more than 40 hours of video, tracking the path of the bees and timing how long it took them to make a decision.”&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The investigation revealed that, if the bees were confident that a flower would have food, they would quickly decide to land on it, taking an average of 0.6 seconds. Similarly, if they were confident that a flower would not have food, they would just as quickly decide not to land on it. However, if they were unsure, they would take much more time – approximately 1.4 seconds – to reach a decision.&nbsp;



Afterwards, the scientists built a computer model aiming to replicate the bees’ decision-making processes, and discovered that the structure of this model turned out to be very similar to the physical layout of a bee’s brain.



“Our study has demonstrated complex autonomous decision-making with minimal neural circuitry. Now that we know how bees make such smart decisions, we are studying how they are so fast at gathering and sampling information. We think bees are using their flight movements to enhance their visual system to make them better at detecting the best flowers,” Marshall explained.



Since millions of years of evolution have led to highly efficient brains with very low power requirements, AI researchers have much to learn in devising robots from insects and other “simple” animals. Thus, the future of AI is likely to be inspired by biology, according to Marshall, who is also the co-founder of <a href="https://opteran.com/">Opteran</a>, a company devising algorithms inspired by insect brains to make autonomous machines as robust and efficient as nature.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.86176">eLife</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-bee-brains">More about bee brains</h2>



Despite having relatively small brains, bees have remarkable cognitive abilities. A bee's brain is capable of complex tasks like navigation, memory, and learning. Here are some notable aspects about the bee brain:



<h3 id="h-structure">Structure</h3>



A bee's brain is divided into different sections, each of which has a specific role. The mushroom bodies are responsible for sensory integration and learning, the antennal lobes are involved in olfaction (the sense of smell), and the optic lobes are responsible for visual processing.



<h3 id="h-memory-and-learning">Memory and learning</h3>



Bees are capable of associative learning, meaning they can associate certain smells or visual cues with rewards such as nectar. This ability is useful for remembering the locations of flowers. Bees have both short-term (a few seconds to minutes) and long-term memory (days to weeks), allowing them to remember the locations of food sources.



<h3 id="h-navigation">Navigation</h3>



Bees use a combination of path integration, landmark recognition, and even the sun's position in the sky to navigate. They can remember the direction and distance of their hive from a food source and communicate this information to other bees using a "waggle dance".



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



Bees are also capable of sophisticated forms of communication. The most famous example is the waggle dance, which they use to tell other bees the direction and distance to a food source. The angle of the dance relative to the vertical indicates the direction relative to the sun, and the duration of the waggle phase indicates the distance.



<h3 id="h-number-sense">Number sense</h3>



Recent studies suggest that bees even have a basic understanding of numerical concepts. They can be trained to recognize colors representing specific quantities, and to choose between different numbers of shapes or symbols.



<h3 id="h-problem-solving">Problem solving</h3>



Bees have shown the ability to solve complex problems. For example, some studies have shown that bees can learn to pull a string or push a ball to receive a reward, demonstrating an understanding of cause and effect.



It's important to note that while bees show these remarkable abilities, their brains are fundamentally different from human brains. They have evolved to be incredibly efficient at performing specific tasks necessary for their survival and reproduction, but they don't have the same general intelligence that humans do. The study of bee brains and behavior can provide fascinating insights into how complex cognitive processes can emerge from relatively simple neural structures.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Bees make incredibly fast decisions - with a brain smaller than a sesame seed

By balancing effort with the possibility of risks and rewards,...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>, warmer springs are causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bees-struggle-to-recover-after-extreme-weather-events/">bees</a> in the UK to wake up earlier from hibernation, threatening the pollination of important crops such as apples or pears.&nbsp;



The experts found that, for each degree Celsius rise in temperature, wild bees emerge from their nests 6.5 days earlier on average. This could cause them to lose sync with the plants on which they depend and thus have less food to consume, meaning they may not have sufficient energy to pollinate crops effectively, or may even miss crop blossom completely.



“Rising temperatures are making life tougher for bees. Warmer conditions mean bees emerge from hibernation earlier, but there may not be enough food to provide energy for them when they start buzzing about,” said study lead author Chris Wyver, a doctoral student in Entomology at Reading.



“Matching wake-up dates with plant flowering is vital for newly emerged bees because they need to find pollen and nectar to increase their chances of survival and produce offspring. A mismatch means bees cannot pollinate effectively."&nbsp;



"Less natural pollination could lead to farmers needing to use managed honeybees, meaning greater costs, which may be passed on to consumers. We could see even more expensive apples, pears, and vegetables in supermarkets as a result.”



<h2 id="h-alarming-results">Alarming results</h2>



By using over 350,000 individual recordings of bees emerging from hibernation, the researchers examined 88 different species of wild bees over a period of four decades in order to identify shifts in emergence dates, both over time and in relation to temperature changes.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that, on average, the 88 species emerged four days earlier per decade, with some species emerging earlier than others (since different species of bees respond differently to changing temperatures). The results are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.10284.">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



With winters projected to be one to 4.5 degrees Celsius warmer and up to 30 percent wetter by 2070, spring is likely to continue to start earlier and affect bees even more radically.&nbsp;



These shifts in bee emergence will have a major impact on plants that are heavily dependent on pollination, such as apple trees, which might not be ready to flower by the time bees emerge from hibernation.



<h2 id="h-fruitwatch">FruitWatch&nbsp;</h2>



To better understand how climate change affects the flowering of fruit trees and pollination by bees, the scientists have recently set up <a href="https://fruitwatch.org/ords/r/livefw/fruit-watch101/home?tz=1:00">FruitWatch</a>, a project encouraging people to report when fruit trees in their gardens and nearby parks start to flower.&nbsp;



Users’ submissions – of which over 6,500 have been received in two years – will help researchers build a larger and more reliable database documenting the impact of climate change on a variety of ecosystems.



<h2 id="h-more-about-bee-hibernation">More about bee hibernation&nbsp;</h2>



Not all bees hibernate, but many do experience a period of reduced activity or dormancy during the colder months, which could be likened to hibernation.



In temperate climates, most species of bees are seasonal creatures that are most active during the warmer months of the year. As temperatures drop and food sources become scarce, many bees enter a kind of "winter rest."



For example, honey bees do not hibernate in the traditional sense. Instead, they cluster together in their hives to stay warm, shivering their bodies to generate heat and feeding on the honey they collected during the warmer months. The queen is protected at the center of the cluster.



By contrast, bumblebees do experience a form of hibernation. The mated queens are usually the only members of the bumblebee colony to survive the winter, hibernating underground and emerging in spring to establish a new colony.



Many solitary bees, like mason bees and leafcutter bees, have a life cycle that involves a period of dormancy during the winter, but they spend this time as larvae or pupae in their nests, not active adults.



So while "hibernation" may not be the scientifically accurate term for all bee species, many bees do have adaptations to survive the winter in some form of dormant state.&nbsp;



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Bees emerge from hibernation 6.5 days earlier for each degree of warming

According to a new study led by the University of...

In an intriguing new study, researchers have found that a bird's choice of nest materials strongly correlates with the dimensions of its beak. This discovery is based on an extensive data analysis involving close to 6,000 bird species. The experts report that beak shape could accurately forecast the type of nesting material a bird might utilize.



The comprehensive research was a collaborative effort by researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> and the University of St Andrews. Their innovative approach to the study involved employing random forest models - a machine learning algorithm widely used for pattern recognition and data analysis.&nbsp;



The objective was to use these models to analyze beak data and predict corresponding nesting material preferences.



<h2 id="h-surprising-findings">Surprising findings</h2>



The researchers were surprised to discover an unexpectedly robust correlation between beak characteristics and nest materials. With only the knowledge of beak shape and size at their disposal, the experts were able to predict broad nest material usage in 60 percent of species. In some instances, their predictive accuracy reached as high as 97 percent.



These intriguing findings, published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rstb">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>, provide a detailed exploration of the ecological and evolutionary factors behind these relationships. The researchers acknowledge certain variables influencing their results, such as the fact that not all species have equal access to all types of nest materials.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



"We know a lot about primate hands, but not as much about how other animals use their limbs and mouths to manipulate objects," said Dr. Catherine Sheard, the lead author of the study from Bristol's School of Earth Sciences. "We're very excited about the potential applications of our findings, to further explore how beak shape may have co-evolved with other aspects of nest building or other functions."



Dr. Shoko Sugasawa, the senior author of the study based at the University of St Andrews, emphasized the significance of these insights in understanding animal evolution. "Most animals, including birds, do not have hands like ours, but manipulating objects like nest material and food is such a crucial part of their lives."&nbsp;



"Our finding is the first step to reveal possible interactions between the evolution of beaks and manipulation like nest building, and helps us better understand how animals evolved to interact with the world with or without hands," said Dr. Sugasawa.



<h2 id="h-future-research">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



The team is now conducting new research that is focused on anthropogenic nest material in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-poisonous-birds-discovered/">bird species</a>. The aim is to understand which birds incorporate human-made materials such as plastic, wire, or cigarette butts into their nests. A key area of interest is determining if there's a correlation between this behavior and birds that dwell in urban areas.



Dr Sheard expressed her curiosity on how beak shape influences other nest attributes. "I’m also interested in how beak shape relates to other properties of the nest, including overall nest structure, such as whether birds build nests with walls, or a roof."



The study sheds light on the intriguing connection between the physical traits of birds and their behavior. The ongoing research will continue to unravel the complexities of evolution, nest-building behavior, and the impact of human activity on the world's birds.



<h2 id="h-more-about-bird-beaks">More about bird beaks</h2>



Bird beaks, also known as bills, are a prominent feature of birds and are extremely diverse, reflecting a wide range of adaptations to different environments and lifestyles. Here are a few key points about bird beaks:



<h3 id="h-shape-and-size">Shape and size</h3>



The size and shape of a bird's beak can tell a lot about its diet and behavior. For example, birds that eat seeds often have strong, short beaks for cracking open the seeds, while birds that eat nectar have long, thin beaks for reaching into flowers. Birds of prey have sharp, curved beaks for tearing meat, while shorebirds have long, thin beaks for probing into mud for invertebrates.



<h3 id="h-temperature-regulation">Temperature regulation</h3>



Bird beaks also play a role in regulating body temperature. Some species, particularly those living in hot climates, can increase blood flow to their beaks to lose heat and cool down.



<h3 id="h-sensory-organ">Sensory organ</h3>



The beak is a sensory organ that provides birds with detailed information about their environment and the food they eat. It contains nerve endings, allowing the bird to feel what it's doing.



<h3 id="h-tool-use">Tool use</h3>



Some birds, like crows and parrots, use their beaks as tools to find food and manipulate objects.



<h3 id="h-nesting-and-mating">Nesting and mating</h3>



Beaks play a role in building nests. Some birds have beaks specially adapted to weaving intricate structures. In many species, beak color and health can be indicators of fitness, playing a role in mate selection.



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



Some birds use their beaks for communication. They may tap their beaks to signal aggression or clack them together as part of mating displays.



The extraordinary diversity of bird beaks is a prime example of evolution in action, illustrating how a basic structure can be modified in countless ways to suit a species' needs.



—-



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Bird behavior: Beak shape can predict nest materials

In an intriguing new study, researchers have found that a...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uc.edu/">University of Cincinnati</a> have found compelling evidence that extinct dwarf hippos, once indigenous to the island of Madagascar, were forest dwellers as opposed to their mainland African counterparts that favored open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-can-be-managed-to-benefit-biodiversity-and-soil-health/">grasslands</a>. The study illuminates the significant role that forests played in Madagascar's ecological past, challenging previous notions about the island's landscape.



In the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10402">Plants, People, Planet</a>, the experts report that the extensive grasslands that currently dominate Madagascar are more a result of recent human-driven changes than a naturally sustained habitat influenced by the island's large vegetarian fauna.



<h2 id="h-malegasy-hippos">Malegasy hippos</h2>



When Madagascar detached from mainland Africa around 150 million years ago, it evolved independently, nurturing a unique ecosystem secluded in the Indian Ocean. Unlike the mainland that was populated with elephants, giraffes, rhinos, and other large mammals, Madagascar had small hippos.



These dwarf or Malagasy hippos were much smaller than their four-ton relatives - the common hippos. Still yet, the dwarf hippos were one of the island's largest land animals, along with Nile crocodiles and the gigantic flightless elephant bird.&nbsp;



The Malagasy hippos, roughly the size of a cow, bore a striking resemblance to the endangered pygmy hippos presently inhabiting the forests and swamps of Liberia and Guinea in West Africa, noted study lead author Professor Brooke Crowley.



“Ecologically, we think the Malagasy dwarf hippos were pretty close to the pygmy hippos that live in forests in West Africa,” said Professor Crowley. This assertion is based on an isotopic analysis of stable carbon and nitrogen found in the bones of the extinct Malagasy dwarf hippos, providing a 'fingerprint' of the animals' diet, thereby shedding light on their preferred habitats.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers sampled bones from both museums and ones they collected on the island, and the analysis revealed that the dwarf hippos did not regularly graze on grass in dry, open habitats, even in regions presently dominated by grassland.&nbsp;



On the contrary, they seemed to favor plants found in wetter, forested landscapes. This finding suggests that forests were more prevalent before human interference began to alter the landscape for agriculture, domestic livestock grazing, and obtaining firewood and building materials.



The common hippopotamus, found on the mainland, is a known lover of grass, earning it its name from the Greek words for “river horse.” As part of their nocturnal routine, they depart from the safety of rivers and waterholes to graze on fresh grass, returning only at dawn.&nbsp;



However, the researchers found that grass represented only a small part of the diet of Malagasy dwarf hippos, who were more inclined to feed on sedges and leaves, behaving more like browsers than grazers.



<h2 id="h-human-impacts">Human impacts</h2>



“For years we’ve seen evidence that these animals were not grazers,” said study co-author Professor Laurie Godfrey of the University of Massachusetts Amherst. She argues that the extinction of hippos on the island was likely triggered by the advent of permanent human communities transitioning from hunting and gathering to pastoralism and crop cultivation



Professor Godfrey calls this theory the "Subsistence Shift Hypothesis," an extension of a similar idea previously proposed by noted archaeologist Robert Dewar. “There is pretty compelling convergent evidence showing that many of the extinct animals disappeared in a short window of time coinciding with the transition of people from hunting and gathering to pastoralism,” said Professor Crowley.



<h2 id="h-conservation-actions">Conservation actions</h2>



Given the importance of forests for Madagascar's wildlife as underlined by the study, Professor Crowley advocates for the restoration of native forests on the island. She contests the idea that grasslands were a critical habitat, at least not for the island's hippos.&nbsp;



“Some colleagues argue that grasslands are ancient and that we need to protect and manage them like we do forest,” says Crowley, “I would argue that forests are far more important. We are not contending that grasses did not exist in the past, but pointing out that there is no evidence for large grasslands devoid of trees prior to about 1,000 years ago.”



Emphasizing the urgent need for novel conservation efforts, the researchers concluded: “It is clear that Madagascar faces a biodiversity crisis much greater than that which it has already endured. Preventing this crisis will demand new conservation actions.”&nbsp;



—-



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Dwarf hippos of Madagascar were forest dwellers, not grazers

Researchers at the University of Cincinnati have found compelling evidence...

Why are there no kangaroos in Bali, and no tigers in Australia? A new study led by biologists from The <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a> (ANU) and <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zurich</a> in Switzerland is shedding light on why animals in this part of the world are divided by an invisible boundary. 



Australia is a sanctuary for a variety of marsupial species, including the iconic kangaroo and the koala. But as you travel westward, these marsupials become scarce. On the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, you will only encounter a handful of Australian mammals, and they are completely absent on the neighboring island of Borneo. By contrast, Australia lacks several animals typically found in Asia, such as bears, tigers, and rhinos.



This abrupt shift in animal species caught the attention of the celebrated British naturalist and co-discoverer of evolutionary theory, Alfred Russell Wallace. During his expedition through the Indo-Australian Archipelago from 1854 to 1862, Wallace discovered a biogeographical separation between Bali and Lombok, and between Borneo and Sulawesi. This invisible boundary is now known as Wallace’s Line.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-plate-tectonics-played-a-role">Plate tectonics played a role</h2>



But how did this distribution pattern emerge in the first place? It turns out that plate tectonics played a significant role. Forty-five million years ago, the Australian Plate began its journey northwards, sliding beneath the mighty Eurasian Plate.&nbsp;



This phenomenon brought the two distant land masses closer, facilitating the migration of land creatures between the two continents. In addition, tectonic movements led to the formation of numerous islands, acting as stepping stones for animals and plants to journey eastward or westward.



Interestingly, more animal species migrated from Asia to Australia, which is documented by the presence of various poisonous snakes, thorny lizards, hopping mice, and flying foxes. This unbalanced distribution of vertebrates along the Wallace Line has been a mystery until now.



To investigate, a team of researchers led by Loïc Pellissier, Professor of Ecosystems and Landscape Evolution at ETH Zurich, developed a comprehensive model. This model combined climate reconstructions, plate displacements from 30 million years ago to the present, and an extensive dataset of about 20,000 birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians found in the region today.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers have published their intriguing findings in the latest issue of the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adf7122">Science</a>. They found that the climate of the originating areas played a significant role in the uneven distribution of Asian and Australian animal species on both sides of the Wallace Line.&nbsp;



According to the model simulations, Asian-originated animals (which were adapted to a tropically humid climate) found it easier to journey across the Indonesian islands and settle in New Guinea and northern Australia. Conversely, Australian wildlife had evolved in a cooler, increasingly dry climate. These animals found it challenging to thrive on the tropical islands.



"The historical context is crucial for understanding the biodiversity distribution patterns observed today and was the missing piece of the puzzle explaining the enigma of Wallace’s line," said Alexander Skeels, the study's first author and a postdoctoral researcher in Pellissier’s group.



<h2 id="h-understanding-today-s-biodiversity-patterns">Understanding today's biodiversity patterns&nbsp;</h2>



Species that evolved in tropical habitats are more competitive, grow faster, and can tolerate a wide range of climates, making it easier for them to settle in new continents. For instance, Australian frogs, adapted to drought and heat stress, bury themselves in the ground and remain dormant for extended periods, a behavior rarely seen in tropical frogs.



"These findings underscore the importance of considering the geological and climatic conditions of prehistoric times to understand today's biodiversity patterns," said Pellissier.&nbsp;



The research helps us comprehend why more species exist in the tropics today than in temperate latitudes. It further underscores our need to understand the processes that have shaped our planet's biodiversity, a fact that is especially relevant given the current rate at which species are being moved between continents due to human activities.



"Knowing the factors that influence exchange on long timescales is crucial to understanding why species can become invasive on more recent timescales," said Skeels, highlighting the consequences of human-induced invasions in the current biodiversity crisis.



"Our findings could also inform predictions for animal migration in the future and help us predict which species may be better versed at adapting to new environments, as changes to Earth’s climate continues to impact global biodiversity patterns."



—-



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Animal mystery: Why tigers don't prowl in Australia and kangaroos don't hop in Bali

Why are there no kangaroos in Bali, and no tigers...

Because they spend a substantial part of their lives soaring above <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-the-most-remote-oceans-are-polluted-with-microplastics/">remote oceans</a>, seabirds have been under the radar of scientists for many years. Now, a study from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> has revealed a shocking revelation about seabird mortality.&nbsp;



Based on data collected by coastal inhabitants, the research sheds light on the grim impact that marine heatwaves have on seabird populations. The new study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps14330">Marine Ecology Progress Series</a>, reveals how marine heat waves have led to an alarming number of seabird fatalities.



As a sentinel of the nearshore marine environment, seabirds play a critical role in the marine ecosystem. Study co-author Julia Parrish, a renowned professor of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, highlighted the global scope of this research.



"This is truly a global data set that asked a global-sized question: Does a warming world significantly impact marine birds, among the top predators in the nearshore marine environment?” The answer, as the study indicates, is a resounding yes.



<h2 id="h-shocking-discovery">Shocking discovery&nbsp;</h2>



The most startling discovery made by the researchers is the lag effect that the marine heatwaves have on seabird mortality. Parrish explained that “a warmer ocean, and certainly a suddenly warmer ocean as happens during an El Niño or a marine heat wave, will result in the death of hundreds of thousands to millions of marine birds within one to six months of the temperature increase.”&nbsp;



Marine heat waves, such as the notorious “blob” which was observed off the Pacific Northwest between 2014 and 2016, along with prolonged El Niño events and warmer Alaskan waters owing to retreating sea ice, have only recently become a topic of concern among scientists and environmentalists.



This extensive study analyzed data spanning from 1993 to 2021, collected through beach surveys that traced the incidence of dead seabirds washed ashore from central California to Alaska. The research aimed to gauge the severity of these mortality events irrespective of species.&nbsp;



“Rather than track the specific numbers of any one species, this study measures the magnitude of mortality events, regardless of seabird species, above long-term normal,” said Parrish.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-catastrophic-mortality-events">Catastrophic mortality events</h2>



The study showed that catastrophic mortality events, where the death toll crossed a staggering quarter-million birds, occurred approximately once every decade. However, this pattern changed dramatically between 2014 and 2019, during which five such events were recorded.



"This is unprecedented. This type of massive die-off can be compared to a catastrophic storm that we would usually expect once per decade; they happen, causing massive damage, but usually, there is enough time for areas to recover," said study lead author Timothy Jones, a research scientist at the University of Washington.



From 2014 to 2019, the die-offs were not only some of the largest ever documented, but they kept happening year after year — like a catastrophic storm hitting without fail every year."



<h2 id="h-warming-waters">Warming waters&nbsp;</h2>



Statistical analysis presented a glaring link between these mass die-offs and the warmer marine conditions in the Northeast Pacific preceding them. Some seabirds, including murres, puffins, auklets, and shearwaters, were the most severely impacted species.&nbsp;



The data encompassed more than 90,000 surveys of 106 seabird species across more than 1,000 beaches. The data was collected from citizen science projects, including COASST, BeachCOMBERS, Beach Watch, and the British Columbia Beached Bird Survey. These programs, through meticulous training, equipped participants to scout local beaches for avian casualties and report their findings.



Furthermore, data from the remote beaches of northwest Alaska were garnered through community members who reported to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Alaska Sea Grant. The study unveiled a trend wherein seabird carcasses started appearing ashore a few months after the marine warming initiated and persisted in a roughly three-year cycle.&nbsp;



While the cause behind each seabird mortality event varied, warmer waters emerged as the common thread linking them. Warmer oceans foster harmful algal blooms and heighten the risk of disease outbreaks, which were both implicated in seabird deaths during the study period.&nbsp;



In addition, the prolonged ocean warming altered the diversity, availability, and nutritional content of the prey that seabirds rely on, culminating in widespread starvation.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



The implications of this study are enormous, as it indicates an irreversible shift in marine ecosystems due to climate change.&nbsp;



“With this intensity of warming, like the looming El Niño in the Pacific or the current marine heatwave in the North Atlantic, we are facing a new ocean. One with fewer birds," said Parrish.



The research is not only a wake-up call for conservationists but also a call to action for humanity to address the escalating challenge of climate change and its far-reaching consequences on our planet’s invaluable biodiversity.



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Marine heatwaves are causing massive seabird mortality events

Because they spend a substantial part of their lives soaring...

A groundbreaking study published in the journal <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/wsb.1444">Wildlife Society Bulletin</a> has revealed that the recovery of bald eagle populations is being significantly impeded by exposure to lead ammunition fragments. These toxic remnants, found in wild game gut piles and carcass parts left behind by hunters, are poisoning bald eagles and increasing their vulnerability to additional threats.



Krysten L. Schuler is an assistant research professor at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> and the principal investigator of the study, which received funding from the Morris Animal Foundation.&nbsp;



"Bald eagles are an iconic American species," stated Professor Schuler. "Despite the apparent population rebound through major conservation efforts, our work showed that environmental lead sickens and kills bald eagles to such a degree that it makes the populations vulnerable to other threats such as avian influenza or wind energy development."



<h2 id="h-reduced-resilience-among-bald-eagles">Reduced resilience among bald eagles</h2>



What sets this study apart from previous research is its innovative methodology developed by mathematician Brenda Hanley, an expert in population demographics.



Hanley's approach utilized data from seven northeastern states to construct a comprehensive picture of the impact of lead poisoning on bald eagles. The findings confirmed that while lead poisoning has not halted the recovery of eagle populations entirely, it has substantially reduced their resilience to other adversities.



The generous support from the <a href="https://www.morrisanimalfoundation.org/">Morris Animal Foundation</a> played a pivotal role in the execution of the study. This support allowed the research team to bring Hanley onboard and create the new modeling tool that was essential for tackling these intricate issues, particularly with limited data.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-stunted-population-growth">Stunted population growth</h2>



Kevin Hynes, a wildlife biologist for the New York Division of Fish and Wildlife and a researcher involved in the study, pointed out that lead poisoning has long been identified as a prevalent cause of eagle fatalities, accounting for over ten percent of bald eagle deaths.&nbsp;



However, the new modeling approach introduced by Hanley enabled the researchers to recognize that lead poisoning is not just a cause of death, but is also stunting the continued growth of eagle populations.



"This is an environmental problem with a currently available and low-tech solution: A simple switch to non-lead ammunition for hunting will eliminate lead ammunition fragments in gut piles and carcass parts, making them unavailable to eagles and other scavengers," Hynes suggested.



By exposing the pernicious effect of lead ammunition on the survival and resilience of the bald eagle populations, this study highlights the need for a re-evaluation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-can-help-stabilize-wildlife-populations/">hunting</a> practices. It ultimately proposes a shift toward non-lead ammunition as an easy yet effective measure to safeguard bald eagles against the deadly threat of lead poisoning.



<h2 id="h-more-about-lead-ammunition-and-wildlife">More about lead ammunition and wildlife</h2>



The use of lead ammunition in hunting and its subsequent impact on wildlife has been an area of growing concern among scientists and conservationists. Lead is a toxic heavy metal that, once introduced into the environment, can have deleterious effects on both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.



When hunters use lead ammunition to hunt game, it often results in lead fragments remaining in the leftover gut piles or discarded carcass parts. Scavengers, including predatory and carrion-eating birds such as bald eagles, vultures, and condors, can ingest these lead fragments while feeding on these remains. This can cause lead poisoning, a serious condition associated with numerous health problems and even death in affected animals.



<h3 id="h-lead-poisoning">Lead poisoning</h3>



Lead poisoning in wildlife typically leads to severe physiological complications, including neurological damage, reproductive failure, and weakened immune systems. It's not just birds that are affected; mammals, too, can experience these effects when they ingest lead particles present in their environment or their prey.



Research has shown that lead poisoning has contributed significantly to the mortality rates of various bird species. For example, a study published in the journal "Wildlife Society Bulletin" found that lead poisoning from ammunition fragments was not only causing sickness and death among bald eagles, but it was also reducing their ability to withstand other threats, impeding the continued growth of their populations.



<h3 id="h-widespread-ecological-impacts">Widespread ecological impacts</h3>



Furthermore, lead ammunition fragments in the environment can dissolve slowly over time in soil and water. This process releases lead into the environment, where it can enter the food chain and potentially affect a wide range of organisms, thus causing a more widespread ecological impact.



Recognizing these threats, some areas have implemented restrictions or bans on the use of lead ammunition for hunting. The alternatives to lead ammunition, such as copper or steel bullets, are just as effective for hunting, and significantly less harmful to the environment and non-target wildlife.



A shift toward non-lead ammunition is not only a viable but a necessary solution to prevent ongoing wildlife loss due to lead poisoning and to ensure healthier ecosystems. This issue highlights the interconnections in nature and emphasizes that the actions taken in one area (like hunting practices) can have wide-reaching impacts on wildlife and the overall health of our environment.



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Lead ammunition is a silent threat to bald eagle recovery

A groundbreaking study published in the journal Wildlife Society Bulletin...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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