The Chankillo complex is found in the desert of the Casma Valley on the coast of Peru. To give you a sense of its extraordinary size, it occupies a massive 1.5 square miles of land — that’s about 726 football fields. And those perplexing 13 towers are of considerable bulk, too. Photo Credit:

Towering achievement

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency (ESA) features the distant galaxy LEDA 22057, which is located about 650 million light-years away in the constellation Gemini. 



Within the galaxy lies a pale blue dot - SN 2024PI, a supernova explosion that was discovered by an automated survey in January 2024.



“The survey covers the entire northern half of the night sky every two days and has cataloged more than 10,000 supernovae,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2025/01/Pale_blue_supernova_dot" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The supernova is visible in this image: located just down and to the right of the galactic nucleus, the pale blue dot of SN 2024PI stands out against the galaxy’s ghostly spiral arms.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-remnants-of-a-supernova-nbsp">The remnants of a supernova&nbsp;</h2>



ESA noted that the image was taken about a month and a half after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shockingly-bright-carbon-monoxide-detected-in-supernova-remnant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> was discovered, so it appears many times fainter than its maximum brilliance.



“SN 2024PI is classified as a Type Ia supernova. This type of supernova requires a remarkable object called a white dwarf, the crystallized core of a star with a mass less than about eight times the mass of the Sun,” explained ESA.



“When a star of this size uses up the supply of hydrogen in its core, it balloons into a red giant, becoming cool, puffy and luminous. Over time, pulsations and stellar winds cause the star to shed its outer layers, leaving behind a white dwarf and a colorful planetary nebula.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-white-dwarfs">The fate of white dwarfs</h2>



Most stars in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> will eventually transition to white dwarfs after their death. Whether or not a star becomes a white dwarf depends on its mass. 



Stars that are significantly more massive will end their lives differently. Stars that exceed the critical mass threshold of eight times the Sun undergo more violent deaths. 



After exhausting their nuclear fuel, they collapse under their immense gravity and trigger a supernova explosion. Depending on the remaining core mass, they may leave behind either a neutron star or a black hole, rather than a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-white-dwarf-stars-eat-heavy-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf</a>. 



These remnants represent extreme outcomes of stellar evolution and are fundamentally different from white dwarfs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-gemini-nbsp">The constellation Gemini&nbsp;</h2>



Gemini is one of the twelve zodiac constellations located in the northern celestial hemisphere.&nbsp;



Its name means "twins" in Latin, reflecting its representation of the mythological twins Castor and Pollux from Greek and Roman mythology.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-of-gemini">Stars of Gemini</h3>



The stars Castor and Pollux, which form the heads of the twins, are the brightest stars in Gemini and are key to its identification.&nbsp;



Pollux is a bright orange giant star, while Castor is a multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star system</a> made up of six stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighboring-constellations">Neighboring constellations</h3>



Gemini lies between Taurus to the west and Cancer to the east, and it is bordered by several other constellations, including Orion to the south.



It is most visible in the night sky during the winter months in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in January and February.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-gemini">Significance of Gemini</h3>



The constellation is part of the ecliptic, the path that the Sun appears to take through the sky, making it significant in both astronomy and astrology.



Astronomically, Gemini is home to several interesting deep-sky objects, including the open star cluster M35, which is easily visible with binoculars or a small telescope.&nbsp;



The constellation also contains several stars and stellar systems of interest, such as variable stars and binary systems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greek-mythology-nbsp">Greek mythology&nbsp;</h3>



In Greek mythology, Castor and Pollux were the sons of Leda, but they had different fathers - Castor was mortal, while Pollux was divine, being the son of Zeus.&nbsp;



Their story is one of loyalty and brotherhood, as Pollux begged Zeus to share his immortality with Castor after his brother's death. As a result, Zeus placed them in the sky as the constellation Gemini, symbolizing their eternal bond.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-culture">Modern culture</h3>



In modern culture, Gemini continues to be associated with duality, adaptability, and communication in astrology.&nbsp;



The constellation also holds significance in space science, lending its name to NASA's Gemini program in the 1960s. This program conducted critical missions that paved the way for the Apollo moon landings.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Supernova explosion captured in the constellation Gemini 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a stunningly beautiful photo of the Hainan Strait. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 satellite as it orbited over southern China.



“The Hainan Strait, or Qiongzhou Strait, separates Guangdong's Leizhou Peninsula on China’s mainland to the north and the island province of Hainan to the south. It also connects the Gulf of Tonkin on the west to the South China Sea on the east,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hainan-strait-nbsp">Hainan Strait&nbsp;</h2>



The Hainan Strait is narrow and shallow. At its narrowest point, the strait is about 19 miles wide. Despite this, the Hainan Strait is a busy route for shipping and transportation. It's also vital to local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-fleets-hidden-industrial-fishing-activity-exposed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> industries.



ESA pointed out that in the image, the water along the coasts is light brown due to sediment runoff. 



“The curved Leizhou Peninsula juts southward into the South China Sea. The largest island on the east coast, Donghai, forms two bays: Leizhou Bay to its south and Zhanjiang Bay to its north," noted ESA.



“Facing both bays are cities with the same names: Zhanjiang, the largest city on the peninsula, and Leizhou, which gave the peninsula its name." 



"Hainan Island dominates the bottom part of the image. The name Hainan means ‘south of the sea,’ reflecting the island's position south of the strait.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-hainan-island">History of Hainan Island </h2>



During the Mesozoic Era about 100 million years ago, Hainan Island was actually part of a larger landmass connected to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/denisovan-tooth-suggests-southeast-asia-was-a-human-diversity-hotspot/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southeast Asia</a>. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-features">Geological features</h3>



Over time, the movements of Earth's plates caused this landmass to break apart and drift. Hainan separated from the continental shelf near Vietnam and moved to its current position.



This tectonic activity not only shaped the island's current location but also influenced its geological features. Hainan's landscape is characterized by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a>, volcanic formations, and rich mineral deposits, which are direct results of these ancient geological processes.



Understanding this geological history helps explain why Hainan Island has such unique and diverse natural features compared to the mainland of China and nearby regions. The island's distinct wildlife and terrain make it a fascinating subject for geologists and natural historians alike.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-diversity-nbsp">Cultural diversity&nbsp;</h3>



Hainan was once a remote and undeveloped part of China. It was used as a place of exile for disgraced officials during imperial times. 



However, it was also a place where diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-not-the-only-animals-that-create-their-own-culture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultures</a> met, as evidenced by the many ethnic groups that live there, including the Li people, who are indigenous to the island.



The island really started to change in the 20th century. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Hainan was occupied by Japanese forces, which had a significant impact on its development. After the war, it became a part of the People’s Republic of China in 1950.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-development-nbsp">Rapid development&nbsp;</h3>



In the 1980s, Hainan was designated a Special Economic Zone (SEZ), which marked the beginning of its transformation into a major economic and tourist hub. 



The SEZ status attracted significant investment and spurred rapid development, particularly in the capital city of Haikou and the resort city of Sanya.



Today, Hainan is known for its lush landscapes, tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caribbean-salt-affects-global-climate-study-reveals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a>, and booming tourism industry. It's also becoming a key player in China's efforts to develop its free trade zones, aiming to become a major center for trade and commerce in the region.



Image Credit: ESA/ Copernicus Sentinel-2&nbsp;



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Hainan Strait in southern China

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a brilliant stellar nursery located about 163,000 light-years away.



According to ESA, the image is one of the most photogenic examples of the many stellar nurseries observed by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope during its 30-year lifetime. 



“The portrait features the giant nebula NGC 2014 and its neighbor NGC 2020 which together form part of a vast star-forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-stellar-nursery">What is a stellar nursery?</h2>



Stellar nurseries are regions in space where new stars are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">born</a> - often within vast clouds of gas and dust called molecular clouds.&nbsp;



These areas are fascinating because they are cradles of stellar evolution, where gravity causes clumps of gas to collapse, eventually forming protostars.&nbsp;



Over time, the protostars will heat up and start the nuclear fusion process that powers a star.



One of the most well-known stellar nurseries is the Orion Nebula, which is visible to the naked eye and located about 1,350 light-years from Earth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-a-stellar-nursery-nbsp">Dynamic nature of a stellar nursery&nbsp;</h2>



Within these nurseries, the balance between gravity and pressure determines the types of stars that form, from massive, luminous stars to smaller, cooler ones like our Sun.&nbsp;



The environment is incredibly dynamic, with powerful winds from young stars shaping the clouds and triggering the birth of even more stars.



These regions are often illuminated by the light from massive newborn stars - creating stunning, colorful displays. The light reveals the intricate structure of the dust and gas, sculpted by the energy of young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-stellar-nurseries-nbsp">Significance of stellar nurseries&nbsp;</h2>



Stellar nurseries are essential for understanding the early stages of planetary formation, as protoplanetary disks (the material from which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets form</a>) are often found around young stars in these regions.



Stellar nurseries play a crucial role in the ongoing evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>. They are responsible for the continuous birth of new stars that enrich the interstellar medium with heavier elements. This constant recycling of material is key to the development of future generations of stars and planets.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the study of these regions helps astronomers understand the fundamental processes that govern the life cycles of stars and the overall dynamics of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-local-group">The Local Group</h2>



The Local Group is a collection of over 80 galaxies that includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and the Triangulum Galaxy, along with numerous smaller dwarf galaxies. These galaxies are bound together by gravity and span a region roughly 10 million light-years across.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-thin-disk-is-billions-of-years-older-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> and Andromeda are the dominant members, with their respective satellite galaxies orbiting them.&nbsp;



The Local Group is part of a larger structure known as the Virgo Supercluster, and its galaxies are moving toward the gravitational center of the Local Group, contributing to its dynamic nature.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-magellanic-cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</h2>



The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is the fourth largest galaxy in the Local Group and can be seen with the naked eye from the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



This irregular dwarf galaxy is home to the Tarantula Nebula, one of the most active star-forming regions in our cosmic neighborhood.&nbsp;



The Large Magellanic Cloud played a key role in astronomical history, particularly when the supernova SN 1987A was observed, providing valuable insights into stellar evolution.&nbsp;



The LMC's interaction with the Milky Way, along with its own companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud, is believed to influence its shape and star formation activity. Its proximity and unique properties make it a crucial object of study for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy evolution</a>, star formation, and the dynamics of interacting galaxies.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and STScI



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Hubble captures a stunning stellar nursery

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features an active landslide zone that has been shifting for decades on the Palos Verdes Peninsula in Los Angeles County.



This area, particularly in Portuguese Bend, experiences ongoing ground movement, with land sliding toward the ocean at varying rates of up to several feet per year. 



The instability is largely due to weak, water-saturated bedrock and the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-seas-sinking-cities-land-subsidence-on-the-east-coast/">human activity</a>, including road construction and irrigation, which have exacerbated the natural movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analysis-of-the-landslide-zone">Analysis of the landslide zone</h2>



According to a recent report from NASA, the landslide zone on the Palos Verdes Peninsula has expanded.&nbsp;



“Researchers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California used data from an airborne radar to measure the movement of the slow-moving landslides on the Palos Verdes Peninsula in Los Angeles County,” the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153893/los-angeles-area-landslide-expands">report</a> stated.



“The analysis determined that, during a four-week period in the fall of 2024, land in the residential area slid toward the ocean by as much as 4 inches (10 centimeters) per week."



“Portions of the peninsula, which juts into the Pacific Ocean just south of the city of Los Angeles, are part of an ancient complex of landslides that has been moving for at least the past six decades, affecting hundreds of buildings in local communities.”&nbsp;



NASA noted that the motion accelerated and the active area expanded following record-breaking rainfall in Southern California in 2023 and heavy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">precipitation</a> in early 2024.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visualization-of-the-landslide-zone">Visualization of the landslide zone</h2>



To create the image, the Advanced Rapid Imaging and Analysis (ARIA) team used data from four flights of NASA’s Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Synthetic Aperture Radar (UAVSAR) collected between September 18 and October 17, 2024.&nbsp;



“The UAVSAR instrument was mounted to a Gulfstream III jet flown out of NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center in Edwards, California, and the four flights were planned to estimate the speed and direction of the landslides in three dimensions,” explained NASA.



“In the image above, colors indicate how fast parts of the landslide complex were moving in late September and October, with the darkest reds indicating the highest speeds." 



"The arrows represent the direction of horizontal motion. The white solid lines are the boundaries of the active landslide area as defined in 2007 by the California Geological Survey.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accelerating-land-movement-and-risks">Accelerating land movement and risks</h2>



Alexander Handwerger is a landslide scientist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory who performed the analysis. “In effect, we’re seeing that the footprint of land experiencing significant impacts has expanded, and the speed is more than enough to put human life and infrastructure at risk,” said Handwerger.&nbsp;



The landslide activity in this region dates back to the 1950s, when road construction projects disturbed the already <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-billion-people-are-threatened-by-land-subsidence/">unstable terrain</a>, accelerating movement.&nbsp;



Since then, shifting ground has led to significant damage to infrastructure, including cracked roads, broken utility lines, and distorted buildings. The instability has made it difficult for the city to maintain roads and essential services in the affected areas.



Despite efforts to slow the movement, including drainage improvements and engineering solutions, the land continues to shift. Homeowners and city officials have had to adapt, with some structures built to withstand slow movement, while others have been abandoned.&nbsp;



The situation remains a challenge, with scientists monitoring the landslide to better understand its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landslide-predictions-could-become-94-percent-more-accurate/">behavior</a> and explore potential mitigation strategies.



Portuguese Bend is a well-known example of a continuously active landslide, highlighting the complex interaction between geology, human development, and environmental forces.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Landslide zone in Los Angeles County is expanding

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a pair of interacting spiral galaxies known as the Antennae Galaxies. They are located approximately 45 million light-years away in the constellation Corvus.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antennae-galaxies-in-a-deadly-embrace">Antennae Galaxies in a deadly embrace </h2>



“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has snapped the best ever image of the Antennae Galaxies. Hubble has released images of these stunning galaxies twice before, once using observations from its Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in 1997, and again in 2006 from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS),” noted <a href="https://esahubble.org/images/potw1345a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The galaxies - also known as NGC 4038 and NGC 4039 - are locked in a deadly embrace. Once normal, sedate spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, the pair have spent the past few hundred million years sparring with one another.”



According to ESA, the clash of the Antennae Galaxies is so violent that stars have been ripped from their host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> to form a streaming arc between the two.&nbsp;



The name of the galaxy pair comes from this long stream of stars and gas, which resembles insect antennae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-bursts-of-star-formation-nbsp">Intense bursts of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



The collision has triggered intense bursts of star formation, making the Antennae Galaxies one of the nearest and most dramatic examples of a starburst galaxy.&nbsp;



Many of the newly formed stars are concentrated in massive star clusters, some of which are expected to evolve into globular clusters over millions of years.



“This new image of the Antennae Galaxies shows obvious signs of chaos. Clouds of gas are seen in bright pink and red, surrounding the bright flashes of blue star-forming regions - some of which are partially obscured by dark patches of dust,” explained ESA.



“The rate of star formation is so high that the Antennae Galaxies are said to be in a state of starburst, a period in which all of the gas within the galaxies is being used to form stars.”&nbsp;



“This cannot last forever and neither can the separate galaxies; eventually the nuclei will coalesce, and the galaxies will begin their retirement together as one large elliptical galaxy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-antennae-galaxies">Significance of the Antennae Galaxies</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies are one of the most well-studied examples of galaxy collisions - offering insight into the processes that shape galaxies over time.



Astronomers study the Antennae Galaxies using a range of telescopes across different wavelengths, including visible light, infrared, and X-rays.&nbsp;



Observations in X-rays have revealed evidence of supernovae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, while infrared studies highlight regions of dust and star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-collision-course-nbsp">The Milky Way's collision course&nbsp;</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies provide a glimpse into the future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is expected to eventually merge with the Andromeda Galaxy - our closest spiral galaxy neighbor.



The cosmic collision course of the Milky Way and Andromeda will reshape both galaxies over billions of years.&nbsp;



This event is expected to occur in about 4.5 billion years. Both galaxies are part of the Local Group, a cluster of galaxies bound together by gravity. Their mutual gravitational pull is drawing them closer at a speed of approximately 110 kilometers per second.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-an-elliptical-galaxy-nbsp">The birth of an elliptical galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



When the two galaxies collide, their individual stars will largely avoid direct collisions due to the vast distances between them. However, the gravitational forces involved will create dramatic effects.&nbsp;



These forces will distort the galaxies' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shapes</a>, triggering intense bursts of star formation as gas clouds collide and compress. Over time, the galaxies will settle into a new, larger elliptical galaxy often referred to as "Milkomeda" or "Milkdromeda" by astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-merger-and-the-solar-system">Galaxy merger and the solar system</h2>



Despite the seemingly destructive nature of the collision, the solar system is unlikely to face direct harm. Our Sun may find itself flung into a new orbit within the merged galaxy or even cast into intergalactic space.&nbsp;



The merger will also significantly alter the night sky, with the Andromeda Galaxy becoming increasingly prominent before blending into the unified structure.



This event is part of the natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> and serves as a fascinating reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. 



While the collision is still billions of years away, studying it helps astronomers understand galactic interactions and the long-term future of our cosmic neighborhood.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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Violent clash of the Antennae Galaxies  

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604. The nebula is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). 



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means that NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. 



This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features dust streaming off the coast of Iran in January 2025.



“Some of the desert dust was carried across the Gulf of Oman to the Arabian Peninsula, degrading air quality for those in its path,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153859/desert-dust-streams-from-iran" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“The airborne material appears to primarily originate in the dried bed of the intermittent lake known as Hamun-e Jazmurian (Hamun-e Jaz Murian), while some may be blown from coastal areas." 



"Along with arid regions such as the Garagum and Lut deserts and the Sistan Basin, the lakebed is a major source of dust in southwest Asia.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precipitation-in-the-jazmurian-basin">Precipitation in the Jazmurian Basin</h2>



According to NASA, some areas of the Jazmurian Basin receive less than four inches of rain annually, on average, and evaporation rates are high. During wet times, however, parts of the basin may be covered by an intermittent lake, marshland, or other vegetation. 



“Terra’s MODIS sensor has previously captured images of the area when water is present in Hamun-e Jazmurian and when green vegetation fringes the lakebed,” said NASA.



“In early 2025, the land was dry enough for winds to blow dust plumes south-southwest over the Gulf of Oman. Dust traveled across the water to the coast of the United Arab Emirates, where the haze reduced visibility in places, according to news reports.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-particles-in-dust-storms">Particles in dust storms</h2>



In addition to disrupting transportation and other daily activities, the suspended particles in dust storms can pose significant health risks. 



Recent research has revealed that dust from the Jazmurian Basin often contains heavy metals and other potentially harmful substances, such as silica and organic pollutants, which can negatively impact both human and ecosystem health. 



Prolonged exposure to these particles has been linked to respiratory and cardiovascular issues, as well as the exacerbation of pre-existing health conditions like asthma and bronchitis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact-of-dust-storms">Environmental impact of dust storms</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-is-an-understudied-contributor-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental impact</a> of dust storms extends beyond human health. The fine particles can settle on vegetation, reducing photosynthesis and agricultural productivity. 



Dust deposition can also alter soil composition by introducing heavy metals and changing nutrient balances, which may affect crop growth and soil microbial communities. 



Such changes can lead to long-term degradation of arable land and disrupt local food security.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-in-the-jazmurian-basin-nbsp">Dust in the Jazmurian Basin&nbsp;</h2>



Communities near the Jazmurian Basin are particularly vulnerable to the effects of these dust storms due to limited access to healthcare and mitigation resources. 



Seasonal changes and climate conditions, including prolonged droughts and desertification, further intensify the frequency and severity of dust storms in the region. 



This creates a cycle of environmental and health challenges, making it imperative to develop strategies for prevention and adaptation.



Potential measures include reforestation and soil stabilization projects to reduce dust emissions, stricter regulations to limit activities that contribute to desertification, and public health initiatives to educate communities on protective measures during dust events. 



Investing in early warning systems and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-driven-wildfires-worsen-u-s-air-quality-and-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> monitoring can also help minimize exposure and protect both human populations and the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-jazmurian-basin">Significance of the Jazmurian Basin</h2>



The Jazmurian Basin is a prominent endorheic basin located in southeastern Iran, spanning parts of the provinces of Sistan and Baluchestan as well as Kerman. It lies at the heart of an arid region characterized by sparse vegetation, high temperatures, and limited rainfall.&nbsp;



The basin is primarily fed by the Halil and Bampur rivers, which provide seasonal water flow to the basin's low-lying areas. At its center lies the Jazmurian Depression, which forms a seasonal playa or shallow lake, though it often dries up during extended dry periods.&nbsp;



The area holds geological and archaeological significance, offering insights into ancient human settlements and environmental changes over time.&nbsp;



Despite its harsh climate, the basin supports small-scale agriculture and serves as a critical habitat for certain desert-adapted wildlife. 



The image was captured on January 22 by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) on NASA’s Terra satellite.&nbsp;



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Dust rises from the Jazmurian Basin in Iran

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope. 



"The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam shows the light from stars, even young stars hidden behind prodigious amounts of dust. NIRCam also captures emission from ionized nebulae around young stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-reveals-galaxies-in-new-light">Webb reveals galaxies in new light</h2>



According to ESA, the data was collected by the <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/home">PHANGS team</a> as part of a program in which Webb will observe 55 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/">galaxies</a> that have also been mapped by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, and more.&nbsp;



"By combining Webb’s unprecedented view of the dust and stars with data from these other facilities, the team aims to obtain a new, highly detailed view of how stars are born, live, and die in galaxies across the Universe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-1559-a-loner-in-space">NGC 1559: A loner in space</h2>



Although NGC 1559 appears to sit close to one of our nearest neighbors in the sky - the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - this is just a trick of perspective, noted ESA.



While it is part of the Reticulum constellation, NGC 1559 is not part of the Local Group of galaxies but instead resides in a more distant region of space.



"In reality, NGC 1559 is physically nowhere near the LMC in space; in fact it truly is a loner, lacking the company of any nearby galaxies or membership of any galaxy cluster."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1559">Star formation in NGC 1559</h2>



NGC 1559 is notable for its active star formation and strong magnetic fields. It has also been the site of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, making it of particular interest to astronomers who study stellar evolution and the life cycle of stars.



The structure of NGC 1559 includes well-defined spiral arms that contain young, hot stars and regions of ionized gas, indicative of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extragalactic-wonder">An extragalactic wonder</h2>



Despite being relatively small compared to larger galaxies like the Milky Way, NGC 1559 is an important object for understanding how barred spiral galaxies evolve and the processes that trigger supernovae.



The galaxy’s remote location and active nature make it a fascinating subject of study in the field of extragalactic astronomy. 



The isolation of NGC 1559 allows for a clearer view of its structure without much interference from neighboring galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies">Barred spiral galaxies</h2>



Barred spiral galaxies are a type of spiral galaxy characterized by a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. This bar extends out from the core and connects to the galaxy's spiral arms, which swirl outward in a graceful pattern.



Scientists believe that the bar plays a crucial role in the evolution of the galaxy, funneling gas towards the core and potentially triggering star formation or feeding a central black hole. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, is an example of a barred spiral. These galaxies are quite common in the universe, making up about two-thirds of all observed spiral galaxies.



The bar itself is thought to be a temporary feature, developing as the galaxy matures and possibly disappearing over time as the dynamics of the stars change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reticulum-constellation">The Reticulum constellation</h2>



The Reticulum constellation is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "the reticle" in Latin, which refers to the crosshairs in an eyepiece of a telescope. 



The constellation was named in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille to honor the reticle he used in his scientific instruments. It is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, A. Leroy, J. Lee and the PHANGS Team



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Glowing spiral galaxy in the constellation Reticulum

The MODIS instrument, short for Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, is a key instrument aboard the Terra and Aqua satellites. MODIS is playing a vital role in the development of Earth ecosystem models, able to predict global changes, which then assist policy makers in making informed decisions about the protection of the global environment.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps are seen in this Image of the day&nbsp;from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at heavy snow and low clouds in the Alps. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m (11,155 ft), and plants such as Edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps

Monitoring Earth Changes with MODIS

Aqua is a NASA scientific research satellite that studies precipitation, evaporation, and water cycles. Terra and Aura make up the Earth Observing System. It's the second component of the system.

A frozen Lake Erie in February Today’s Image of the Day comes from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at a frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/icy-lake-erie/">Lake Erie</a>, which is currently 93.3 percent iced over. A frozen Lake Erie in February
This false-color image was created using data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the Aqua satellite to differentiate between snow, ice, and clouds.
Lake Erie /ˈɪəri/ (French: Lac Érié) is the fourth-largest lake (by surface area) of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the eleventh-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area.It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. At its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet (64 metres) deep. 
Situated on the International Boundary between Canada and the United States, Lake Erie&#8217;s northern shore is the Canadian province of Ontario, specifically the Ontario Peninsula, with the U.S. states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York on its western, southern, and eastern shores. These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake with water boundaries. 
The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native American people who lived along its southern shore. The tribal name &#8220;erie&#8221; is a shortened form of the Iroquoian word erielhonan, meaning long tail
&#8212;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

A frozen Lake Erie in February

Aqua Earth Observing Satellite

This beautiful photo gallery contains 50 incredible images of Earth from Space. These images were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station, as well as by a multitude of NASA satellites orbiting the earth.

Today’s Image of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean just south of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-blue-chrysanthemums-created/">Japan</a>.
This image was captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on July 31, 2017. 
At the time the photo was taken, Typhoon Noru was located just 250 kilometers south of Iwo Jima. Maximum sustained winds hit 150 miles per hour.
The storm briefly became a category 5 on July 30, before being downgraded to a category 4 one day later.
&#8211;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Source: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean

Incredible Images of Earth from Space

Photos from the International Space Station are found in this awesome Earth.com image gallery. Flat-earthers won't agree, but these incredible photos of the Earth were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station. The International Space Station is a modular space station in low Earth orbit.

Northern Italy from the space station is seen here in this Image of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA). The view includes the top half of the Italian Peninsula, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/wildfires-burn-northern-corsica/">Corsica</a> and Sardinia off the coast. This image was captured by ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli on his third and final mission to the Space Station.

Northern Italy from the Space Station

Photos from the International Space Station

A recent study indicates that chronic stress may be associated with an increased chance of stroke in some younger adults - particularly women.



The researchers examined younger adults and found an association between stress and stroke in female participants, but not male participants. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-adults-and-work-related-stress">Young adults and work-related stress</h2>



The research team zeroed in on adults under the age of 50 who had experienced an ischemic stroke of unknown cause.&nbsp;



“Younger people often experience stress due to the demands and pressures associated with work, including long hours and job insecurity, as well as financial burdens,” said senior Nicolas Martinez-Majander, a doctor at the <a href="https://www.hus.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helsinki University Hospital</a> in Finland.&nbsp;



“Previous research has shown that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chronic-stress-disrupts-gut-bacteria-and-fuels-cancer-progression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic stress</a> can negatively affect physical and mental health. Our study found it may increase the risk of stroke in younger women.”



Ischemic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stroke-deaths-expected-to-rise-to-five-million-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke</a> occurs when a blood vessel is blocked, cutting off blood flow to part of the brain. Potential outcomes can include weakness, speech issues, vision problems, or even death.&nbsp;



While young adults generally carry a lower risk of stroke, chronic stress may lead to physiological changes that raise stroke likelihood in certain groups, especially younger women.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chronic-stress-and-stroke">Chronic stress and stroke</h2>



To investigate possible links between chronic stress and stroke, the researchers examined 426 participants aged 18 to 49 who had an ischemic stroke lacking a known cause. These individuals were then matched by age and sex with 426 people who had not experienced a stroke.



All participants answered a questionnaire evaluating stress during a one-month period. Those with stroke were instructed to recall how stressed they felt in the month before their stroke.&nbsp;



The survey asked 10 questions - one of which was, “In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life?” - and each question offered response options rated from zero to four, with four meaning “very often.”



Combining answers produced an overall stress score, with 0–13 deemed “low stress,” 14–26 “moderate stress,” and 27–40 “high stress.”&nbsp;



On average, people who suffered a stroke logged a stress score of 13, while those who did not have a stroke averaged 10. Overall, 46% of stroke survivors showed at least moderate stress levels, compared to 33% of those in the stroke-free group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stroke-risk-and-moderate-stress-nbsp">Stroke risk and moderate stress&nbsp;</h2>



After accounting for factors such as educational background, high blood pressure, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-has-a-hidden-impact-on-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol</a> consumption, the researchers discovered a striking pattern among younger women.&nbsp;



Moderate stress corresponded to a 78% greater stroke risk for women, and high stress was linked with a 6% increase. Yet, in younger men, no association appeared.



“More research is needed to understand why women who feel stressed, but not men, may have a higher risk of stroke,” said Martinez-Majander. 



“In addition, we need to further explore why the risk of stroke in women was higher for moderate stress than high stress. Knowing more about how stress plays a role could help us to create better ways to prevent these strokes.”



Though the data point to a heightened risk, the study cannot confirm that stress directly causes stroke. Instead, the results highlight a correlation warranting further examination. 



Future inquiries may focus on whether stress mediates other risk factors - such as hormone fluctuations or lifestyle behaviors - that then amplify the likelihood of stroke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-lifestyle-mechanisms">Possible lifestyle mechanisms</h2>



Chronic stress can trigger an overactive stress response, potentially causing long-lasting effects on blood pressure, inflammation, and metabolic processes.&nbsp;



Elevated stress might also reduce opportunities for exercise or encourage unhealthy habits (like poor nutrition or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smoking-cigarettes-accelerates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoking</a>), thereby intensifying stroke risk.&nbsp;



These mechanisms could be particularly pronounced among younger women balancing job demands, financial strains, and other social pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-of-the-study">Limitations of the study</h2>



A primary limitation to note is that those under intense stress may have been less inclined to participate in the study, potentially influencing results. Additionally, data collection hinged on self-reports of stress, a subjective measure that may vary between individuals.



Moreover, the study does not prove causation but only demonstrates an association between chronic stress and stroke in younger female participants. 



Finally, the analysis focused solely on ischemic strokes lacking a known origin, so the findings might not apply to other stroke types.



Nevertheless, these insights underscore the significance of stress management for younger adults, especially younger women. 



Understanding how moderate or high stress could lead to adverse health outcomes may pave the way for tailored prevention strategies - ranging from better mental health support to lifestyle modifications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-women-stress-and-stroke-prevention-nbsp">Young women, stress, and stroke prevention&nbsp;</h2>



While the exact reasons underlying the heightened stroke risk in stressed young women remain unclear, this study calls for closer monitoring of stress levels in clinical settings, alongside routine checks of factors like blood pressure and cholesterol.&nbsp;



Effective stress-reduction programs or workplace policies to lessen the burden on young women might also reduce future stroke occurrences.



By delving deeper into the physiological and behavioral pathways connecting stress and stroke, researchers can refine their efforts in mitigating risk.&nbsp;



For now, these findings point to stress as a meaningful element of stroke vulnerability among younger women, highlighting the need for interventions that tackle chronic stress before it contributes to more severe cardiovascular consequences.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000213369" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology®</a>.



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Work stress linked to higher stroke risk in young women

A recent study indicates that chronic stress may be associated...

New research suggests that using sex to ease social tension may have roots going back more than six million years, to a common ancestor shared by humans, bonobos, and chimpanzees.&nbsp;



While it’s no surprise that humans don’t only have sex to reproduce, this study highlights a similar pattern in our closest ape cousins, offering a window into how this behavior might have evolved in our own species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-bonobos-and-chimpanzees">Comparing bonobos and chimpanzees</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonobos</a> have long been recognized as “hypersexual” apes that turn to sexual activity to diffuse tension and mend rifts after disagreements. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-have-remarkable-spatial-memory-and-sense-of-direction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimpanzees</a>, on the other hand, have tended to be seen as more aggressive, leaving scientists uncertain about whether they also rely on sex to settle social conflicts. 



In a study led by <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> and published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.242031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>, researchers compared these two species under similar conditions to see how each used sex during tense moments.



The team observed bonobos and chimpanzees at two African great ape sanctuaries, logging more than 1,400 hours of data over seven months in 2019. They focused on two scenarios: after natural social altercations and just before feeding time, when appetites and power dynamics can lead to conflict.&nbsp;



The findings showed that while both species use sex to ease friction when competition is high - particularly before mealtimes - bonobos tended to rely on post-conflict “make-up sex” more frequently, whereas chimpanzees often used other forms of reassurance, such as grooming and body kissing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-our-evolutionary-past">A peek into our evolutionary past</h2>



The fact that bonobos and chimpanzees both use sexual contact to manage tension points to an ancient evolutionary trait, one that we humans appear to share.&nbsp;



“Whilst bonobos, who are famously hypersexual, were more likely to engage in so-called ‘make-up sex’ after periods of conflict, we found that chimpanzees, who some view as our more aggressive cousin, also use sex to ease tensions in many circumstances,” said lead author Jake Brooker, a postdoctoral researcher in Durham’s Department of Psychology.



Because bonobos and chimpanzees diverged from their common ancestor with humans over six million years ago, these findings hint that harnessing sex for social reasons - beyond mere reproduction - may have been part of that ancestral ape’s behavioral toolkit.&nbsp;



Bonobos’ reputation for “peace through pleasure” may not be so different in spirit from how chimpanzees and humans also use sexual bonds to relieve stress and reinforce alliances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-sex-to-prevent-conflict-nbsp">Using sex to prevent conflict&nbsp;</h2>



Another fascinating observation emerged when the researchers noticed that older apes in both species were more likely to initiate sexual interactions before feeding. This could mean that employing sex to prevent or reduce conflict is a learned or socially reinforced behavior.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, female bonobos and male chimpanzees showed a particular inclination toward initiating these interactions, though sex occurred across both heterosexual and same-sex pairings.



In contexts following disagreements, bonobos were more prone to using sex to patch things up, while chimpanzees often turned to other comforting gestures.&nbsp;



This difference might reflect the broader cultural or societal norms within each species - bonobos relying on a more sexually driven approach, and chimpanzees mixing sexual contact with an array of conciliatory activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-as-a-social-tool">Sex as a social tool</h2>



While humans are obviously different from apes in many ways, the study adds to a growing body of evidence that sex can serve social functions, such as conflict resolution, stress relief, and relationship maintenance.&nbsp;



Since bonobos, chimpanzees, and humans are all closely related, observing similarities in how these behaviors emerge under pressure can teach us more about our shared past.



It also challenges simplistic stereotypes: bonobos aren’t always the carefree “hippies” of the ape world, nor are chimpanzees unrelentingly belligerent. The reality is more nuanced. Even chimpanzees, known for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peaceful-bonobos-are-actually-more-aggressive-than-chimps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggressive tendencies</a>, use sexual contact to manage stress when circumstances demand it.



“Against the assumptions of pacifist sex-mad bonobos and aggressive chimpanzees, we found that both species used sex in similar ways during tense situations. This study highlights that beyond reproduction, sex plays an important role in their societies, and most likely for our early ancestors too,” said senior author Zanna Clay, a professor at Durham University.



With further research, scientists hope to learn more about how sex functions in different contexts for these apes, including how it varies in wild populations.&nbsp;



Such insights could add yet another layer of understanding to the intricate ways humans and our closest relatives navigate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-interactions-have-a-surprising-influence-on-memory-in-great-apes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social life</a> - both during times of strife and everyday interactions.



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Sex has been used in conflict resolution for millions of years

New research suggests that using sex to ease social tension...

For centuries, humans have wondered whether life exists beyond Earth. From ancient civilizations gazing at the stars to modern scientists sending robotic explorers to distant planets, the search for extraterrestrial life has been one of the most fascinating pursuits in human history. 



Now, within the next decade, space agencies plan to bring samples of Mars rock to Earth, marking a major step in this quest.



These samples may contain clues to the planet’s past and, potentially, signs of life. However, scientists must approach this mission with caution.



The possibility that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> samples could contain unknown microbes raises concerns about contamination and unforeseen consequences. To address this, researchers are working on new methods to detect life. 



For the first time, a team of scientists, including experts from the University of Tokyo and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>, has successfully tested a technique capable of identifying life in ancient Earth rocks similar to those found on Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-ancient-rocks-on-earth">Studying ancient rocks on Earth</h2>



The international Committee on Space Research (<a href="https://cosparhq.cnes.fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COSPAR</a>) developed safety protocols for handling Martian samples. 



These guidelines cover the collection, transport, and analysis of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-year-on-mars-avalanches-icy-explosions-and-the-arrival-of-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> rocks. The key challenge is detecting life in these samples, especially when none have been brought to Earth before.



To tackle this problem, a team led by Professor Yohey Suzuki at the University of Tokyo examined ancient Earth rocks rich in microbes. These rocks resemble those expected from Mars. The goal was to find a reliable method to detect life in such samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-method-to-detect-life-on-mars">New method to detect life on Mars</h2>



“We first tested conventional analytical instruments, but none could detect microbial cells in the 100-million-year-old basalt rock we use as the Martian analogue. So, we had to find an instrument sensitive enough to detect microbial cells, and ideally in a nondestructive way, given the rarity of the samples we may soon see,” said Suzuki. 



“We came up with optical photothermal infrared (O-PTIR) spectroscopy, which succeeded where other techniques either lacked precision or required too much destruction of the samples.”



O-PTIR spectroscopy uses infrared light to analyze prepared rock <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">samples</a>. Scientists remove the outer layers of the rock and slice them into thin sections. 



While this process is slightly destructive, it preserves most of the material for future studies. This approach is similar to how Apollo moon samples were preserved for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-microscopic-details-in-rocks">Revealing microscopic details in rocks</h2>



A green laser detects signals from the exposed rock, revealing microscopic details. This method can identify structures as small as half a micrometer. Such precision allows researchers to determine whether a structure was once part of a living organism.



“We demonstrated our new method can detect microbes from 100-million-year-old basalt rock. But we need to extend the validity of the instrument to older basalt rock, around 2 billion years old, similar to those the Perseverance rover on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> has already sampled,” said Suzuki. 



“I also need to test other rock types such as carbonates, which are common on Mars and here on Earth often contain life as well. It’s an exciting time to work in this field. It might only be a matter of years before we can finally answer one of the greatest questions ever asked.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-life-in-mars-samples">Detecting life in Mars samples</h2>



The possibility of discovering life on Mars is closer than ever. With space agencies preparing sample return missions, scientists are refining their methods to ensure they can detect biological material with accuracy. 



O-PTIR offers a promising way to analyze these samples while preserving them for future studies.



If signs of life are detected in the rock samples from Mars, the implications will be profound. This would mean that life is not unique to Earth and that it may exist elsewhere in the universe.



Even if the samples contain no traces of life, they will still provide valuable insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-mars-red-scientists-think-they-figured-out-billion-year-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet’s geological history</a> and climate evolution.



As technology advances, the search for extraterrestrial life continues to evolve. With each discovery, we come closer to answering one of the most fundamental questions in science: Are we alone in the universe?



The study is published in the International Journal of Astrobiology. 



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Detecting life on Mars: A breakthrough in space research

For centuries, humans have wondered whether life exists beyond Earth....

Insects play a crucial role in food chains and pollination. Over the last 20 years, their populations have dramatically declined due to rapid climate change. 



In a recent study, scientists have gained new insights into how certain fly species adapt to temperature shifts.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> studied two species from different climates: one from high-altitude forests in Northern California and the other from the hot deserts of the Southwest.



The findings reveal key differences in how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-like-to-play-and-have-fun-like-other-animals-according-to-a-fascinating-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> sense and respond to heat. The study suggests that changes in brain wiring and heat sensitivity influence whether a fly prefers warm or cool conditions.



This research may help predict how climate change will impact insect distribution and behavior. Tiny cold-blooded animals like flies rely on their environment to regulate body temperature. 



Their responses to temperature shifts offer valuable insights into the broader effects of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-flies-adapt-to-temperature">How flies adapt to temperature</h2>



The scientists found that flies from cool forests avoid heat due to their antennae’s molecular heat receptors.



In contrast, desert <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> are drawn to warmth, which is linked to changes in their brain wiring. These adaptations may have evolved over millions of years as each species adjusted to its environment.



The research sheds light on how animals develop preferences for specific temperature conditions. Understanding these adaptations can help predict future insect behavior in a rapidly changing world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-data-on-insects-and-climate-change">Limited data on insects and climate change</h2>



“Insects are especially threatened by climate change,” said Northwestern neurobiologist Marco Gallio. 



“Behavior is the first interface between an animal and its environment. Even before the struggle to survive or perish, animals can respond to climate change by migration and by changing their distribution."



“We are already seeing insect populations declining in many regions, and even insect vectors of disease like the Zika virus and malaria spreading into new areas.”



Gallio, a professor in the neurobiology department and the Soretta and Henry Shapiro Research Professor in Molecular Biology at the <a href="https://weinberg.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences</a>, studies fruit flies and their sensory systems. 



Professor Gallio noted that limited data exist on insects and temperature because “not enough people care about the insects.” However, the available figures show a drastic decline over the past 20 to 50 years.



Insects pollinate 70% of crops and form the base of most terrestrial food chains. Their disappearance could trigger catastrophic ecosystem damage and directly affect human well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-sensitivity-in-flies">Temperature sensitivity in flies</h2>



Professor Gallio’s lab has long focused on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-have-a-new-weapon-to-defend-against-parasitic-wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small insects</a> respond to different temperatures.



“The common fruit fly is an especially powerful animal to study how the external world is represented and processed within the brain,” Gallio said. 



Years of genetic and neuroscience research have created a detailed map of the fly brain, more complete than that of any other animal.



Scientists wondered how brain circuits differed between species that lived in distinct thermal environments. 



Using tools like CRISPR, they studied genetic and neural mechanisms that shape temperature preferences.



PhD student Matthew Capek, lead author of the study, explained that flies from different climates detect heat at different activation points. 



This discovery partially explained the forest flies’ preference for cooler temperatures. However, it did not fully clarify the desert flies’ attraction to heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-the-right-insect-temperature">Seeking the right insect temperature</h2>



“The desert fly seemed actively attracted to warmer temperatures - around 90 degrees Fahrenheit compared to the forest fly’s sweet spot just below 70 degrees,” Capek said.



“In fact, the activation threshold of the antenna heat sensors corresponded to their favorite temperature range, which they will seek, rather than to a temperature they should avoid.”



Instead of avoiding high temperatures, desert flies interpret warmth as something positive. Their brain circuits appear wired to approach heat rather than flee from it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-desert-flies-seek-heat">Why desert flies seek heat</h2>



Gallio initially found this puzzling. If deserts are already hot, why would <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> seek out warmth? A research trip to the Anza Borrego desert of Southern California provided the answer.



“Deserts in this region are very hot during the day, but temperatures can drop extremely rapidly when the sun goes down, and night can be downright freezing,” said Alessia Para, a research associate professor of neurobiology and key author of the study. 



“Flies in this climate may need to constantly attend to the rapidly changing temperature and always seek the ideal range, finding shady spots during the day and hiding in cacti for warmth at night.”



Flies from milder environments may only react to extreme temperature shifts. In contrast, desert flies must continuously monitor temperature changes to survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-climate-and-temperature">Insects, climate, and temperature</h2>



Tracking the right temperature at all times is energy-intensive. For desert <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-walk-jump-and-dance-using-the-same-motor-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a>, however, it is a necessary survival strategy. 



Professor Gallio sees their behavior as part of a larger puzzle about how animals adapt to different climates.



“This comparative work is useful in a couple of different ways,” Gallio said. 



“When an animal is born, the brain is already programmed to know if many of the things it will encounter are bad or good for it, and we do not understand how that programming works.



“These fly species represent a natural experiment because a stimulus that is good for one species is bad for the other, and we can study the differences that make it so. 



“We also want to learn more about how animals have been able to adapt to different temperatures during evolution, so that we may be able to better understand and even predict how they react to ongoing climate change. 



“Of course, we care about the insects, and we hope that what we learn may help us appreciate and protect them better.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08682-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Insect populations are "dramatically" declining around the world as scientists sound alarm

Insects play a crucial role in food chains and pollination....

The timing of biological events in nature is crucial for survival. Flowers bloom in spring, cicadas mate in summer, and caterpillars hatch to feed on their host plants. 



However, extreme weather can disrupt this natural schedule - known as phenology - upsetting the delicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-must-reconnect-with-nature-now-to-save-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">balance</a> of ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-nature-s-timing">Climate change and nature's timing</h2>



Phenology is closely tied to seasonal patterns, but climate change is interfering with nature's timing and causing shifts in how organisms interact.



A study led by <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> ecologist Daijiang Li has explored how extreme weather affects phenology. The team focused on butterflies, moths, and flowering plants across the United States.



Extreme weather events, such as heat waves, cold snaps, heavy rainfall, and droughts, impact ecosystems but are often overlooked. Most research examines gradual climate shifts rather than immediate weather extremes. 



This oversight creates a knowledge gap in understanding how sudden changes affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and their interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immediate-impact-of-extreme-weather">Immediate impact of extreme weather</h2>



"Most studies have focused on climatic variables or seasonalities, such as annual temperatures or precipitation averages," said Li. 



"But as individuals, we respond to and make our decisions in response to immediate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-must-live-in-harmony-with-nature-to-create-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental stress</a>, rather than a 10-year trend, right?"



Li and his team found that extreme weather events play a significant role in phenology, comparable to average temperature changes. The research showed that these events interact with climatic variables, influencing plants and insects in complex ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compounding-effects-of-weather-extremes">Compounding effects of weather extremes</h2>



"For example, extremely hot and extremely dry periods can have a compounding effect on the phenology," Li said.



"These variables don't occur in isolation. Rather, they interact with each other and interact with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-the-dual-crises-of-climate-and-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climatic variables</a> in driving the phenology of plants and insects as a whole."



The researchers analyzed data collected by citizen scientists through iNaturalist. This app allows users to document species by taking photos and uploading them to a database. Li’s team combined iNaturalist records with daily weather data from 1980 to 2022.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-specific-responses">Species-specific responses</h2>



"We looked at about 581 species of angiosperms (flowering plants) and the flying adults of 172 Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths) from 2016 to 2022," Li said. 



"We also looked at the spatial distribution patterns, how extreme weather events affect the phenology of those plants and insects, and also whether the plants and insects have similar or different responses to extreme weather events."



One concern is how extreme weather disrupts relationships between species. Some species depend on precise timing for survival. The yucca plant and yucca moth, for example, rely on each other. 



The moth pollinates the yucca flowers, while the plant provides food for its larvae. If this timing is disrupted, both species suffer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-of-phenological-mismatches">Risk of phenological mismatches</h2>



"If larval stages of insects are too responsive to early spring heat waves, they may be more susceptible to mortality when temperatures return to normal or during cold snaps," Li said. 



"Similarly, if spring is warmer than usual, plants are going to flower earlier, making them more vulnerable to late frost during growing season."



If pollinators like butterflies or moths emerge before or after plants flower, both struggle. Pollinators cannot find food, and flowers go unpollinated. These mismatches threaten entire ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-reactions-to-cold-spells">Unexpected reactions to cold spells</h2>



The study also revealed that plants and insects react differently to extreme weather. While extreme cold in spring caused butterflies and moths to emerge early, plant flowering times remained largely unchanged.



"Those kinds of phenological mismatches are going to have consequences for both the plants as well as for the insects, causing both populations to suffer," Li said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-extreme-weather">Future research on extreme weather </h2>



Li and his co-authors, Michael Belitz, Lindsay Campbell, and Robert Guralnick from the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>, believe incorporating extreme weather into climate models will improve predictions. This could help mitigate negative effects on ecosystems.



"This work has the potential to be relevant across multiple sectors, from conservation to food security," said Campbell, an assistant professor at the Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory.



"We are still just beginning to more fully understand how extreme weather impacts insects and plants, which ultimately impacts us and our food security," said Guralnick. "This work is a step towards that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goal</a>."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02248-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Nature’s timing is drastically changing due to extreme weather

The timing of biological events in nature is crucial for...

NASA's Lunar Trailblazer mission is taking off soon, and it's got one big job: solving the Moon's water mystery.



This tiny satellite is catching a lift on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket - tagging along with Intuitive Machines' IM-2 launch as part of NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services initiative.



It'll spend months making its way to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-are-searching-for-viable-sources-of-water-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar orbit</a> before getting down to business.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunt-for-moon-s-water">Hunt for Moon's water</h2>



Scientists made an incredible discovery in recent decades - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moons-entire-surface-is-covered-with-water-and-hydroxyl-not-just-the-poles/">Moon has water</a>. But we barely know anything about it. 



Where exactly is it? What form does it take? How much is there? Does it change over time?



<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/lunar-trailblazer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar Trailblazer</a> wants answers. This little satellite will map Moon water in unprecedented detail. 



The info it gathers during its two-year mission won't just teach us about the Moon either, it'll help us understand water cycles on airless bodies all across the solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smart-tech-for-moon-s-water-mystery">Smart tech for Moon's water mystery</h2>



The spacecraft carries two impressive instruments.



First, there's the High-resolution Volatiles and Minerals Moon Mapper (<a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=L-TRLBLZR-01" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HVM3</a>), an infrared spectrometer developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California.



Then, there's the Lunar Thermal Mapper (<a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=L-TRLBLZR-02" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LTM</a>), an infrared multispectral imager built by the University of Oxford with funding from the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/uk-space-agency" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Space Agency</a>.



HVM3 will track down spectral fingerprints - those wavelengths of reflected sunlight - that identify minerals and different water types on the lunar surface. 



The LTM handles mapping the minerals and thermal properties of the same areas.



Together, they'll create a complete picture of where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-is-the-moons-water-a-nasa-mission-will-soon-find-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> is, what form it takes, and how it shifts over time and temperature variations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-there-isn-t-simple">Getting there isn't simple</h2>



The Lunar Trailblazer isn't big - about the size of your dishwasher and weighing just 440 pounds with solar panels that extend 11.5 feet (3.5 meters) when fully open.



The mission team planned something clever: a looping path that'll take 4-7 months, and use the gravity of the Sun, Earth, and Moon as natural guides.



The team calls this technique a low-energy transfer, and it makes the journey much more feasible for the small explorer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peeking-into-dark-craters">Peeking into dark craters</h2>



Once it arrives, Lunar Trailblazer will direct its HVM3 instrument toward the Moon's South Pole craters. 



What makes these areas so remarkable? They contain cold traps that may have remained in darkness for billions of years - ideal hiding places for frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-scientists-have-harvested-water-from-lunar-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a>.



The spectrometer relies on faint light reflecting off crater walls to observe the floors of permanently shadowed regions.



If it detects substantial ice deposits at the bottom of these craters, future lunar explorers may have just identified their next crucial source of Moon water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-doing-more-with-less">Doing more with less</h2>



NASA selected Lunar Trailblazer back in 2019 through their Small Innovative Missions for Planetary Exploration program. It's all about hitching rides on other missions to save money.



These missions accept more risk and have less oversight than bigger projects. That's the trade-off - but it lets NASA green-light science missions that just couldn't happen otherwise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-lunar-exploration">Future of lunar exploration</h2>



Water is the key to survival in space. 



If Lunar Trailblazer finds abundant, accessible ice, future astronauts won’t have to bring all their water from Earth - they can extract it directly from the Moon. 



This could lead to sustainable lunar bases, longer missions, and even a stepping stone for Mars exploration.



But beyond its practical applications, this mission taps into something deeper - a human need to explore, to push boundaries, to uncover the unknown. 



Lunar Trailblazer isn’t just a satellite; it’s a bridge to the future, guiding us toward a new era of space discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-moon-s-water-mystery">Future research on Moon's water mystery </h2>



The data from Lunar Trailblazer won't just satisfy scientific curiosity. It'll be practical. Future astronauts could use lunar ice for drinking water, breathing oxygen, or even rocket fuel. 



Scientists might sample it to trace where Moon water originally came from.



<a href="https://www.gps.caltech.edu/people/bethany-l-ehlmann" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bethany Ehlmann</a> of Caltech leads the mission as Principal Investigator, with Caltech handling the science and mission operations through their IPAC center. 



NASA JPL manages everything and provides engineering support and the HVM3 instrument.



<a href="https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/capabilities/space.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lockheed Martin Space</a> built the spacecraft itself and handles flight operations. It's all part of NASA's broader <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/lunar-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar Discovery Exploration Program</a>, which is overseen by the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/planetarymissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Mission Program Office</a> at Marshall Space Flight Center.



Information for this article came from a NASA JPL <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/6-things-to-know-about-nasas-lunar-trailblazer/">press release.</a>



Image Credit: Lockheed Martin Space



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NASA's dishwasher-sized spacecraft will map Moon's water

NASA's Lunar Trailblazer mission is taking off soon, and it's...

A team of astronomers has produced the sharpest-ever images of infant planets forming around a distant star, revealing rings of dust that could eventually spawn moons.&nbsp;



Taking advantage of a state-of-the-art adaptive optics system called Magellan Adaptive Optics Xtreme (<a href="https://magao-x.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MagAO-X</a>), the researchers examined two protoplanets orbiting PDS 70 - a star that is only about five million years old. 



Situated roughly 370 light-years away in the constellation Centaurus, this newborn system offers a rare window into the formative stages of planetary evolution.



Led by the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, the research provides some of the clearest evidence to date that young planets can be surrounded by dense rings of dust.&nbsp;



These disks are expected to collapse into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-moon-looks-100-million-years-younger-than-its-true-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moons</a> over the next few million years. The team also noted surprising shifts in the brightness of the planets, suggesting highly turbulent conditions as they rapidly evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-stars-and-massive-planets">Young stars and massive planets</h2>



The youth of PDS 70 makes it a valuable proxy for what our own solar system might have looked like billions of years ago. In contrast, our Sun - a “middle-aged” <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-star-movement-in-omega-centauri-may-finally-be-explained/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a> at roughly 4.5 billion years old - has long since lost the fleeting features of its infancy.



“Multiple massive planets act kind of like brooms or vacuum cleaners. They basically scatter the dust away and clear the large gap that we observe in this great big disk of gas and dust that surrounds the star," explained Laird Close, a professor of astronomy at the University of Arizona’s <a href="https://astro.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Steward Observatory</a>.



Among thousands of confirmed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a>, very few are known to be in the protoplanetary stage. 



The two planets orbiting PDS 70, known as PDS 70 b and PDS 70 c, stand out as a unique opportunity for astronomers to track how worlds and their moons take shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-breakthrough-in-technology">Major breakthrough in technology </h2>



Central to the team’s success is MagAO-X, an advanced adaptive optics system installed on the 6.5-meter Magellan Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory in Chile. 



Adaptive optics counters the blurring effects of Earth’s atmosphere, which otherwise hinders ground-based observations.



With a deformable mirror that changes shape up to 2,000 times per second, MagAO-X can “untwinkle” stars in much the same way noise-cancelling headphones block ambient sound.



“This is a really great breakthrough in technology,” said Close, noting that the system achieves better resolution than even space-based telescopes like Hubble and the James Webb Space Telescope.&nbsp;



“Because our technology removes disturbances from the atmosphere, it’s a bit like taking a 6.5-meter telescope mirror and putting it in outer space by clicking a computer mouse button.”



In practical terms, this heightened resolution means MagAO-X can pick out exceptionally fine details from 370 light-years away - akin to discerning whether someone holds a single quarter or two quarters while standing 125 miles off.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-planets-with-dusty-birthplaces">Young planets with dusty birthplaces</h2>



One of the major discoveries from these observations was the presence of bright, compact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-directly-observes-carbon-factories-milky-way-galaxy-wolf-rayet-140/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rings of dust</a> around PDS 70 b and c.&nbsp;



These rings are expected to fall in on themselves over time, eventually giving rise to new moons, much like how Jupiter’s and Saturn’s moon systems likely formed out of similar dust disks in the early solar system.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/PDS-70-system_baby-planets_first-images_credit-Close-Close_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/PDS-70-system_baby-planets_first-images_credit-Close-Close_1s.webp" alt="Donuts of dust: An artist’s impression of the PDS 70 system with protoplanets, each surrounded by dust rings illuminated by starlight. The planets themselves (not to scale) have thin rings of plasma heated to around 14,000 degrees Fahrenheit, which glow at the red emission line of H-alpha light. Credit: Emmeline Close and Laird Close" class="wp-image-1961551"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Donuts of dust: An artist’s impression of the PDS 70 system with protoplanets, each surrounded by dust rings illuminated by starlight. The planets themselves (not to scale) have thin rings of plasma heated to around 14,000 degrees Fahrenheit, which glow at the red emission line of H-alpha light. Credit: Emmeline Close and Laird Close</figcaption></figure>



“We can see, for the first time, rings of dust surrounding protoplanets made visible by the bright starlight reflecting off of them,” said Jialin Li, a doctoral student in astronomy and one of the study’s co-authors.



Understanding these initial stages is vital, as the presence of dusty disks can affect how planets accumulate mass and whether substantial moons can form.&nbsp;



Over the coming millions of years, these forming gas giants could end up with satellite systems similar in scale to those found around Jupiter or Saturn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-shifts-in-planet-brightness">Surprising shifts in planet brightness</h2>



Another finding was how dramatically the planets varied in brightness over just three years. The team discovered that PDS 70 b dropped to about one-fifth of its original brightness, whereas PDS 70 c doubled in brightness over the same timeframe.



Close suggested these fluctuations are tied to changes in the hydrogen “waterfalls” streaming onto each planet. When hydrogen gas bombards a planet’s surface, it emits light at a wavelength known as H-alpha.&nbsp;



Because the amount of hydrogen flowing onto a planet can change quickly, its brightness at that specific wavelength can swing just as rapidly.



“Essentially, one of the planets abruptly went on a diet while the other was feasting on hydrogen,” said Close.



Despite these observations, astronomers still are not entirely sure what triggers such abrupt fluctuations. 



More continued monitoring of systems like PDS 70 may help clarify whether these brightness changes are typical for protoplanets or caused by particularly chaotic growth spurts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-ground-based-discoveries">The future of ground-based discoveries</h2>



MagAO-X has already broadened astronomers’ capabilities for examining protoplanets, and the team plans to search for additional infant worlds around other young stars.&nbsp;



Although discovering more planets at such an early formation stage is technically challenging, improvements in adaptive optics and telescope design could make it increasingly feasible.



“One of our main goals is to demonstrate just how well these observations can be done with telescopes on the ground,” said Jared Males, MagAO-X’s principal investigator and an associate astronomer at Steward Observatory.&nbsp;



“We can always build larger telescopes on the ground than in space, and this result shows how important it is to build the next generation of even larger telescopes and equip them with instruments like MagAO-X.”



By continuing to refine adaptive optics and other observational techniques, astronomers hope to fill in the missing details of how stars and their planets form.&nbsp;



In the process, they can draw parallels back to our own solar system’s earliest days - insights that were essentially lost to time after 4.5 billion years of evolution.



The study is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/ad8648" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astronomical Journal</a>.



Image Credit: Emmeline Close and Laird Close



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Stunning images of "baby planets" reveal surprising growth spurts

A team of astronomers has produced the sharpest-ever images of...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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