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A new study suggests that extreme temperatures could lead to a mass extinction event -- the first since the dinosaurs died out -- that would ultimately end the reign of humans and mammals on Earth.



Dr. Alexander Farnsworth, a Senior Research Associate at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, led the research that paints a grim picture of our planet's distant future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangea-ultima-future-supercontinent">Pangea Ultima -- future supercontinent</h2>



Scientists believe that Earth's continents are slowly drifting and will eventually come together to form a single massive landmass, called Pangea Ultima. 



This supercontinent would drastically change the planet's climate. 



The study, published in Nature Geoscience, uses supercomputer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate models</a> to show how this new configuration could create an environment that's too hot and dry for most life forms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triple-threat-to-life-on-earth">Triple threat to life on Earth</h2>



So, what's causing this extreme heat that results in the extinction of humans? 



"The newly-emerged <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supercontinent</a> would effectively create a triple whammy, comprising the continentality effect, hotter sun and more CO₂ in the atmosphere, of increasing heat for much of the planet," Dr. Farnsworth explained.



First, the formation of the supercontinent would mean more land area far from the cooling effects of the ocean -- a phenomenon known as the continentality effect. 



Second, over millions of years, the sun will become brighter, emitting more energy and warming the Earth. 



Third, increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-play-an-overlooked-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> due to tectonic movements would release more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, trapping more heat.



"Widespread temperatures of between 40 to 50° Celsius (104 to 122° Fahrenheit), and even greater daily extremes, compounded by high levels of humidity would ultimately seal our fate," Dr. Farnsworth added.



"Humans -- along with many other species -- would expire due to their inability to shed this heat through sweat, cooling their bodies."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-heat-limitations">Mammals' heat limitations</h2>



Mammals have always been adaptable, surviving various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate extremes</a> throughout history. We've evolved features like fur to keep warm and the ability to hibernate during cold spells. 



However, our upper temperature tolerance hasn't changed much. Prolonged exposure to excessive heat is much harder for mammals to handle.



The study suggests that only about 8% to 16% of the land on the new supercontinent would be habitable for mammals. 



With most of the planet facing extreme heat and dryness, finding food and water would become nearly impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-current-climate-action-and-extinction-of-humans">Current climate action and extinction of humans</h2>



While this scenario is millions of years away, the researchers stress that we shouldn't lose sight of the current climate crisis. 



"It is vitally important not to lose sight of our current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-crisis-global-supply-chains-face-25-trillion-in-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate Crisis</a>, which is a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases," urged Co-author Dr. Eunice Lo, Research Fellow in Climate Change and Health at the University of Bristol. 



"While we are predicting an uninhabitable planet in 250 million years, today we are already experiencing extreme heat that is detrimental to human health. This is why it is crucial to reach net-zero emissions as soon as possible."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co₂-levels-and-tectonic-shifts">CO₂ levels and tectonic shifts</h2>



To estimate future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/met-office-2024-co2-levels-will-surpass-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide levels</a>, the team used models of tectonic plate movement and ocean chemistry. 



They predict that CO₂ levels could rise from around 400 parts per million today to more than 600 ppm in the future. 



"We think CO₂ could rise from around 400 parts per million (ppm) today to more than 600 ppm many millions of years in the future," noted Professor Benjamin Mills at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Pangea-Ultima_supercontinent_humans-mammals-extinct_illustration_UBristol_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Pangea-Ultima_supercontinent_humans-mammals-extinct_illustration_UBristol_1s.webp" alt="The image shows the geography of today’s Earth and the projected geography of Earth in 250 million years, when all the continents converge into one supercontinent (Pangea Ultima). Credit: University of Bristol" class="wp-image-1949412"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The image shows the geography of today’s Earth and the projected geography of Earth in 250 million years, when all the continents converge into one supercontinent (Pangea Ultima). Credit: University of Bristol</figcaption></figure>



Of course, this assumes that humans will stop burning fossil fuels, otherwise we will see those numbers much, much sooner."



"The outlook in the distant future appears very bleak. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virus-lifespan-and-transmission-boosted-by-high-co2-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carbon dioxide levels</a> could be double current levels," Dr. Farnsworth added.



"With the sun also anticipated to emit about 2.5% more radiation and the supercontinent being located primarily in the hot, humid tropics, much of the planet could be facing temperatures of between 40 to 70°C (104 to 158°F)."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-earth">Implications beyond Earth</h2>



This research doesn't just tell us about Earth's future; it also has implications for the search for life on other planets. 



"This work also highlights that a world within the so-called '<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-17-exoplanets-that-have-oceans-and-possibly-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable zone</a>' of a solar system may not be the most hospitable for humans depending on whether the continents are dispersed, as we have today, or in one large supercontinent," Dr. Farnsworth concluded.



Understanding how continental layouts affect climate can help scientists assess the habitability of exoplanets -- planets outside our solar system. Could other worlds be facing similar challenges?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-mass-extinctions">Past mass extinctions</h2>



The Earth’s geological and climatic history is punctuated by several mass extinction events, moments in time when the planet experienced abrupt shifts, leading to the substantial loss of its biodiversity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ordovician-silurian-extinction-around-443-million-years-ago">Ordovician-Silurian Extinction (Around 443 million years ago)</h3>



In this first notable mass extinction, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice ages</a> predominated and caused substantial marine life loss, wiping out nearly 85% of sea life. 



Changing sea levels and temperatures reduced habitat range and induced environmental stress, directly affecting marine biodiversity. 



This extinction primarily decimated marine species, since life on land was scarce during this period.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-late-devonian-extinction-around-360-million-years-ago">Late Devonian Extinction (Around 360 million years ago)</h3>



The Late Devonian extinction left a significant impact, with a 75% <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-half-of-earths-species-are-experiencing-rapid-population-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reduction in species</a>. This extinction event extensively affected marine life, particularly reef-building organisms and fish. 



Volcanic activity and asteroid impacts are considered primary culprits, disrupting ecosystems and altering atmospheric conditions, leading to extensive marine anoxia.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-permian-triassic-extinction-around-252-million-years-ago">Permian-Triassic Extinction (Around 252 million years ago)</h3>



Often referred to as “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predator-was-king-prior-to-the-great-dying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Great Dying</a>,” this cataclysm annihilated around 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial species. 



Massive volcanic eruptions in what is now Siberia released colossal amounts of lava, triggering severe climate change, acid rain, and ocean acidification. 



These environmental alterations devastated global ecosystems, transforming life on Earth.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triassic-jurassic-extinction-around-200-million-years-ago">Triassic-Jurassic Extinction (Around 200 million years ago)</h3>



This event marked the end of the Triassic and the rise of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-extinction-may-hold-clues-about-our-oceans-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jurassic period</a>, with around 50% of species perishing. 



Large-scale volcanic activities and resultant climate changes are believed to be the driving forces, facilitating the dominance of dinosaurs by clearing ecological niches and allowing for adaptive radiations of various species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cretaceous-paleogene-extinction-around-66-million-years-ago">Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction (Around 66 million years ago)</h3>



This well-known mass extinction event resulted from a colossal asteroid impact, creating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-chicxulub-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chicxulub crater</a> in present-day Mexico and obliterating approximately 75% of all species, including the non-avian dinosaurs. 



The impact caused wildfires, tsunamis, and released substantial quantities of sulphur, leading to a “nuclear winter” effect, causing extreme and sudden climate shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-climate-supercontinents-and-extinction">Humans, climate, supercontinents, and extinction</h2>



Wrapping it all up, this study from the University of Bristol shows that Earth's future could get so hot that most mammals, including humans, won't be able to avoid extinction. 



The formation of a new supercontinent called Pangea Ultima, a brighter sun, and higher CO₂ levels could crank up the heat to unbearable levels. 



It's a wild thought, but it reminds us that our planet is always changing, and not always in ways that suit us.



When we look back at the mass extinction events throughout Earth's history, we keep seeing the same story play out. 



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Something big happens -- like a huge volcano erupts or an asteroid smacks into Earth -- and suddenly everything changes, wiping out huge numbers of species. </li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>The environment shifts so dramatically and quickly that most life just can't keep up.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>These ancient mass extinctions teach us a pretty sobering lesson about life on Earth: it's way more fragile than we might think. </li>
</ul>



As we face our own environmental crisis today, these past events remind us to take better care of our environment and the planet's biodiversity. 



Mother Earth has a wild and predictable history of shaking things up, and we humans -- just like all the creatures before us -- are really just temporary residents on this ever-changing planet.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01259-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Scientists predict how and when humans and mammals will face extinction

A new study suggests that extreme temperatures could lead to...

Between 120 and 130 million years ago, during the age of the dinosaurs, northeast China hosted vibrant temperate forests and lakes that nurtured a diverse ecosystem.&nbsp;



Fossils from this period stayed untouched for millions of years until villagers began to unearth exceptionally preserved specimens in the 1980s.&nbsp;



These finds, often sold to collectors and museums, initiated a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> rush that has since transformed the region into one of the most heavily excavated paleontological sites in the world, visible even from space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-of-well-preserved-dinosaurs">Fossils of well-preserved dinosaurs</h2>



The dinosaur fossils discovered in the Yixian Formation stood out for being remarkably well-preserved. 



Unlike the usual fragmented skeletal remains found at other sites, these fossils often included soft tissues, internal organs, feathers, fur, and even stomach contents. 



Notable among these finds was a cat-sized mammal locked in a struggle with a small dinosaur, both seemingly frozen in time. 



Such discoveries confirmed that modern birds are descendants of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathered dinosaurs</a> and provided crucial insights into their evolution, redefining paleontological understanding. 



Early theories suggested that a sudden volcanic event, similar to the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius that buried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tragic-end-of-pompeii-was-not-solely-caused-by-mount-vesuvius/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pompeii</a>, might have been responsible for preserving these fossils, leading to the formation’s nickname, “Chinese Pompeii.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refuting-volcanic-theories">Refuting volcanic theories</h2>



A recent study published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2322875121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> challenges the long-held belief that volcanic activity was the primary reason for the pristine preservation of these fossils.&nbsp;



The researchers, using precise dating techniques, argue that the fossils were preserved not by dramatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-survived-the-eruption-of-toba-supervolcano/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic cataclysms</a> but by more common occurrences such as burrow collapses and periods of heavy rainfall that quickly buried the remains.&nbsp;



This new study pinpoints the age of these fossils to a compact period of less than 93,000 years, dismissing the notion that preservation was the result of multiple volcanic pulses over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-well-preserved-dinosaur-discoveries">Well-preserved dinosaur discoveries</h2>



“These are probably the most important dinosaur discoveries of the last 120 years,” said study co-author Paul Olsen, a paleontologist at the Columbia Climate School’s <a href="https://lamont.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory</a>. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/dinosaurs_Psittacosaurus_skeletons_burrow-collapse_credit-Jun-Liu_CAS_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/dinosaurs_Psittacosaurus_skeletons_burrow-collapse_credit-Jun-Liu_CAS_1s.webp" alt="Two perfectly articulated skeletons of the sheep-size dinosaur Psittacosaurus, found in China's Yixian Formation. New research suggests they died in burrow collapses, not via volcanism, as previously thought. Credit: Jun Liu, Institute of Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences" class="wp-image-1949576"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Two perfectly articulated skeletons of the sheep-size dinosaur Psittacosaurus, found in China's Yixian Formation. New research suggests they died in burrow collapses, not via volcanism, as previously thought. Credit: Jun Liu, Institute of Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences</figcaption></figure>



“But what was said about their method of preservation highlights an important human bias. That is, to ascribe extraordinary causes, i.e. miracles, to ordinary events when we don’t understand their origins. These [fossils] are just a snapshot of everyday deaths in normal conditions over a relatively brief time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-against-volcanic-theories">Evidence against volcanic theories</h2>



The research team dismissed the possibility of preservation by volcanic lahars -- fast-moving mudflows -- due to their violent nature, which would have obliterated delicate remains. 



Similarly, the theory of pyroclastic flows, like those that buried Pompeii, was ruled out. 



Such flows would have incinerated feathers and fur, and left the bodies in the characteristic “pugilistic” posture seen in victims of extreme heat. 



Instead, the animals in the Yixian Formation are found in more relaxed positions, suggesting a peaceful end.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theory-of-sudden-burrow-collapses-nbsp">Theory of sudden burrow collapses&nbsp;</h2>



Instead of volcanic cataclysms, the researchers propose that many of the preserved fossils were the result of sudden burrow collapses. Evidence for this theory came from the composition of the rock surrounding the fossils.&nbsp;



While the general rock formations were made of coarse grains, the material immediately around and within the skeletons was finer, indicating that fine sediment seeped in as bacteria or insects degraded the soft tissues, preserving the bones.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/dinosaurs_Psittacosaurus-babies_burrow_hunted_Repenomamus-mammal_credit-Alex-Boersma_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/dinosaurs_Psittacosaurus-babies_burrow_hunted_Repenomamus-mammal_credit-Alex-Boersma_1s.webp" alt="Artist's rendition of a Psittacosaurus dinosaur with babies being hunted by Repenomamus, a mammal. One fossil assemblage from the Yixian Formation preserved the remains of these species in mortal combat, frozen in mid-action. The dinosaur here is shown with bristly proto-feathers on its tail. Credit: Alex Boersma" class="wp-image-1949578"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Artist's rendition of a Psittacosaurus dinosaur with babies being hunted by Repenomamus, a mammal. One fossil assemblage from the Yixian Formation preserved the remains of these species in mortal combat, frozen in mid-action. The dinosaur here is shown with bristly proto-feathers on its tail. Credit: Alex Boersma</figcaption></figure>



Olsen noted that even today, burrow collapses can be fatal for animals like penguins, illustrating how this process may have played a role in the preservation of ancient creatures.



The extraordinary find of a mammal and dinosaur locked in combat could potentially be explained by such collapses. 



The mammal may have been invading the dinosaur’s burrow in search of food or safety when both met their end.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-triggered-burrow-collapses">What triggered burrow collapses?</h2>



While the researchers propose burrow collapses as the primary cause of death, the exact triggers remain speculative.&nbsp;



One possibility is that larger dinosaurs, which do not appear in the fossil record but likely roamed the area, may have inadvertently crushed the burrows while moving through the landscape. 



Additionally, periods of intense rainfall could have destabilized the ground, contributing to collapses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-for-future-dinosaur-discoveries">Potential for future dinosaur discoveries</h2>



Olsen believes that the Yixian Formation's unique preservation is not exclusive and that other areas around the world could yield similarly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gigoutella-mauretanica-best-preserved-trilobite-fossils-ever-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">well-preserved</a> dinosaur fossils if excavated with the same intensity. 



“It’s just that there is no place else where such intense collecting has been done in this kind of environment,” he said. 



While China has taken measures to regulate fossil sales, the demand remains robust, and significant investments have been made to promote tourism around these fossil sites.



Olsen mentioned sites in the eastern United States that share environmental similarities with Yixian, such as a quarry straddling the North Carolina-Virginia border, sites in Connecticut, and a former quarry in New Jersey.&nbsp;



However, large-scale excavation in these areas has yet to happen due to the high cost and the value of the land.



“It takes enormous effort, which is expensive. And land is valuable in these areas. So no one is doing it. At least not yet,” Olsen concluded.



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Image Credit: Jun Liu, Institute of Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences



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How did the world’s best-preserved dinosaurs die? 

Between 120 and 130 million years ago, during the age...

Supermassive black holes reside at the centers of most galaxies, captivating scientists with their enormous gravitational pull. However, understanding how these black holes managed to grow so rapidly in the early universe has posed significant challenges.&nbsp;



A recent study led by Hyewon Suh of the <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/programs/gemini-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Gemini Observatory/NSF NOIRLab</a> sheds light on this cosmic enigma. The team uncovered an extraordinary low-mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>, named LID-568, consuming material at an alarming rate just 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-the-webb-telescope-nbsp">The power of the Webb telescope&nbsp;</h2>



To make this groundbreaking discovery, Suh's team utilized the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expansion-rate-of-the-universe-confirmed-by-jwst/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST), a technological marvel known for its unmatched infrared sensitivity. 



The telescope observed a sample of galaxies from the <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ApJ...819...62C/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chandra X-ray Observatory’s COSMOS legacy survey</a>. This particular survey includes galaxies that are bright in the X-ray spectrum but had previously been undetectable in optical and near-infrared wavelengths. JWST's capabilities enabled the team to detect these elusive emissions.



LID-568 was especially notable within this sample for its intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-x-ray-radiation-that-spews-out-of-black-holes-surroundings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray</a> emissions. Yet, accurately determining its exact position was problematic based on the X-ray data alone. 



The team received instrumental support from JWST scientists, who recommended using the telescope’s integral field spectrograph on NIRSpec. This tool provided a complete spectrum for every pixel in its field of view, allowing a comprehensive analysis of LID-568 and its surroundings.&nbsp;



“Owing to its faint nature, the detection of LID-568 would be impossible without JWST. Using the integral field spectrograph was innovative and necessary for getting our observation,” said co-author Emanuele Farina, an astronomer at the International Gemini Observatory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-outflows-and-rapid-accretion">Gas outflows and rapid accretion</h2>



With JWST’s NIRSpec, the team discovered unexpected outflows of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mechanism-discovered-that-creates-the-gas-disks-around-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas</a> around LID-568, hinting at substantial mass growth occurring in a single, rapid episode. These outflows offered clues to how the black hole could be feeding so aggressively. 



“This serendipitous result added a new dimension to our understanding of the system and opened up exciting avenues for investigation,” Suh noted.



The researchers also found that LID-568 was accreting matter at an astonishing rate - approximately 40 times its Eddington limit.&nbsp;



The Eddington limit describes the theoretical maximum luminosity a black hole can achieve while maintaining balance between the inward gravitational pull and the outward pressure produced by infalling material.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-in-a-feeding-frenzy">Black hole in a feeding frenzy</h2>



The observation of such extreme luminosity suggested something remarkable was unfolding within LID-568.&nbsp;



“This black hole is having a feast,” stated co-author Julia Scharwächter, an astronomer at the International Gemini Observatory/NSF NOIRLab.&nbsp;



“This extreme case shows that a fast-feeding mechanism above the Eddington limit is one of the possible explanations for why we see these very heavy black holes so early in the Universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-formation-theories">Black hole formation theories</h2>



The discovery of LID-568 has significant implications for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole formation</a> and growth. 



Current theories propose that supermassive black holes evolve from initial “seeds” formed either through the collapse of the universe’s first stars (light seeds) or by direct gas cloud collapse (heavy seeds). However, until now, these theories lacked substantial observational backing.



“The discovery of a super-Eddington accreting black hole suggests that a significant portion of mass growth can occur during a single episode of rapid feeding, regardless of whether the black hole originated from a light or heavy seed,” Suh explained.&nbsp;



This observation challenges existing models and hints that some black holes in the early universe may have grown rapidly, far beyond the Eddington limit, allowing them to achieve immense size in a relatively short time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-holes-in-rapid-growth-phases-nbsp">Black holes in rapid growth phases&nbsp;</h2>



The detection of LID-568’s extreme accretion rates also opens the door for investigating how black holes manage to exceed their Eddington limits without collapsing under the pressure.&nbsp;



One theory is that the powerful outflows observed around LID-568 act as a release mechanism for excess energy, thus stabilizing the system.&nbsp;



This idea, if proven true, could reshape our understanding of how supermassive black holes sustain such rapid growth phases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-path-for-future-exploration">Path for future exploration</h2>



To further investigate these dynamics, Suh's team plans to conduct follow-up observations with JWST.&nbsp;



These future studies aim to deepen the understanding of early black hole behavior and provide more context for the universe’s formative years.&nbsp;



The researchers hope these insights will refine existing theoretical models and uncover new information about black hole growth and the evolution of the cosmos.



The research highlights the transformative impact of the Webb telescope on the field of astrophysics and emphasizes the importance of continued exploration to unravel the complex nature of our universe’s earliest structures.



Image Credit: NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/J. da Silva/M. Zamani



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Fastest-feeding black hole found in the early universe

Supermassive black holes reside at the centers of most galaxies,...

Trawling is a major part of the fishing industry, which provides us with fresh seafood. Have you ever wondered what happens on the ocean floor when we go about our quest to catch fish? Does deep sea fishing affect our environment? 



A recent study has revealed that trawling disrupts the carbon balance in our oceans, which ultimately impacts our climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-and-its-carbon-secrets">Deep sea and its carbon secrets</h2>



The deep-sea abyss is more than a home for marine life. It acts as a critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-southern-ocean-is-a-critically-important-carbon-sink/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sink</a>, holding onto more carbon than it releases. 



Animal activity on the seafloor consumes and shifts this carbon into deeper soil layers, safely tucking it away for thousands of years. But when fishing trawls stir up these sediments, it disrupts this natural, delicate balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trawling-s-impact-on-climate">Trawling’s impact on climate </h2>



Research carried out at <a href="https://www.hereon.de/index.php.en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon</a> - in collaboration with the Alfred Wegener Institute, GEOMAR Helmholtz Center for Ocean Research Kiel, and the German Federation for the Environment and Nature Conservation (BUND) - has cast a spotlight on this lesser-known consequence of fishing.



The study has provided significant data on how bottom trawling impacts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-ocean-turbulence-impacts-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a>, particularly in the North Sea. The scientists examined over 2,300 sediment samples from the North Sea.



"We found that sediment samples collected in intensely trawled areas contained lower amounts of organic carbon than samples collected in areas with less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-fishing-method-of-bottom-trawling-harms-both-the-ocean-and-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a>. We were able to attribute this effect to bottom trawling with high confidence," said Dr. Wenyan Zhang, the study's lead author.



According to Dr. Zhang, the methodology used for this research reduces uncertainty in assessing the regional to global impact of trawling compared to previous estimates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-release-due-to-trawling">Carbon release due to trawling</h2>



The experts uncovered a worrisome trend. Computer simulations demonstrated a steady decline in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabed-disruptions-may-be-destroying-our-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seabed</a> carbon concentration across the past few decades, and this decline was attributed to intensive trawling activities.



Vulnerable areas were soft, muddy bottoms where damage was most significant. When trawling takes place, it disturbs the sediment, releasing carbon from a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-oxygen-zone-is-expanding-in-the-arabian-gulf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">low-oxygen</a> environment into the water column filled with oxygen. 



Here, microorganisms transform the carbon into carbon dioxide, or CO2, which can escape into the atmosphere. This heat-trapping greenhouse gas is a major contributor to climate change.



Dr. Zhang's team estimated that North Sea trawling alone releases about 1 million tons of CO2 from sediments annually. The global estimate stands at 30 million tons - which is about 10% less than previous global estimates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calling-for-enhanced-seabed-protection">Calling for enhanced seabed protection</h2>



The study's findings highlight the need to protect our ocean floors more effectively, explicitly targeting muddy habitats in marginal seas like the North Sea. 



Marine protection measures have traditionally been focused on areas with hard, sandy bottoms and reefs. These areas, despite their ecological diversity, store less carbon.



"Our methods and results might be used in optimizing marine spatial planning policies to gauge the potential carbon benefits of limiting or ending bottom trawling within protected areas," noted Dr. Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-marine-protection-strategies">Rethinking marine protection strategies</h2>



The findings on trawling’s climate impact are pushing scientists and conservationists to reconsider current marine protection strategies.



Traditional conservation efforts have focused on areas with high biodiversity, such as coral reefs and sandy seabeds, often overlooking soft, muddy habitats where trawling causes the most carbon disruption.



By shifting attention to these vulnerable carbon-rich areas, policymakers could develop more effective regulations that not only protect marine life but also contribute to climate mitigation. 



This renewed focus could involve establishing no-trawling zones in sediment-heavy regions - enhancing carbon storage while safeguarding diverse ocean ecosystems.



While these strategies offer a pathway forward, it’s essential to understand the long-term effects that seabed disturbance has on our oceans' capacity to store carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-impacts-of-seabed-disturbance">Long-term impacts of seabed disturbance</h2>



The disruption of seabed sediments through trawling has consequences that extend beyond immediate carbon release. 



Once disturbed, these sediments take years or even decades to stabilize and rebuild their carbon-storing capabilities.



This prolonged recovery period means that frequent trawling in the same areas could prevent the seafloor from ever fully regaining its role as a carbon sink. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trawling-and-climate-change">Trawling and climate change</h2>



Over time, this ongoing disturbance diminishes the ocean’s natural ability to capture and store carbon, amplifying the challenge of addressing climate change. 



Researchers warn that without intervention, these cumulative effects could lead to long-term losses in carbon storage capacity, highlighting the importance of sustainable fishing practices and regulated trawling efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01581-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Unseen impacts of fishing: Trawling fuels climate change

Trawling is a major part of the fishing industry, which...

Starting early Tuesday morning, the Southern Taurids meteor shower - fondly known as the "fireball champion" -- is ready to light up our night sky.



Unlike many meteor showers that produce a higher quantity of faint meteors, the Southern Taurids are renowned for generating a smaller number of very bright, slow-moving fireballs that can be easily spotted across the night sky.



Not to mention, their sister event, the Northern Taurids, will follow closely behind. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dart-mission-debris-will-create-a-human-made-meteor-shower/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meteor shower</a> will reach its peak on November 12, giving us not one but two fiery performances.



"While&nbsp;the two showers&nbsp;only produce around five visible meteors per hour under ideal viewing conditions, they are often very bright fireballs," said Sally Brummel, planetarium manager at the University of Minnesota’s <a href="https://www.bellmuseum.umn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bell Museum</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brighter-and-longer-lasting-meteors">Brighter and longer lasting meteors </h2>



Despite producing fewer visible meteors, their luminosity makes each one a sight to behold. Think of the Taurids as the shooting star quality controllers of the universe, selecting only the brightest and the best for your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-meteor-showers-delta-aquarids-alpha-capricornids-light-up-night-skies-august-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stargazing experience</a>.



“What’s notable is that they’re likely to produce brighter and longer-lasting meteors than some other showers, even if there aren’t as many,” said Brummel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-of-the-taurids-meteor-showers">Timing of the Taurids meteor showers </h2>



For the Southern Taurids, the peak viewing moment coincides with a rather convenient time when the moon will be only about 11% full.



Meanwhile, the Northern Taurids may face some moonlight interference with the moon being 79% full.



The grandeur of these shows is not a one-time affair. In fact, you can relish the sight until December. 



The showers are most active between midnight and the early morning hours. For optimal viewing, pick a spot away from city lights with a clear overhead view.



Keep in mind, the less light around you, the better the show. Also, avoid the glow of your cell phone as your eyes adapt better to meteor spotting without it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-showers">Science behind the showers</h2>



So, how do these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-meteor-showers-delta-aquarids-alpha-capricornids-combine-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">showers</a> happen? Most meteor showers, including the Taurids, stem from the debris left behind by comets. In this case, both the Northern and Southern Taurids originate from the debris of Comet Encke. 



When the cosmic bits of debris collide with our planet's atmosphere, the air resistance heats them up significantly. This causes the air surrounding them to illuminate and form a spectacular fiery tail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-myths-and-folklore-of-meteors">Myths and folklore of meteors</h2>



Meteors have inspired myths and folklore across cultures, and are often regarded as mysterious and powerful omens.



In many Western cultures, meteors or "shooting stars" are seen as good luck, and people are encouraged to make a wish upon seeing one. 



This belief stems from ancient Greece, where philosopher Ptolemy suggested that stars falling from the heavens meant that the gods were watching - providing a moment when wishes would be heard.



In many ancient societies, meteors were seen as omens of war, disaster, or the death of a prominent person. 



For example, in ancient Rome, meteors were often interpreted as signs from the gods warning of an upcoming battle or tragedy.



Similarly, in medieval Europe, meteor showers were sometimes thought to foretell famine, plague, or other significant disasters.



These tales reflect humanity's enduring fascination with the celestial drama above, where scientific phenomena merge with cultural narratives, enriching our understanding of both the physical and metaphysical worlds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-embracing-taurids-meteor-showers">Embracing Taurids meteor showers</h2>



Engaging with the Taurids and other meteor showers is more than just an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dart-mission-debris-will-create-a-human-made-meteor-shower/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astronomical event</a>; it's a call to embrace the natural world's beauty and complexity. 



These occurrences offer a profound opportunity to reconnect with the night sky in an increasingly light-polluted world. 



By venturing out to witness this celestial display, one can find solace and inspiration under the vast canopy of stars, reigniting a sense of wonder and curiosity.



Moreover, by understanding and appreciating the science behind these events, we can cultivate a deeper respect for the cosmos and our unique place within it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leonids-meteor-shower">Leonids meteor shower</h2>



Following closely on the heels of the Taurids, the next big meteor shower - the Leonids - will peak early in the morning of November 17.



The Leonids are one of the most famous annual meteor showers, known for their intensity and occasional "meteor storms" where thousands of meteors can be seen per hour.



This cosmic theater, ultimately running from September 23 through December 8, is turning November into an astronomical extravaganza.



Together, these back-to-back events offer a more comprehensive and varied night-sky experience that’s hard to replicate with a single meteor shower.



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Two "sister" Taurids meteor showers peak this week, fireballs begin tonight

Starting early Tuesday morning, the Southern Taurids meteor shower -...

As cities face rising temperatures amplified by urban structures like concrete and asphalt, initiatives to plant trees have gained momentum. Yet, while the benefits of city greening are well-recognized, many such efforts have been based on approximations. 



A recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2401210121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> provides a refined tool to help urban planners set specific and scientifically sound city-wide greening targets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-effects-of-city-greening">Cooling effects of city greening</h2>



Led by researchers Jia Wang, Weiqi Zhou, and Yuguo Qian from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, and co-authored by Steward Pickett, an urban ecologist at <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies</a>, the study examines the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cloud-engineering-can-temporarily-cool-our-planet/">cooling</a> effects of urban trees at different scales.



“Trees offer many benefits to cities, and cooling is one of them,” said Pickett. “Trees are good at cooling because they pump a lot of water from the ground into the air, and when that water evaporates at the leaf surface, it absorbs a vast amount of heat. That's just the physics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-can-vaporize-water-cause-evaporation-without-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evaporation</a>. The shade provided by trees also helps with cooling.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-many-trees-are-needed">How many trees are needed?</h2>



Most research on the cooling effect of trees has historically focused on specific neighborhoods or streets. For instance, studies have shown that a 1% increase in tree canopy can lower nearby temperatures by 0.04 to 0.57 degrees Celsius.&nbsp;



“That’s valuable, but planners and decision makers are thinking about the whole city. They’re asking, ‘How much tree canopy do we need for the whole city? What happens when we scale it up?’ And that information hasn’t been available,” Pickett said.



The goal of the study was to assess if findings from smaller areas could be applied at a city-wide level.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed satellite imagery and temperature data from four cities with varying climates: Beijing and Shenzhen in China, and Baltimore and Sacramento in the United States. These cities represented different climate zones: temperate, subtropical, and Mediterranean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-cooling-effects-of-urban-trees">Measuring the cooling effects of urban trees</h2>



The team divided each city into pixelated sections approximately the size of a city block. For each pixel, they assessed land surface temperatures and tree coverage.&nbsp;



The researchers then expanded their analysis to larger areas, such as neighborhoods and entire cities, to measure how the cooling efficiency - temperature reduction associated with a 1% increase in tree canopy - shifted with scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-greening-to-enhance-cooling">City greening to enhance cooling</h2>



The results revealed that the cooling effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-trees-surrounded-by-less-asphalt-grow-taller-and-stronger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban trees</a> increased as the scale expanded, but the rate of increase was slower at larger scales. 



In Beijing, for instance, a 1% increase in tree canopy at the block level led to a temperature drop of 0.06 degrees.&nbsp;



However, at the city-wide level, the same increase resulted in a reduction of about 0.18 degrees. The added benefit at larger scales likely comes from larger groups of trees, which collectively enhance cooling.



“We found that cooling efficiency follows a power law across scales - from as small as 120 by 120 meters to as large as regions covering the entire city,” said co-author Weiqi Zhou.&nbsp;



“The relationship holds across all four of the studied cities, which are in very different climates. This suggests that it could be used to predict the amount of additional tree cover needed to achieve specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unbearable-heat-could-make-some-parts-of-the-world-uninhabitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat</a> mitigation and climate adaptation goals in cities worldwide.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-city-planning">Implications for city planning</h2>



The study’s findings offer urban planners a powerful tool to establish city-wide tree canopy targets aimed at combating extreme heat.&nbsp;



For instance, the researchers estimated that Baltimore could lower land surface temperatures by 0.23°C by increasing its tree canopy by 1%. To achieve a reduction of 1.5°C, the city would need to increase tree coverage by 6.39%.



While this information is invaluable for high-level decision-making, Pickett cautioned that it’s not a one-size-fits-all solution.&nbsp;



“This paper doesn’t tell you where to put the trees,” he said. “That's another sort of analysis, which would have to involve a lot more social information and engagement with communities or with individual property owners.”&nbsp;



Ensuring equitable distribution of trees across cities and involving communities in planning are essential for maximizing the benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategic-planning-for-city-greening-nbsp">Strategic planning for city greening&nbsp;</h2>



Pickett suggested expanding the research to include cities with different climate types to better understand the broader applicability of these findings.&nbsp;



Additionally, studying how effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree planting</a> will be in future conditions as climate change drives higher temperatures and more frequent droughts is a crucial next step.



The study reinforces the idea that tree-planting, while an effective nature-based solution, requires strategic planning to yield the best results.&nbsp;



With these new insights, cities can move beyond trial and error to make more informed decisions that address the urban heat crisis.



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City greening: Predicting the cooling effects of trees

As cities face rising temperatures amplified by urban structures like...

An international team of scientists, from the eastern shores of United States to the southern tip of Italy, has stumbled upon an exciting discovery - a new strain of cyanobacteria called Chonkus that thrives on carbon dioxide (CO2) and effortlessly settles in water.



This unique alga, affectionately called Chonkus, has been discovered off the Sicilian island of Vulcano, where marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> is plentiful thanks to shallow volcanic vents.



The team was intrigued by the idea of what happens when regular CO2 limitations are removed, an environment in which organisms might have the potential to amplify their growth. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-thriving-in-carbon-rich-environments">Algae thriving in carbon-rich environments</h2>



Dr. Max Schubert was a staff scientist at the <a href="https://wyss.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wyss Institute at Harvard University</a> when the research was conducted and is now lead project scientist at Align to Innovate.



"Dissolved carbon is relatively dilute compared to all the other molecules in the ocean, and that limits the growth of photosynthetic organisms that live there," noted Dr. Schubert. 



"We decided to investigate what happens when you alleviate that limiting factor by going to a place with plenty of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a>, where some organisms could have evolved the ability to use it to galvanize their growth." 



However, the team uncovered an organism that defied this limitation. Dr. Schubert believes that Chonkus has exciting features that could be beneficial to humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-the-ocean-to-the-lab">Bringing the ocean to the lab</h2>



The story began nine years ago when Dr. Schubert and Dr. Braden Tierney shared a lab at Harvard Medical School (<a href="https://hms.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HMS</a>) under the guidance of Dr. George Church. 



Focused on creating tools for directed evolution of bacteria, Dr. Schubert expanded his research. In 2019, he won a proposal at the HMS Consortium for Space Genetics' Symposium on Climate Change, allowing him to explore cyanobacteria.



Meanwhile, Dr. Tierney had his sights set on exploring microbes living in shallow seeps. He partnered with scientists at the University of Palermo in Sicily and drew upon Dr. Schubert's expertise to understand the cyanobacteria.



What followed was an expedition that brought together a motley crew of scientists from institutions ranging from the Wyss Institute, HMS, and MIT to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Colorado, along with multiple Italian establishments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sea-of-possibilities">A sea of possibilities</h2>



Venturing into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capturing-carbon-directly-from-the-air-is-now-much-more-efficient-thanks-to-new-material/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a>-rich waters off the coast of Vulcano, the team collected water samples that were then shipped to Boston. Here, Dr. Schubert and his team isolated and studied the microorganisms living within.



The journey started by recreating an environment that would allow cyanobacteria to flourish – plenty of light, warmth, and CO2. 



The outcome? Two strains of fast-growing cyanobacteria: UTEX 3221 and UTEX 3222. Chonkus, formally known as UTEX 3222, was selected due to its single-celled growth, making it easier to compare with existing strains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-algae-to-sequester-carbon">Using algae to sequester carbon </h2>



Chonkus possesses several interesting traits, including carbon-rich storage granules within its cells, large colonies, higher carbon content, and - most notably - a natural tendency to sink fast in water.



"Many of the traits that we observed in Chonkus aren't inherently useful in their natural environment, but are very useful to humans," said Dr. Tierney.



"Aquatic organisms naturally grow at very low density, but being able to grow to a high density at higher temperatures is very helpful in the industrial environments that we use to manufacture many goods and products, and can help sequester more carbon."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-beyond-carbon-sequestration">Potential beyond carbon sequestration </h2>



The team is excited about the potential applications of the algae beyond carbon sequestration. Due to its rapid and dense growth pattern, Chonkus could be used to more efficiently produce commodities like omega-3 fatty acids, the antioxidant astaxanthin, and spirulina.



By harnessing the ability of cyanobacteria to absorb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-soils-release-more-carbon-than-plants-can-replace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> from their surroundings, the processes of carbon sequestration and biomanufacturing could be seamlessly linked.



The research has led to the founding of a non-profit organization called The Two Frontiers Project, which aims to study how life thrives in extreme environments and to explore potential applications in carbon capture, CO2 upcycling for sustainable products, and coral ecosystem restoration.



Dr. Church commends the potential of such naturally evolved cyanobacteria strains and stresses the importance of maintaining control over these experiments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Taking a cue from nature seems to be at the heart of remarkable innovation. Dr. Don Ingber, the founding director of the Wyss Institute, underlines this sentiment.



"I'm proud of this team for getting out of the lab and seeking nature's best ideas where they've already developed," said Dr. Ingber.



"This is a wonderful example of how our new Sustainable Futures Initiative is pursuing out-of-the-box approaches to confront climate change - the biggest challenge of our generation." 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/aem.00841-24" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Applied and Environmental Microbiology</a>.



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Can algae soak up loads of carbon to help save the planet?

An international team of scientists, from the eastern shores of...

Did you think only adults factor in possibilities and probabilities in their daily lives? Think again. According to recent findings, toddlers as young as two and three years old have an innate understanding of how possibilities work, enabling them to learn from surprising events.



Toddlers can distinguish between events that are impossible, those that are possible but not probable, and their excitement for the impossible is profound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toddlers-learning-possibilities">Toddlers learning possibilities</h2>



As adults, we consider possibilities and probabilities every single day. Ever thought about your chances of winning the lottery after buying a ticket? Or packed an umbrella because there might be a chance of rain? 



A recent study suggests that toddlers might also be part of the possibility gang, even before they have the language to describe these mental states. The findings are the first to demonstrate this phenomenon.



“Even young toddlers already think about the world in terms of possibilities,” said co-author&nbsp;<a href="https://pbs.jhu.edu/directory/lisa-feigenson/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lisa Feigenson</a>, co-director of the Johns Hopkins University <a href="https://labforchilddevelopment.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Laboratory for Child Development</a>. 



“Adults do this all the time and here we wanted to know whether even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddlers-get-half-their-calories-from-ultra-processed-foods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toddlers</a> think about possible states of the world before they’ve had years of experience and before they have the language to describe these mental states.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-unexpected-happens">When the unexpected happens</h2>



A group of two- and three-year-olds were shown a gumball-type machine filled with toys. Some kids saw a blend of pink and purple toys, while others saw that the machine was filled only with purple toys. Each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-under-two-should-not-be-exposed-to-tv-or-screen-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">child</a> then got a coin to drop into the machine to draw a toy.



Some children who saw the machine filled with only purple toys drew out a pink toy. This, of course, defies logic, because how could they possibly draw a pink toy from a machine offering solely purple ones?



Now, after they received their toys, all the kids were taught the name of the toy - a made-up word - and asked to recall the name later.



The results were astonishing. Kids who experienced this "impossible" scenario learned the name significantly better than the rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toddler-learning-patterns">Toddler learning patterns</h2>



The researchers believe that encountering impossible events spurs toddlers to seek explanations, boosting their learning.



“One possibility was that they would learn well from the improbable events, but even better from the impossible events,” said <a href="https://hss.tcnj.edu/hss-faculty/aimee-stahl/">Aimee Stahl</a>, a former doctoral student in Feigenson’s lab who is now an associate professor of psychology at <a href="https://tcnj.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The College of New Jersey</a>.



“But what we found was that they actually don’t learn from the unlikely, improbable events. They only learn if they experienced the impossible event.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approach-to-education">New approach to education</h2>



This discovery opens up incredible possibilities for educators and parents, enabling them to create learning strategies centered around these "heightened moments."



Feigenson suggests that parents and teachers should design opportunities for children to ponder over intriguing concepts, thereby creating powerful learning moments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-cognitive-development">Implications for cognitive development</h2>



The implications of these findings on cognitive development are profound. They challenge the existing perception of early childhood learning, suggesting that even preverbal children are capable of engaging with complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddler-screen-time-linked-to-atypical-sensory-behaviors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive processes</a>. 



The fact that toddlers can comprehend and respond to improbable events implies that their minds are ripe for a more advanced learning than previously appreciated. 



This challenges educators and developmental psychologists to reconsider the scope of educational materials suitable for young learners. 



By integrating scenarios that defy expectations, educational content can harness this innate curiosity, potentially accelerating cognitive growth during formative years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-through-surprises">Developing through surprises</h2>



Going deeper into the science, this phenomenon can be tied to broader theories of cognitive development. The work of Jean Piaget, long regarded as foundational, suggested that children's mental models evolve through interaction with the world, constantly being tested against new experiences. 



The discovery by Feigenson and Stahl hints at a burgeoning field of study focusing on 'possibility thinking' - a concept where children learn by assessing the bounds of reality through trial and error.



This challenges scientists to further investigate how early exposure to "impossible" events might not just spur learning but may also shape the critical thinking and problem-solving skills that underpin inventive and adaptive intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-in-a-toddler-s-world">Learning in a toddler's world</h2>



As surprising as it may seem, this study demonstrates that the world of toddlers is far from simplistic. Their minds are constantly dissecting possibilities and impossibilities, enabling them to better understand their surroundings. 



Can you imagine the impact on education if we could harness this natural curiosity? We must reconsider how we approach early education and create possibilities around the concept of the "impossible."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2411297121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Toddlers learn faster after witnessing 'impossible' events

Did you think only adults factor in possibilities and probabilities...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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