Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features an astronaut photograph of the Makran coast along the Arabian Sea.



“Several capes and bays appear along the Makran coast - a strip of land along the Gulf of Oman in southeastern Iran and southwestern Pakistan. Nicknamed ‘hammerhead’ capes because of their elongated forms and narrow necks, the headlands are shaped by the region’s plate tectonics, primarily uplift,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“The long curves of the bays’ shorelines show accumulations of sandy sediment. This buildup appears as numerous semi-parallel lines that reveal the locations of past shorelines. These features, known as beach ridges, appear particularly well developed on the north shore of Chabahar Bay at the top of the image.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bays-of-the-makran-coast">Bays of the Makran coast</h2>



NASA noted that scientists have investigated the vulnerability of the bays to the effects of climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cost-coastal-cities-over-1-trillion-in-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>.



“The research was conducted in part because the Makran coast experiences high rates of tectonic uplift. The researchers concluded that the harder rocks of the headlands were less vulnerable to wave erosion than the more erodible rocks where the neighboring bays formed. These bays are expected to change shape as waves and currents move sediment.," said NASA.



“The bays’ coastlines might move farther inland as sea level rises and shorelines erode. Or, the coastlines may advance seaward as coastal sediment accumulates over time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-on-the-coast">Wildlife on the coast </h2>



The Makran coast is known for its rugged terrain, dramatic cliffs, and sandy beaches. The coastal waters support vibrant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-has-deadly-consequences-for-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>. The beaches serve as nesting grounds for green and olive ridley turtles, highlighting their ecological significance.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-help-save-mangrove-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mangrove</a> forests are prevalent around estuaries and river deltas, offering critical habitats for numerous fish species and birds.



The region is a hotspot for bird watching, including migratory and resident birds like herons, egrets, and flamingos.



Despite the arid, desert-like inland areas, resilient species such as the Arabian Oryx and various reptiles thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-concerns-nbsp">Environmental concerns&nbsp;</h2>



The Makran Coast faces several environmental concerns. For example, the arid climate and overuse of land resources have led to issues like desertification.



Habitat destruction and pollution threaten the region's diverse marine life, including endangered species. Unsustainable fishing practices deplete fish stocks and disrupt the marine food chain.



Rising sea levels and increased frequency of extreme weather events impact coastal communities and ecosystems. Mangrove forests on the Makran coast are extremely vulnerable to sea level rise. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-makran-coast">History of Makran coast</h2>



The Makran region has been historically significant since ancient times. It was part of the ancient Persian Empire and has been mentioned in Greek and Roman texts.



Alexander the Great passed through Makran during his return from India, facing significant hardships due to the harsh environment.



The Makran Coast is situated on major trade routes connecting the Middle East, South Asia, and Central Asia. It was a key area along the ancient Silk Road and hosted important ports that facilitated trade between these regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-hazards">Natural hazards</h2>



The Makran region is seismically active, and there is a potential risk of tsunamis and earthquakes due to the tectonic activity in the area. 



The hilly terrain along parts of the Makran coast makes the region susceptible to landslides, particularly following heavy rains or seismic activity.



The climate is harsh, arid, and hot, with minimal rainfall and high temperatures, especially in the summer.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Makran coast of southeastern Iran

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features an astronaut photograph of the Makran coast along the Arabian Sea. “Several capes and bays appear along the Makran coast - a strip of land along the Gulf of Oman in southeastern Iran and southwestern Pakistan. Nicknamed ‘hammerhead’ capes because of their elongated forms and narrow necks, the headlands are shaped by the region’s plate tectonics, primarily uplift,” said NASA. “The long curves of the bays’ shorelines show accumulations of sandy sediment. This...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features smoke streaming over the Atlantic Ocean from a deadly fire outbreak in Portugal. The Copernicus Sentinel-3 image was captured on September 17, 2024.



“Dozens of wildfires are reported throughout the country, mainly in the north. The fires forced the closure of two railway lines and several motorways, including part of the main road between Lisbon and Porto,” said <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-firefighters-stretched-to-the-limit">Firefighters stretched to the limit</h2>



According to a report from NPR, more than 100 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-season-of-2023-redefined-what-is-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> stretched thousands of firefighters to the limit in northern Portugal on Wednesday, as Prime Minister Luís Montenegro declared a state of calamity.



"We are well aware that these difficult hours are not over yet," Montenegro told the nation. "We have to continue to give everything we have and ask for help from our partners and friends so that we can reinforce the protection of our people and property."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-outbreak-in-northern-and-central-portugal-nbsp">Fire outbreak in northern and central Portugal&nbsp;</h2>



The fires have been fueled by dry conditions, strong winds, and high temperatures. The northern and central regions of Portugal, particularly in areas like Aveiro and Albergaria-a-Velha, have been hit hardest by the fire outbreak.&nbsp;



Over 5,000 firefighters were deployed to combat the flames, but the blazes have still managed to consume over 62,000 hectares of land, resulting in the deaths of at least seven people, including firefighters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-widespread-fire-damage-and-evacuations">Widespread fire damage and evacuations</h2>



Residents were forced to evacuate, with many homes and industrial areas destroyed. Roads were also closed due to the encroaching flames and thick <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-is-an-underestimated-threat-to-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoke</a>, severely affecting transportation.



NPR said that while authorities have yet to release figures for property damage or the number of evacuees, Portuguese state broadcaster RTP has shown charred houses in rural villages and local residents trying to battle flames with buckets of water, hoses, and even large tree branches.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-responding-to-the-portugal-fires">Responding to the Portugal fires</h2>



The situation became so severe that Portugal sought assistance from the European Union. Greece, Spain, and France contributed firefighting aircraft, while the European Commission activated its RescEU program to provide additional support.&nbsp;



“The Copernicus Emergency Management Service was activated to help authorities respond to the emergency,” said ESA.



“Using satellite data, the service provides information for emergency response for different types of disasters, including meteorological and geophysical hazards, deliberate and accidental disasters, humanitarian disasters, and for prevention, preparedness, response and recovery activities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-climate-breakdown">A climate breakdown</h2>



The situation remains critical, although there are signs of improvement as the weather is expected to turn, which could help contain the fires.&nbsp;



The dry conditions which fueled the wildfire outbreak in Portugal coincided with deadly flooding in central Europe. The European Union said that the juxtaposed extreme weather events are proof of a “climate breakdown.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dry-conditions-and-fire-outbreaks-nbsp">Dry conditions and fire outbreaks&nbsp;</h2>



Hot, dry conditions are a key factor in the outbreak and spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-years-of-air-quality-improvement-erased-by-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a>. These conditions create a highly flammable environment where vegetation, like grasses, shrubs, and trees, becomes dry and can easily ignite.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dry-vegetation">Dry vegetation</h3>



When the weather is dry for extended periods, vegetation loses its moisture content and becomes more combustible. Even a small spark can set off a fire in such conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-temperatures-nbsp">High temperatures&nbsp;</h3>



Heat intensifies the drying of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increased-co2-is-making-wildfires-more-severe-and-frequent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> and raises the temperature of the fuel (plants, leaves, etc.), making it easier for it to catch fire and spread. High temperatures also reduce soil moisture, drying out more of the surrounding area.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-fans-the-flames">Wind fans the flames </h3>



In dry, hot conditions, winds can carry embers to new locations, causing fires to spread rapidly. Wind also fans the flames, intensifying the heat and increasing the speed of the fire's movement.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-humidity">Low humidity</h3>



Dry air, often measured by low humidity levels, exacerbates fire risk. When humidity is low, moisture is drawn out of plants and soil more quickly, further drying the landscape.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lightning-and-human-activity">Lightning and human activity</h3>



In hot, dry conditions, natural causes like lightning can ignite wildfires. However, human activities (campfires, discarded cigarettes, power lines) also play a significant role, particularly in areas that are primed for fire due to these weather patterns.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-nbsp">Climate change&nbsp;</h3>



In areas prone to drought, wildfires can be particularly destructive, and as climate change intensifies, hotter and drier weather is becoming more common, increasing wildfire risks globally.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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More than 100 fires are burning in Portugal

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Dust from the Gobi Desert blew eastward in late April 2011. Arising from sources both north and south of the Mongolia-China border, the plumes merged into a veil of dust spanning hundreds of kilometers. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite captured this natural-color image on April 29, 2011.
The sparsely vegetated grasslands of the Gobi frequently give rise to dust storms, especially in springtime. The same desert, however, provides something more fun: fossils. South of the Mongolia-China border lie large expanses of sandy desert, including the Badain Jaran Desert, home to some of the world’s most complex sand dunes.

The Gobi Desert (/ˈɡoʊbi/) is a large desert or brushland region in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dna-study-central-and-south-asian-history/">Asia</a>. It covers parts of Northern and Northeastern China and of Southern Mongolia. The desert basins of the Gobi are bounded by the Altai Mountains and the grasslands and steppes of Mongolia on the north, by the Taklamakan Desert to the west, by the Hexi Corridor and Tibetan Plateau to the southwest and by the North China Plain to the southeast. The Gobi is notable in history as the location of several important cities along the Silk Road.
The Gobi is a rain shadow desert, formed by the Tibetan Plateau blocking precipitation from the Indian Ocean reaching the Gobi <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gobi_Desert">territory</a>.

Gobi Dust Storm

Dust from the Gobi Desert blew eastward in late April...

Among the more than 150 tornadoes reported on April 27 and 28, 2011, was a rare EF-5 storm. Such a storm has the capacity to collapse a concrete building. The tornado hit Smithville, Mississippi, where it killed at least 14 people, and moved northeast nearly 3 miles toward the Alabama border. It is the first EF5 tornado to occur in Mississippi since 1966, according to the National Weather Service.
This image shows the path of exposed ground left in the<a href="https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&amp;id=D3FF35F1A7043D71F7D4D29E1D4262DE904175ED&amp;thid=OIP.J37bh1QQZ3p9k2AwSoLALQHaDt&amp;mediaurl=https%3A%2F%2Feoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fimages%2Fimagerecords%2F50000%2F50382%2FMississippi_amo_2011118.jpg&amp;exph=360&amp;expw=720&amp;q=tornado+tracks+in+mississippi+and+alabama&amp;selectedindex=1&amp;ajaxhist=0&amp;vt=0&amp;eim=0,1,2,3,4,6,8,10"> tornado’s</a> wake. The trail left by the EF5 tornado in Mississippi is much shorter than a similar trail that cuts across northwestern Alabama. The National Weather Service rated this tornado at EF4, with winds around 175 miles per hour, said local news reports. The track was about 12 miles long, and the tornado caused more than 20 deaths.
The image was taken by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer <a href="http://www.earth.com/image/great-abaco-island-and-grand-bahama/">(MODIS)</a> on NASA’s Aqua satellite on April 28. The tracks were not present before the storm, as shown in the lower image from April 12, 2011.
The large storm system that generated the tornadoes was the deadliest to hit the United States since 1974.

Credit: NASA images (April 12 and April 28) courtesy Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team at NASA GSFC. Caption by Holli Riebeek.

Tornado Tracks in Mississippi and Alabama

Among the more than 150 tornadoes reported on April 27...

Tornado Tracks in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Deadly tornadoes raked across Alabama on April 27, 2011, killing as many as 210 people as of April 29. The hardest-hit community was Tuscaloosa. The top image, acquired on April 28 by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/nasa-tropical-cyclones-satellite/">NASA’</a>s Aqua satellite, shows three tornado tracks through and around the city. The lower image, from April 12, shows the area before the storm.
The tracks are pale brown trails where green trees and plants have been uprooted, leaving disturbed ground. Though faint, the center track runs from southwest of Tuscaloosa, through the gray city, and extends northeast towards Birmingham. Two other tracks run parallel to the center track. The northernmost track lies in an area where the National Weather Service reported a tornado, but no tornado was reported in the vicinity of the more visible southern track. In the southern region, strong winds were reported.
The tornadoes were part of a larger weather pattern that produced more than 150 tornadoes across six states, according to the National <a href="https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&amp;id=7D8EA6552F2F5A82C5E4B33093F27F33E05221C7&amp;thid=OIP.gOOZywZo2chbhzgt8JdLnQHaFw&amp;mediaurl=https%3A%2F%2Feoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fimages%2Fimagerecords%2F50000%2F50370%2FAlabama_amo_2011118_lrg.jpg&amp;exph=1400&amp;expw=1800&amp;q=tornado+tracks+in+tuscaloosa%2c+alabama&amp;selectedindex=1&amp;ajaxhist=0&amp;vt=0&amp;eim=0,1,2,3,4,6,8,10">Weather Service</a>. The death toll reached 300 on April 29, making the outbreak the deadliest in the United States since 1974.

Credit: NASA images (April 12 and April 28) courtesy Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team at NASA GSFC. Caption by Holli Riebeek.

Tornado Tracks in Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Tornado Tracks in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Deadly tornadoes raked across Alabama...

Midwestern snow continued melting, and Midwestern rivers continued rising in early April 2011. The Advanced Hydrological Prediction Service (AHPS) of the U.S. National Weather Service issued flood warnings for cities along the James River in South Dakota, including Huron, Forestburg, Mitchell, Scotland, and Yankton. The AHPS reported major flooding at all of those locations on April 5, as well as moderate flooding along the Big Sioux River to the east.
The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/nasa-captures-a-stars-explosive-encounter-with-a-black-hole/">NASA’s</a> Aqua satellite acquired these images on April 4, 2011 (top), and March 5, 2011 (bottom). Both images use a combination of infrared and visible light to increase the contrast between water and land. Snow is bright turquoise. Clouds are pale blue-green, and cast dark shadows. Water ranges in color from electric blue to navy. Vegetation is green, and bare ground is earth toned.
The most striking difference between March and April is the retreat of snow cover. Snow blankets most of the region on March 5, and very little snow remains a month later. The <a href="https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&amp;id=4ABD5254896552812B0D5BDF7784906B6CCECD00&amp;thid=OIP.FBzqK_UIQDuR152o7vKDHgHaE8&amp;mediaurl=https%3A%2F%2Feoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fimages%2Fimagerecords%2F49000%2F49980%2Fjamesrv_amo_2011094.jpg&amp;exph=480&amp;expw=720&amp;q=rising+waters+on+the+james+river&amp;selectedindex=0&amp;ajaxhist=0&amp;vt=0&amp;eim=0,1,2,3,4,6,8,10">Missouri</a> and James Rivers become much more conspicuous as spring progresses. In early March, the Missouri River appears mostly covered by ice while the James River is indistinguishable from the surrounding snow cover. A month later, both rivers are obvious, as are numerous small lakes. Partially obscured by clouds, standing water also appears in the northeast in early April (image upper right). While the Missouri River may give the appearance of being more swollen in the April 4 image, the AHPS flood warnings on April 5 pertained to the James River.

Credit: NASA images courtesy MODIS Rapid Response Team, Goddard Space Flight Center. Caption by Michon Scott.

Rising Waters on the James River

Midwestern snow continued melting, and Midwestern rivers continued rising in...

Dense smoke billows from the White Fire in southern New Mexico in this image, taken by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on April 3, 2011. The fire, outlined in red, started on April 3 and grew quickly under strong winds. The fire had burned through about 6,000 acres of forest in steep, rocky terrain, destroying five homes and several outbuildings by 8:30 a.m. the following morning, said New Mexico Fire Information.
Track the fire in twice-daily images of New Mexico from the<a href="http://www.earth.com/image/great-abaco-island-and-grand-bahama/"> modis</a> Rapid Response System.

We are just getting started in this years fire weather season, and we have at least two more months to go before we can possibly get a break from our annual summer monsoon, which normally kicks in around the first couple weeks of July. Until then, there seems to be little hope of much needed rainfall occurring across the local area.

April is the start of our thunderstorm season, and many times the thunderstorms that do occur this time of the year are often dry. Meaning, that they often produce lots of wind (dry microbursts) and lightning, and very little rainfall. This is not good news for us and these storms when they do start <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=white+fire%2c+new+mexico&amp;FORM=HDRSC1">firing</a> up across the area, will only aggravate an already dangerous situation due to the ongoing and worsening drought.

Credit: NASA image courtesy the MODIS Rapid Response Team at NASA GSFC. Caption by Holli Riebeek.

White Fire, New Mexico

Dense smoke billows from the White Fire in southern New...

Flooding in the Australian Interior. Floods continued to spread across the interior of Australia in late January 2011, with high waters apparent in Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/nasa-captures-a-stars-explosive-encounter-with-a-black-hole/">NASA’s</a> Aqua satellite captured the top image on January 20, 2011. For comparison, the bottom image shows the same region a year earlier, on January 22, 2010.
These false-color images use a combination of infrared and visible light to increase the contrast between water and land. Water ranges in color from light blue to navy. Clouds appear pale blue-green. Vegetation is bright green. Bare ground appears in shades of beige and tan.
In 2010, most of the Balonne-Darling River network is invisible to the satellite sensor. In 2011, water is deep enough to color the channels deep blue. The same is true for water in the southern reaches of Cooper Creek. Menindee Lake and Lake Yamma Yamma are barely discernible in 2010 but easily seen in 2011. Some flooding also occurred in the Cooper Creek region in 2010, when the Channel Country floods forced authorities to declare parts of Queensland a natural disaster area.

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia">Tasmania</a>, and numerous smaller islands. It is the largest country in Oceania and the world's sixth-largest country by total area. The neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and East Timor to the north; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east. The population of 26 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard. Australia's capital is Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney. The country's other major metropolitan areas are Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide.

Credit: NASA images courtesy MODIS Rapid Response Team at NASA GSFC. Caption by Michon Scott.

Flooding in the Australian Interior

Flooding in the Australian Interior. Floods continued to spread across...

Dust mixed with smoke across central Africa in early January 2011. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite captured this natural-color image on January 9, 2011. Red dots indicate hotspots associated with fires.
Dust from the Bodele Depression, northeast of Lake Chad, blew toward the southwest, leaving dust over the lake and parts of Niger and Nigeria. At the same time, fires burned across central Africa (likely set for clearing agricultural land) and mingled smoke with the dust.
Saharan dust often travels across the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=atlantic+ocean&amp;filters=ufn%3a%22atlantic+ocean%22+sid%3a%22dcc7e2ec-46f7-dd20-6554-36ed57d23417%22&amp;form=EDGEAR&amp;qs=MB&amp;cvid=cedbeeaf50834926815696b7d9f6173d&amp;cc=US&amp;setlang=en-US&amp;DAF1=1&amp;elv=AXK1c4IvZoNqPoPnS%21QRLOMm3shHh6zEye1Y7YTXVygR6%21twv5gazvDNOFnDNVnxwhtyNxa19eaYn0RPXljxSkpN6FEAyxeavcGSApbbnhNW&amp;PC=HCTS">Atlantic Ocean</a>. Although the dust can cause respiratory irritation and coral damage, it also provides valuable soil to the New World. In fact, a 2006 study found that Amazon rainforest owes much of its soil to the Bodele Depression.

Central Africa is a region of the African continent comprising various countries according to different definitions. Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Rwanda, and São Tomé and Príncipe are members of the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS). Six of those states (Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon) are also members of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) and share a common currency, the Central African CFA franc. The African Development Bank defines Central Africa as Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. Middle Africa is an analogous term used by the United Nations in its geoscheme for Africa. It includes the same countries as the African Development Bank's definition, along with Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe.[

Credit: NASA image courtesy Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team at NASA GSFC. Caption by Michon Scott.

Dust Across Central Africa

Dust mixed with smoke across central Africa in early January...

In mid-December 2010, suspended sediments transformed the southern end of Lake Michigan. Ranging in color from brown to green, the sediment filled the surface waters along the southern coastline and formed a long, curving tendril extending toward the middle of the lake. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/nasa-captures-a-stars-explosive-encounter-with-a-black-hole/">NASA’</a>s Aqua satellite captured these natural-color images on December 17, 2010 (top), and December 10, 2010 (bottom).
Such sediment clouds are not uncommon in Lake Michigan, where winds influence lake circulation patterns. A scientific paper published in 2007 described a model of the circulation, noting that while the suspended particles mostly arise from lake-bottom sediments along the western shoreline, they tend to accumulate on the eastern side. When northerly winds blow, two circulation gyres, rotating in opposite directions, transport sediment along the southern shoreline. As the northerly winds die down, the counterclockwise gyre predominates, and the smaller, clockwise gyre dissipates. Clear water—an apparent remnant of the small clockwise gyre—continues to interrupt the sediment plume.
George Leshkevich, a researcher with the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, explains that the wind-driven gyres erode lacustrine clay (very fine lakebed sediment) on the western shore before transporting it, along with re-suspended lake sediments, to the eastern shore. On the eastern side, the gyre encounters a shoreline bulge that pushes it toward the lake’s central southern basin, where it deposits the sediments.
The sediment plume on December 17 followed a windy weather front in the region on December 16.

Credit: NASA image courtesy MODIS Rapid Response Team at NASA GSFC. Caption by Michon Scott.

Sediment Transforms Lake Michigan

In mid-December 2010, suspended sediments transformed the southern end of...

You might think that flying is a no-brainer for birds. It seems like a natural, instinctive behavior. And for the most part, it is. But intriguingly, researchers have discovered that young golden eagles need to learn how to utilize certain aspects to their advantage as they fly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flying-skills-of-eagles">Flying skills of eagles</h2>



At the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, researchers set out to investigate how juvenile golden eagles hone their flying skills as they grow. 



The researchers teamed up with experts at the <a href="https://www.vogelwarte.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Ornithological Institute</a> and the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a> for a fascinating journey into the heart of the European Alps.



The study's findings, published in the journal eLife, unwrap a whole <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blackbirds-reveal-the-true-energy-costs-of-migrating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new dynamic of avian development</a>. 



The research sheds light on the progressive flight skills of golden eagles, and how it expands their explorative frontiers in the Alps. This goes against our standard notion of instinctive behaviors being inbuilt and unchangeable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-of-soaring">The science of soaring</h2>



Golden eagles are not just any birds, they are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-amur-falcons-fuel-their-2000-mile-flights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soaring specialists</a>. They have a unique method of travel - riding on upward-moving air currents, known in layman's terms as uplifts.



These uplifts help them conserve energy while flying large distances, an essential survival strategy in the expansive Alps.



Learning to identify these invisible uplifts, and positioning their bodies efficiently within these currents, is a skill that's honed over time. 



"The eagles literally need to learn to fly, at least when it comes to using uplifts," noted Elham Nourani, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-golden-eagles">Tracking golden eagles</h2>



Using GPS tracking technology, the scientists monitored 55 juvenile golden eagles that had nested in Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Slovenia, and Austria.



They followed the birds for up to three years after they left their parents' territories and began their individual journey across the central European Alps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-golden-eagles-at-flight-school">Young golden eagles at flight school</h2>



This journey was essentially the golden eagles' flight school. Initially, the young eagles preferred to fly close to mountain ridges, where the upward winds are predictable and reliable. 



Over time, however, they began exploring more open areas where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-flight-is-powered-by-an-extraordinary-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">uplifts</a> are less predictable.



This shift in strategy was a clear indication of their growing confidence and improved ability to locate and use the unpredictable air currents more competently over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experience-expands-the-eagles-territory">Experience expands the eagles' territory</h2>



Kamran Safi, a research group leader at the Max Planck Institute in Konstanz, elaborated on these behaviors.



"Flying is an eagle's defining behavioral trait and you would think that when they fledged they should take to it like fish to water. But apparently, they need experience and learning to extract energy from the atmospheric flows, shaping and changing how they move and where they go," noted Safi.



The areas where the eagles could safely and effectively cover for food, shelter, and breeding multiplied exponentially as they aged.



After three years, the flyable area expanded more than 2,000-fold, demonstrating the impact of their learned skills on their habitat use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-the-avian-environment">Challenges in the avian environment </h2>



Despite their innate potential as apex aerial hunters, juvenile golden eagles face numerous hurdles in mastering their flight skills. Environmental factors play a significant role in this learning process. 



The Alps, with their unpredictable weather patterns and dynamic air currents, pose complex challenges for these birds. 



Eagles must adapt to ever-changing conditions, which requires not only instinct but also critical thinking and adaptability. This adaptation extends beyond merely finding uplifts; it encompasses mastering flights in harsh winds, heavy rains, and varying thermal patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-of-golden-eagles">Conservation of golden eagles </h2>



The insights from this study have implications for avian conservation strategies. Understanding the learning curve and the developmental needs of golden eagles allows for more informed conservation plans.



By identifying critical habitats and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-vultures-fly-faster-in-thin-air-at-high-altitudes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flight training areas</a> essential for eagle maturation, conservationists can focus efforts on preserving these regions.



Additionally, the data collected aids in predicting how these majestic birds might respond to climate change, which could alter the distribution of reliable air currents across mountainous terrains. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



As Elham Nourani noted, understanding the dynamic relationship between the aging eagles and their changing use of the landscape is crucial.



"Our study suggests that such maps should be viewed as dynamic, changing across various factors, including age," said Nourani.



Such insights can lead to more accurate predictions of potential overlaps between human activities and eagle behavior, particularly their landscape use at different stages of development.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/98818v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Golden eagles go to 'flight school' to master soaring skills

You might think that flying is a no-brainer for birds....

Scientists have proposed a fascinating new idea: Earth may have once possessed a ring system, akin to that of Saturn. These rings could have formed around 466 million years ago, during a tumultuous era marked by intense meteorite bombardment known as the Ordovician impact spike.



This period was characterized by significant environmental changes, and the existence of rings may provide insight into our planet's dynamics at that time and its interactions with cosmic forces.



This thought-provoking theory stems from a recent study led by Professor Andy Tomkins of <a href="https://www.monash.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monash University</a>, who has dedicated years to investigating geological evidence and astronomical data.



This revelation could transform our understanding of Earth's geological evolution and its role within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-rings-may-have-formed-after-two-icy-moons-collided/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-rings-could-explain-impact-craters">Earth rings could explain impact craters</h2>



The research team based their hypothesis on the intriguing positions of 21 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-chicxulub-caused-dinosaurs-extinction-event-traced-to-origin-kuiper-belt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid impact craters</a>, all located within 30 degrees of the equator. This is a peculiar finding because, typically, impact craters are randomly distributed across the globe. 



However, in this case, more than 70% of Earth's landmass was outside this equatorial region during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/470-million-year-old-animal-fossils-discovered-in-frances-cabrieres-biota/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ordovician period</a>, making the clustered craters an anomaly that standard geological theories cannot easily explain.



The team's idea is that this unusual pattern of impacts might be the result of a large asteroid having a close encounter with Earth. 



As it neared the planet, the asteroid would have crossed Earth's Roche limit -- a point where tidal forces become so strong that they can tear a celestial body apart. 



This would have led to the formation of a debris ring around Earth, similar to the rings that we see around gas giants <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-majestic-rings-will-vanish-in-just-six-months-from-now-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">like Saturn today</a>.



"Over millions of years, material from this ring gradually fell to Earth, creating the spike in meteorite impacts observed in the geological record," Tomkins noted. "We also see that layers in sedimentary rocks from this period contain extraordinary amounts of meteorite debris."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-ordovician-period">Understanding the Ordovician period</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-worms-sparked-explosive-evolutionary-period-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ordovician period</a> happened about 485 to 444 million years ago. It was a time when a lot changed on Earth. Many new types of sea life evolved during this time, including the first fish. 



There were also lots of animals without backbones, like trilobites and early shellfish. Consequently, the oceans were teeming with life, and coral reefs started to form, creating homes for many different sea creatures.



The Earth itself changed a lot during the Ordovician period. At first, it was warm, like the tropics, but by the end of this time, there was a big ice age, which made sea levels drop significantly, resulting in widespread extinctions.



Despite these challenges, the Ordovician period set the stage for future evolutionary developments, leaving a lasting impact on the history of life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-to-a-global-cooling-event">Connection to a global cooling event</h2>



But the implications of this discovery go beyond mere geology. The researchers speculate that this ring system might have had significant climate impacts, particularly contributing to a global cooling event known as the "Hirnantian Icehouse." 



This period, occurring near the end of the Ordovician, is recognized as one of the coldest times in the last 500 million years.



The idea is that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ring-system-found-on-the-edge-of-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ring system</a> could have cast a shadow over Earth, blocking sunlight and causing temperatures to drop. 



"The idea that a ring system could have influenced global temperatures adds a new layer of complexity to our understanding of how extra-terrestrial events may have shaped Earth's climate," Professor Tomkins explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



To reach these conclusions, the team employed a Geographic Information System (GIS) to analyze the distribution of the Ordovician impact craters. 



They focused on stable, undisturbed cratons -- ancient, stable parts of the continental crust -- that were geologically capable of preserving craters from that era. 



By excluding areas that were buried under sediment, ice, or affected by tectonic activity, the researchers identified regions like Western Australia, Africa, the North American Craton, and parts of Europe as the most likely places to find these ancient craters.



Despite only 30% of the suitable land area being close to the equator, all the identified craters from this period were found in this region. 



The chances of this happening are like tossing a three-sided coin and getting the same side 21 times. This highly improbable distribution is what led the researchers to consider the possibility of an Earth ring system in the first place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-if-earth-had-rings-why-it-matters">If Earth had rings: Why it matters</h2>



This discovery doesn't just rewrite a chapter of Earth's history -- it opens an entirely new book. 



The idea that Earth may have had a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-image-of-saturn-and-its-ring-spokes-from-the-hubble-space-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn-like ring system</a> raises fascinating questions about how such features might have influenced not just our planet's climate but also the development of life itself.



Could other ancient ring systems have existed at different points in Earth's history? How might they have shaped the environment in ways we are only beginning to understand?



While the notion of Earth with rings might sound like science fiction, it's rooted in meticulous research and a willingness to question established theories.



This study, published in Earth and Planetary Science Letters, provides a fresh perspective on the dynamic interactions between our planet and the wider cosmos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next?</h2>



The implications of this study extend well beyond the Ordovician period, urging us to reevaluate the broader influence of celestial events on Earth's evolutionary trajectory. 



As scientists continue to explore this new theory, they may uncover a past that is far more intricate and intertwined with cosmic phenomena than we previously thought.



Could similar rings have emerged during other pivotal moments in Earth's history, potentially influencing everything from climate patterns to the distribution of life? Only time, and science, will tell.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X24004230?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a>.



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Study: Earth had planetary rings like Saturn 466 million years ago

Scientists have proposed a fascinating new idea: Earth may have...

Gravity keeps our feet on the ground and the planets in orbit, but when it comes to the tiniest particles, things get a bit fuzzy. Physicists have long grappled with understanding how gravity works at the quantum level.



Johanna Erdmenger, a professor of theoretical physics, is tackling this challenge head-on. 



"To explain the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a> or the interior of black holes, we have to understand the quantum properties of gravity," she says.



At very high energies, the classical laws we're familiar with start to break down. 



"Our goal is to contribute to the development of new theories that can explain gravity at all scales, including at the quantum level," Erdmenger explains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-the-dots">Connecting the dots</h2>



Working with her team at the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Würzburg</a> in Germany, Erdmenger is exploring a theory called the AdS/CFT correspondence. 



This theory suggests that complex gravitational ideas in a higher-dimensional space can be understood through simpler quantum theories on the boundary of that space.



AdS stands for Anti-de-Sitter, a type of spacetime that's curved inward, much like a funnel. CFT refers to conformal field theory, which deals with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traditional-computers-verify-errors-made-by-quantum-computers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum systems</a> that look the same at all scales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-down-quantum-gravity-into-math">Breaking down quantum gravity into math</h2>



"This sounds very complicated at first, but it's easy to explain," says Erdmenger. 



She notes that the AdS/CFT correspondence helps us understand complex gravitational processes in the quantum world using simpler mathematical models. 



"At its heart is a curved spacetime, which can be thought of as a funnel," she adds. 



The correspondence suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-laws-thermodynamics-follow-entropy-rule/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum dynamics</a> at the edge of this funnel match the more complex dynamics inside, much like how a hologram on a banknote creates a three-dimensional image from a two-dimensional surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-electric-circuit-mimicking-spacetime">An electric circuit mimicking spacetime</h2>



Erdmenger and her team have come up with a way to test the AdS/CFT correspondence experimentally. They've designed a branched electrical circuit that mimics curved spacetime. 



In this setup, the electrical signals at different points in the circuit correspond to gravitational dynamics at various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/matter-spacetime-gravitational-waves-fabric-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">points in spacetime</a>.



Their theoretical calculations indicate that in this circuit, the dynamics at the edge match those inside, aligning with a key prediction of the AdS/CFT correspondence. 



This work has been published in the journal Physical Review Letters.



The team plans to bring this experimental setup to life. Not only could this advance our understanding of gravity, but it might also lead to new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technological breakthroughs</a>.



"Our circuits also open up new technological applications. Based on quantum technology, they are expected to transmit electrical signals with reduced loss, since the simulated curvature of space bundles and stabilizes the signals," Erdmenger explains.



"This would be a breakthrough for signal transmission in neural networks used for artificial intelligence, for example."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-quantum-gravity-matter">Why does quantum gravity matter?</h2>



Understanding gravity at the quantum level isn't just an academic exercise. It has implications for how we comprehend the universe's origins and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fundamental laws that govern everything</a>.



Imagine the potential advancements in technology and science if we could unify the laws of the very big with the very small. It's like finding the missing piece of a giant puzzle that has stumped scientists for decades.



This research not only pushes the boundaries of physics but also inspires future scientists. Questions like "How does the universe really work?" and "What happens inside a black hole?" ignite curiosity.



If Erdmenger's work succeeds, it could open doors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new fields of study and innovation</a>. Who knows what young mind might take this foundation and build the next big discovery?



To sum it all up, the journey to understand gravity at all scales is a challenging one, but with innovative approaches like those of Professor Erdmenger and her team, we're taking meaningful steps forward.



As we continue to explore these fundamental questions, each discovery brings us closer to a more complete picture of the universe, and a unified theory of physics.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.133.061603" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Central theory of quantum gravity is modeled in the laboratory

Gravity keeps our feet on the ground and the planets...

For years, scientists thought they had a good grasp on what happens when a molecule of water meets air. You know, the stuff we read in textbooks? Turns out, we’ve been wrong. 



A group of researchers discovered that the molecules at the surface of salt water organize themselves in a way that’s totally different than we ever thought.



Dr. Yair Litman from the <a href="https://www.ch.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry</a> led the team, and this revelation shakes up some long-held beliefs in climate science. 



It might sound like just another science experiment, but this one has real-world implications, especially when it comes to understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-weaker-ocean-will-release-more-carbon-into-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how our atmosphere works</a> and how to mitigate human impacts on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-at-the-surface-of-water-molecules">Chemistry at the surface of water molecules</h2>



When we think about where important chemical reactions happen, we might not immediately picture the surface of the ocean or a glass of salt water. But that’s exactly where critical interactions take place, especially when water meets air. 



Think of it: the evaporation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean water affects our climate</a>, drives weather patterns, and even influences the chemistry of the air we breathe. It’s a big deal.



For years, the science community has been trying to get a handle on exactly what happens at that surface, particularly how ions -- those tiny charged particles in salt -- behave when they hang out at the water’s edge. 



Are they neatly lined up? Do they play nice with water molecules? Well, until now, it was all pretty much guesswork. The exact behavior of ions at the water-air interface has been hotly debated.



That’s where Litman’s team, along with Dr. Kuo-Yang Chiang from the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a>, comes in. Their study, published in Nature Chemistry, changes the game. 



By combining cutting-edge technology with advanced simulations, they’ve shown that water molecules at the surface of salt water don’t behave the way we’ve always thought. And yes, this is big news.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-the-surface-of-water-molecules">Looking at the surface of water molecules</h2>



The traditional view, found in most textbooks, was simple: ions, which are either positively or negatively charged, line up at the surface and organize water molecules in one direction. But according to this new research, that’s not how things work at all.



The team used a more advanced form of a technique called vibrational sum-frequency generation (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum_frequency_generation_spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VSFG</a>). In the past, VSFG allowed scientists to look at molecular vibrations on the surface of water. 



But it had a flaw -- it couldn’t tell whether these vibrations were positive or negative, which made it hard to interpret what was really going on. Kind of like trying to figure out a conversation by only hearing half of it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trying-a-different-technique">Trying a different technique</h2>



That’s where heterodyne-detected (HD)-VSFG came into play. This technique takes things a step further, allowing the team to not only measure the vibrations but also figure out their direction. 



The result? They discovered that ions at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-ocean-water-shaped-early-life-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface of salt water</a> don’t just form a single layer and organize water molecules in one direction. 



Instead, ions organize water molecules both up and down, flipping the textbook model on its head.



“Our work demonstrates that the surface of simple electrolyte solutions has a different ion distribution than previously thought,” Litman explained. 



“At the very top, there are a few layers of pure water, followed by an ion-rich layer, and then the bulk salt solution.”



This means that, rather than ions neatly lining up and orienting water molecules in one direction, they create a much more complex and dynamic environment. 



It’s like discovering that your once-quiet neighborhood is actually buzzing with activity behind closed doors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



If you’re thinking, “Okay, but why should I care how ions behave at the surface of water?” The answer lies in how this discovery affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weather-in-dry-regions-isnt-behaving-as-climate-models-predict/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric science</a>. 



The surface of water -- especially ocean water -- is where a lot of important reactions take place. Evaporation, cloud formation, and even how pollutants break down in the atmosphere all hinge on these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosol-formation-earths-lower-atmosphere-soas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water-air interfaces</a>.



When we don’t fully understand how ions behave at the water’s surface, we can’t make accurate models for climate science. And in a world where understanding climate is crucial, having an accurate model is everything.



Dr. Kuo-Yang Chiang from the Max Planck Institute adds that this research not only deepens our understanding of liquid interfaces but could also be applied to other fields. 



"This paper shows that combining high-level HD-VSFG with simulations is an invaluable tool that will contribute to the molecular-level understanding of liquid interfaces."



In other words, this important revelation could help scientists develop better technologies for things like batteries and energy storage. 



And who knows, maybe it’ll even help us better understand how to manage some of the environmental issues we’re facing today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technique-has-far-reaching-applications">Technique has far-reaching applications</h2>



The implications of this study don’t stop at atmospheric science. Mischa Bonn, head of the Molecular Spectroscopy department at the Max Planck Institute, believes that this discovery could pave the way for a deeper understanding of other interfaces, like those found in batteries. 



"These types of interfaces occur everywhere on the planet, so studying them not only helps our fundamental understanding but can also lead to better devices and technologies," Bonn explained.



If we can get a better grip on how molecules behave on the surface of salt water, it could improve our understanding of how they behave on the surface of a solid material, too. That’s huge for anyone working on improving batteries or other energy storage solutions.



This is one of those discoveries where the impact might not be immediately obvious, but down the road, it could change everything -- from how we build devices to how we think about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-disinformation-is-a-persistent-scourge-in-the-battle-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate science</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-of-this-water-molecule-discovery">Applications of this water molecule discovery</h2>



To sum it all up, the findings from Dr. Litman’s team are just the beginning. Their discovery challenges decades of assumptions about water and ions, and it opens the door to a whole new area of research. 



The next steps? Applying these techniques to even more complex systems, like the interactions between water and solids, which could help us understand everything from pollution to clean energy.



It’s rare that a scientific discovery completely rewrites what we thought we knew. But when it does, it’s a reminder that science is always evolving. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41557-023-01416-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Chemistry</a>.



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Water molecule discovery will force textbooks to be rewritten

For years, scientists thought they had a good grasp on...

A recent study presents a new curve of global mean surface temperature, revealing that Earth's temperature has varied more than previously thought over much of the Phanerozoic Eon -- a period marked by the diversification of life, colonization of land, and multiple mass extinctions. 



The curve also confirms that Earth's temperature is strongly correlated with the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-temperature-of-earth-s-past">Studying the temperature of Earth's past</h2>



The Phanerozoic Eon began approximately 540 million years ago with the Cambrian Explosion, a time when complex, hard-shelled organisms first appeared in the fossil record.&nbsp;



Although researchers can create simulations dating back to this era, the temperature curve in the study focuses on the last 485 million years due to limited geological temperature data from earlier periods.



“It's hard to find rocks that are that old and have temperature indicators preserved in them - even at 485 million years ago we don't have that many. We were limited with how far back we could go,” said study co-author Jessica Tierney, a paleoclimatologist at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-the-temperature-curve">Developing the temperature curve</h2>



The researchers developed the temperature curve using an approach called data assimilation. This method allowed them to combine data from the geologic record and climate models to create a more cohesive understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-change-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient climates</a>.



“This method was originally developed for weather forecasting,” said Emily Judd, lead author of the paper and a former postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History</a> and the University of Arizona. 



“Instead of using it to forecast future weather, here we're using it to hindcast ancient climates.”



Refining scientists' understanding of how Earth's temperature has fluctuated over time provides crucial context for understanding modern climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-way-back-to-predict-the-future">Looking way back to predict the future</h2>



Study co-author Scott Wing is a co-author on the paper and a curator of paleobotany at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History.&nbsp;



“If you're studying the last couple of million years, you won't find anything that looks like what we expect in 2100 or 2500,” said Wing.



“You need to go back even further to periods when the Earth was really warm, because that's the only way we're going to get a better understanding of how the climate might change in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-is-the-biggest-driver-of-temperature-nbsp">CO2 is the biggest driver of temperature&nbsp;</h2>



The new curve reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-global-temperature-exceeded-2c-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> varied more significantly during the past 485 million years than previously thought.&nbsp;



Over this period, global temperatures ranged from 52 to 97 degrees Fahrenheit. Periods of extreme heat were most often linked to elevated levels of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.



“This research illustrates clearly that carbon dioxide is the dominant control on global temperatures across geological time,” Tierney said. “When CO₂ is low, the temperature is cold; when CO₂ is high, the temperature is warm.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapidly-warming-temperatures-on-earth">Rapidly warming temperatures on Earth</h2>



The findings also show that Earth's current global temperature of 59 degrees Fahrenheit is cooler than it has been over much of the Phanerozoic.&nbsp;



However, greenhouse gas emissions from human-caused climate change are currently warming the planet at a much faster rate than even the fastest warming events of that eon, the researchers say.&nbsp;



This rapid warming poses risks to species and ecosystems worldwide and is causing a swift rise in sea levels. Some other episodes of rapid climate change during the Phanerozoic have sparked mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greater-temperature-changes-linked-to-worse-extinction-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinctions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-evolved-in-a-colder-climate">Humans evolved in a colder climate</h2>



Rapidly moving toward a warmer climate could spell danger for humans, who have mostly lived within a 10-degree Fahrenheit range for global temperatures, compared to the 45-degree span over the last 485 million years.



“Our entire species evolved to an 'ice house' climate, which doesn't reflect most of geological history,” noted Tierney. 



“We are changing the climate into a place that is really out of context for humans. The planet has been and can be warmer - but humans and animals can't adapt that fast.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-global-temperature-across-the-phanerozoic-nbsp">Earth's global temperature across the Phanerozoic&nbsp;</h2>



The collaboration between Tierney and researchers at the Smithsonian began in 2018. 



The team aimed to provide museum visitors with a curve that charted Earth's global temperature across the Phanerozoic, which began around 540 million years ago and continues into the present day.



The researchers collected more than 150,000 estimates of ancient temperatures calculated from five different chemical indicators preserved in fossilized shells and other types of ancient organic matter.&nbsp;



Their colleagues at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> created over 850 model simulations of what Earth's climate could have looked like at different periods in the distant past, based on continental positions and atmospheric composition.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accurate-curve-of-earth-s-temperature-variation">Accurate curve of Earth's temperature variation</h2>



By combining these two lines of evidence, the team created the most accurate curve of how Earth's temperature has varied over the past 485 million years.



Another significant finding from the study pertains to climate sensitivity, a metric of how much the climate warms with the doubling of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a>.



“We found that carbon dioxide and temperature are not only really closely related, but related in the same way across 485 million years. We don't see that the climate is more sensitive when it's hot or cold,” Tierney concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adk3705" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How Earth’s temperature has changed over the past 500 million years

A recent study presents a new curve of global mean...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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