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You’ve likely heard of the Great Wall of China, that stone and brick marvel of fortifications that stretches vast distances across the historical border of northern China. But have you heard of the Great Green Wall of China?



Unlike its ancient counterpart, this is a living, breathing wall of greenery - a massive tree-planting initiative aimed at combating desertification on the edge of the Gobi Desert.



Recently, the Great Green Wall reached a pivotal milestone, marking over four decades of relentless effort to transform arid landscapes into thriving ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-great-green-wall-encircles-the-desert">Great Green Wall encircles the desert</h2>



Late last year, dedicated workers in the northwest autonomous region of Xinjiang triumphantly finished a roughly 2,000-mile "green belt" that encircles the infamous Taklimakan Desert.



Often referred to as the "Sea of Death," the Taklimakan is the nation's largest desert, and this initiative is a component of the bigger Three-North Shelterbelt Forest Program - also known as the Great Green Wall of China.



Since its inception in 1978, this effort symbolizes one of the globe's most comprehensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planting</a> missions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-china-s-great-green-wall-expansion">China's Great Green Wall expansion</h2>



China's verdant endeavor is on track to span 13 provinces, covering a whopping 1.5 million square miles (3.9 million square kilometers) and a hefty 42% of the country's land area by mid-century, according to government resources.



The program's aspirations include protecting China from the northern sandstorms and halting the encroachment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floods-are-becoming-more-deadly-in-the-desert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deserts</a> such as the one in Xinjiang.



Upon completion of the Taklimakan section, an impressive 116,000 square miles (300,000 square kilometers) of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> had been planted, significantly boosting China's forest coverage from a mere 10% in 1949 to an expected 25% by 2023. Particularly in Xinjiang, forest coverage has leaped from 1% to 5% in 40 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-economic-stability">Improving economic stability </h2>



Distinct from the similarly ambitious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/africas-great-green-wall-is-economically-worthwhile/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Green Wall in Africa</a>, China's program has already gained considerable success, with government sources stating that it is "improving ecological stability and supporting the local communities."



Farmers in the dry northern regions have reaped visible benefits. Wang Yinji, a farmer in the northwest Gansu province, has seen significant improvements since 1999 when the tree-planting efforts escalated.



"Our corn grew taller. The sand that used to blow in from the east and northeast was stopped," said Wang.



Through the years, the campaign has skilfully rallied workers and volunteers. The project has also explored the plant species best suited to desert conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-the-great-green-wall">Challenges of the Great Green Wall</h2>



However, the initiative isn't without its critics. Some have argued that the program hasn't curtailed sandstorms in Beijing, and others have scrutinized the low survival rates of the planted trees.



Critics have also argued that the planted trees compete with agricultural activities for the use of water and land. Yet, many believe in the value of tree-planting amidst increasing global warming and erratic weather patterns.



"The completion of the Taklimakan Desert control project is not an end to desert control but a new beginning," said Jiang Donghui, an official in Xinjiang. "We will continue to expand the green belt … to ensure sustainable development through desert control."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-global-reforestation-efforts">A blueprint for global reforestation efforts</h2>



The success and challenges of the Great Green Wall of China offer valuable insights for other nations grappling with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oases-grow-by-human-effort-but-face-threats-from-desertification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desertification</a>. 



Similar initiatives, such as Africa’s Great Green Wall project, have drawn inspiration from China's approach, emphasizing the importance of tailored strategies for local ecosystems.



China’s program demonstrates the significance of combining scientific research with community involvement to achieve long-term environmental sustainability. 



The use of drought-resistant tree species, soil stabilization techniques, and advanced irrigation systems have been key to transforming barren landscapes into fertile ecosystems.



As global climate change continues to exacerbate desertification and land degradation, the Great Green Wall serves as a reminder of the transformative power of reforestation - when backed by innovation, collaboration, and persistence.



The information for this article was published in <a href="https://english.news.cn/20241213/0073ff86fa9a4412860504c0c74f7b23/c.html">Xinhua</a>, the official news agency of the People's Republic of China



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China’s Great Green Wall has reached a new milestone

You’ve likely heard of the Great Wall of China, that...

NASA’s Parker Solar Probe has achieved an incredible feat, venturing closer to the Sun than ever before. On December 24, 2024, the spacecraft made a record-breaking approach, flying just 3.8 million miles from the Sun’s surface.



The probe is the fastest human-made object in history. Its daring journey occurred at an astonishing speed of 430,000 miles per hour.



A beacon tone received on December 26 confirmed the spacecraft’s safety and functionality, marking a significant milestone in space exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historic-achievement-of-parker-solar-probe">Historic achievement of Parker Solar Probe</h2>



The mission represents humanity’s first attempt to “touch” a star. 



"Flying this close to the Sun is a historic moment in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-parker-solar-probe-reaches-closest-approach-to-the-sun-perihelion-survival-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humanity’s first mission</a> to a star,” said Nicky Fox, Science Mission Directorate leader at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. 



By studying the Sun’s behavior up close, scientists hope to better understand its impact on the solar system, including effects on Earth’s technology and insights into stellar processes across the universe. 



This knowledge could aid in the search for habitable worlds beyond our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-the-parker-solar-probe">Journey of the Parker Solar Probe</h2>



Launched in 2018, Parker Solar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parker-solar-probe-will-fly-through-suns-atmosphere-tomorrow-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Probe</a> has spent six years preparing for this achievement. Seven Venus flybys adjusted its trajectory, bringing it closer to the Sun with each orbit. The spacecraft reached its optimal orbit after its final Venus flyby on November 6, 2024.



This unique path allows Parker Solar Probe to study the Sun’s enigmatic processes every three months while maintaining a safe distance to avoid excessive heat and radiation. This orbit will remain unchanged for the duration of the mission.



“Parker Solar Probe is braving one of the most extreme environments in space and exceeding all expectations,” said Nour Rawafi, project scientist at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jhuapl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APL</a>). 



“This mission is ushering a new golden era of space exploration, bringing us closer than ever to unlocking the Sun’s deepest and most enduring mysteries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-marvel-withstanding-extreme-heat">Engineering marvel: Withstanding extreme heat</h2>



Operating in the Sun’s corona, where temperatures exceed 1 million degrees Fahrenheit, Parker Solar Probe relies on a specially designed carbon foam shield. 



This shield endures temperatures up to 2,600 degrees Fahrenheit while keeping the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-the-fastest-human-made-object-ever-nasas-parker-solar-probe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spacecraft’s</a> instruments at room temperature. 



“It’s monumental to be able to get a spacecraft this close to the Sun,” said John Wirzburger, mission systems engineer at APL. 



Decades of technological advancement made this achievement possible, addressing challenges first identified in 1958.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-the-rules-of-solar-science">Rewriting the rules of solar science</h2>



Parker Solar Probe is rewriting the rules of solar science. By flying through the corona, it collects unprecedented data to answer longstanding questions about solar processes. 



Researchers aim to understand why the corona is so hot, how the solar wind originates, and how particles accelerate to incredible speeds.



“The data is so important for the science community because it gives us another vantage point,” said Kelly Korreck, a heliophysicist at NASA. 



Observations from Parker Solar Probe have already revealed unexpected features like spikes and valleys in the corona’s outer boundary and pinpointed the origins of switchbacks in the solar wind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-discoveries-in-the-solar-system">Broader discoveries in the solar system</h2>



Beyond studying the Sun, Parker Solar Probe has made important discoveries about the inner solar system. It showed that&nbsp;coronal mass ejections (CMEs) - massive eruptions from the Sun - act like giant vacuums, sweeping up dust particles as they move through space.



This process helps scientists understand how solar events influence the environment between planets.



The spacecraft also provided detailed information on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-solar-storm-warning-issued-as-two-cmes-will-hit-earth-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar energetic particles</a>, which are high-energy particles ejected by the Sun. These particles play a critical role in space weather, affecting satellites, astronauts, and even communication systems on Earth.



During its flybys of Venus, Parker Solar Probe made remarkable observations. It detected natural radio emissions from Venus’s atmosphere, providing a better understanding of the planet’s atmospheric conditions.



Additionally, the probe captured the first-ever complete image of Venus’s orbital dust ring - a collection of fine particles that encircle the planet along its orbit. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-data-will-soon-reach-earth">Valuable data will soon reach Earth</h2>



The spacecraft’s recent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-has-officially-reached-its-solar-maximum-period-in-this-solar-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar</a> pass produced valuable data which will soon be transmitted to Earth.



"The data that will come down from the spacecraft will be fresh information about a place that we, as humanity, have never been,” said Joe Westlake, NASA’s Heliophysics Division director.



With upcoming close approaches scheduled for March 22 and June 19, 2025, Parker Solar Probe promises to deepen our understanding of the Sun and its influence on the solar system. 



These efforts mark a significant step forward in humanity’s quest to unlock the secrets of the cosmos.



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Parker Solar Probe completes closest-ever approach to the Sun

NASA’s Parker Solar Probe has achieved an incredible feat, venturing...

We’ve come a long way from viewing robots merely as tools. Today, artificial intelligence (AI) and AI-enabled robots play increasing roles in human lives - from assisting us in mundane everyday tasks to aiding in complex scientific research.



They’re becoming our partners and social entities, blurring the boundaries between human and machine.



And this transition is not without its pitfalls. This transformation challenges existing legal and ethical frameworks, raising pressing concerns about privacy, safety, and regulation. 



A new publication,&nbsp;The Cambridge Handbook of the Law, Policy, and Regulation for Human-Robot Interaction, addresses these issues. The book provides a roadmap for navigating this rapidly evolving landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexities-of-human-robot-interactions">Complexities of human-robot interactions </h2>



Edited by Woodrow Barfield, Yueh-Hsuan Weng, and Ugo Pagallo, the handbook gathers insights from social sciences, computer science, and engineering. 



It stands as the first book to focus on the legal, policy, and regulatory aspects of human-robot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dancing-robots-the-future-of-human-robot-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a>.



“Humanities are crucial to AI development,” said Yueh-Hsuan Weng, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a> and <a href="https://www.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tohoku University</a>.



“Tech professionals can create cutting-edge systems, but without input from legal and humanities perspectives, these systems may struggle to coexist with humans. We hope this book serves as a compass for developers, ensuring AI systems better benefit our society.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-core-issues-of-human-robot-interaction">Core issues of human-robot interaction </h2>



The handbook’s 46 chapters are organized into four parts, each tackling a critical dimension of human-robot interaction:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Legal and ethical challenges: This section introduces foundational issues like trust in robots and anthropomorphism - where humans attribute emotions or intentions to non-human entities.</li>



<li>Societal impacts: This part explores whether AI entities should have legal personhood and the societal adjustments needed for greater human-robot integration.</li>



<li>Ethical and cultural values: Value alignment between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-can-feel-emotions-for-robots-especially-those-in-distress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI systems and human societies</a> is examined, highlighting regional and cultural differences. Topics include robots in long-term assistance and religious settings.</li>



<li>Legal evolution: The final section delves into how consumer, criminal, and constitutional laws must adapt to accommodate intelligent systems.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-ai-pacing-problem">Addressing the AI pacing problem</h2>



“A major issue I addressed in the book is the AI pacing problem,” noted Professor Weng.



This concept highlights the gap between rapid AI advancements and slower legislative responses. While efforts to regulate AI are underway globally, comprehensive laws often lag behind technological progress.



Professor Weng proposes solutions like global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-deception-how-do-humans-respond-to-lying-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> ethics standards developed by the IEEE, where he leads a working group. 



This initiative aims to modularize core issues and region-specific concerns, helping developers apply ethical guidelines effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-privacy-anthropomorphism-and-boundaries">Privacy, anthropomorphism, and boundaries</h2>



The handbook delves into key issues like anthropomorphism, robots in healthcare, and privacy protection, which are becoming increasingly relevant as robots integrate into human society. 



Anthropomorphism, where robots are designed to exhibit human-like behaviors or emotions, can enhance interaction but raises ethical concerns about trust and potential manipulation. 



In healthcare, robots play vital roles as caregivers, especially for older adults, assisting with tasks like mobility and medication reminders. 



However, these interactions can lead to emotional complexities, as individuals may perceive robotic caregivers as true companions, resulting in dependency or confusion. 



Privacy protection emerges as another critical concern, as robots collect vast amounts of personal data to deliver high-quality services. 



Without proper safeguards, this data could be misused, making robust and innovative regulatory solutions essential to address these challenges responsibly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-perspective-on-human-robot-interaction">Global perspective on human-robot interaction</h2>



The handbook brings together experts from various countries and presents case studies from across the globe, promoting a global dialogue on ethical dilemmas in human-robot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-humans-react-to-coexisting-with-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a>. 



“As human-AI interactions become more common, I hope designers, manufacturers, and users of robots will engage with our book. Responsible research and innovation are crucial for the development of AI and robots, and this requires input from people across various societal sectors,” said Professor Weng.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-the-future-of-ai-and-robotics">Shaping the future of AI and robotics</h2>



The Cambridge Handbook of the Law, Policy, and Regulation for Human-Robot Interaction&nbsp;offers a comprehensive framework for understanding and addressing the complexities of AI-enabled robots. 



By sparking discussions across disciplines, it aims to guide the responsible integration of robots into society. 



“We warmly invite everyone to explore this book and join us in creating IEEE’s global standards for AI ethics,” said Professor Weng.



The <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-handbook-of-the-law-policy-and-regulation-for-humanrobot-interaction/5740D8AEA42968E6A195BEDF5CBD0E5C" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">book</a> is now available online, providing essential insights for navigating the future of human-robot interaction.



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Human-robot interaction: Are we prepared for the ethical challenges?

We’ve come a long way from viewing robots merely as...

Plans to revisit the Moon by the end of this decade promise an exciting step for space exploration. Experts now caution that our arrival could bring unexpected hazards by creating thin, short-lived, toxic atmospheres made of moon dust right above the lunar surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-footprints-new-frontiers">Human footprints, new frontiers</h2>



Our natural satellite has little more than an extremely sparse layer of gas around it at any given moment, which scientists call an exosphere. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-plans-to-build-house-on-the-moon-by-2040/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In the near future</a>, astronaut activities, mining efforts, and rocket launches may change that fragile environment and kick up large amounts of <a href="https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/letss/regolith.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regolith</a> that jeopardize missions and equipment.



<a href="https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/sci/bio/rosemary.killen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rosemary Killen</a>, a planetary scientist at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a>, has voiced concerns about tiny dust particles swirling into the air and endangering explorers. “One thing that really worries us is that the dust raised by the explorers and so on will be loaded,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-moon-dust-clouds">Tiny moon dust clouds</h2>



Moon dust, or regolith, has formed over billions of years from space rock impacts and solar wind effects. 



The fine grains <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117724008615" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pose health risks</a> when stirred up by rocket boosters and rovers, and their static-like buildup may affect visibility, respiratory health, and electronic instruments.



Exhaled vapors, leakages from spacecraft, and even little bits of water from life support systems can also add gas to the surrounding area. 



Although these additions may be short-lived, they can spread across miles before settling and freezing in the Moon’s shaded regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lunar-science-at-stake">Lunar science at stake</h2>



Researchers intend to unlock ancient secrets by analyzing pristine ice in permanently shadowed craters, where water may have existed for ages. 



But human-introduced <a href="https://baas.aas.org/pub/2024i009/release/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water vapor</a> can confuse those findings, since it can freeze in the same dark spots and obscure chemical clues about the Moon’s past.



Many instruments and experiments depend on analyzing dust and gases with as little contamination as possible. 



Equipment set up to measure local atmospheric makeup might be thrown off by unwanted clouds of exhaust or recycling byproducts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spaceships-and-moon-dust-blasts">Spaceships and moon dust blasts</h2>



NASA has partnered with commercial groups to ferry astronauts and cargo to the Moon in an effort often referred to collectively as the Artemis missions (<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Artemis</a>). Large vehicles, including Starship variants, might cause forceful landings that fling moon dust up at high altitudes and create brief “atmospheric” pockets of gas and tiny particles.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-nasa-plans-to-keep-people-in-space-after-the-iss-is-gone/">Space agencies</a> say they will try to minimize these effects by choosing suitable landing sites and carefully planning flight paths. 



Yet observers warn that a few seconds of rocket thrust could hurl moon dust long distances and deposit fresh contaminants in remote locations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-moon-dust-causes-concern">Why moon dust causes concern</h2>



Moon dust is not just an irritant: it can damage lungs, scratch surfaces on suits, and clog machinery. 



Some analysts compare it to the harm that soot or coal dust causes to miners if inhaled over time, which might reduce the safety margin for extended <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-new-lunar-fss-mission-will-explore-moon-far-side-moonquakes/">Moon missions</a>.



Astronauts also risk tracking moon dust back inside their living quarters. Dirty suits, tools, and rovers can transport the debris into airlocks and the interiors of space craft, which raises concerns about health impacts and mechanical damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-scientific-treasures">Protecting scientific treasures</h2>



High-priority research targets include regions that have barely changed in billions of years. Certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103517307340?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shadowy craters</a> may hold ice that could reveal how water arrived on Earth and the Moon, and offer clues about our planet’s beginnings.



Adding even a small amount of new water or gas can make existing data hard to interpret. Some scientists recommend carefully planned operations and restricted zones to preserve these ancient substances until samples can be taken under controlled conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-exploration-with-caution">Balancing exploration with caution</h2>



No one wants to halt progress in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-has-unexpected-effects-on-gut-health/">space travel</a>. But specialists suggest that mindful mission designs, gentle landing technologies, and well-managed mining or drilling are necessary to keep the lunar surface intact.



<a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> aims to collect enough data to separate what is truly native to the Moon from anything brought by humans. 



Such efforts will help us learn the limits of lunar resources, the dangers of moon dust, and the best ways to safeguard explorers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-dust-and-lunar-exploration">Moon dust and lunar exploration</h2>



Our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lunar-glass-may-rewrite-the-geological-history-of-the-moon/">renewed presence on the Moon</a> introduces a host of fascinating possibilities. Yet it also places the spotlight on how fragile the lunar environment can be, reminding us that every footprint, launch, or sample has an impact.



From potential dust hazards to artificial atmospheric bursts, new lunar developments call for cooperation among space agencies, scientists, and private companies.&nbsp;



If handled wisely, tomorrow’s Moon missions will open a window to incredible discoveries while preserving our cosmic neighbor for future generations.



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NASA alert: Humans risk creating a toxic atmosphere on the Moon

Plans to revisit the Moon by the end of this...

Picture the majestic Angel Falls or the thundering Niagara Falls - waterfalls so powerful they draw millions of admirers each year.



Yet, there exists another overflow so vast and awe-inspiring that it renders these iconic cascades almost insignificant by comparison. This hidden titan is not a waterfall that plunges down a mountainside or roars over a cliff edge.



Instead, it plunges slowly and invisibly, deep beneath the icy waters of the Arctic, claiming the prestigious title of Earth's largest waterfall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-marvel-of-the-largest-waterfall">The marvel of the largest waterfall</h2>



Somewhere between Iceland and Greenland, concealed beneath the chilly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-and-arctic-mixing-is-crucial-for-earths-climate-stability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic waters</a>, the Denmark Strait cataract lies submerged.



Standing tall with a vertical drop of an astonishing 11,500 feet (3,500 meters), it's over three times the height of the tallest land waterfall - the Angel Falls.



With an extraordinary width of around 300 miles (480 kilometers), this unseen giant is a critical player in our planet's ocean circulation.



This gigantic waterfall only exists due to the convergence of icy water from the Nordic Seas and warmer water from the Atlantic Ocean. Here, the stark contrast in temperature and salinity (saltiness) fuels a cascade powerful enough to move colossal volumes of water across the ocean floor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-from-human-sight">Hidden from human sight</h2>



And yet, despite this massive scale, the waterfall stays hidden from human sight, and is only detectable using advanced oceanographic tools.



"If you were down there, you probably wouldn't notice a whole heap going on," said Mike Clare, who leads marine geosystems at the <a href="https://noc.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK's National Oceanography Centre</a>.



However, beneath the calm surface, powerful natural processes are at work, driving global ocean currents and regulating the planet's climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creation-of-the-largest-waterfall">Creation of the largest waterfall</h2>



The Denmark Strait cataract didn't just appear out of nowhere. It's an ancient relic, formed between 17,500 and 11,500 years ago during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">last Ice Age</a>.



As immense glaciers reshaped the landscape, the unique structure of this immense waterfall was sculpted.



Unlike its land-based counterparts, this hidden marvel exists in a dynamic environment, shaped and preserved by a thousand-year-old combination of shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-currents-slowing-as-water-temperature-rises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean currents</a>, temperature fluctuations, and geological processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-water-movement">Global water movement </h2>



This awe-inspiring underwater waterfall does more than just defy our sense of size and power. It has a critical role in regulating some of the Earth's most crucial processes.



As part of a global system, the Denmark Strait cataract helps distribute heat, nutrients, and energy across the globe.



The colossal cascade is a key driver of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-current-system-may-collapse-by-2037/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean's conveyor belt</a>, which is a crucial part of the thermohaline circulation. This global water movement pattern significantly impacts weather, sea levels, and the livelihood of marine ecosystems.



"What happens here is felt everywhere. The flow creates a ripple effect that connects ecosystems and climates around the globe," explained marine scientist Anna Sanchez Vidal, 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-nature">The power of nature</h2>



Compared to popular land-based attractions like Niagara Falls and Angel Falls, the Denmark Strait cataract surpasses them in size. 



Around 3.2 million cubic meters of water flow over the cataract each second, which is far more than the Amazon River discharges into the Atlantic Ocean. Yet, its flow doesn't roar or bubble with the same visual spectacle.



Despite its serene demeanor and invisibility to the naked eye, its influence reaches far beyond its location, proving that nature's power often operates in the most subtle ways. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-extraordinary-denmark-strait-cataract">The extraordinary Denmark Strait cataract </h2>



The Denmark Strait cataract stands alone in its scale and significance, but it also represents a broader category of rare natural phenomena: submarine waterfalls.



These underwater cascades are distinct from the more familiar terrestrial waterfalls, as they rely on oceanographic conditions such as differences in temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a>, and water density.



What makes the Denmark Strait cataract truly extraordinary is the stark contrast between the icy Nordic Seas and the warmer Atlantic waters. These conditions create a gravity-driven flow that surpasses any similar processes found in the deep ocean.



While smaller density flows occur in other regions, such as near ocean ridges or in certain straits, none match the width or vertical drop of the Denmark Strait overflow.



It’s a reminder that even in the largely unexplored depths of the ocean, natural wonders abound, and shape the world in unseen ways.



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Earth’s largest waterfall is hidden in the ocean

Picture the majestic Angel Falls or the thundering Niagara Falls...

What if a selfie could tell you something more than just how your hair looks today? What if selfies could reveal your biological age, regardless of the number of candles on your last birthday cake? 



The "face age" test from selfies is a type of AI-powered analysis that estimates a person's age based on facial features in a photo, and it's making waves in the medical community.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selfies-reveal-your-body-s-true-age">Selfies reveal your body's true age</h2>



"Face age" is more than a novel idea - it’s becoming a tool for making critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-future-of-ai-enhancing-patient-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medical decisions</a>. In some cases, it has influenced cancer treatment plans and even predicted patient survival rates.



Dr. Raymond Mak, a radiation oncologist at <a href="https://www.brighamandwomens.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brigham and Women’s Hospital</a> in Boston, Massachusetts, recently demonstrated the power of this technology.



Dr. Mak treated Lou Magelaner, a 90-year-old lung cancer patient, who appeared much younger than his age. Relying on his intuition and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI-driven tool</a> FaceAge, Dr. Mak confirmed his assessment.



When he uploaded Magelaner’s photo, the tool estimated his biological age to be 66. This result reinforced Dr. Mak's confidence in pursuing a treatment plan designed for younger patients.



"My gut was like, he’s more like a 70-year-old,” said Dr. Mak. After several weeks of radiation therapy, the treatment proved successful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-faceage-tool-works">How the FaceAge tool works</h2>



The FaceAge tool analyzes facial features using an AI model trained on thousands of images. By detecting subtle signs of aging, it offers insights into a person's health. 



Preliminary research suggests cancer patients often look biologically older than their actual age. This "older appearance" might correlate with earlier mortality, helping doctors refine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ai-could-protect-millions-of-people-from-vision-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatment decisions</a>.



FaceAge isn't alone in this space. Consumer versions of such tools are already available online. For instance, Novos, a company focused on longevity, provides a free test that examines wrinkles, eye condition, and other facial features to estimate biological age. 



Over 300,000 people have tried it, including Novos CEO Chris Mirabile, who uses it as a motivation for healthier living.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-s-growing-role-in-healthcare">AI's growing role in healthcare</h2>



Artificial intelligence is being steadily integrated into healthcare. Beyond FaceAge, AI tools are detecting conditions like Parkinson’s disease from facial scans and identifying Covid-19 on X-rays.



“These digital tools aim to enhance clinical intuition,” noted Dr. Mak. In his study, FaceAge even outperformed doctors in predicting cancer patient survival rates.



Such advancements could guide treatment decisions or alert patients to seek medical attention. However, these tools remain primarily in research stages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-ethical-concerns">Challenges and ethical concerns</h2>



Despite its promise, face-age technology isn’t perfect. Training datasets often rely on images of wealthy individuals or celebrities, leading to potential biases. 



As a result, the technology may struggle to provide accurate results for underrepresented racial groups. Factors like poor lighting, low image quality, and cosmetic procedures can also skew predictions.



Additionally, ethical concerns surround its use in clinical settings. Patients identified as biologically "older" may face unconscious biases from doctors, potentially impacting their care.



Nicole Martinez-Martin, a bioethics expert at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>, warns about these risks. "Patients flagged by these tools might receive less attention," she noted, which could lead to unequal treatment outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-face-age-testing">Future of face age testing</h2>



While the technology is still evolving, the potential of tools like FaceAge is undeniable. Ultimately, these tools could play a crucial role in precision medicine, allowing doctors to make better-informed decisions for individual patients.



Further studies aim to refine the algorithms, ensuring more inclusive and accurate predictions. Researchers like Jing-Dong Jackie Han at <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peking University</a> are exploring how specific facial changes, such as drooping eyes or shrinking foreheads, correlate with age and health. 



Some studies even suggest that youthful-looking individuals might have younger blood, linking biological age to overall health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tool-for-healthier-living">A tool for healthier living?</h2>



Consumer-friendly tools like those from Novos show how face-age technology could extend beyond clinics. 



By highlighting areas of improvement, these tools could encourage individuals to adopt healthier lifestyles. Mirabile believes this feedback can act as a wake-up call for users. "It’s a great way to measure and motivate change," he said.



As AI continues to evolve, tools like FaceAge may redefine healthcare. They could offer insights into aging, help combat diseases, and support healthier living. 



While challenges remain, the promise of "face age" lies in its ability to merge cutting-edge technology with personal and clinical applications. With further refinement, it might soon become a vital tool in both medicine and everyday life.



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Selfies reveal your 'face age' and subtle signs about your health

What if a selfie could tell you something more than...

Droughts pose an increasing challenge for humans, animals, and plants, particularly in arid regions. Many species have remarkable abilities to adapt to these harsh conditions, but a recent study sheds lights on how a rising number of prolonged droughts may impact wildlife. 



Extended periods of drought are projected to become an alarming reality for a wide range of animal species across the United States in the coming decades, and their ability to adapt will be key to their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-future-with-frequent-droughts">A future with frequent droughts</h2>



According to the research, many wildlife species in the U.S. will have to endure year-long droughts almost five times as often between 2050 and 2080 compared to the period between 1950 and 2005.



Furthermore, three-year-long droughts could become nearly seven times more frequent. These drastic changes will require serious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptations</a> for wildlife to survive.



"The degree of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-droughts-are-increasing-around-the-world-due-to-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increased drought</a> exposure for each species in our analysis strongly depends on future greenhouse gas concentrations," noted study lead author Dr. Merijn van den Bosch.



"But even under a lower-concentration scenario, virtually all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/land-vertebrates-are-vanishing-at-an-unprecedented-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vertebrates</a> face increased year-long and multi-year droughts in the second half of this century."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-persistent-droughts">Consequences of persistent droughts</h2>



Understanding the consequences of persistent droughts is challenging and depends on the specific species and the length of the drought.



For instance, the endangered giant kangaroo rat - which is native to arid regions of California - is acclimatized to occasional short droughts.



However, the population can become severely depleted following multi-year droughts, which intensify existing threats to giant kangaroo rats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-biodiversity-areas-at-risk">High-biodiversity areas at risk</h2>



The intent of this study was to pinpoint areas that have both high biodiversity and steep predicted increases in drought.



The objective was to provide data about regions where adaptive water management or habitat restoration might benefit the largest number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife species</a>.



The researchers used advanced modeling techniques to envision future scenarios based on six different projections of temperature and moisture conditions.



An in-depth comparison was carried out between the frequency of observed and projected drought exposure and the range maps of over 1,200 different species.



After adjusting for land area, the results revealed that the southwestern United States had the greatest number of species. This region also had the highest number of drought-threatened species and the highest predicted change in drought exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-facing-increasing-droughts">Wildlife facing increasing droughts</h2>



Dr. Zack Steel, senior author of the study, expressed concerns about the increasing drought and its effects on wildlife.



"Some of the areas expected to see the greatest increase in drought, such as the southwestern U.S., are already quite dry," said Dr. Steel, noting that many species living in these regions are already adapted to periodic droughts.



"But the concern is that if they are already near the limit of what they can tolerate, the large increase in drought we're expecting can have grave consequences for these ecosystems and the wildlife that depend on them."



Dr. van den Bosch and Dr. Steel are associated with <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a> and the Rocky Mountain Research Station, where they are responsible for creating a fertile ground for innovative and essential studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-the-impact-of-drought-on-wildlife">Mitigating the impact of drought on wildlife</h2>



As droughts become more frequent and severe, proactive measures are urgently needed to support wildlife resilience.



Conservationists emphasize the importance of habitat restoration, such as enhancing wetland ecosystems and preserving water sources in arid regions. These efforts can provide critical refuges for species struggling with limited water availability.



Additionally, innovative water management strategies, like implementing drought-resistant vegetation and creating artificial water holes, may help sustain vulnerable populations. 



By prioritizing these interventions in high-biodiversity areas, such as the southwestern United States, researchers hope to mitigate the most devastating effects of prolonged droughts on ecosystems.



Collaborative efforts between government agencies, local communities, and scientists will be crucial to address the challenges posed by increasing drought exposure, and to ensure that both wildlife and their habitats have a fighting chance to adapt and thrive in a rapidly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-the-driving-force-behind-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing climate</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01880-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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How persistent droughts will impact wildlife in the U.S.

Droughts pose an increasing challenge for humans, animals, and plants,...

Close your eyes and imagine this -- a loud thunder clap during a storm; birds chirping as the sun rises; or the harmony of musical sounds coming from a stage as your favorite band performs.



Now, imagine if you tried to recreate these sounds in your mind, but weren't able to do so. 



This is a condition called "anauralia," where an individual doesn't have an auditory imagination -- it simply doesn’t exist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-silent-inner-world">A silent inner world</h2>



Anauralia, a condition characterized by a "silent mind," challenges the way we understand inner experiences.



For individuals with anauralia, this silent inner world is their reality -- a mind devoid of inner voices or imagined sounds.



This tragic, fascinating condition was labeled "anauralia" in 2021 by researchers at the <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/study/international-students.html?gad_source=1&amp;gclid=CjwKCAiApY-7BhBjEiwAQMrrEZwa5iBk0LrUGX4_NfS3Univ3Y78659XeqNippJupxVNlwXf7TCQNhoCewkQAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Auckland</a>.



As the world becomes more aware of anauralia, the <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/study/study-options/undergraduate-study-options/waipapa-taumata-rau-course.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Waipapa Taumata Rau</a> has taken the lead in organizing a global conference, "Mind’s Ear and Inner Voice." 



The goal is to investigate the enigma of sounds imagined in the mind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-imagination-the-basics">Understanding imagination -- the basics</h2>



Imagination starts in your mind when your brain pieces together past experiences, learned knowledge, and sensory information to form <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-rats-have-an-imagination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new mental images</a>. 



Essentially, your brain grabs familiar concepts and mashes them up with fresh possibilities. This process engages various regions, including the frontal cortex responsible for planning and creativity, and the hippocampus that stores memories.



Your imagination can also spark emotional responses, which amplifies or colors your mental scenes. This might explain why you feel energized when picturing future goals or get goosebumps during a daydream about a haunting scenario. 



In many ways, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aphantasia-research-results-people-who-cant-visualize-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">imagination is your personal playground</a> for ideas, where logic, memory, and emotion mingle to shape new visions and possibilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-art-and-the-silent-mind">Science, art, and the silent mind</h2>



The conference, which will take place in April 2025, will bring together scientists, philosophers, musicians, poets, and writers. 



These diverse professionals will offer distinct perspectives, providing a holistic view of how the mind creates imaginary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-that-sense-the-world-through-sound-are-more-human-like/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sounds</a>.



"Scientists are fascinated by how the brain makes – or doesn’t make – imaginary sounds such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anendophasia-absence-inner-voice-difficulty-forming-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inner voice</a>. But for writers, musicians, and poets, it can be a key part of the creative process, so they have insights to share, too,” said Professor Tony Lambert from Auckland's School of Psychology.



Notable authors like Charles Dickens and Alice Walker claimed to hear their characters' voices, while some readers create distinctive voices for characters in their minds.



For individuals like University of Auckland student Sang Hyun Kim, who has a silent mind, the concept of others hearing imaginary voices seems “freaky.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-spectrum-of-anauralia">The spectrum of anauralia</h2>



The brain's ability to create auditory imagery ranges from people who can reproduce intricate symphonies in their minds to those who have weaker or no auditory imagery.



The "silent mind" can be a perplexing condition, especially when a musician is involved. How can one perform without the ability to summon sounds in one's mind?



"I don’t understand this either," said Professor Lambert. He noted that such musicians might have non-sensory representations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-causes-similar-emotional-experiences-and-sensations-in-all-cultures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music</a>, akin to the difference between hearing music and seeing it represented as a score.



The research indicates that around one percent of New Zealand's population experiences anauralia, which is often accompanied by a lack of visual imagination - a condition termed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-the-minds-eye-is-blind-what-causes-aphantasia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aphantasia</a>.



Interestingly, recent studies suggest that a silent mind may have an upside: improved attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anauralia-and-auditory-imagery">Anauralia and auditory imagery</h2>



"As compared to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aphantasia-research-results-people-who-cant-visualize-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual imagery</a>, auditory imagery has attracted far less research attention," said Professor Lambert.



By focusing on this unexplored area through an interdisciplinary approach, the conference promises to offer unique insights.



Professor Lambert became interested in this topic after meeting Adam Zeman, who coined the term "aphantasia." 



There are still many unanswered questions about anauralia. 



Are there people who don't imagine voices, music, or other sounds? How common is this? What are the psychological implications of experiencing a silent inner world?



“We now have good answers to the first two questions. The last question is a much larger one, but I believe we have made strong progress,” said Professor Lambert.



With the University's Anauralia Lab and a grant from the Marsden Fund, the ongoing research includes a neuroimaging study encompassing high-density EEG, functional magnetic resonance imaging, and electromyography of activity in muscles used for speech.



Featuring keynote speakers from around the globe, the <a href="https://www.anauralia.com/conference">conference</a> will shed light on auditory verbal hallucinations and cognitive literary studies, contributing significantly to understanding the silent realm of the human mind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anauralia-s-impact-on-daily-life">Anauralia's impact on daily life</h2>



The silent mind of an individual with anauralia presents unique challenges and opportunities, particularly in creative and professional fields.



While some might wonder how musicians or writers without auditory imagination navigate their work, researchers suggest that alternative cognitive strategies may play a key role. 



For example, these individuals might rely more heavily on logical patterns, visual cues, or tactile feedback to achieve their goals.



Interestingly, the absence of inner sounds doesn’t necessarily hinder creativity. 



Some artists and musicians with anauralia report that their silent minds allow them to approach projects without the distractions of unwanted mental noise, enabling sharper focus and unconventional methods of expression.



Similarly, in daily life, individuals with anauralia may find it easier to maintain attention and remain present because they are free from the mental echoes of conversations or repetitive tunes.



As research continues to uncover more about this condition, it challenges traditional notions of imagination and creativity, offering valuable insights into the diversity of human cognition and its adaptability.



Information about the 2025 Anauralia Conference can be found <a href="https://www.anauralia.com/conference">here</a>.



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Silent mind: Many people can't hear "inner voices" or imagine common sounds

Close your eyes and imagine this -- a loud thunder...

Ever wondered how insects camouflage themselves so perfectly with their surroundings? How is it that a leaf insect looks so much like a leaf and a stick insect can easily be mistaken for a twig? The answer lies in the fascinating realm of convergent evolution. 



But what's even more interesting is how predictable these camouflage-inspired evolutionary paths appear to be.



A recent study by biologists from Montana and Germany sheds light on the intricate process of convergent evolution in stick and leaf insects. 



The researchers analyzed the body features of 1,359 insects across 212 species, revealing that camouflage-inspired evolution follows strikingly predictable patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-leaf-and-stick-insects">Evolution of leaf and stick insects</h2>



Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated species <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worm-youti-yuanshi-lived-520-million-years-ago-explains-insect-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolve similar traits</a> to adapt to comparable environments. 



The team, including Romain Boisseau and Douglas Emlen from the <a href="https://www.umt.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montana</a>, and Sven Bradler from the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a>, focused on insects that mimic sticks or leaves.



Their findings revealed a fascinating pattern: these insects, regardless of lineage, evolved the same 20 basic body features.



Stick and leaf insects share traits such as twig-like bodies or leaf-like patterns, enabling them to blend into their environment. For instance, stick insects mimic branches, while leaf insects resemble leaves with vein-like textures. This camouflage protects them from predators like birds.



Such traits evolve due to environmental pressures, demonstrating how unrelated species develop similar features to survive. 



For example, flatfish also use camouflage, blending into the seabed to evade predators, highlighting the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> on shaping survival strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-evolution-in-modern-insects">Predicting evolution in modern insects</h2>



The study's predictive element is perhaps its most intriguing contribution. By analyzing the environmental factors that influenced past evolutionary changes, the researchers were able to forecast how modern insects might evolve.



Creatures that live in similar environments tend to evolve in similar ways. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbicides-are-disrupting-plant-insect-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptations</a>, particularly in camouflage, are often crucial for survival.



Such insights highlight the potential for using environmental cues to predict evolutionary changes in other species, broadening our understanding of how life adapts to dynamic ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-with-similar-body-structures">Insects with similar body structures </h2>



This extensive study stands out as the largest investigation of convergent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-changing-color-to-adapt-to-human-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> among stick and leaf insects. 



The researchers meticulously accounted for both differences and similarities among species, providing a robust dataset that offers valuable insights into evolutionary biology.



The analysis showed that insects with similar body structures often share a common ancestor, even if their outward appearances vary. For example, two species might have evolved long, slender bodies for camouflage, while one mimics a twig and the other resembles a blade of grass.



This indicates that while the species started from the same ancestral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cicadas-grew-super-wings-to-dodge-ancient-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>, they followed different evolutionary paths to adapt to their specific environments. These distinct routes led them to develop comparable physical features, driven by similar environmental pressures like the need to avoid predators.



Ultimately, the study demonstrates how shared ancestry and environmental challenges can converge to shape similar adaptations through diverse evolutionary processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-under-similar-pressures">Evolution under similar pressures </h2>



The findings demonstrate that convergent evolution is not random. It's a predictable outcome of similar environmental pressures. 



When species face comparable challenges, they tend to develop analogous traits to address those challenges effectively.



By analyzing the evolutionary strategies of stick and leaf insects, the researchers have uncovered broader biological principles that enhance our understanding of how evolution operates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-in-evolutionary-biology">Future research in evolutionary biology</h2>



This study not only enriches the current body of knowledge but also sets a foundation for future research in evolutionary biology.



The ability to anticipate evolutionary changes holds significant potential for biodiversity conservation and provides insights into how species may adapt to shifting environmental conditions. 



Moreover, the research highlights a fundamental truth about nature: it often finds similar solutions to shared problems, even among unrelated species.



This adaptability demonstrates the creative ingenuity of evolution, offering a structured and systematic process through which life evolves to meet its challenges. 



By revealing these patterns, the study provides a framework for understanding how organisms respond to their environments and ensures that future research can build on these insights to address pressing ecological and evolutionary questions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2319485121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Stick and leaf insects have all evolved the same basic body parts

Ever wondered how insects camouflage themselves so perfectly with their...

Have you ever wondered why it takes us a while to process what's happening around us? Or why we can't multitask as effectively as we'd like? The answer lies in our brains' processing speed.



Despite their immense complexity, our brains operate much slower than the average internet connection.



Scientists have revealed that while the human sensory system gathers information at a staggering rate of one billion bits per second, our brains process these signals at just 10 bits per second - a rate millions of times slower than the input.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fast-do-we-really-think">How fast do we really think?</h2>



“Every moment, we are extracting just 10 bits from the trillion that our senses are taking in and using those 10 to perceive the world around us and make decisions," said study co-author Markus Meister of <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/thinking-slowly-the-paradoxical-slowness-of-human-behavior" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CalTech</a>. "This raises a paradox: What is the brain doing to filter all this information?” 



To put this in perspective, a typical Wi-Fi connection processes data at around 50 million bits per second. This is incredibly fast when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">compared to the human brain</a>, which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-simple-solutions-appeal-to-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes thoughts</a> at just 10 bits per second.



Now, consider the brain's structure. It has over 85 billion neurons, and each neuron can transmit signals at speeds greater than 10 bits per second individually. However, the collective processing rate of the brain - the speed at which it actually processes thoughts - remains very slow at 10 bits per second.



This means that while individual neurons are capable of fast transmission, the brain as a whole is limited in how quickly it integrates and processes all the information it receives. 



This bottleneck reflects the brain's focus on quality over quantity, filtering out vast amounts of sensory data to concentrate on the most relevant details for survival and decision-making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-the-brain-so-slow">Why is the brain so slow?</h2>



The brain’s "speed limit" on processing information likely evolved for survival. Early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-human-brain-created-by-harvard-and-google/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nervous systems</a> in primitive organisms were simple and designed for basic tasks like navigating toward food and avoiding predators. 



These systems didn’t need to handle complex, multitasking scenarios, just survival-focused decisions.



As humans evolved, this limitation carried over into our more complex brains. While our brains are highly sophisticated, they still follow a sequential approach to problem-solving. This means we can only focus on one possible outcome or course of action at a time, rather than exploring multiple options simultaneously.



Take chess as an example. A chess player cannot mentally calculate every possible move and counter-move at once. Instead, they examine one sequence of moves, analyze it, and then move on to another.



This sequential thought process contrasts with machines, such as computers, which can perform millions of parallel calculations almost instantly. This difference highlights the trade-off in human evolution - our brains prioritize quality, focus, and survival over speed and multitasking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-sensory-filters-and-speed">Brain sensory filters and speed</h2>



Despite the apparent slowness, our brains excel at prioritizing. While bombarded with trillions of sensory inputs, the brain filters out unnecessary data, focusing on what’s vital for survival. 



“Our ancestors have chosen an ecological niche where the world is slow enough to make survival possible. In fact, the 10 bits per second are needed only in worst-case situations, and most of the time our environment changes at a much more leisurely pace,” Meister noted.



This adaptability helps humans focus on immediate tasks without being overwhelmed by excessive information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-artificial-intelligence">Implications for artificial intelligence</h2>



These findings suggest that machines will eventually outperform humans in any task as their computational capabilities improve. 



With computing power doubling approximately every two years, machines are rapidly bridging the gap in areas like decision-making and problem-solving. 



In fact, scientists believe computers could soon replicate, and even surpass, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">abilities of the human brain</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-brain-speed-matters">Why brain speed matters</h2>



The discovery highlights a paradox about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-create-three-copies-of-every-memory-we-make/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human intelligence</a>. Despite being relatively slow thinkers, humans excel in creativity, emotion, and adaptability - traits machines have yet to master.



However, understanding the brain’s speed limit raises questions about the future of neuroscience and artificial intelligence.



Future research may unlock why this limit exists and how it influences everything from perception to decision-making. It could also provide insights into enhancing human cognition and developing smarter, more efficient technologies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(24)00808-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuron</a>.



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Brain processing speed is millions of times slower than Wi-Fi

Have you ever wondered why it takes us a while...

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recently analyzed the first severe human case of bird flu in the United States.



This case, identified in a Louisiana resident over the age of 65, revealed new mutations in the virus that were not found in the infected flock on the patient’s property. These findings have raised critical questions about the virus's behavior and its implications for public health.



Dr. Sarah Jenkins, lead virologist at CDC's Influenza Division, made this discovery with her team while analyzing samples from a Louisiana resident who contracted the virus.



The case marked a significant moment in U.S. public health monitoring, as it represented the first severe human infection of avian influenza in the country.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-mutations">Understanding the mutations </h2>



The <a href="https://www.cdc.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDC</a>'s analysis revealed mutations in the hemagglutinin gene - the viral component that acts like a key fitting into a cell's lock. 



These genetic changes hadn't shown up in samples taken from the infected birds on the patient's property, suggesting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-outbreak-in-domestic-cats-raises-new-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virus</a> might have evolved during human infection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patient-profile-and-bird-flu-strain">Patient profile and bird flu strain </h2>



The patient was experiencing severe respiratory symptoms. The variant that infected the patient belongs to the D1.1 genotype - a strain recently spotted in American wild birds and poultry.



This differs from the B3.13 genotype that's been making headlines for infecting dairy cattle across multiple states. The B3.13 genotype is also responsible for some human cases. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-context-and-similar-bird-flu-cases">Global context and similar bird flu cases </h2>



The mutations discovered in this case aren't completely unprecedented. Similar genetic changes have cropped up in other countries, typically in cases where the infection turned severe. 



One particular mutation bears a striking resemblance to a change seen in a severe case in British Columbia, Canada.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-assessment-and-public-health-impact">Risk assessment and public health impact </h2>



The good news is that the CDC has not found any evidence that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/efforts-to-control-bird-flu-are-not-working-are-humans-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virus</a> jumped from this patient to anyone else. Despite the mutations, the overall risk to the public remains low - a reassuring constant in this evolving situation.



This case highlights the critical role of genetic surveillance in public health. While bird flu has traditionally struggled to spread efficiently between humans, each case provides valuable information about how the virus might adapt and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avian-flu-is-now-spreading-from-mammal-to-mammal-alarming-health-officials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolve</a>.



This knowledge is critical for preparing response strategies and protecting public health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-bird-flu">Dynamic nature of bird flu</h2>



This case serves as a reminder of the dynamic nature of viral infections. 



Viruses constantly evolve - it's their nature. Our ability to detect and understand these changes represents one of our strongest defenses against potential threats to public health.



The CDC will continue to monitor human infections and investigate cases to assess whether the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seal-colony-lost-95-of-its-pups-to-bird-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virus</a> can spread from person to person, which could signal pandemic potential.



The CDC has contingency plans for bird flu pandemics, which include vaccine development and distribution, antiviral stockpiles, and public health guidelines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward </h2>



The discovery of new bird flu mutations in a human patient highlights the importance of continued vigilance. Understanding these viral changes helps health officials stay one step ahead.



The CDC's quick identification and analysis of these mutations demonstrates the strength of our disease surveillance systems.



For the general public, the message remains straightforward: there is no need for alarm. The discovery of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-bird-flu-manage-to-infect-mammal-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mutations</a>, while scientifically significant, does not yet change the overall risk assessment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-can-you-stay-safe-from-bird-flu">How can you stay safe from bird flu?</h2>



In humans, bird flu infections often result from direct or close contact with infected birds, their droppings, or contaminated environments. 



Severe cases are associated with a high risk of complications, including kidney and respiratory issues and secondary infections. 



Although the risk to the general public is low, the CDC advises taking the following precautions to minimize exposure to bird flu:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Avoid direct contact with birds: Particularly wild birds or those in affected areas.</li>



<li>Practice good hygiene: Wash hands thoroughly after handling birds or their environments.</li>



<li>Cook poultry properly: Ensure all poultry and eggs are fully cooked before consumption.</li>
</ol>



These simple steps can help reduce the risk of exposure to avian influenza and other zoonotic diseases.



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Bird flu mutations found in first severe U.S. human case

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recently...

The universe is packed with intricate, carbon-based compounds, including organic molecules, that hold clues about life’s raw materials. Some of these compounds are found in space.



Over the past few years, robotic missions have taken samples from comets and asteroids to learn how these compounds formed and whether our planet might owe its biological chemistry to faraway dust clouds.



The findings hint that organic molecules appear in every corner of space, which suggests that our own evolution may fit into a larger cosmic narrative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-molecules-in-space">Organic molecules in space</h2>



Scientists studying bits of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-iceberg-a23a-undergoing-major-erosion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interstellar</a> dust, comets, and asteroids keep finding the same theme: these objects contain a variety of organic molecules. The story began in 1986 when the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Giotto_overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Giotto spacecraft </a>conducted the first in-situ analysis of a comet, <a href="https://www.space.unibe.ch/about_us/personen/dr_haenni_nora/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1P/</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eta-aquarids-see-up-to-50-shooting-stars-per-hour-this-weekend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Halley</a>, during its apparition (when it was visible from Earth). It revealed an unexpected abundance of organic species in the coma, but their exact origins -- whether from polymeric matter or smaller molecules -- remained unclear. The small spacecraft followed the comet for two years, capturing the dust and gas it shed. Instruments recorded dozens of molecules that contained carbon, leading scientists to look deeper for connections to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-in-submarines-can-help-astronauts-prepare-for-future-space-missions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early solar system</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-records-of-organic-molecules-in-space">Past records of organic molecules in space</h2>



The <a href="https://www.swri.org/press-release/rosetta-data-reveals-more-surprises-about-comet-67p">Rosetta</a> spacecraft was the first to orbit and land on a comet, namely 67P. In 2015, it detected simple organic compounds, including <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600285">glycine</a>, which is a building block of proteins. This discovery marked the first direct detection of this molecule on a comet. By 2022, researchers analyzing high-resolution mass spectrometry data <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-31346-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identified</a> 44 organic compounds in just one day’s worth of Rosetta data, with some molecules weighing up to 140 Daltons (Da). “Rosetta really changed the view,” said <a href="https://www.space.unibe.ch/about_us/personen/dr_haenni_nora/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Nora Hänni</a>, a chemist at the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a>. Soon after this, her team identified dimethyl sulfide, a gas that, on Earth, is generally produced by living organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asteroids-as-cosmic-sample-returns">Asteroids as cosmic sample returns</h2>



Japan’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hayabusa-2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hayabusa2</a> and NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/osiris-rex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSIRIS-REx</a> missions offered a similar look at ancient space rocks. They scooped material from asteroids Ryugu and Bennu and brought the samples back to Earth. Early analyses suggested that both asteroids have a wide range of organics present. <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abn7850" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-ryugu-has-unexpected-family-ties-near-jupiter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ryugu</a> found at least 20,000 varieties of carbon-based compounds, including 15 different amino acids. “It’s just everything possible from which life could emerge,” said <a href="https://www.helmholtz-munich.de/en/bgc/pi/philippe-schmitt-kopplin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philippe Schmitt-Kopplin</a>, an organic geoscientist at the Technical University of Munich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-about-planetary-origins">Questions about planetary origins</h2>



Those organic-rich rocks may date back to a time before planets fully formed. Scientists wonder if these compounds started in cold, dark clouds between stars, or if they originated in energetic zones near young suns.&nbsp;



“Those of us interested in searching for life have to understand how planets could acquire organics in the absence of life,” said <a href="https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/nai/directory/glein-christopher/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Christopher Glein</a>, a planetary scientist at the Southwest Research Institute. Many experts ask whether the early Earth became <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expanding-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable</a> partly because of organic molecules that arrived from space. “I would like to know where we come from as a planetary species,” said <a href="https://astronomy.fas.harvard.edu/people/karin-oberg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karin Öberg</a>, an astrochemist at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-chemistry-across-the-cosmos">Early chemistry across the cosmos</h2>



Astronomers have traced certain hefty carbon structures called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05998-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PAHs</a>) back to about 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang.



Carbon atoms often form large, sturdy rings and chains in the outflows of dying stars. “It’s actually not too different from combustion as we understand it here on Earth,” said Öberg, referring to the ways these molecules can build up in stellar winds. 



Observations confirm that interstellar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parker-solar-probe-will-fly-through-suns-atmosphere-tomorrow-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> has more than 200 carbon-containing compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-icy-labs-in-the-dark">Icy labs in the dark</h2>



In molecular clouds, simple ingredients gather on cold dust grains. Once stuck together, atoms can combine to form key molecules like methane. Over time, ultraviolet radiation and cosmic rays split molecules into radical fragments, which recombine to form something new. Experiments hint that this can produce anything from methanol to glycine “You can build complexity without much going on in just a cold, dark cloud,” said <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/people/alice-s-booth" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alice Booth</a>, an astronomer at Harvard University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-disks-and-newborn-worlds">Planetary disks and newborn worlds</h2>



Observations of protoplanetary disks -- thick, spinning layers of dust and gas around baby stars -- show that methanol and other organics survive the intense heat of stellar births. Recent modeling suggests these compounds may grow into even more sophisticated structures when disk materials cycle between hot surface zones and cooler midplane regions. This process could be one reason comets and asteroids wind up so chemically rich by the time they form. “Comets are, I think, the best that we can do to go back in time,” said Hänni.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-organic-molecules-in-space">Origins of organic molecules in space</h2>



When organic chemicals land on a planet, they might set the stage for the emergence of living systems. A few theories propose that meteorites or comets delivered certain amino acids or <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2014-03/documents/pahs_factsheet_cdc_2013.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PAHs</a> to early Earth.



Astrobiologists debate about which molecules represent a solid proof of life, and which might be possible false positives. 



The presence of dimethyl sulfide from comet 67P, supports the idea that lifeless processes can make molecules that we tend to associate with living organisms.



In 2016, <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Rosetta" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rosetta</a> concluded its mission with a controlled impact on comet 67P’s surface, which resulted in a rich legacy of data for further analysis.



Since then, scientists have connected these findings to other Solar System reservoirs of organics, such as Saturn’s ring rain and meteoritic material, revealing their shared prestellar origins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-organic-molecules-in-space">Future research on organic molecules in space</h2>



Scientists will continue exploring these mysteries with missions like NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/europa-clipper/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa Clipper</a>, the European Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Juice" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juice</a>, and a future rotorcraft bound for Saturn’s moon Titan.



Researchers hope to spot organic compounds that might give hints about oceans hiding beneath icy crusts. 



Such discoveries could bring us closer to answering one of humanity's oldest questions: are we alone in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-mission-set-to-search-for-life-on-jupiters-ocean-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>?



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Organic molecules found throughout the universe hint that life began in deep space

The universe is packed with intricate, carbon-based compounds, including organic...

Date	Citation Page	Title
06/14/1976	41 FR 24062 24067	Endangered Status for 159 Taxa of Animals; 41 FR 24062 24067
09/26/1975	40 FR 44392 44333	CITES: Proposed Endangered Status for 216 Species on Convention Appendix I; 40 FR 44392 44333