Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the little-observed southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fuel-for-star-formation">Fuel for star formation </h2>



"The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam shows the light from stars, even young stars hidden behind prodigious amounts of dust. NIRCam also captures emission from ionised nebulae around young stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-reveals-galaxies-in-new-light">Webb reveals galaxies in new light</h2>



According to ESA, the data was collected by the <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/home">PHANGS team</a> as part of a program in which Webb will observe 55 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/">galaxies</a> that have also been mapped by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, and more.&nbsp;



"By combining Webb’s unprecedented view of the dust and stars with data from these other facilities, the team aims to obtain a new, highly detailed view of how stars are born, live, and die in galaxies across the Universe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-1559-a-loner-in-space">NGC 1559: A loner in space</h2>



Although NGC 1559 appears to sit close to one of our nearest neighbors in the sky - the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - this is just a trick of perspective, noted ESA.



While it is part of the Reticulum constellation, NGC 1559 is not part of the Local Group of galaxies but instead resides in a more distant region of space.



"In reality, NGC 1559 is physically nowhere near the LMC in space; in fact it truly is a loner, lacking the company of any nearby galaxies or membership of any galaxy cluster."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1559">Star formation in NGC 1559</h2>



NGC 1559 is notable for its active star formation and strong magnetic fields. It has also been the site of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, making it of particular interest to astronomers studying stellar evolution and the lifecycle of stars.



The structure of NGC 1559 includes well-defined spiral arms that are rich in young, hot stars and regions of ionized gas, indicative of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.



The galaxy’s central bar is believed to play a role in driving gas towards the core, fueling both the star formation and the activity around its nucleus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extragalactic-wonder">An extragalactic wonder</h2>



Despite being relatively small compared to larger galaxies like the Milky Way, NGC 1559 is an important object for understanding how barred spiral galaxies evolve and the processes that trigger supernovae.



The galaxy’s remote location and active nature make it a fascinating subject of study in the field of extragalactic astronomy. The isolation of NGC 1559 allows for a clearer view of its structure without much interference from neighboring galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies">Barred spiral galaxies</h2>



Barred spiral galaxies are a type of spiral galaxy characterized by a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. This bar extends out from the core and connects to the galaxy's spiral arms, which swirl outward in a graceful pattern.



Scientists believe that the bar plays a crucial role in the evolution of the galaxy, funneling gas towards the core and potentially triggering star formation or feeding a central black hole. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, is an example of a barred spiral. These galaxies are quite common in the universe, making up about two-thirds of all observed spiral galaxies.



The bar itself is thought to be a temporary feature, developing as the galaxy matures and possibly disappearing over time as the dynamics of the stars change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reticulum-constellation">The Reticulum constellation</h2>



The Reticulum constellation is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "the reticle" in Latin, which refers to the crosshairs in an eyepiece of a telescope. 



The constellation was named in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille to honor the reticle he used in his scientific instruments. It is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, A. Leroy, J. Lee and the PHANGS Team



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Spiral galaxy NGC 1559 is a loner in outer space

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the little-observed southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.&nbsp; Fuel for star formation "The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted ESA. "Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1792, a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Columba, about 43 million light-years away from Earth.&nbsp;



This galaxy, discovered by British astronomer James Dunlop in 1826, is part of the larger NGC 1808 group of galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intimate-view-of-ngc-1792">Intimate view of NGC 1792</h2>



“An orange glow radiates from the center of NGC 1792, the heart of this stellar forge. Captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, this intimate view of NGC 1792 gives us some insight into this galactic powerhouse,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The vast swathes of tell-tale blue seen throughout the galaxy indicate areas that are full of young, hot stars, and it is in the shades of orange, seen nearer the center, that the older, cooler stars reside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vigorous-star-formation-nbsp">Vigorous star formation&nbsp;</h2>



NGC 1792 is notable for its vigorous star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This high rate of star formation is thought to be triggered by gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies, though the exact cause is still under study.



“Nestled in the constellation of Columba (The Dove), NGC 1792 is both a spiral galaxy, and a starburst galaxy,” said ESA. “Within starburst galaxies, stars are forming at comparatively exorbitant rates. The rate of star formation can be more than 10 times faster in a starburst galaxy than in the Milky Way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fierce-bursts-of-star-formation">Fierce bursts of star formation</h2>



ESA noted that when galaxies have a large reservoir of gas, like NGC 1792, these short-lived starburst phases can be sparked by galactic events such as mergers and tidal interactions.&nbsp;



“One might think that these starburst galaxies would easily consume all of their gas in a large forming event. However, supernova explosions and intense stellar winds produced in these powerful starbursts can inject energy into the gas and disperse it.”&nbsp;



“This halts the star formation before it can completely deplete the galaxy of all its fuel. Scientists are actively working to understand this complex interplay between the dynamics that drive and quench these fierce bursts of star formation.”



Due to its distance and brightness, NGC 1792 can be observed with medium-sized telescopes under favorable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-evolution">Galaxy evolution</h2>



Galaxy evolution refers to the process by which galaxies form and change over time. It begins in the early universe, shortly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, when small density fluctuations in the primordial gas led to the collapse of matter into the first galaxies. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-mergers">Galaxy mergers</h3>



These early galaxies were small and irregular, composed mostly of gas and dark matter. Over billions of years, galaxies grew larger by merging with one another and by accreting gas from the surrounding space.&nbsp;



These interactions often triggered bursts of star formation, and collisions between galaxies sometimes led to the creation of new, more massive galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes">Structural changes</h3>



As galaxies evolve, their morphology - their shape and structure - can change. Early galaxies were often irregular or disk-shaped, but over time, many galaxies formed into the elliptical or spiral shapes we see today.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation">Star formation</h3>



Star formation is a key driver of galaxy evolution, but it gradually slows down as galaxies age. 



The gas that fuels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> can be used up, or it can be heated and pushed out of galaxies by supernovae or black holes, reducing the galaxy's ability to form new stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-environment-nbsp">Galaxy environment&nbsp;</h3>



The environment in which a galaxy resides also plays a role in its evolution. Galaxies in dense clusters are more likely to interact with their neighbors, which can alter their shape or trigger bursts of star formation.&nbsp;



In contrast, galaxies in more isolated regions of space evolve more slowly and without as many dramatic interactions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter">Dark matter</h3>



Dark matter also plays a crucial role in galaxy evolution. It provides the gravitational framework that holds galaxies together and influences their interactions with one another.&nbsp;



Supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Galaxies%20merge&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, found at the centers of most large galaxies, can also affect their evolution by releasing energy that impacts star formation and the movement of gas within the galaxy.



Overall, galaxy evolution is a complex and ongoing process driven by interactions between stars, gas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and black holes, and shaped by both internal processes and external influences.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA, J. Lee



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

NGC 1792: A galactic powerhouse 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the aftermath of devastating floods in the Valencia region of Eastern Spain.&nbsp;



On October 29, 2024, torrential rainfall unleashed nearly a year’s worth of precipitation in just eight hours, leading to catastrophic flash floods that affected a vast area from Málaga to Valencia. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flash-floods-in-valencia">Flash floods in Valencia </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-floods-are-set-to-become-much-more-common-in-the-u-s/">Floodwaters</a> submerged entire neighborhoods and agricultural lands. Many roads and infrastructure were overwhelmed almost instantly, stranding vehicles and prompting widespread evacuations. Water levels rose faster than emergency services could respond.



One resident of Paiporta, near Valencia, told the BBC that when the water started to rise it was "like a tsunami wave."



“In a matter of minutes, flash floods caused by heavy downpours in eastern Spain swept away everything in their path. With no time to react, people were trapped in vehicles, homes and businesses,” reported the Associated Press.



More than 200 people were killed and thousands of people were rescued. According to SOS Desaparecidos, as many as 1,300 people remained unaccounted for on Friday, three days after the floods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnitude-of-the-tragedy-nbsp">Magnitude of the tragedy&nbsp;</h2>



Ángel Víctor Torres, the Minister for Territorial Policy and Democratic Memory, said: “The fact that we can’t give a number of the missing persons indicates the magnitude of the tragedy.”&nbsp;



Some areas, including the Spanish town of Alfafar, are completely cut off from communication.&nbsp;



Juan Ramón Adsuara, the mayor of Alfafar, said the aid isn't nearly enough for residents trapped in an "extreme situation."



"There are people living with corpses at home. It's very sad. We are organizing ourselves, but we are running out of everything," Adsuara told reporters. "We go with vans to Valencia, we buy and we come back, but here we are totally forgotten."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-government-warning-was-not-issued-in-time">Government warning was not issued in time</h2>



On Tuesday morning, Spain's meteorological agency Aemet warned that torrential rains were forecast for the region of Valencia, before issuing a&nbsp; "maximum red alert.”



Carlos Mazon, Valencia’s regional president, said the government sent out an SMS alert reserved for the “worst possible scenario.” But according to a report from CNN, that alert was sent hours too late.



“By 5 p.m., Valencia’s emergency services were swamped by hundreds of pleas for help throughout the region,” wrote Atika Shubert, a CNN Senior International Correspondent.



“It was at 8 p.m. that cell phones finally buzzed with the public alert telling residents to stay indoors. Much too little, much too late, even for those downstream of the raging water who might otherwise have had time to prepare.”



The BBC also noted that many people have questioned the timing of the government's warning, which arrived more than 12 hours after Aemet issued its first red alert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-weather-in-a-warming-climate">Extreme weather in a warming climate</h2>



The deadly floods in Valencia were primarily caused by an extreme weather event that brought record-breaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-events-are-interconnected-around-the-globe/">rainfall</a>. The intense downpour was fueled by unusually warm Mediterranean Sea temperatures, which increased moisture in the atmosphere and intensified the rainfall.&nbsp;



Climate experts link this phenomenon to climate change, as warmer seas lead to more frequent, severe storms. The combination of heavy rain and the region's limited drainage capacity led to flash flooding, overwhelming local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-floods-its-not-just-about-rainfall/">infrastructure</a>.



Rising ocean temperatures are largely driven by increased greenhouse gases that trap more heat in the atmosphere. Oceans absorb about 90% of this excess heat, leading to warmer waters, especially near the surface.&nbsp;



This warming disrupts marine ecosystems, contributing to coral bleaching and altering habitats for species like fish and marine mammals.



With the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/">climate crisis</a> intensifying, experts warn that warmer ocean temperatures will heighten the risk of rapid, destructive rainfall events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-second-deadliest-flood-in-europe-this-century-nbsp">Second-deadliest flood in Europe this century&nbsp;</h2>



Prime Minister Pedro Sanchez said the disaster was the second-deadliest flood in Europe this century and that Spain was carrying out its largest deployment of army and security force personnel in peacetime. The country was sending 5,000 soldiers and 5,000 police officers to the eastern region of Valencia on Saturday.



Four days after the devastating floods, rescuers are still searching for bodies. Thousands of volunteers are helping to clean up the thick mud that covers streets, homes, and businesses in the hardest-hit towns.&nbsp;



Prime Minister Sanchez responded to people who expressed they feel abandoned with no help or communication in the days following the tragic flooding.



“I am aware the response is not enough, there are problems and severe shortages… towns buried by mud, desperate people searching for their relatives.”



"For those who at this moment are still looking for their loved ones, the whole of Spain weeps with you."



According to <a href="https://www.esa.int/">ESA</a>, the Copernicus Emergency Rapid Mapping Service has been activated to provide satellite imagery that can support rescue and recovery efforts.



Image Credit: USGS, processed by ESA&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Valencia floods: A tragedy fueled by extreme weather

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory (ESO) features the Dark Wolf Nebula, located around 5,300 light-years from Earth in the constellation Scorpius.



According to ESO, this image of the dark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-reveal-the-ring-nebula-as-it-has-never-been-seen-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> creates the illusion of a wolf-like silhouette against a colorful cosmic backdrop. 



“This image takes up an area in the sky equivalent to four full Moons, but is actually part of an even larger nebula called Gum 55. If you look closely, the wolf could even be a werewolf, its hands ready to grab unsuspecting bystanders,” noted <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESO</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-nebulae-nbsp">Dark nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



Dark nebulae are dense regions in space filled with gas and dust that absorb visible light, making them appear as dark patches against brighter backgrounds.&nbsp;



Unlike emission or reflection nebulae, dark nebulae do not glow on their own. Instead, they obstruct and obscure the light from stars and other objects lying behind them.&nbsp;



This characteristic makes them challenging to observe using visible-light telescopes, as they absorb and scatter light rather than reflecting or emitting it.&nbsp;



However, when viewed in infrared, where their obscuring effect is reduced, dark nebulae reveal intricate details about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-the-perseus-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular clouds</a> they contain.



According to ESO, astronomers study these clouds of frozen dust because they often contain new stars in the making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-wolf-nebula-nbsp">Dark Wolf Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Dark Wolf Nebula is part of a larger complex known as the Lupus Molecular Cloud, one of several significant star-forming regions close to Earth.&nbsp;



Inside of dark nebulae, the conditions are prime for star formation. The dense gas and dust clump together under gravitational forces, and as the clouds contract, they heat up, eventually igniting nuclear fusion and forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new stars</a>.



The Dark Wolf Nebula is known for revealing young, low-mass stars, or T Tauri stars, which are in the early stages of their evolution. These stars are still surrounded by disks of material that may eventually form new planets.



This nebula is typically studied in infrared, which allows scientists to look beyond the obscuring dust to observe the processes of star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-scorpius-nbsp">The constellation Scorpius&nbsp;</h2>



Scorpius is one of the most recognizable constellations in the sky. It resembles a scorpion with a long, curved tail and stinger.&nbsp;



Located in the southern sky, Scorpius is especially visible during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere and winter in the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



The constellation is often associated with the story of Orion in Greek mythology. According to legend, the scorpion was sent by the goddess Artemis to kill Orion, the great hunter, either as punishment for his arrogance or to protect her animals, depending on the version of the tale.&nbsp;



The gods later placed both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion</a> and Scorpius in the sky, but in opposite parts of the heavens so they would never be seen together - as Scorpius rises in the east and Orion sets in the west.



Scorpius contains several notable stars and deep-sky objects. Its brightest star, Antares, is a red supergiant often referred to as the "Heart of the Scorpion" due to its reddish hue and central position.&nbsp;



Antares is one of the largest visible stars in the sky and has a luminosity tens of thousands of times greater than that of our Sun.&nbsp;



Scorpius is located close to the core of the Milky Way, making it a rich region for star clusters and nebulae. Among these are the Butterfly Cluster and the Ptolemy Cluster, both of which are visible to the naked eye under dark skies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-dark-wolf-nebula">Image of the Dark Wolf Nebula </h2>



“This image shows in spectacular detail how the dark wolf stands out against the glowing star-forming clouds behind it,” noted ESO.



“The colorful clouds are built up mostly of hydrogen gas and glow in reddish tones excited by the intense UV radiation from the newborn stars within them.”



The picture was created from images taken at different times. Each of the images has a filter that makes a different color of light visible.&nbsp;



Observations of the Dark Wolf Nebula provide astronomers with valuable information about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of stars</a> and the environments in which they form.



The image was captured by the VLT Survey Telescope (VST) at ESO’s Paranal Observatory in Chile.



Image Credit: ESO/VPHAS+ team



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dark Wolf Nebula in the constellation Scorpius

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features an incredible new image of the Crab Nebula in bright neon colors. 



“The unusual image was produced by combining data from telescopes spanning nearly the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to X-rays,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



Colored in red, the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) provided information about the nebula gathered in the radio regime.



NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope took infrared images, which appear yellow, while the NASA/ESA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-captures-another-cosmic-masterpiece-in-galaxy-ngc-2217/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> Space Telescope provided images made in optical wavelengths, colored in green.&nbsp;



Blue colors represent ultraviolet observations made by ESA’s XMM-Newton telescope, and the purple colors are X-ray radiation data from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-about-the-crab-nebula-nbsp">About the Crab Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Crab Nebula, located in the constellation Taurus, contains the remnants of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosion</a> first observed on Earth in 1054 AD. This explosion was recorded by Chinese astronomers and possibly by Native American rock art.&nbsp;



The nebula spans about 11 light-years across and lies approximately 6,500 light-years away from Earth. It is one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studied objects</a> in the sky, largely due to its status as a bright and dynamic supernova remnant.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-crab-pulsar">The Crab Pulsar</h2>



The Crab Nebula contains a pulsar at its center, which is a rapidly rotating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-spinning-neutron-star-completely-defies-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a> that emits pulses of radiation. This pulsar, known as the Crab Pulsar, spins about 30 times per second and is a significant source of gamma rays and other forms of high-energy radiation.&nbsp;



The nebula itself is a complex structure of filaments and synchrotron radiation. The filaments are remnants of the original star's outer layers, while the synchrotron radiation emerges from electrons spiraling in the magnetic fields produced by the pulsar.



“Surrounding the pulsar lies a mix of material; some of it was originally expelled from the star before it went supernova, and the rest was ejected during the explosion itself,” explained ESA.&nbsp;



“Fast-moving winds of particles fly off from the neutron star, energizing the dust and gas around it. These different layers and intricacies of the nebula can be observed in all of the different wavelengths of light.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crab-nebula-observation-nbsp">Crab Nebula observation&nbsp;</h2>



Throughout its history, the Crab Nebula has provided critical insights into the processes of stellar death, the behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pulsars-are-helping-astronomers-pinpoint-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pulsars</a>, and the mechanics of supernova remnants.&nbsp;



Its continuous observation has revealed changes over time, such as the expansion of its filaments and variations in its brightness, offering a dynamic laboratory for astrophysical studies.



Overall, the Crab Nebula is a highly energetic and object, providing valuable insights into the processes following a supernova explosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-facts-about-nebulae">Fascinating facts about nebulae</h2>



Nebulae are some of the most breathtaking and intriguing structures in the universe. They are vast clouds of gas and dust, often considered stellar nurseries where new stars are born. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-of-nebulae">Colors of nebulae </h3>



One of the most fascinating aspects of nebulae is their ability to glow in different colors. This occurs because they either reflect the light of nearby stars or emit light due to the ionization of gases within them, particularly hydrogen. 



Some nebulae, like the famous Orion Nebula, are visible to the naked eye and serve as one of the nearest regions of active star formation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-nebulae">Planetary nebulae </h3>



Stars are born in dense regions of nebulae, and when they die, some will expel their outer layers, creating stunning structures known as planetary nebulae. The colorful clouds left behind can shine brightly for thousands of years. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-size">Massive size</h3>



Another amazing fact is that some nebulae are so vast that light can take years to travel from one side to the other, stretching across hundreds of light-years.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-remnants">Star remnants </h3>



Perhaps even more mind-boggling is the fact that nebulae are the remnants of previous generations of stars. Supernova explosions of massive stars can create these glowing clouds of gas and dust, seeding the cosmos with the elements necessary for the formation of new stars and planets.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, G. Dubner (IAFE, CONICET-University of Buenos Aires) et al.; A. Loll et al.; T. Temim et al.; F. Seward et al.; VLA/NRAO/AUI/NSF; Chandra/CXC; Spitzer/JPL-Caltech; XMM-Newton/ESA; and Hubble/STScI



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Crab Nebula: The remains of a massive star explosion

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a false-color radar depiction of central Ethiopia.



According to ESA, the photograph is a blend of multiple Sentinel-1 images from spring, summer and autumn 2023, which have been overlaid to create this single image.



“Radar images capture surface texture rather than reflected light so they are naturally black and white but here images from each season have been assigned a different color: red, green and blue respectively,” explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“When the images are combined, the different colors reveal variations that occurred in the different seasons.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rugged-terrain-of-central-ethiopia-nbsp">Rugged terrain of central Ethiopia&nbsp;</h2>



ESA noted that Ethiopia’s terrain is one of the most rugged in Africa. The landscape is primarily characterized by highlands and plateaus.&nbsp;



The Ethiopian Highlands, also known as the Roof of Africa, dominate this region and include some of the highest peaks in Africa, such as Ras Dashen. The terrain features steep escarpments, deep valleys, and numerous rivers.&nbsp;



The central part of the country is also home to the Great Rift Valley, which runs through Ethiopia and includes a series of lakes and volcanic mountains. The region's varied topography contributes to its rich biodiversity and distinct climate zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-of-central-ethiopia-nbsp">Lakes of central Ethiopia&nbsp;</h2>



According to ESA, water bodies appear dark in this image because flat water surfaces reflect the radar signal away from the satellite. “The various colors visible in some lakes are due either to the changing surface currents and sediments from rivers or to variations in water level.”



Lake Ziway is one of the largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/africas-flamingos-at-risk-due-to-rising-lake-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> in the region. It is located about 160 kilometers south of Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia.&nbsp;



The lake is known for its rich bird diversity, including large populations of pelicans, cormorants, and herons. Lake Ziway also supports local fishing communities.



Lake Shala is the deepest lake in the Ethiopian Rift Valley and is known for its volcanic origins. It has a maximum depth of 266 meters and is surrounded by hot springs and steep, rocky cliffs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-of-central-ethiopia-nbsp">Climate of central Ethiopia&nbsp;</h2>



Central Ethiopia features a diverse climate, primarily influenced by its elevation and geographical location within the tropics.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-highland-climate">Highland climate</h3>



Much of central Ethiopia consists of highlands, with elevations ranging from 1,500 to over 3,000 meters above sea level. These highlands experience a temperate climate, with cooler <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-in-africa-are-rising-above-levels-that-rhinoceros-can-tolerate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> compared to the lowlands.&nbsp;



The average temperatures range from 50 to 68 degrees Fahrenheit. The higher elevations, such as those found in the Ethiopian Highlands, can experience temperatures that are close to freezing at night.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainy-seasons">Rainy seasons</h3>



Central Ethiopia has two main rainy seasons. The primary rainy season, known as the "Kiremt," occurs from June to September and brings the majority of the annual rainfall.&nbsp;



The "Belg," or short rainy season, occurs from March to May. The rainfall during these periods supports agriculture, which is a key part of the region's economy.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dry-season">Dry season</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/africas-wet-forests-have-seen-an-alarming-rise-in-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dry season</a>, known as the "Bega," spans from October to February.&nbsp;During this time, the region experiences significantly less rainfall, and the weather tends to be sunny and dry. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culture-of-central-ethiopia-nbsp">Culture of central Ethiopia&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-not-the-only-animals-that-create-their-own-culture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">culture</a> of central Ethiopia is a dynamic blend of ancient traditions and modern influences. This culture is characterized by a strong sense of community and a profound connection to the region's historical and spiritual roots.



The Amhara people have played a significant role in the cultural and political life of central Ethiopia. The Amhara are known for their rich heritage, which includes the Amharic language, a Semitic tongue that serves as one of the country's official languages.



Orthodox Christianity is a key aspect of central Ethiopian culture, particularly among the Amhara and other highland communities.&nbsp;



This part of East Africa is also known for its traditional music and dance, which reflect the region's historical depth and cultural diversity.&nbsp;



The cuisine of central Ethiopia is another significant cultural aspect, with injera (a spongy flatbread made from teff) being a staple food.&nbsp;Injera is typically served with a variety of stews (wats) and salads.



The communal eating experience, where meals are shared from a single large plate, emphasizes the importance of community and togetherness.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The vibrant seasons of central Ethiopia

Today's Image of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> features the Sombrero Galaxy, with its magnificent structure captured in stunning detail by the Hubble Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sombrero-galaxy-nbsp">Sombrero Galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



The Sombrero Galaxy, also known as Messier 104, is one of the most intriguing and easily recognizable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> in the night sky.



The galaxy is notable for its bright nucleus, large central bulge, and prominent dust lane that gives it a sombrero-like appearance when viewed from Earth. It is located in the constellation Virgo, about 29 million light-years away.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



The most distinguishing feature is the dark dust lane that encircles the galaxy along its equator, resembling the rim of a sombrero hat. This dust lane is composed of interstellar dust and gas, where new stars are being born.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-type-and-structure">Galaxy type and structure</h3>



The Sombrero Galaxy is classified as an SA(s)a galaxy, indicating it is an unbarred spiral galaxy with a prominent nucleus. 



However, its large bulge and dust lane also give it characteristics of an elliptical galaxy and a lenticular galaxy, making it a hybrid of sorts.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bright-nucleus">Bright nucleus</h3>



The galaxy has a very bright nucleus, which is thought to house a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>. Observations suggest the black hole at its center is one of the most massive known, with an estimated mass of hundreds of millions of solar masses.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-and-scale">Size and scale</h3>



The Sombrero Galaxy spans about 50,000 light-years in diameter, making it about half the size of our Milky Way. Its halo is also populated with globular clusters, similar to the Milky Way, though the exact number is still a subject of research.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-and-discovery">Research and discovery</h3>



Due to its unique features and relatively close proximity, the Sombrero Galaxy has been the focus of extensive research and has been studied across various wavelengths - from radio to X-ray. 



These studies help astronomers gain insights into the processes of galaxy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formation</a> and evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-expanding-universe-model-nbsp">The expanding universe model&nbsp;</h2>



The expanding universe model is a fundamental concept in cosmology that describes the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-claims-our-universe-is-27-billion-years-old-double-the-current-age-estimate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> as continuously growing in scale over time. 



This model is based on observations that galaxies are moving away from each other, with their separation increasing as time progresses.&nbsp;



The Sombrero Galaxy was one of the first galaxies to be identified as having a redshift, indicating it is moving away from us, which was an important piece of evidence supporting the expanding universe model. The key aspects of this model include:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-s-law">Hubble's Law</h3>



In 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered that galaxies are receding from each other at velocities proportional to their distances. 



This relationship, known as Hubble's Law, provided the first observational evidence for the expanding universe. It suggests that the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it appears to be moving away from us. 



This expansion is often described by the analogy of dots on an inflating balloon; as the balloon expands, the dots (representing galaxies) move away from each other.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-bang-theory">Big Bang Theory</h3>



The expanding universe model is a cornerstone of the Big Bang theory, which posits that the universe began as a singular, extremely hot and dense point approximately 13.8 billion years ago. 



The universe has been expanding and cooling ever since. This theory explains the creation of all space, time, matter, and energy.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-microwave-background-radiation">Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation</h3>



The discovery of cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation in 1965 provided strong evidence for the Big Bang theory and the expanding universe model. 



The CMB is the afterglow radiation from the Big Bang, observed as a faint microwave signal pervasive throughout the universe. It is considered a snapshot of the infant universe, showing a time about 380,000 years after the Big Bang when the universe had cooled enough for atoms to form and light to travel freely.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accelerated-expansion">Accelerated Expansion</h3>



Observations of distant supernovae in the late 20th century revealed that the universe's expansion is accelerating, not slowing down as previously assumed. 



This acceleration is attributed to a mysterious force termed "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-does-not-exist-universe-27-billion-years-old-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>," which constitutes about 68% of the total energy content of the universe.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmological-principle">Cosmological Principle</h3>



The expanding universe model is based on the cosmological principle, which states that on large scales, the universe is homogeneous (uniform in composition) and isotropic (appearing the same in all directions). This principle supports the observation that the expansion of the universe is uniform and not directed outward from a central point.



The model has profoundly impacted our understanding of cosmology, leading to further inquiries into the nature of dark matter, dark energy, and the ultimate fate of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-image">More about the image</h2>



"NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has trained its razor-sharp eye on one of the universe's most stately and photogenic galaxies, the Sombrero galaxy, Messier 104 (M104). The galaxy's hallmark is a brilliant white, bulbous core encircled by the thick dust lanes comprising the spiral structure of the galaxy," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"As seen from Earth, the galaxy is tilted nearly edge-on. We view it from just six degrees north of its equatorial plane. This brilliant galaxy was named the Sombrero because of its resemblance to the broad rim and high-topped Mexican hat."



According to ESA, at a relatively bright magnitude of +8, Messier 104 is just beyond the limit of naked-eye visibility and can be easily viewed through small telescopes. 



"The Sombrero lies at the southern edge of the rich Virgo cluster of galaxies and is one of the most massive objects in that group, equivalent to 800 billion suns. The galaxy is 50,000 light-years across and is located 30 million light-years from Earth."



Image Credit: NASA/ESA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The Sombrero Galaxy hints at an expanding universe 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features Westerlund 1 - a young star cluster located in the Milky Way galaxy.&nbsp;



Discovered by Swedish astronomer Bengt Westerlund in 1961, the cluster is composed of thousands of stars - many of which are supergiants - and contains some of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-stars-shape-planetary-systems-like-ours-with-ultraviolet-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">massive stars</a> ever observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-image-of-westerlund-1">Webb image of Westerlund 1</h2>



“The open cluster Westerlund 1, showcased in this new Webb Picture of the Month, is located roughly 12,000 light-years away in the southern constellation Ara (the Altar) where it resides behind a huge interstellar cloud of gas and dust,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“Westerlund 1 is an incomparable natural laboratory for the study of extreme stellar physics, helping astronomers to find out how the most massive stars in our galaxy live and die.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-special-about-westerlund-1">What is special about Westerlund 1?</h2>



According to ESA, the unique draw of Westerlund 1 is its large, dense, and diverse population of massive stars. The star cluster is unparalleled in the known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> galaxy in terms of the number of stars and the richness of spectral types and evolutionary phases. 



“All stars identified in this cluster are evolved and very massive, spanning the full range of stellar classifications including Wolf-Rayet stars, OB supergiants, yellow hypergiants (nearly as bright as a million Suns) and luminous blue variables. Because such stars have a rather short life, Westerlund 1 is very young, astronomically speaking,” said ESA.



“Astronomers estimate the cluster’s age to be somewhere between 3.5 and 5 million years (its exact age is still a matter of debate), making it a newborn cluster in our galaxy.”



Westerlund 1 is expected to gradually evolve from an open cluster to a globular cluster - a spherical collection of stars that are tightly bound together by gravity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-the-milky-way-galaxy-nbsp">Star formation in the Milky Way galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



The Milky Way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> forms roughly 1 to 2 stars per year on average. This star formation rate is relatively moderate compared to more active galaxies, which can produce dozens or even hundreds of stars annually.



The Milky Way galaxy used to produce many more stars, likely hitting its peak about 10 billion years ago. At that time, dozens (or possibly even hundreds) of stars were created in the Milky Way each year.&nbsp;



“Astronomers think that most of this star formation took place in massive clusters of stars, known as ‘super star clusters.’ These are young clusters of stars that contain more than 10,000 times the mass of the Sun, packed into an unbelievably small volume. They represent the most extreme environments in which stars and planets can form,” said ESA.&nbsp;



“Only a few super star clusters still exist in our galaxy - of which Westerlund 1 is one - but they offer important clues about this earlier era when most of our galaxy’s stars formed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impressive-example-of-a-star-cluster-nbsp">Impressive example of a star cluster&nbsp;</h2>



ESA noted that Westerlund 1 is an impressive example of a super star cluster because it contains hundreds of very massive stars - some that shine brilliance of almost a million suns and others that are two thousand times larger than the sun.&nbsp;



“Indeed, if the Solar System was located at the heart of this remarkable cluster, our sky would be full of hundreds of stars as bright as the full Moon.”



The large population of massive stars in Westerlund 1 indicates that it will greatly influence its surroundings, noted ESA. With such a high concentration of these stars, the cluster is expected to host over 1,500 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a> within the next 40 million years. This "super" star cluster offers astronomers a rare glimpse into one of the most extreme environments in the Universe. 



Westerlund 1 is set to play a key role in advancing our understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>, particularly massive ones, are formed, opening new doors in the ongoing quest for deeper insights.



The image was captured as part of the The Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) with Webb’s Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam).&nbsp;



Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Westerlund 1: Stars with the brilliance of a million suns

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Columbia Glacier, a tidewater glacier located in Prince William Sound on the south coast of Alaska.



The Columba Glacier is one of the most rapidly changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a> in the world and has been closely studied for the insights it provides into glacial mechanics and climate change impacts.&nbsp;



"Since the early 1980s, the Columbia Glacier has retreated more than 20 km and lost about half of its total volume. This one glacier accounts for nearly half of the ice lost in the Chugach Mountains," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"The changing climate is thought to have caused its retreat. Until 1980, when its rapid and constant retreat began, the glacier’s terminus was observed at the northern edge of Heather Island, which lies near the end of Columbia Bay, the inlet into which the glacier currently flows before draining into Prince William Sound."



ESA noted that this satellite image, captured in September of 2023, reveals a mostly ice-free Columbia Bay dotted with numerous icebergs and fragmented sea-ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-calving-events">Dramatic calving events</h2>



The Columbia Glacier is known for its dramatic calving events, where large chunks of ice break off from the glacier's terminus and fall into the sea, becoming icebergs. 



This process has been particularly active as the glacier has retreated, contributing to hazards for shipping in Prince William Sound.



The glacier has been the focus of extensive scientific research, serving as a case study for understanding the dynamics of tidewater glaciers and their responses to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. Studies have used satellite imagery, field observations, and modeling to track its changes over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impact-on-the-columbia-glacier">Climate impact on the Columbia Glacier</h2>



"Columbia is just one of the many glaciers suffering from the effects of climate change. Most of the glaciers around the world are losing mass," said ESA.



"However, before the advent of satellites, measuring their retreat and studying their vulnerability to climate change was difficult considering their size, remoteness and rugged terrain they occupy."



Now, noted ESA, different satellite instruments are available to gather information systematically and over large areas, providing an effective means to monitor change, keep track of all calving stages, and quantify the melting rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-columbia-s-retreat">Climate change and Columbia's retreat </h2>



Columbia Glacier flows from the Chugach Mountains into Columbia Bay. It was once one of the largest contributors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cost-coastal-cities-over-1-trillion-in-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a> due to its significant ice loss.&nbsp;



The glacier's dynamics are influenced by its interaction with water, where the terminus meets the ocean. As the glacier flows into the sea, large chunks of ice calve off the front, leading to dramatic scenes of ice crashing into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shelf-sediment-ocean-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a>. 



This process has been intensifying due to warmer temperatures and changes in water circulation, which undermine the ice from below.



Columbia Glacier's retreat has significant implications for marine navigation and local ecosystems. The increase in icebergs calving into the bay poses hazards to ships, while the fresh meltwater impacts local water temperatures and salinity, affecting the habitat of fish and other marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-in-a-warming-climate">Melting glaciers in a warming climate </h2>



Glaciers, which are large masses of accumulated snow and ice, store about 69 percent of the world's freshwater. As the climate warms, these glaciers increasingly melt and release freshwater into nearby seas and the ocean at large.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influx-of-freshwater">Influx of freshwater</h3>



The influx of freshwater from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting glaciers</a> alters the salinity (salt concentration) of the ocean water. Since freshwater is less dense than saltwater, its addition can lead to stratification in which lighter, less salty water layers on top of denser, saltier water.&nbsp;



Stratification can disrupt ocean currents, which are driven in part by differences in water density and temperature. These currents are crucial for regulating global climate by distributing heat and nutrients around the planet.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-salinity-nbsp">Changes in salinity&nbsp;</h3>



Furthermore, changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a> can affect marine life, which often has narrow salinity tolerance ranges. For example, shifts in salinity can impact breeding cycles, migration patterns, and the availability of nutrients.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-carbon-cycle">Global carbon cycle</h3>



As the ocean's composition changes, its capacity to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere could also be altered, affecting the global carbon cycle and, by extension, climate change feedback mechanisms.



The melting of glaciers contributes to more pronounced changes in ocean conditions, impacting everything from global climate systems to local ecosystems in marine environments.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—--



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.

Columbia Glacier on the south coast of Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the vibrant colors of the Mawrth Vallis region of Mars. The image reveals a landscape abundant in iron, magnesium, and aluminum. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-colors-of-mars">The colors of Mars</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-samples-from-mars-could-reveal-fascinating-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> gets its distinctive red color from iron oxides, or rust, on its surface. The Martian soil and dust are rich in iron minerals, which oxidize when exposed to the small amounts of oxygen present in the Martian atmosphere.&nbsp;



This oxidation process gives the planet its reddish hue, similar to how iron objects on Earth develop rust. 



The scattering of sunlight by these iron oxide particles further enhances the reddish appearance when viewed from a distance. However, the human eye can only perceive a fraction of Mars' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">true color</a> palette.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassis-image">CaSSIS image</h2>



The European Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS) aboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) offers a more detailed view, showcasing a striking diversity of colors.&nbsp;



This CaSSIS <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2024/06/Metallic_Mars_landscape" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> reveals yellow layers rich in iron and magnesium clays, overlain by white and blue layers abundant in aluminum. 



The area is draped by a dark, heavily eroded layer, illustrating a vibrant, metallic landscape formed around 3.6 billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mawrth-vallis">Mawrth Vallis</h2>



Mawrth Vallis lies just south of the dichotomy boundary, a ridge marking the divide between Mars' southern highlands and northern lowlands.&nbsp;



This region continues to captivate scientists due to its geological complexity and history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-a-water-reservoir-two-miles-deep-enough-to-fill-earths-red-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liquid water</a> flow.&nbsp;



Although Mawrth Vallis was considered as a landing site for the ExoMars Rosalind Franklin rover, the mission ultimately chose Oxia Planum for its search for signs of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-upcoming-rosalind-franklin-mission">Upcoming Rosalind Franklin mission</h2>



The Rosalind Franklin mission is a joint mission by the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos aimed at exploring the surface of Mars to search for signs of past or present life. 



The mission is named after Rosalind Franklin, the pioneering British scientist whose work was crucial in the discovery of DNA's structure.



The rover is designed to drill up to two meters below the Martian surface, where it is believed any signs of life may be better preserved, away from the harsh surface radiation. 



The Rosalind Franklin rover was originally scheduled to launch in 2020, but technical delays and the COVID-19 pandemic pushed the launch window to 2028. 



Once on Mars, the rover will collaborate with other missions like NASA's Perseverance and Curiosity rovers to advance our understanding of the Red Planet's habitability and history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-ancient-past">Mars’ ancient past</h2>



While Rosalind Franklin prepares for its mission, the TGO remains in orbit, conducting crucial research to unravel Mars' ancient past and assess its potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-mars-seismic-discoveries-and-the-quest-for-past-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitability</a>.&nbsp;



Since beginning its full science mission in 2018, TGO has not only captured stunning images but also provided a comprehensive inventory of Mars' atmospheric gases and mapped water-rich locations on the planet's surface.



For six years, CaSSIS has delivered breathtaking views of Mars in vivid color, documenting features ranging from volcanic landscapes to active dust devils and immense sand dunes.&nbsp;



Understanding Mars' water history and its implications for past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-is-letting-out-mysterious-methane-burps-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> remains a core focus of ESA’s ExoMars missions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metals-on-mars">Metals on Mars</h2>



Mars is rich in various metals that contribute to its geological and mineralogical diversity.&nbsp;



While iron is the most prominent, magnesium is also abundant. It is often found in the form of clays, contributing to the planet's diverse mineral composition.&nbsp;



Aluminum is another significant metal present on Mars, commonly found in layered deposits and sediments.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-metal-layers-of-mars">Complex metal layers of Mars</h3>



These metals are not evenly distributed but are found in various concentrations across the Martian surface.&nbsp;



For instance, regions like Mawrth Vallis exhibit a complex layering of different metal-rich minerals, including iron and magnesium-rich clays overlain by aluminium-rich layers.&nbsp;



This diversity indicates a rich geological history involving water activity, volcanic processes, and sedimentary deposition.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-changes-over-time">Major changes over time</h3>



The presence of these metals suggests that Mars has undergone significant chemical and physical processes over billions of years, shaping its current landscape.&nbsp;



Understanding the distribution and composition of metals on Mars helps scientists piece together the planet's history and assess its past potential for habitability.



Image Credit: ESA/TGO/CaSSIS



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Metallic Mars: The diverse colors of the Red Planet

Pterosaurs, the extinct flying reptiles that soared alongside dinosaurs, are among the most intriguing creatures in Earth's history.&nbsp;



While some later species reached wingspans of up to 10 meters, early pterosaurs were significantly smaller, typically limited to around two meters.&nbsp;



Now, a newly described species, Skiphosoura bavarica, sheds light on the evolutionary steps that allowed these creatures to bridge this size gap and adopt advanced anatomical features.&nbsp;



The discovery, led by David Hone of <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, represents a rare find that enhances our understanding of pterosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-mastered-land-before-dominating-the-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-pterosaur-fossil-unlike-any-other">A pterosaur fossil unlike any other</h2>



The name Skiphosoura bavarica translates to “sword tail from Bavaria,” reflecting its distinctive stiff, pointed tail and the southern German region where it was unearthed.&nbsp;



What makes this fossil truly remarkable is its state of preservation. Nearly every bone of the animal has been recovered, and unlike most pterosaur fossils, which are typically flattened, this specimen is preserved in three dimensions.&nbsp;



With a wingspan of about two meters - comparable to a golden eagle - Skiphosoura provides a rare glimpse into the morphology of transitional pterosaurs.



“This is an incredible find. It really helps us piece together how these amazing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flying animals</a> lived and evolved. Hopefully this study will be the basis for more work in the future on this important evolutionary transition,” Hone said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broad-classification-of-pterosaur-fossils-nbsp">Broad classification of pterosaur fossils&nbsp;</h2>



For over 200 years, scientists have classified pterosaurs into two primary groups. Non-pterodactyloids were early pterosaurs with small heads, short necks, long tails, a short bone in their wing wrists, and a long fifth toe on their feet.



Pterodactyloids were a later species characterized by large heads, long necks, short tails, elongated wrist bones, and a short fifth toe.



While this broad classification was useful, it left significant gaps in understanding how pterosaurs transitioned between these forms. The discovery of in the 2010s helped address some of these questions.&nbsp;



These intermediate species revealed that the head and neck adapted first, with other anatomical changes following later. However, scientists were left wondering what occurred immediately before and after the darwinopterans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-the-evolutionary-gap">Bridging the evolutionary gap</h2>



Skiphosoura bavarica offers vital clues. Evolutionarily, it stands between darwinopterans and pterodactyloids, displaying a combination of features from both groups.&nbsp;



It possesses the pterodactyloid-like head and neck characteristic of darwinopterans but also exhibits advancements such as a lengthened wrist, a shorter fifth toe, and a reduced tail - though not as pronounced as in later pterodactyloids.



This discovery, combined with a newly reconstructed evolutionary tree, allows researchers to trace the progression of anatomical changes in pterosaurs.&nbsp;



The study also places the Scottish pterosaur Dearc as a transitional species between early pterosaurs and darwinopterans.&nbsp;



Together, Dearc and Skiphosoura complete a nearly unbroken sequence of evolutionary adaptations, providing a step-by-step account of how pterosaurs evolved into the large, advanced forms seen in the later pterodactyloids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptations-for-larger-sizes">Adaptations for larger sizes</h2>



Interestingly, both Dearc and Skiphosoura are unusually large compared to other species of their time.&nbsp;



This suggests that the adaptations that enabled pterodactyloids to achieve enormous sizes - such as larger heads and longer necks - began appearing in transitional forms like Skiphosoura.&nbsp;



These changes likely offered advantages such as improved flight capabilities and more efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foraging</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-pterosaur-fossil-nbsp">Analyzing the pterosaur fossil&nbsp;</h2>



The fossil preparation and analysis were feats of modern technology and expertise. Unlike typical flattened fossils, the three-dimensional preservation of Skiphosoura required meticulous work.&nbsp;



“As a preparator, I have worked on more than 60 pterosaur specimens from Solnhofen limestone,” said study co-author Stefan Selzer, who prepared the specimen.



“I recognized during the final prep this specimen showed features that combined characteristics of both major groups of pterosaurs, with the shortened tail as the most important diagnostic feature.”&nbsp;



Digital imaging also played a critical role in analyzing the fossil.&nbsp;



René Lauer of the <a href="https://www.lauerfoundationpse.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lauer Foundation for Paleontology, Science, and Education</a> explained: “The specimen was disarticulated with bones of varying quality often overlaid upon one another.”&nbsp;



“Digital photography of the specimen taken in both visible and UV light significantly aided in the process to identify these elements and to better analyze finer details that were not discernible in normal daylight alone.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-pterosaur-evolution">Redefining pterosaur evolution</h2>



The discovery of Skiphosoura bavarica provides a detailed roadmap of pterosaur evolution, offering insights into how these creatures developed the traits that would eventually enable them to dominate the skies.&nbsp;



By clarifying the sequence of anatomical changes, this fossil represents a major milestone in understanding the evolutionary history of pterosaurs.



“Pterosaurs have long been symbols of the unique life of the past. Skiphosoura represents an important new form for working out pterosaur evolutionary relationships and by extension how this lineage arose and changed,” said co-author Adam Fitch, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>.



As researchers continue to study this exceptional find, they hope to uncover even more details about how pterosaurs adapted and thrived in prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.&nbsp;



“This is an incredible find. It really helps us piece together how these amazing flying animals lived and evolved,” Hone said.



With Skiphosoura bavarica, scientists have a clearer view of the evolutionary journey that transformed small, early pterosaurs into the majestic flying reptiles of the Mesozoic era, cementing its role as a key link in the story of life on Earth.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01377-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

New fossil fills crucial gap in pterosaur evolution

Pterosaurs, the extinct flying reptiles that soared alongside dinosaurs, are...

Acupuncture, ketamine infusions, and electroconvulsive therapy are just a few of the options available for individuals diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Treatment-Resistant Depression (TRD). These treatments, while potentially effective, can often feel daunting or expensive. 



Now, research from <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emory University</a> suggests that psilocybin-assisted therapy (PSIL-AT), using the active ingredient in hallucinogenic mushrooms, could provide transformative benefits to more than five million people in the U.S., pending <a href="https://www.fda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a> approval.



The study highlights the urgent need for therapies featuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psilocybin</a> while addressing the logistical and economic considerations that policymakers, insurance providers, and public health agencies will face in making such treatments widely accessible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millions-could-benefit-from-psilocybin-therapy">Millions could benefit from psilocybin therapy</h2>



Using national data on individuals currently being treated for MDD and TRD, Emory researchers applied exclusionary criteria to identify those who would be medically eligible for PSIL-AT.&nbsp;



Factors such as comorbidities, including mania, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-close-to-bars-and-pubs-increases-the-risk-of-heart-failure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart failure</a>, and diabetes, were used to refine the eligible population.



The analysis revealed that 56 to 62% of patients with MDD and TRD - approximately 5.1 to 5.6 million people - could benefit from this therapy.



Study lead author Fayzan Rab is an M.D. candidate at Emory University’s School of Medicine.&nbsp;



“This information is significant because much of the current focus on psychedelic therapies is about its efficacy within clinical trials, and very few people are studying what would be the broader implications of implementing these novel therapeutics,” said Rab.&nbsp;



“Our study is one of the first to look at the bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-alone-in-america-an-escalating-public-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health</a> and economic consequences of a world where psilocybin therapy is made more available to Americans.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-actionable-data-for-fda-consideration">Actionable data for FDA consideration</h2>



Psilocybin-assisted therapy is currently designated as a breakthrough therapy by the FDA, allowing for an expedited review of Phase III clinical trial results due to its potential to address <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confirmed-magic-mushrooms-can-effectively-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>.&nbsp;



The findings from this study provide actionable data to inform the FDA’s decision-making process.



“What is really timely about this research is that it provides a data-driven number that is interpretable to the FDA,” Rab said.&nbsp;



“This is how many Americans we think are at stake. I think that will be a meaningful estimate for the FDA to weigh when they consider whether to approve psilocybin for therapeutic use.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insurance-coverage-and-psilocybin-therapy-demand">Insurance coverage and psilocybin therapy demand</h2>



If approved, the availability of PSIL-AT will be heavily influenced by decisions from private and public insurance providers, including the <a href="https://www.cms.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services</a> (CMS).&nbsp;



According to the study, nearly 20% of Medicaid’s 85 million beneficiaries - approximately 17 million people - are likely to have clinical depression. How Medicaid and other insurers decide to reimburse for psilocybin-assisted therapy will significantly impact its accessibility and demand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-acting-relief-from-psilocybin-nbsp">Fast-acting relief from psilocybin&nbsp;</h2>



One notable advantage of psilocybin therapy is its rapid efficacy. Previous clinical trials have shown that a single 25 mg dose of psilocybin can substantially reduce symptoms of depression.&nbsp;



Dr. George Grant, co-director of Emory University’s <a href="https://psychedelics.emory.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Psychedelics and Spirituality</a> (ECPS), emphasized the potential cost savings for the healthcare system.



“Psychedelic medicines have promise because the intervention is so fast-acting, whereas right now, insurance providers and payers often need to fund the use of antidepressants throughout their lives,” said Grant, who is also the executive director for Spiritual Health at the <a href="https://whsc.emory.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woodruff Health Sciences Center</a>.



This quick-acting treatment could alleviate the financial burden on both insurers and patients while delivering significant relief for those with depression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-holistic-approach-to-mental-and-spiritual-wellness">Holistic approach to mental and spiritual wellness</h2>



Supported by Emory University’s ECPS, the study integrates clinical psychiatry with spiritual health to explore the therapeutic potential of psychedelic medicines. The center aims to foster a deeper understanding of how psychedelics can bring patients to a state of mental and spiritual wellness.



“Coming to the aid of people who are suffering is very important, and psilocybin-assisted therapy could help people arrive at a place of satisfaction within themselves so that their lives achieve optimal meaning and purpose,” Grant said.



Rab also highlighted the impartial academic environment in which the research was conducted, stressing that it was independent of pharmaceutical influence.&nbsp;



“I am glad to be supported by the Center for Psychedelics and Spirituality, which is an academic environment, providing an objective third-party perspective to policymakers, the FDA, and public health agencies,” Rab said.&nbsp;



“I am really hopeful that continued research in the area of psychedelic medicine and therapeutics could benefit the millions of Americans that might qualify for it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-forward-for-psilocybin-therapy">A path forward for psilocybin therapy</h2>



The study provides a roadmap for the potential rollout of psilocybin-assisted therapy, offering actionable insights for healthcare providers, insurers, and policymakers.&nbsp;



By addressing the needs of millions of Americans suffering from MDD and TRD, PSIL-AT could represent a paradigm shift in the treatment of depression, bridging clinical efficacy with accessible and holistic care.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Psilocybin therapy offers hope for millions with depression

Acupuncture, ketamine infusions, and electroconvulsive therapy are just a few...

Life, as we know it, is a collection of small events; brewing morning coffee, letting the dog out, starting the laptop, letting the dog back in. 



Our brains are constantly on the job, observing and processing these pieces that together make up our day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-start-and-finish-of-events">Start and finish of events</h2>



Professor Jeff Zacks, head of the Department of Psychological &amp; Brain Sciences at Washington University, shines light on an essential fact.



“Knowing where events begin and where they end is crucial to understanding the world.” 



Professor Zacks' research has focused on understanding this fundamental aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human cognition</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computer-models-learning-from-uncertainty">Computer models learning from uncertainty</h2>



To comprehend these processes better, Professor Zacks and his research team embarked on two separate studies.



In the first project, they trained computer models to watch over 25 hours of videos featuring people performing simple, daily tasks. After this, they asked the computer models to predict what would happen next. 



Interestingly, the results showed that these models performed best when they responded to uncertainty. 



In situations where predictions of next actions puzzled them, the models would assess the scene from scratch - a strategy that improved their understanding remarkably.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-turn-of-events-in-the-brain">Unexpected turn of events in the brain</h2>



Professor Zacks had previously hypothesized that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-changes-how-we-recall-memories-making-them-seem-frightening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human brain</a> was particularly sensitive to life’s little surprises and would reassess a situation every time something unexpected happened. 



He proposed that surprising situations forced people to re-evaluate their surroundings, a concept known as "prediction error."



However, the study's findings threw a wrench in this theory, with the model paying more attention to uncertainty than to prediction errors. The researchers were undeterred by these findings.



“We’re doing science here. We revise theories when faced with new data," said Professor Zacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-act-of-events-in-the-brain">Balancing act of events in the brain</h2>



Surprises continue to matter, however, and the concept of prediction error should not be entirely discarded.



Tan Nguyen, a graduate student in Zacks’ Dynamic Cognition Laboratory proposes an alternative approach - the brain possibly uses both mechanisms in balance. 



"It’s not a case of either/or. Each model can make unique contributions to our understanding of human cognition,” explained Nguyen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-memory-and-event-comprehension">Exploring memory and event comprehension</h2>



Taking the research further, another member of the <a href="https://dcl.wustl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dynamic Cognition Lab</a>, Maverick Smith, is inspecting the correlation between event comprehension and memory.



Smith collaborated with Heather Bailey, an associate professor at Kansas State University and a former postdoc at WashU.



Their work collates evidence suggesting that long-term memory is closely tied to one’s ability to discern logically and accurately where one event ends and another begins. 



“There are a lot of individual differences in the ability to identify when events start and stop, and those differences can strongly predict how much people remember later on,” noted Smith.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-s-capacity-to-process-events">Brain's capacity to process events</h2>



Smith’s research shows that older people often have difficulty processing events, a problem that potentially contributes to age-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> loss.



“Maybe there’s a way we can intervene to help them better remember the events in their lives,” said Smith.



Professor Zacks, Nguyen, Smith, and other members of the Department of Psychological &amp; Brain Sciences have ambitious plans to deepen their understanding of the brain’s capacity to process and remember events.



Currently, they're using fMRI brain imaging to monitor real-time responses to everyday event videos from 45 study participants.



In one ongoing study, the team is tracking eye movements, revealing how we visually process the world around us. 



Another of Smith's video-based experiments aims to improve the memory of study subjects - including older people and Alzheimer's patients - by making event boundaries more identifiable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-understanding-of-events">The brain's understanding of events</h2>



“Some people are definitely better than others at segmenting events into meaningful chunks. Can that ability be improved, and can that lead to improvements in memory? Those are the questions we’re still asking,” Smith concluded.



In the end, our understanding of the world hinges on how we comprehend the mundane, everyday occurrences that make up our lives. 



In a world driven by big events, we often overlook these smaller instances. Yet, it's these "little things" that allow our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains</a> to comprehend and navigate our lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/3/10/pgae459/7818226?login=false">PNAS Nexus.</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Our brain breaks life into 'events' to make sense of the chaos

Life, as we know it, is a collection of small...

What if a debilitating illness such as Alzheimer's could be detected by the simple prick of a finger?



This could soon be a reality in the world of Alzheimer's testing, which would increase accessibility to this critical information for people across the globe. In fact, it could be as easy as dropping a little blood onto a card, popping it into the mail and awaiting your results.



Thanks to the hard work of European researchers based primarily at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a> in Sweden, this simplified testing method is on the horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-magic-behind-the-method">The magic behind the method</h2>



The promising test involves gathering a couple of blood drops from a finger prick onto a uniquely crafted card that is specifically designed for optimal sample preservation.



The primary function of this innovative card is to separate blood cells from plasma, thereby ensuring that the sample remains viable for further analysis.



After about 15 minutes, and once it has had a chance to dry completely, the card is securely packaged and ready to be mailed in the regular post to a specialized lab.



There, contemporary high-sensitivity techniques are utilized to examine and analyze the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-biomarkers-predict-dementia-onset-15-years-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers</a> within the plasma.



This refined method is the culmination of years of extensive development and fine-tuning to identify certain biomarkers that have demonstrated impressive accuracy and reliability in identifying potential Alzheimer's sufferers.



Impressively, these markers have shown significant efficacy, initially when tested in cerebrospinal fluid, and then in venous blood samples. The idea is now to assess their presence in the blood from superficial vessels in the finger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-the-new-with-the-old">Comparing the new with the old</h2>



To illustrate the effectiveness of this new method, a recent study included capillary blood samples from 203 people all of whom underwent the finger prick test. 



The memory clinics responsible for administering these tests are spread across five different locations in Europe. 



Once the tests were completed, they were sent over to the Neurochemistry Department at the University of Gothenburg for detailed analysis, which included testing for the presence of established <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-disease-earliest-biomarker-protein-psd-95-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers for Alzheimer's</a>, such as pTau217.



The outcomes of the study were shared by Hanna Huber, a researcher at the University of Gothenburg’s Sahlgrenska Academy, at the CTAD (Clinical Trials on Alzheimer’s Disease) conference in Madrid, Spain, on October 30, 2024. 



"The simple capillary blood test works almost as well as venous samples,' explained Huber. "But, unlike traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-tests-offer-new-hope-in-detecting-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood tests</a>, this new test does not require transport on dry ice. This could significantly increase accessibility to Alzheimer's testing in countries and regions lacking the infrastructure needed for high-sensitivity analyses."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-alzheimer-s-testing">The future of Alzheimer's testing</h2>



Looking ahead, this test could become available within a matter of years, with a new European study already underway to explore whether it can be self-administered.



This capability would empower individuals to perform their own finger prick and then mail the sample to a lab, which would bypass the need for healthcare personnel.



The test arrives just in time as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pomegranates-may-be-key-in-preventing-and-treating-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's treatments</a> are making strides, with drugs like lecanemab already being approved in a variety of countries outside the EU. 



For these treatments to work, early detection is crucial. The new test could pave the way for new research opportunities with regard to Alzheimer's disease, including into its genetic makeup and its prevalence among different global populations.



It is important to note that this test is not designed for general screening purposes. 



The World Health Organization (WHO) currently discourages general screening for Alzheimer's disease, as past treatment options have been limited, which renders widespread screening ethically unjustified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-global-access-to-alzheimer-s-testing">Expanding global access to Alzheimer's testing</h2>



One of the most promising aspects of this new finger-prick test is its potential to close the gap in global access to Alzheimer's diagnostics.



Many regions, particularly in low-resource countries, struggle to provide the necessary infrastructure for traditional testing methods, which often require specialized equipment and transportation of samples under strict conditions, such as on dry ice.



By simplifying the process and eliminating the need for complex logistics, this test could bring early detection and intervention to communities that have historically been underserved. 



This advancement could also encourage more research collaborations and support the collection of diverse data sets, which would potentially enhance the understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medical-breakthrough-new-vaccine-may-prevent-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's disease</a> manifests across different populations and contribute to more targeted and inclusive treatments.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Finger prick method could simplify Alzheimer's testing

What if a debilitating illness such as Alzheimer's could be...

Astronomers at the University of Toronto (U of T) have identified, for the first time, pairs of white dwarf and main sequence stars within young star clusters.&nbsp;



This significant finding, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad7500" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>, opens a new window into an extreme phase of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar evolution</a>, offering a critical link in understanding the lifecycle of binary star systems. These insights may also shed light on cosmic events such as supernova explosions and gravitational waves.



Binary systems - where two stars orbit a shared center of gravity - are central to the universe's evolution.&nbsp;



The discovery of these rare systems could help astronomers piece together the transition between the early and final stages of binary stars, advancing our understanding of how stars and galaxies evolve and how elements are created.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-stage-of-stellar-evolution-nbsp">Mysterious stage of stellar evolution&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binary star systems</a> are widespread, with about half of all stars similar to the Sun existing in such pairings. 



Typically, these stars vary in mass, which influences how they evolve. Massive stars age more rapidly, transitioning through life stages far faster than their lower-mass companions.



In the later stages of a massive star’s life, it swells dramatically during the red giant or asymptotic giant branch phases.&nbsp;



In close binary systems, this expansion can engulf the smaller companion star in a shared layer of material, a phenomenon known as the common envelope phase.&nbsp;



This mysterious stage plays a critical role in stellar evolution, but its details have long eluded scientists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-binary-star-systems-nbsp">The role of binary star systems&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-white-dwarf-stars-eat-heavy-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">White dwarfs</a> - the dense remnants of dead stars - provide a unique opportunity to study this phase. 



Identifying systems that pair white dwarfs with main sequence stars, known as white dwarf-main sequence binaries, offers critical clues about what happens during and after the common envelope stage.



“Binary stars play a huge role in our universe,” said lead author Steffani Grondin, a graduate student at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>’s David A. Dunlap Department for Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics. 



“This observational sample marks a key first step in allowing us to trace the full life cycles of binaries and will hopefully allow us to constrain the most mysterious phase of stellar evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-star-pair-discovery">Machine learning and star pair discovery</h2>



Despite their predicted abundance, white dwarf-main sequence binaries have been notoriously difficult to find. Before this study, only two candidates had been confirmed within star clusters.&nbsp;



Using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a>, the researchers analyzed data from three astronomical surveys: the European Space Agency’s Gaia mission, the 2MASS infrared survey, and the Pan-STARRS1 optical survey. This innovative approach uncovered 52 potential binaries across 38 star clusters.



Study co-author Joshua Speagle is a professor in U of T’s David A. Dunlap Department for Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics and Department of Statistical Sciences.&nbsp;



“The use of machine learning helped us to identify clear signatures for these unique systems that we weren't able to easily identify with just a few datapoints alone,” said Speagle.&nbsp;



“It also allowed us to automate our search across hundreds of clusters, a task that would have been impossible if we were trying to identify these systems manually.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-timeline-of-binary-star-systems">Evolutionary timeline of binary star systems</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-origins-of-young-star-clusters-traced-to-three-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star clusters</a> are invaluable for studying the evolution of stars because all stars in a cluster are believed to have formed simultaneously. Finding white dwarf-main sequence binaries within these clusters allows researchers to determine the systems' ages and trace their evolutionary paths.



“It really points out how much in our universe is hiding in plain sight - still waiting to be found,” said co-author Maria Drout, an astronomer at U of T.&nbsp;



“While there are many examples of this type of binary system, very few have the age constraints necessary to fully map their evolutionary history. While there is plenty of work left to confirm and fully characterize these systems, these results will have implications across multiple areas of astrophysics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrophysics-and-beyond">Implications for astrophysics and beyond</h2>



Binary systems containing compact stellar remnants are linked to some of the universe’s most dramatic events, such as Type Ia <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-travels-back-in-time-to-better-understand-supernovae-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a> and gravitational wave-producing mergers. 



Type Ia supernovae are crucial tools for measuring cosmic distances, while gravitational waves - ripples in spacetime - are detectable by instruments like the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO).



The team plans to refine their findings using data from telescopes such as Gemini, Keck, and Magellan.&nbsp;



As they confirm and measure the properties of these binaries, the researchers hope their work will provide a deeper understanding of the transient phenomena that shape our universe.



Image Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), Olofsson et al. Acknowledgement: Robert Cumming.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Binary systems with living and dead stars reveal stellar secrets 

Astronomers at the University of Toronto (U of T) have...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...