Elasmosaurus,,Group,Of,Long-necked,Plesiosaurs,From,The,Late,Cretaceous,Period,

Scientists have pieced together evidence that ancient marine reptiles once swam in what is now central Colombia, and these creatures appear to have been more formidable predators than today’s mighty killer whales.&nbsp;



Their presence at an unexpectedly high level in the food chain has raised new questions about how ocean ecosystems evolve.&nbsp;



Paleontologists reconstructed the lives of giant reptiles and invertebrates that flourished in a lush environment roughly 130 million years ago, and uncovered a glimpse of life that sits outside what is considered standard for our modern seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-reptiles-ruled-over-killer-whales-nbsp">Marine reptiles ruled over killer whales&nbsp;</h2>



Experts discovered that some of these reptiles could exceed 33 feet (10 meters) in length, hinting at a way of life that appears to have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remarkably powerful</a>.&nbsp;



According to their research, these creatures ruled the seventh level in a reconstructed Cretaceous food web, while present-day killer whales and great white sharks rarely pass the sixth.&nbsp;



At the heart of these findings is work by McGill University’s <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Biology</a>, led by doctoral student Dirley Cortés and co-author Hans Larsson, who is a professor in the same department.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-reptiles-reached-the-pinnacle">Marine reptiles reached the pinnacle</h2>



Large predators typically dominate the top ranks in any oceanic food chain. Scientists often call these ranks "<a href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/06%3A_Ecology/6.05%3A_Trophic_Levels" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic levels</a>." 



Modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> systems reach a natural limit around the sixth trophic (or feeding) level, where species like orcas hover at the pinnacle of the energy pyramid.&nbsp;



“Our study is the first to examine these possible ecological interactions,” said Cortés, who is lead author on the publication. 



By <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/202/1/zlad092/7275647?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studying</a> fossil evidence in the <a href="https://www2.sgc.gov.co/LibroGeologiaColombia/tgc/sgcpubesp36201913.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paja Formation</a>, the team determined that Mesozoic reptiles had apparently gone one level higher. 



These ancient animals likely feasted on anything in their path, which explains how their food web stacked up so high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-a-lost-food-web">Reconstructing a lost food web</h2>



This investigation on ancient marine reptiles used body size, possible feeding tools, and comparisons with existing marine species to build a detailed framework for who ate whom in that vanished Colombian sea, where the warm climates of the Early Cretaceous allowed a surge in ocean diversity.&nbsp;



The Paja Formation’s fossil record reveals predators with robust jaws and swift movement, alongside an assortment of invertebrates that thrived in trophic levels beneath them.&nbsp;



Researchers drew upon modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-disease-is-pushing-caribbean-reefs-toward-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caribbean reef</a> networks to cross-check their results. 



By comparing these fossils to present-day communities, the study uncovered what one of the paper’s authors described as "intricate links among prehistoric animals" that pushed the boundaries of the marine hierarchy.



“Understanding this complexity helps us trace how ecosystems evolve over time,” said Cortés.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-competition-shaped-the-seas">How competition shaped the seas</h2>



Marine food webs do not form overnight. Competition for resources tends to bring about new evolutionary strategies and unique feeding habits. 



During parts of the Mesozoic, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0501562102" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pressure</a> from marine predators and their potential prey made survival an ongoing challenge. 



A known surge in shell-crushing snails and other predatory invertebrates during this era has been labeled by paleontologists as the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesozoic Marine Revolution</a>.&nbsp;



Ancient marine reptiles from the Paja Formation existed in this tense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-to-earths-ancient-climate-to-predict-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> of changing prey, leading them to develop massive body sizes and formidable hunting styles.&nbsp;



“These findings illuminate how marine ecosystems developed through intense trophic competition and shaped the diversity we see today,” said <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/202/1/zlad092/7275647?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Larsson</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-today">Why this matters today</h2>



The close study of creatures that roamed the ocean so long ago is not just about cataloging exciting fossils. Discoveries like this tell us that life’s history is packed with surprising adaptations.&nbsp;



Paleontologists see a chance to compare these ancient networks with modern ones, thus providing fresh insights into how ecosystems recover from challenges such as climate change or habitat loss.&nbsp;



Researchers also note that these fossil communities remind us of how species at the top of the food chain can alter their entire environment, often making space for additional biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-evolution">A window into evolution</h2>



One important lesson from this work is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dramatic shifts</a> in ocean biodiversity occurred long before humans entered the picture. 



Marine reptiles vanished near the end of the Mesozoic, but the legacy of their top-heavy food webs is imprinted in the fossil record. 



Each puzzle piece from that record, from large jaws to specialized teeth, helps paint a more accurate picture of how Earth’s seas matured. 



The high trophic levels in the Paja Formation suggest that new habitats were emerging, allowing marine reptiles to reach body sizes and predatory niches that are rarely matched in modern times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-marine-reptiles-and-ecosystems">Ancient marine reptiles and ecosystems</h2>



Researchers plan to keep building models for other fossil sites. This work may reveal whether seventh-level predators were uncommon or if there were other pockets in Earth’s history where they thrived. 



In many regions, marine formations remain poorly understood, so there is every chance that the Paja Formation was not the only site containing marine reptiles with astonishing hunting powers.&nbsp;



More studies may show that, over millions of years, seas can produce predators more fearsome than anything we know today.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/202/1/zlad092/7275647?redirectedFrom=fulltext&amp;login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.&nbsp;



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Top predators in prehistoric oceans would have eaten killer whales as snacks

Scientists have pieced together evidence that ancient marine reptiles once swam in what is now central Colombia, and these creatures appear to have been more formidable predators than today’s mighty killer whales.&nbsp; Their presence at an unexpectedly high level in the food chain has raised new questions about how ocean ecosystems evolve.&nbsp; Paleontologists reconstructed the lives of giant reptiles and invertebrates that flourished in a lush environment roughly 130 million years ago, and uncovered a glimpse of life that sits outside what is considered standard for our...

A new study from <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a> raises concerns about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-upheaval-the-ecological-impact-of-deep-sea-mining/">ecological impacts</a> of reintroducing beavers on a large scale in the Western United States. The research reveals the potential for the spread of mercury-containing toxins in rivers and their surrounding habitats.



The study was presented at the 2023 <a href="https://www.agu.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Geophysical Union</a> meeting by Clifford Adamchak, a PhD student in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.



“In a world where beavers are increasingly being seen as an effective means to achieve various conservation and restoration goals, there is a possibility that we would see an abnormally large flush of methylmercury if we were to reintroduce beavers in the Western U.S. on a larger scale,” said Adamchak. "So it is important to better understand the impacts of their activities.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-beavers">Significance of beavers</h2>



Beavers are key players in ecosystem dynamics. Their ability to alter streamflow through dam construction creates rich wetland habitats. These changes have far-reaching effects, including water conservation and improvement in biodiversity.



The study was focused on the impact of beaver activities and their potential role in exacerbating the spread of methylmercury.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-benefits">Environmental benefits</h2>



Beavers were widespread in North American streams before European settlement led to hunting and habitat loss. Their population dwindled, as well as their environmental benefits.&nbsp;



Over time, beavers change the environment significantly. By damming up streams and trapping water in their ponds, they help to replenish groundwater supplies and maintain wetland habitats for other species, noted the researchers.



Beaver ponds can also ease the effects of drought and help to mitigate wildfires, which is increasingly significant in the face of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-hotspots-nbsp">Mercury hotspots&nbsp;</h2>



However, the study highlights a critical concern. Beaver ponds, which often lack oxygen, can become hotspots for bacteria producing mercury-containing neurotoxins.&nbsp;



“A stream that flows smoothly with nothing stopping it would have very different biological chemical and geological processes than a stream that has cascading beaver dams and ponds,” said Adamchak. “Beaver activities also impact the surrounding landscape, because the animals forage for woody vegetation on land.”&nbsp;



Human activities, such as coal burning and mining, emit mercury into the atmosphere, which eventually invades water bodies. Here, it transforms into methylmercury, a toxic compound that accumulates in organisms and travels up the food chain, posing health risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights-nbsp">Key insights&nbsp;</h2>



The research involved collecting over 300 water and sediment samples from beaver ponds in California and Colorado. Adamchak found low methylmercury levels in the water but high levels in the sediment, indicating potential accumulation in the ecosystem.&nbsp;



This raises concerns about the spread of mercury-containing neurotoxins, especially as beavers move and abandon ponds, allowing vegetation in high methylmercury areas to grow and enter the food chain.



Since the research is still in its early stages, Adamchak said it’s unclear to what degree methylmercury can affect the wetland ecosystem as a result of beaver activities. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-research-is-needed">More research is needed</h2>



Previous studies have shown that methylmercury concentrations in beaver ponds decrease with age, indicating a lesser potential impact.&nbsp;



"That suggests beavers probably don’t have overwhelmingly negative effects on the ecosystem. But at this point, it’s very hard to say if more beaver activities are good or bad in terms of mercury levels,” said Adamchak.



Going forward, he plans to investigate the influence of pond age and seasonal variations on methylmercury levels.



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Boosting beaver populations could have toxic consequences

A new study from CU Boulder raises concerns about the...

A study on grey reef <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ghost-sharks-unraveling-the-mysteries-of-these-strange-and-elusive-sea-monsters/">sharks</a> in the Seychelles is challenging long-held beliefs about shark breathing and sleeping patterns.&nbsp;



The research contradicts the long-held belief that some sharks, known as obligate ram ventilators, must constantly swim to breathe.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-shark-breathing">Science of shark breathing</h2>



Traditionally, experts believed that sharks employed two primary methods of respiration: ram ventilation and buccal pumping.&nbsp;



Ram ventilators, like the grey reef shark, were thought to require constant movement to force water over their gills.&nbsp;



By contrast, buccal pumpers can actively pump water while stationary. This distinction has significant implications for how these creatures rest and potentially sleep.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-discovery-nbsp">Surprising discovery&nbsp;</h2>



"On routine survey dives around D’Arros we found grey reef sharks resting under coral reef ledges," said Dr. Robert Bullock, the director of research at the <a href="https://saveourseas.com/sosf-darros-research-centre/">Save Our Seas D’Arros Research Centre</a> (SOSF-DRC).



The team observed the sharks resting alone and in groups, showing signs of what could be considered sleep.&nbsp;



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="rAGq3DzqGF-3243712-12187" type="single"]</div>



"This is not something we believed they could do. The grey reef shark has been considered a ram-ventilating species, unable to rest, so to find these ones resting turns our fundamental understanding of them on its head," said Dr. Bullock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-shark-sleep">Rethinking shark sleep</h2>



The sharks demonstrated lower jaw movements, suggesting a shift from ram ventilation to buccal pumping. This is a remarkable adaptation for a species that was previously believed to be incapable of such behavior.&nbsp;



"There is something very special about 'tiptoeing' around underwater at a depth of 25 meters and looking into the open eyes of sleeping sharks, moving carefully so as not to wake the peaceful beauties," said Craig Foster, founder of the SeaChange Project.



"I love things that challenge our current thinking, and I’ve always thought of the grey reef shark as a clear example of a species that needs to swim to breathe. Clearly not from this discovery!"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-emerge">New questions emerge</h2>



The research presents essential questions about the resting and potential sleeping patterns of sharks, particularly those thought to be obligate ram ventilators.&nbsp;



"This raises all kinds of other questions. How are they coping? How long for? How often? We have so much to learn still, and to me, that’s exciting," said Dr. James Lea, CEO of the Save Our Seas Foundation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers plan to explore how these behaviors impact the sharks' use of their environment. They noted that if the grey reef shark can switch its mode of breathing, and rest, there’s more to uncover about similar sharks.&nbsp;



"It’s key to understanding how they use their environment and also how this may change in response to shifts in environmental conditions," explained Dr Lea.&nbsp;



"How important is this rest, or possible sleep, for the sharks? And what’s the impact on them if they can’t get that rest if conditions change, such as oxygen levels rising or falling due to a changing climate?"



"I hope that these findings serve as a reminder of how much we still do not know and how exciting that is," said Dr. Bullock. "Science is about being wrong quite a lot. And that’s OK."



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfb.15623" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Fish Biology</a>.



Video Credit: Filmed by Craig Foster | © Save Our Seas Foundation



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Grey reef sharks can stop and rest, which was thought to be impossible

A study on grey reef sharks in the Seychelles is...

Cats are often perceived as independent and less trainable pets, but a new study shows that they have a surprising inclination toward playing fetch - a game commonly associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-live-longer-and-happier-lives-when-they-get-to-socialize-often/">dogs</a>.&nbsp;



A comprehensive survey of 924 cat owners sheds light on this unexpected feline behavior, revealing that most cats who engage in fetching do so without explicit training.



"The motivation behind playing with objects in cats is different from that of dogs; cats are more motivated to engage in solitary play with objects that have prey-like features, as seen in other non-domestic animal species such as kestrels, whereas object play in dogs usually involves a dog or human partner and is socially motivated," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-control-the-game">Cats control the game</h2>



The study, conducted by Jemma Forman, Elizabeth Renner, and David Leavens, involved a detailed analysis of fetching behaviors in 1,154 cats.&nbsp;



The survey delved into various aspects of this activity, including the frequency of fetching, the types of objects used, and the dynamics of initiating and concluding the game.



Key findings from the study indicate that cats are not just passive participants but active controllers of the fetch game.&nbsp;



Approximately 59 percent of fetching cats did so up to ten times a month, and 55 percent fetched objects up to five times during their most recent game.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the cats themselves often initiated and concluded these games, suggesting a significant level of autonomy and control over the activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-fetchers">Natural fetchers</h2>



A remarkable 94 percent of owners observed that their cats began playing fetch spontaneously, without any formal training. The survey further reveals that 61 percent of these cats started fetching as kittens, underlining an innate tendency towards this behavior.&nbsp;



While some cats might have learned from other animals, only 23 percent cohabited with another fetching pet, like a dog or a cat.



"Most cats who fetch first display this behavior as kittens or young adults. Cats have individual preferences for a variety of objects to fetch and they exhibit agency in the initiation and ending of fetching sessions," wrote the researchers.



"Owners also provided detailed descriptions of the fetching process itself and highlighted how some cats will fetch only in certain circumstances."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-fetching-preferences">Cats' fetching preferences</h2>



Among the 160 purebred cats in the survey, Siamese cats emerged as the top fetching breed, followed by Bengals and Ragdolls.&nbsp;



This finding points towards a possible breed-specific propensity towards this type of play, although the behavior was observed across various breeds.



The study also highlights the diverse range of objects cats choose to fetch. While cat toys constituted nearly 40 percent of these objects, the majority were everyday household items, such as hair ties and bottle parts, or items thrown by owners, like crumpled paper.&nbsp;



Common locations for the games included bedrooms and stairs, indicating that cats have a preference for familiar and comfortable environments.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-47409-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Some cats love to play fetch as much as dogs and even initiate the game

Cats are often perceived as independent and less trainable pets,...

In the harsh conditions of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-dipole-the-atmospheric-pattern-shaping-our-future-climate/">Arctic</a>, survival hinges on an array of specialized adaptations. One such adaptation, as revealed in a recent study, is the strategic structure of the nasal cavities in Arctic seals.&nbsp;



The researchers found that Arctic seals have more convoluted nasal passages than seal species that live in milder environments. This unique feature, which is often overlooked, plays a crucial role in helping the seals conserve heat and moisture in their frigid habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-advantage-nbsp">Evolutionary advantage&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-author Signe Kjelstrup, a physical chemist at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a>, said the complex nasal structure of Arctic seals allows them to minimize heat loss during the critical process of breathing.&nbsp;



“Thanks to this elaborate structure in their nasal cavities, Arctic seals lose less heat through nasal heat exchange than subtropical seals when both are exposed to the same conditions,” said Kjelstrup. “This provides an evolutionary advantage, especially in the Arctic where heat loss is energy dissipation, which must be replenished by food.”



“What’s so amazing is that these Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-fur-seals-face-an-emerging-threat-of-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> retain 94% of the water when they breathe in and out. This means that most of the water added to the air during inhalation is then recovered during exhalation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-arctic-seals">Studying Arctic seals</h2>



The research team used advanced imaging techniques, such as computer tomography, to create 3D models of the nasal cavities of two seal species: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bearded-seals-may-not-be-loud-enough-to-survive-ocean-noise-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic bearded</a> seal (Erignathus barbatus) and the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus). 



By simulating various environmental conditions and analyzing the nasal structures' efficiency, the team discovered significant differences in the heat and moisture exchange capabilities between these species.&nbsp;



The Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-killed-hundreds-of-seals-in-new-england-last-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> proved to be far more effective in retaining heat and moisture across different temperatures, a testament to their specialized adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



This discovery not only sheds light on the fascinating adaptations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-amplification-is-destabilizing-the-delicate-balance-of-the-ecosystem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic wildlife</a> but also opens doors to potential applications in engineering and design. 



Inspired by nature's ingenuity, Kjelstrup envisions leveraging these biological insights to enhance the efficiency of heat exchangers and ventilation systems in technology.



“If nature manages to create such great heat exchangers, I think we should copy that in engineering to create more efficient processes, for instance, in air conditioners,” said Kjelstrup.  



Going forward, the researchers also plan to study the nasal structures of other species to see if different structures provide evolutionary advantages in other environments.&nbsp;



“The camel, for instance, doesn't need to save much on heat, but it does need to save on water, so one may speculate that it could tell us something about relative importance of the two,” said Kjelstrup.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-arctic-seals">More about Arctic seals</h2>



As discussed above, Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seals-can-perceive-rhythm-early-in-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a>, the resilient inhabitants of the frigid Arctic regions, present a fascinating example of adaptation and survival. Their lives, deeply intertwined with the Arctic ice and sea, offer a glimpse into the complex ecosystem of the polar areas.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-of-arctic-seals">Species of Arctic seals</h3>



Harp seals, known for their distinctive harp-shaped markings, primarily inhabit the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. They are famous for their annual migration, covering thousands of miles.



Ringed seals, the smallest and most common Arctic seal, have a unique ability to create breathing holes in the ice. This skill is crucial for their survival in the ice-covered waters.



Bearded seals, named for their prominent whiskers, are larger and prefer shallow waters. They play a vital role in the diet of indigenous peoples and are critical prey for polar bears.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-adaptation">Habitat and adaptation</h3>



Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weddell-seals-sacrifice-diving-energy-to-give-iron-to-their-pups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> have evolved remarkable adaptations to thrive in extreme cold. They possess a thick layer of blubber for insulation and streamlined bodies for efficient swimming. Their specialized flippers enable agile movement both in water and on ice.



Sea ice is crucial for their survival, serving as a platform for resting, molting, and nurturing their young. The diminishing ice due to climate change poses a significant threat to their habitat.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-predation">Diet and predation</h3>



Arctic seals mainly feed on fish, krill, and other small marine creatures. Their hunting techniques are a marvel, involving stealth and agility. However, they also fall prey to larger predators like polar bears and orcas, playing a vital role in the Arctic food web.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-lifecycle">Reproduction and lifecycle</h3>



The reproductive cycle of Arctic seals is closely linked to the sea ice. Mothers give birth on ice floes, providing a safe haven for their pups. The nurturing period is short but intense, with pups quickly learning to swim and hunt.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



Several Arctic seal species face threats from climate change, hunting, and pollution. Conservation efforts are underway, including habitat protection and regulating hunting practices. Monitoring and research are critical for their continued survival.



In summary, Arctic seals, with their unique adaptations and crucial role in the Arctic ecosystem, are a testament to the resilience of wildlife in extreme environments. Understanding and protecting them is essential for preserving the delicate balance of the Arctic's natural world.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2023.11.012" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biophysical Journal</a>. 



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Complex nasal passages help Arctic seals stay warm

In the harsh conditions of the Arctic, survival hinges on...

Researchers have unearthed a new mosasaur in Japan, the "blue dragon," that rivals the size of a great white shark, dating back 72 million years. This ancient marine predator, given the Japanese name Wakayama Soryu, offers new insights into the prehistoric seas of the Pacific.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-the-blue-dragon">Discovering the "blue dragon"</h2>



The Wakayama Soryu was found in the Wakayama Prefecture, along the Aridagawa River, by co-author Akihiro Misaki in 2006. It stands out for its exceptional size and unique physical features. 



<a href="https://www.uc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cincinnati</a> Associate Professor Takuya Konishi, a dedicated researcher of these ancient creatures, emphasizes the rarity of this find. "In this case, it was nearly the entire specimen, which was astounding," Konishi remarks.



Unlike other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mighty-predators-uncovering-the-dietary-secrets-of-mosasaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaurs</a>, the Wakayama Soryu possessed extra-long rear flippers and a shark-like dorsal fin, features that likely enhanced its agility and speed in the water. 



Konishi notes the surprising proportion of its anatomy. He said, "Its rear flippers are longer than its front ones. These enormous flippers are even longer than its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-secrets-of-the-evolution-of-prehistoric-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile-like head</a>, which is unique among mosasaurs."



The researchers have classified this specimen within the subfamily Mosasaurinae, giving it the scientific name <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Mosasaur-species_Wakayama-Soryu_blue-dragon_Credit-Konishi_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megapterygius wakayamaensis</a>. This name, meaning "large winged," aptly reflects the mosasaur's significant flipper size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-insights-of-wakayama-soryu">Evolutionary insights of Wakayama Soryu</h2>



Konishi sheds light on the potential locomotive capabilities of the Wakayama Soryu. He surmises, "We lack any modern analog that has this kind of body morphology -- from fish to penguins to sea turtles. None has four large flippers they use in conjunction with a tail fin." 



This unusual physical trait suggests a unique swimming technique, differing significantly from other known marine animals.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sarabosaurus-dahli-a-newly-discovered-mosasaur-species-provides-incredible-evolutionary-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mosasaurs</a>, including the Wakayama Soryu, were apex predators in prehistoric oceans, existing from about 100 million to 66 million years ago. They lived alongside dinosaurs like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/an-estimated-2-5-billion-tyrannosaurus-rexes-lived-and-died-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus rex</a> but were wiped out by the same mass extinction event caused by an asteroid impact in the Gulf of Mexico.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blue-dragon-cultural-context">"Blue dragon" cultural context</h2>



The naming of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-mosasaur-species-discovered-with-strange-screwdriver-like-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaur</a> as "blue dragon" resonates deeply with Japanese folklore, where dragons are significant mythical creatures. "In China, dragons make thunder and live in the sky. They became aquatic in Japanese mythology," explains Konishi, highlighting the cultural symbolism behind this naming.



The discovery of the Wakayama Soryu opens new avenues in understanding the diversity and evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jormungandr-24-foot-lizard-is-a-new-link-in-mosasaur-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaurs</a>. It challenges established notions of marine reptile locomotion and enriches our knowledge of the ancient oceans that once covered our planet. 



As Konishi aptly puts it, "It opens a whole can of worms that challenges our understanding of how mosasaurs swim," thus marking a significant milestone in paleontological research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-mosasaurs">More about mosasaurs</h2>



As mentioned above, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/terrifying-mosasaur-dominated-the-ocean-66-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaurs</a>, the dominant marine predators of the late Cretaceous period, ruled the ancient seas with their formidable size and adaptability. These giant reptiles, often compared to modern-day whales and sharks in terms of their ecological role, represent a fascinating chapter in Earth's prehistoric past.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anatomy-and-evolution">Anatomy and evolution</h3>



Mosasaurs evolved from squamate reptiles, related to modern-day snakes and lizards. Their transition from land to sea marks a significant evolutionary journey. These creatures had elongated bodies, reaching lengths of up to 50 feet, with powerful tails for swimming. Their limbs transformed into flippers, enabling efficient movement in aquatic environments.



The skull of a mosasaur was robust, equipped with strong jaws and sharp, conical teeth, perfect for gripping and tearing flesh. Their dental structure varied across species, some adapted for crushing shells and others for slicing through softer prey.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-lifestyle">Habitat and lifestyle</h3>



Mosasaurs inhabited a wide range of marine environments, from shallow coastal waters to the open ocean. Their fossils have been discovered globally, indicating their widespread presence during the Cretaceous period.



As apex predators, mosasaurs fed on a diverse diet including fish, mollusks, birds, and smaller marine reptiles. They were likely ambush predators, using their speed and agility to surprise prey.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-behavior">Reproduction and behavior</h3>



Unlike many marine reptiles of their time, mosasaurs gave birth to live young. This adaptation allowed them to avoid the vulnerability of laying eggs on land and further solidified their dominance in the marine ecosystem.



While not much is known about their social behavior, some evidence suggests that mosasaurs might have exhibited schooling or pack-hunting behaviors, similar to some species of modern-day dolphins and sharks.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinction-and-legacy">Extinction and legacy</h3>



Mosasaurs, along with many other species, fell victim to the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous period, about 66 million years ago. This event, likely caused by a massive asteroid impact, led to significant changes in Earth's climate and ecosystems, rendering these mighty creatures extinct.



Today, mosasaurs capture our imagination and contribute significantly to our understanding of prehistoric marine life. Their fossils provide valuable insights into the evolutionary history of reptiles and the dynamics of ancient marine ecosystems.



In summary, mosasaurs, the great marine lizards of the Cretaceous, represent an incredible chapter in the story of life on Earth. Their evolution, adaptation, and eventual extinction offer a compelling glimpse into the past, reminding us of the ever-changing nature of life on our planet.



The full study was published in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2023.2277921" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the&nbsp;Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>.



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"Blue dragon" discovered that terrorized the Pacific seas 72 million years ago

Researchers have unearthed a new mosasaur in Japan, the "blue...

What led to the dramatic decline of large mammals over the past several millennia? Was it human intervention or climate change? A recent study from <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a> suggests that humans were the culprit.



Approximately 100,000 years ago, modern humans began their exodus from Africa, spreading across the globe and inhabiting diverse landscapes ranging from arid deserts to dense jungles and the frigid taiga of the far north.&nbsp;



A key factor in the success of this group was their proficiency in hunting large animals with sophisticated techniques and specialized weapons. However, this success came at a dire cost to the large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hairless-mammals-evolved-at-a-faster-pace/">mammals</a> that co-inhabited these regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The research was led by Professor Jens-Christian Svenning of the Danish National Research Foundation's Center for Ecological Dynamics in a Novel Biosphere (ECONOVO).



The researchers analyzed the DNA of 139 living species of large mammals, revealing a universal and dramatic decline in their populations approximately 50,000 years ago. This timeline intriguingly coincides with the widespread colonization of the world by modern humans.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights-nbsp">Key insights&nbsp;</h2>



"We’ve studied the evolution of large mammalian populations over the past 750,000 years. For the first 700,000 years, the populations were fairly stable, but 50,000 years ago the curve broke and populations fell dramatically and never recovered,” explained Professor Svenning.



"For the past 800,000 years, the globe has fluctuated between ice ages and interglacial periods about every 100,000 years. If climate was the cause, we should see greater fluctuations when the climate changed prior to 50.000 years ago. But we don't. Humans are therefore the most likely explanation.”



This conclusion contradicts the long-held belief by some scientists that climate fluctuations, such as those affecting the woolly mammoth, were the primary cause of these extinctions.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enormous-data-analysis-nbsp">Enormous data analysis&nbsp;</h2>



The mapped genomes of species all over the globe are freely accessible on the internet - and this is the data that was used for the study, explained Professor Juraj Bergman, the lead researcher.



“We’ve collected data from 139 large living mammals and analyzed the enormous amount of data. There are approximately 3 billion data points from each species, so it took a long time and a lot of computing power,” said Professor Bergman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutations-in-the-dna">Mutations in the DNA</h2>



"DNA contains a lot of information about the past. Most people know the tree of life, which shows where the different species developed and what common ancestors they have. We’ve done the same with mutations in the DNA. By grouping the mutations and building a family tree, we can estimate the size of the population of a specific species over time," explained Professor Bergman.



"The larger the population of an animal, the more mutations will occur. It’s really a question of simple mathematics. Take elephants, for example. Every time an elephant is conceived, there’s a chance that a number of mutations will occur, and it will pass these on to subsequent generations. More births means more mutations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



The study encompasses a broad range of large mammals (megafauna), defined as animals weighing over 44 kg, and even includes species as light as 22 kg to ensure a global representation.



One critical aspect of the study was focusing on the neutral parts of the DNA, which are less susceptible to environmental influences, providing a clearer picture of population changes over time.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woolly-mammoth-nbsp">Woolly mammoth&nbsp;</h2>



This approach challenges the notion that the woolly mammoth's extinction, often cited as a climate change consequence, is representative of the broader trend in megafauna decline.



Much of the debate about what caused the large animals to either become extinct or decline has centered around the woolly mammoth. But this is a bad example because the majority of the megafauna species that went were associated with temperate or tropical climates, explained Svenning.



Unsatisfactory model



“The classic arguments for the climate as an explanatory model are based on the fact that the woolly mammoth and a number of other species associated with the so-called 'mammoth steppe' disappeared when the ice melted and the habitat type disappeared," said Svenning.



"This is basically an unsatisfactory explanatory model, as the vast majority of the extinct megafauna species of the period did not live at all on the mammoth steppe. They lived in warm regions, such as temperate and tropical forests or savannahs. In our study, we also show a sharp decline during this period in populations of the many megafauna species that survived and come from all sorts of different regions and habitats.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



Despite the robust evidence presented, the debate may not be entirely settled, but the new findings make a compelling case against climate change as the primary driver of the decline in large mammals.&nbsp;



"It seems inconceivable that it is possible to come up with a climate model that explains how, across all continents and groups of large animals, there have been extinctions and continuous decline since about 50,000 years ago. And how this selective loss of megafauna is unique for the past 66 million years, despite huge climate change," said Svenning.



"Given the rich data we now have, it’s also hard to deny that instead it is because humans spread across the globe from Africa and subsequently grew in population.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-43426-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>. 



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Decline of large mammals was caused by humans, not climate 

What led to the dramatic decline of large mammals over...

In the remote and harsh Arctic environment, a significant ecological shift is occurring. New research led by Matteo Petit Bon from the <a href="https://qcnr.usu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quinney College of Natural Resources</a> is shedding light on the complex dynamics of the Arctic ecosystem.



The researchers delved into the impacts of two dominant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivores-must-be-restored-to-balance-ecosystems/">herbivores</a>, geese and reindeer. The study was particularly focused on Svalbard, a high-tundra archipelago located between mainland Norway and the North Pole.&nbsp;



"Given the current rates of climate change, with associated shifts in herbivore population densities, understanding the role of different herbivores in ecosystem functioning is critical for predicting ecosystem responses," explained the study authors.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-svalbard-reindeer-nbsp">Svalbard reindeer&nbsp;</h2>



Svalbard reindeer, known for their docility and sedentary nature, have been indigenous to these islands for millennia. However, by 1900, due to extensive hunting by miners and trappers, the reindeer population was nearly extinguished. Only a few isolated populations survived.&nbsp;



The subsequent legal protection by the Norwegian government facilitated a remarkable recovery, with current numbers exceeding 20,000.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barnacle-geese-nbsp">Barnacle geese&nbsp;</h2>



Barnacle geese, which migrate to Svalbard, have experienced a population boom. Their numbers have surged from less than 3,000 in 1960 to over 40,000 today, benefiting from conservation efforts in their overwintering habitat in Scotland.&nbsp;



These geese play a crucial role in the Arctic ecosystem during their temporary stay, capitalizing on the nutrient-rich vegetation and continuous daylight to breed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-ecosystems">Impact on ecosystems</h2>



Both reindeer and geese significantly alter the vegetation composition in Svalbard. Their feeding habits, along with natural fertilization and soil compaction through trampling, have direct and indirect effects on the plant life.&nbsp;



This interaction has far-reaching consequences for the ecosystem's response to the rapidly changing Arctic climate, which is warming faster than most other regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-altering-the-landscape-nbsp">Altering the landscape&nbsp;</h2>



Geese, although smaller and temporary residents, have a more pronounced impact compared to the larger, more dispersed reindeer.&nbsp;



The concentrated grazing by geese has led to a significant reduction in plant biomass, with a fivefold decrease in grass biomass in goose-grazed areas between 2008 and 2018. This finding suggests that the geese's feeding habits are altering the landscape more drastically than the reindeer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights">Key insights</h2>



Experimental studies confirmed that the geese are more impactful. Removing reindeer from certain areas showed little effect on ecosystem health, whereas excluding geese led to noticeable improvements in vegetation and soil conditions. This indicates that geese, despite their size and temporary presence, exert a more substantial influence on the ecosystem.



"Although both herbivores were key drivers of ecosystem structure and function, the control exerted by geese in their main habitat (wet tundra) was much more pronounced than that exerted by reindeer in their main habitat (moist-to-dry tundra)," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Importantly, these herbivore effects are scale dependent, because geese are more spatially concentrated and thereby affect a smaller portion of the tundra landscape compared to reindeer. Our results highlight the substantial heterogeneity in how herbivores shape tundra vegetation and ecosystem processes, with implications for ongoing environmental change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



The research is pivotal in understanding the evolving dynamics of Arctic ecosystems. It provides crucial insights into how changing herbivore populations might affect these fragile environments, especially in the context of climate change.&nbsp;



The study helps to improve predictions about the potential mitigation or amplification of climate change impacts due to shifts in these herbivore populations.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.14200" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Ecology</a>.



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Small geese have a large impact on Arctic ecosystems

In the remote and harsh Arctic environment, a significant ecological...

A new study has revealed that urban green space configurations significantly influence the characteristics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-populations-are-declining-worldwide/">bird populations</a> in European cities.&nbsp;



The research was conducted by an international research team, including experts from the <a href="http://www.ugr.es/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Granada</a> and the National Museum of Natural Sciences.



The study highlights an intriguing link between urban designs and avian diversity, and the broader implications for ecosystem enhancement and public health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-urban-birds">Studying urban birds</h2>



Urbanization, a defining feature of modern life, profoundly affects biodiversity, particularly avian species.&nbsp;



Researchers from Finland, Poland, Germany, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic meticulously analyzed bird communities across nine European cities, including Madrid, Granada, Toledo, and Prague.&nbsp;



The study was focused on the distribution of 115 bird species in spring and 72 in winter.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-development-models">Urban development models</h2>



The research team explored two prevalent urban development models: land-sparing and land-sharing.&nbsp;



Land-sharing is characterized by smaller green spaces, like private gardens and street vegetation, interspersed among single-family homes, and by low population density.&nbsp;



By contrast, land-sparing involves larger green spaces, such as extensive parks, distinctly separated from densely populated high-rise areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-bird-characteristics-nbsp">Urban bird characteristics&nbsp;</h2>



“For each species identified in the European cities that were studied, we have quantified characteristics such as their degree of feeding specialization, the type of nests they build, the effort they invest in breeding, and their longevity. This has allowed us to assess whether urban design favours species with certain types of traits,” explained study co-author Mario Díaz.



“In previous studies, we had already found that the presence of different bird communities was determined by land-sharing and land-sparing types of urban development,” said study lead author Juan Diego Ibáñez Álamo. “This research has also allowed us to identify the characteristics that allow them to settle in one type of urban area or another."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights">Key insights</h2>



Specifically, land-sparing areas are conducive to species like stonechats, chiffchaffs, and crested larks, which lay many eggs, use open nests, and have shorter life cycles.&nbsp;



On the other hand, land-sharing areas attract species like great tits, kestrels, and gulls, known for their demanding breeding requirements and longer life spans.



"We found that birds living in land-sparing areas had a higher reproductive investment and a higher nesting specialization than birds living in land-sharing areas during the breeding season," wrote the study authors.



"Typical birds from land-sparing urban areas during winter are fast-lived species. Our results indicate that urban development type could have an important role selecting animal traits and provides useful information on how to build more biodiversity-friendly cities."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



“The data we have obtained clearly shows the need to promote a mix of both types of urban development to allow for greater bird diversity. Greater urban biodiversity is not only beneficial for our immediate environment but also for our own health and well-being,” said Díaz.



The research serves as a crucial step toward creating urban landscapes where humans coexist harmoniously with nature.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167937" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



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Green spaces shape bird characteristics in urban areas

A new study has revealed that urban green space configurations...

In recent years, the popularity of flat-faced dogs like french <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/english-bulldogs-are-suffering-from-poor-breeding-practices/">bulldogs</a> has soared globally. However, this preference for certain physical traits in dogs has raised significant health concerns.&nbsp;



Hungarian researchers have found a troubling correlation between the shape of a dog's head and its sleep patterns and overall health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-breeding-for-appearance">The cost of breeding for appearance</h2>



Flat-faced, or brachycephalic, dog breeds are loved for their distinctive appearances, but these physical traits come with a high price. The shortened skulls of these dogs are linked to a range of health problems, including deteriorative changes in brain morphology, breathing difficulties, and sleep disturbances.&nbsp;



In the U.S. and Hungary, the french bulldog has become the most common flat-faced breed, but its popularity contradicts the health issues these dogs face due to their physical structure.



The researchers noted that extremely flat-faced dogs, such as French and English bulldogs and pugs, live an average 3 to 4 years less than other dogs and often do not live to adulthood. Their shortened skull is associated with a distorted brain, but it is not yet known how this affects neural functioning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-problems-in-flat-faced-dogs">Sleep problems in flat-faced dogs</h2>



The recent study investigated how the physical traits of flat-faced dogs affect their sleep. The researchers discovered that these dogs tend to sleep more, largely because they suffer from breed-specific sleep apnea, leading to increased daytime sleepiness.&nbsp;



Their REM sleep phase is unusually longer than non-REM sleep, and their sleep EEG patterns show signs indicative of white matter loss, suggesting significant impacts on brain health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The team examined the sleep patterns of 92 family dogs using EEG. "In the sleep lab, dogs spend about three hours with their owners. As nothing exciting happens, the dogs fall asleep quickly. Meanwhile, we conduct the electrical potential generated by the brain activity with electrodes glued to their scalps," explained Anna Kis, a researcher at the <a href="https://hun-ren.hu/en/research-network/research-centers/hun-ren-research-centre-for-natural-sciences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HUN-REN Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology</a>.



"We wanted to investigate whether flat-faced dogs sleep differently from other dogs, as they are known to suffer from oxygen deprivation due to respiratory problems and therefore have poorer quality sleep," explained Zsófia Bognár, a PhD student who has been researching brachycephalic dogs for many years.



"We found that the flat-faced dogs slept more in the three hours given to them during the study. More daytime sleep is probably compensation for insufficient sleep at night."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights">Key insights</h2>



Ivaylo Iotchev, the first author of the study, suggests that flat-faced dogs may retain an infant-like sleep pattern, which could be a result of selective breeding for infant-like traits.&nbsp;



"In the present study, we found that brachycephalic dogs had decreased beta waves and increased delta compared to dogs with longer noses. The frequency of sleep spindles increased. This pattern has previously been associated with poorer learning in dogs and loss of white matter in humans," said Iotchev.



"There may be several reasons for our results. The most interesting of these is that it seems as if the flat-faced dogs have retained the sleep pattern of puppyhood, similarly to newborns who spend more time in REM sleep."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infant-like-traits-nbsp">Infant-like traits&nbsp;</h2>



Enikő Kubinyi, a professor and head of the <a href="https://www.elte.hu/lendulet" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MTA-ELTE Lendület</a> “Momentum” Companion Animal Research Group, noted that the selection for infant-like appearances may have inadvertently affected brain function in these breeds.&nbsp;



"It is widely assumed that brachycephalic dogs are selected for infant-like traits," said Kubinyi. "They have large heads and eyes, high foreheads and small noses because we humans find these traits irresistibly attractive. That's how babies get us to care for them."&nbsp;



"It is possible that the selection of dogs to be infant-like in appearance has also infantilized their brain function."&nbsp;



"But this is a bold assumption for now. What is very likely, however, is that breeding for brachycephalic heads leads to potentially harmful changes in brain function."



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00429-023-02706-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain Structure and Function</a>.



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Head shape of flat-faced dogs impacts their sleep patterns

In recent years, the popularity of flat-faced dogs like french...

A recent study from <a href="https://www.auburn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Auburn University</a> has brought to light a concerning environmental issue: the impact of free-ranging pet cats.&nbsp;



The extensive research provides a detailed analysis of how domestic cats are causing significant ecological damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-disruption">Ecological disruption</h2>



The study categorizes free-ranging cats as one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-invasive-plant-species-are-in-the-world/">invasive species</a> in the world, contributing to widespread ecological disruption.&nbsp;



The experts found that free-ranging cats have consumed over 2,000 species, 347 of which are listed as threatened or of higher concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. This alarming fact highlights the predatory impact of cats on biodiversity.



"Since house cats (Felis catus) were domesticated over 9,000 years ago, humans have introduced them across much of the world," wrote the researchers.



"Today, cats inhabit all continents, except Antarctica, and have been introduced to hundreds of islands, making them amongst the most widely distributed species on the planet. Because of this cosmopolitan distribution, cats have disrupted many ecosystems to which they have been introduced."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problematic-invasive-species-nbsp">Problematic invasive species&nbsp;</h2>



Beyond their predatory habits, free-ranging cats pose another threat by spreading diseases that affect both wildlife and human health. These include parasites that weaken immune systems and more severe diseases like plague and rabies.&nbsp;



"Specifically, cats spread novel diseases to a range of species including humans, out-compete native felids and other mesopredators, threaten the genetic integrity of wild felids, prey on native fauna, and have driven many species to extinction," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"As a result, free-ranging cats (i.e., owned or unowned cats with access to the outdoor environment) are amongst the most problematic invasive species in the world."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The researchers set out to assess the species consumed by cats on a global scale. They analyzed video footage, as well as data from 533 relevant studies published through May 2021.



In particular, the team wanted to determine the degree to which cats consume different animal species, whether there are any species that cats avoid consuming, and if cats have dietary preferences based on prey size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-results">Alarming results</h2>



The findings were startling: approximately 47% of the diet of free-ranging cats consisted of birds, 22% reptiles, and 20% mammals, along with insects, amphibians, and other prey.



"Of 544 studies, 533 met our criteria for species-level data and included 2,084 species eaten by cats. Notably, these 2,084 species provide a conservative estimate of cat diet based on species accumulation curves, indicating that as more studies are conducted, we will discover many more prey species," said the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-impacts">Broader impacts</h2>



The experts noted that while the focus of their research was on cat diet, it builds upon over 150 years of literature documenting the negative impacts that free-ranging cats pose to the environment.&nbsp;



"Aside from predation, these impacts include numerous cat-borne diseases that impact wildlife and human health and well-being, including toxoplasmosis, plague, and rabies, and in some regions (such as Australia), some of these diseases would not occur without cats."



"Furthermore, free-ranging cats living in clowders (aka colonies) can exacerbate these problems as well as present additional problems including excess nutrient loading, sanitation, and wildlife conflicts."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indiscriminate-predators-nbsp">Indiscriminate predators&nbsp;</h2>



The experts explained that the mere presence of cats outdoors creates a "landscape of fear" that can affect the foraging decisions and reproductive success of other animals.



"Collectively, our findings demonstrate that cats are indiscriminate predators and eat essentially any type of animal that they can capture at some life stage or can scavenge. This dietary breadth lends further evidence to the myriad ways that cats can (or may) interact with native species and disrupt ecosystems because they are not dependent on any one trophic level or taxonomic group," wrote the researchers.



"As a result, cats are influencing a broader set of species interactions than previously understood. Ultimately, while our results are conservative, they highlight the degree to which a widely distributed invasive species is interacting with species around the world, which is critical information for furthering conservation, management, and policy work."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-42766-6#:~:text=Aside%20from%20predation%2C%20these%20impacts,would%20not%20occur%20without%20cats." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Free-ranging cats are one of the most problematic invasive species

A recent study from Auburn University has brought to light...

Many dog owners believe their pets are unique, and recent scientific findings have revealed that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/playfulness-is-a-key-personality-trait-of-gifted-dogs/">dogs</a> are indeed exceptional. These gifted dogs possess an ability to learn the names of a vast array of toys.&nbsp;



This talent was not well understood previously due to the scarcity of such dogs in studies, which often included only one or two examples. However, a new research paper published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-47864-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Scientific Reports</a> and conducted by the Family Dog Project at the <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a> (ELTE) in Budapest, has cast new light on these special dogs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worldwide-search">Worldwide search</h2>



The research team previously found that a minority of dogs had the capability to learn names of objects, predominantly toys. To explore this phenomenon further, they embarked on a five-year worldwide hunt for these gifted word learner (GWL) dogs.&nbsp;



This search included a 2020 social media campaign, during which the researchers shared their work with GWL dogs, aiming to discover more of them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-science">Citizen science</h2>



“This was a citizen science project,” said team leader Claudia Fugazza, an expert in Ethology at ELTE:. Owners who believed their dogs knew toy names were instructed on testing them and asked to send test videos. The team then conducted online evaluations with these owners, followed by a questionnaire.&nbsp;



“In the questionnaire, we asked the owners about their dog’s life experience, their own experience in raising and training dogs, and about the process by which the dog came to learn the names of his/her toys,” explained co-author Andrea Sommese, a PhD student in Ethology at the same institution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gifted-dogs">Gifted dogs</h2>



In total, the study identified 41 gifted word learner dogs across nine countries, including the US, UK, Brazil, Canada, Norway, Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, and Hungary. 



Although previous studies mainly focused on Border collies, this breed now constituted only 56 percent of the dogs in the present study. The research also documented toy name learning in non-working breeds such as Pomeranians, Pekingese, Shih Tzu, Corgi, Poodle, and mixed breeds.



“Surprisingly, most owners reported that they did not intentionally teach their dogs toy names, but rather that the dogs just seemed to spontaneously pick up the toy names during unstructured play sessions,” said lead author Shany Dror, another ethologist at ELTE.&nbsp;



The researchers also found no correlation between the dog owners’ training experience and their dogs’ ability to recognize toy names.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-ability-nbsp">Rare ability&nbsp;</h2>



“In our previous studies we have shown that GWL dogs learn new object names very fast,” Dror added. The average number of toys known by the dogs was 29, but over half the owners later reported their dogs knew over 100 toy names.



This rare ability to learn object names is the first documented case of such talent in a non-human species. The larger sample size helped in identifying common characteristics among gifted word learner dogs, pushing forward the understanding of this rare ability.



This research is part of the ongoing <a href="https://geniusdogchallenge.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genius Dog Challenge</a>, aimed at studying the unique talent of gifted word learner dogs. Dog owners with potentially gifted word learner dogs are invited to contact the researchers via the Genius Dog Challenge website.



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Gifted dogs can learn the names of up to 100 toys

Many dog owners believe their pets are unique, and recent...

Singing is a complex activity that involves the coordination of hundreds of muscles and requires rigorous practice.&nbsp;



While athletes extensively train their limb and body muscles, the training of vocal muscles, especially in humans, remains a lesser-known domain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vocal-muscle-training">Vocal muscle training</h2>



Professor Coen Elemans from the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Denmark</a>, a sound production expert, pointed out a significant knowledge gap regarding the training of vocal muscles in humans. 



“Surprisingly we know very little about the effects of exercise on these muscles and if they even react to training in humans,” said Professor Elemans. “No singer will let you come even near their precious voice box."



In collaboration with Professor Iris Adam and colleagues, Professor Elemans led a study which reveals that male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/among-songbirds-complex-vocal-learners-are-superior-problem-solvers/">songbirds</a> must sing daily to maintain their vocal muscles and produce attractive songs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-necessity-of-vocal-exercise">Necessity of vocal exercise</h2>



“Singing is crucial for songbirds. They sing to impress future partners, to defend their territories and to maintain social bonds,” said Professor Adam, lead author of the study.



“It has long been known that songbird singing is controlled by fast vocal muscles, but until now we only had very little knowledge if and how these muscles might respond to exercise, like our leg muscles do."



The researchers discovered that these muscles weaken significantly within days if not used, losing 50% of their strength in a week without singing.&nbsp;



“This was very surprising," said Professor Adam. “First that these muscles reacted so strongly, but also how incredibly fast they lost performance. Indeed, it’s use it or lose it!”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discernible-differences-nbsp">Discernible differences&nbsp;</h2>



The research team found noticeable differences in the songs of birds before and after exercise. Although these differences might be subtle to human ears, female zebra finches could discern them.



"The female zebra finches in the playback experiment could directly hear the difference and 75 percent preferred the songs from the well exercised male," explained study co-author Katharina Riebel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maintaining-vocal-attractiveness-nbsp">Maintaining vocal attractiveness&nbsp;</h2>



Professor Elemans suggests that this requirement for daily exercise might explain the pervasive dawn chorus of birds worldwide. The study suggests that birds may need to sing daily not just for communication or territorial reasons but to maintain vocal attractiveness.



“A lot of that singing seems out of context. They sing when they don’t need to,” noted Professor Adam.



“Our results now show that if they don’t exercise every day, their muscle performance decreases," said Professor Elemans. “On top of that, the lack of exercise is audible in their song and the females prefer song from exercised males."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversed-muscle-training-nbsp">Reversed muscle training&nbsp;</h2>



Another intriguing finding by the research team pertains to the nature of vocal muscle training in songbirds. Unlike human limb muscles that get slower but stronger with exercise, songbird vocal muscles behave in the opposite way.&nbsp;



“This reversed training may be a unique feature for vocal muscles, that we think might be true for all vertebrates, including humans, because all vocal muscles are developmentally related," said Professor Adam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



According to Professor Elemans, these findings could revolutionize our approach to human vocal training and speech therapy. Currently, human larynx muscle training is modeled after limb muscle exercise, which may not be the most effective approach.&nbsp;



“Songbirds may be our best allies to study the physiology of vocal muscle to further improve voice training and rehabilitation in humans," said Professor Elemans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-43592-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>. 



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Daily singing workout keeps male songbirds attractive

Singing is a complex activity that involves the coordination of...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...