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Amytornis goyderi

If you're a crayfish, location can make all the difference. In North America, these small crustaceans are facing tough times due to habitat destruction, damming, and pollution, leading many species to require urgent help.&nbsp;



Conversely, some of these same species, when introduced to Europe, have found the environment so favorable that they've become invasive, outcompeting local crayfish and spreading diseases that push native species toward extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searchable-atlas-the-world-of-crayfish">Searchable atlas: The World of Crayfish </h2>



Previously, researchers and conservation planners had to sift through multiple data sources to determine where specific crayfish species had been documented.&nbsp;



Now, a new mapping project led by the <a href="https://www.uvt.ro/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West University of Timișoara, Romania</a> (WUT) and the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> has compiled information on 427 crayfish taxa and over 100,000 observation records into the first searchable global atlas, named the World of Crayfish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-importance-of-crayfish">Ecological importance of crayfish</h2>



“One of the most basic pieces of information to know about a species is where it lives: its distribution and its range size. But we just don’t have that information for a lot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-coloration-in-crayfish-does-not-serve-an-evolutionary-purpose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crayfish</a> species,” said Bloomer.&nbsp;



“About a third of crayfish are thought to be threatened or endangered, but for another 20-ish percent, we don't have the data available to even assess what their conservation status should be.”



Bloomer acknowledges that most people outside her field may not notice or appreciate crayfish, but she emphasizes their importance. 



Crayfish are considered “keystone species” in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-quarter-of-freshwater-fish-species-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater ecosystems</a>, playing significant roles as food sources for other animals and as ecosystem engineers. They create burrows that provide habitats for many species in semi-terrestrial environments. Unfortunately, their impact as invaders is equally significant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-unified-action">Urgent need for unified action</h2>



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Invasive species</a> are one of the gravest challenges to biodiversity in Europe, with profound ecological, economic, and societal consequences," said atlas co-creator Mihaela Ion, researcher at the <a href="https://www.ibiol.ro/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Biology Bucharest, Romanian Academy</a>.



"They disrupt ecosystems, outcompete native species, and impose significant costs on sectors like agriculture and fisheries. In some cases, they even threaten public health. A unified, science-driven approach is essential to mitigate their impact.”



These ecological changes occur locally but require global collaboration for effective conservation and invasion mitigation. That's why Ion, Bloomer, and their collaborators believe the new global crayfish atlas will make a significant difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-the-crayfish-atlas">Building the crayfish atlas</h2>



“We're looking at climate change, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a>, and international spread of invasive species and disease,” Bloomer said. “These global issues require global collaborations to move forward and make an impact.”



“The World of Crayfish™ (WoC) platform is designed to become a transformative tool in biodiversity research and management,” added Lucian Pârvulescu, a professor at WUT and project coordinator for the atlas.&nbsp;



“It serves as a foundation for integrating expert-validated datasets and applying advanced analysis techniques to address pressing ecological challenges like invasive species management." 



'WoC exemplifies the future of biodiversity data infrastructure - accessible, integrative, and purpose-driven. By focusing on freshwater ecosystems, particularly crayfish species, it addresses an urgent need for tools that do more than collect data - they provide solutions.”



Creating the atlas involved extracting GPS coordinates from every modern crayfish occurrence record in scientific literature, as well as museum and agency collections. 



Several thousand records were sourced from the <a href="https://crustacean.inhs.illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crustacean Collection of the Illinois Natural History Survey</a>, part of the Prairie Research Institute at Illinois. Atlas co-creator and emeritus curator Christopher Taylor has collected and curated the collection for nearly 30 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empowering-conservation-efforts">Empowering conservation efforts</h2>



The more than 100,000 data points can be visualized on a world map scalable to 20-kilometer hexagons, including an address lookup tool. 



Bloomer notes that this spatial scale is meaningful for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> planning but masks the exact locations where sensitive or imperiled species were found. 



Researchers and resource managers can register for an account on the website to access more detailed location data. Future updates to the atlas aim to enhance its capabilities.



“Through collaboration with international experts and leveraging scientific advancements, WoC aims to combine ecological data with geospatial and predictive tools. These tools will support tailored analyses, such as mapping invasive species dynamics, evaluating habitat suitability, and predicting population trends,” Pârvulescu said. 



“The platform’s strength lies in its ability to merge diverse data streams into a cohesive system that generates actionable insights.”



Ultimately, the team hopes the atlas will empower researchers, policymakers, and agencies to develop conservation assessments and policies to protect these important animals with precision and urgency. Bloomer also hopes the atlas will inspire public interest in crayfish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raising-awareness-and-appreciation-for-crayfish">Raising awareness and appreciation for crayfish</h2>



“The unfortunate reality in conservation biology is that a lot of the species that get attention and funding are charismatic megafauna that people see on TV or in zoos," said Bloomer.



"This website gives the public better access to information on what lives near them, and could get them more interested in their local landscape. Hopefully, they’ll see that crayfish are just as cool as lions and rhinos."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.18229" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



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Global crayfish atlas offers new tools for conservation 

If you're a crayfish, location can make all the difference....

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires...

Filter feeders are widespread across the animal kingdom, from krill and coral to baleen whales and basking sharks.&nbsp;



Now, researchers at <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> have uncovered a unique filter-feeding mechanism in mobula <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-rays-were-more-diverse-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rays</a> - a group that includes manta and devil rays - that could inspire breakthroughs in industrial water filtration.



The study reveals how the mobula ray’s adaptations balance feeding efficiency with breathing. The findings offer insights into optimizing industrial cross-flow filters, crucial in water treatment and other industries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-manta-ray-s-ingenious-filter-design">The manta ray’s ingenious filter design</h2>



Mobula rays feed by swimming open-mouthed through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plankton</a>-rich waters, directing water into their mouths and out through their gills. Parallel, comb-like plates line the floor of their mouths, directing water flow while filtering out plankton particles.



The MIT researchers found that these plates are specifically sized to ensure that plankton particles bounce across the plates into the ray’s cavity rather than escaping through its gills. Simultaneously, the outflowing water allows the ray to breathe by oxygenating its gills.



“We show that the mobula ray has evolved the geometry of these plates to be the perfect size to balance feeding and breathing,” said senior author Anette “Peko” Hosoi, a professor of mechanical engineering at MIT.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-nature-a-new-approach-to-water-filters">Learning from nature: A new approach to water filters</h2>



Inspired by the mobula ray, the researchers designed a simple water filter that mimics the ray’s feeding features. They tested the filter with 3D-printed plates modeled after the ray’s structures and found it could provide a blueprint for improving industrial cross-flow filters.



Cross-flow filters are used in water treatment plants and other industries to separate particles from fluids. These filters work by allowing fluid to flow across a permeable membrane, with clean fluid passing through while particles are carried away into waste reservoirs.



“We want to expand the design space of traditional crossflow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-filtration-system-removes-forever-chemicals-from-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">filtration</a> with new knowledge from the manta ray,” explained lead author Xinyu Mao, an MIT postdoc.



By examining the ray’s filtration mechanism, the team identified new parameters for optimizing filter performance, particularly regarding the trade-off between permeability and selectivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-manta-ray-inspiration-for-water-filters">Manta ray inspiration for water filters</h2>



Industrial filters often face a balancing act: filters with larger pores are highly permeable, allowing fluid to flow through easily but letting small particles escape. Filters with smaller pores, on the other hand, are more selective but require more energy to push fluid through.



The mobula ray’s feeding system offers a natural solution to this dilemma. The ray allows water to flow freely enough to breathe while retaining the plankton particles it feeds on.



“We asked ourselves, how do we do better with this trade-off between permeability and selectivity?” Hosoi said.



By studying the ray’s adaptations, the researchers discovered that vortices - tiny swirling flows of water - play a critical role in its feeding efficiency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-key-to-efficient-filtering">The key to efficient filtering</h2>



The team’s experiments showed that when water flows through the ray-inspired filter, it creates small vortices at the grooves of the plates. These vortices trap particles while allowing water to flow through unimpeded.



“This vortex is not blocking water, but it is blocking particles,” Hosoi explained. “At higher flow rates, particles try to get through the filter but are blocked by this vortex and are shot down the channel instead.”



The vortices even capture particles smaller than the spacing between the plates, forcing them to bounce across the plates into the ray’s cavity. This mechanism prevents particles from escaping while maintaining high water flow, a feature industrial filters could replicate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research</h2>



Using the mobula ray as a model, the researchers developed guidelines for designing cross-flow filters. Their blueprint specifies how factors like pore size, spacing, and flow rate can be adjusted to create vortices for optimal filtration.



“You want to design a filter such that you’re in the regime where you generate vortices,” Hosoi said. “Our guidelines tell you: If you want your plant to pump at a certain rate, then your filter has to have a particular pore diameter and spacing to generate vortices that will filter out particles of this size.”



The findings are particularly relevant to industries like water treatment, where filters must balance efficiency and sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-nature-and-technology">Bridging nature and technology</h2>



During the COVID-19 pandemic, the team initially focused on designing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-masks-may-expose-users-to-harmful-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">face masks</a> capable of filtering viruses. This work eventually shifted to studying natural filtration systems, leading them to the mobula ray.



The ray’s evolved mechanism provides a clear example of how nature can solve engineering challenges. By mimicking this system, industries can create more efficient filters that require less energy while maintaining high selectivity.



“The mobula ray is giving us a really nice rule of thumb for rational design,” Hosoi noted.



The study highlights the potential of biomimicry, where insights from the natural world inspire innovative technological solutions. With the mobula ray as a guide, engineers can refine filtration systems to meet modern demands for cleaner, more sustainable processes.



This research not only advances our understanding of filter-feeding animals but also paves the way for practical applications in technology and industry, demonstrating the profound value of learning from nature.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2410018121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Manta rays inspire a new design for water filters

Filter feeders are widespread across the animal kingdom, from krill...

Plant reproduction is fundamental to our food systems and ecological balance, yet it remains a complex and diverse process.&nbsp;



Some plants are male or female, others are hermaphroditic, and some even change sex over their lifetime.&nbsp;



Understanding the mechanisms that determine plant sex is crucial for advancing modern agriculture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproductive-strategies-of-flowering-plants">Reproductive strategies of flowering plants</h2>



A study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41477-024-01858-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a> has unveiled new perspectives on the intricate reproductive strategies of flowering plants. 



Led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.hudsonalpha.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology</a> and the University of Georgia, the study was focused on the genetics of Amborella trichopoda. This unique species offers a rare glimpse into the early evolution of flowering plants. 



By producing a much-improved assembly of the Amborella genome and its sex chromosomes, the researchers have gained valuable insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fibonacci-spirals-an-unexpected-twist-in-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant evolution</a> and reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-the-amborella-genome">Evolution of the Amborella genome</h2>



Amborella trichopoda is the sole surviving member of a lineage that branched off early from all other flowering plants. Its genome provides essential information about the genetic foundations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-diversity-can-help-combat-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant diversity</a>.



Eleven years ago, an international team of researchers co-led by Jim Leebens-Mack, a professor of plant biology at the University of Georgia, completed the first Amborella genome. The results, published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1241089?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D90780648708216300104417575982572668868%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1732616953">Science</a> in 2013, have been cited over 575 times.



“The evolutionary lineage leading to Amborella diverged from all other flowering plant lineages approximately 150 million years ago, so our draft genome published in 2013 has been a foundation for comparative analyses of genes tracing back to the origin of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a> and earlier,” Leebens-Mack said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-the-evolution-of-flowers">New insights into the evolution of flowers</h2>



The new insights from the improved genome assembly are particularly exciting for HudsonAlpha Faculty Investigator Alex Harkess, who was a PhD student in Leebens-Mack's lab during the original Amborella genome project.&nbsp;



Now leading his own lab at HudsonAlpha, Harkess and his mentee, senior scientist Sarah Carey, collaborated with Leebens-Mack and HudsonAlphafFaculty investigators Jeremy Schmutz and Jane Grimwood, on the new genome analyses.



“Working on the original Amborella genome in Jim's lab was transformative because it allowed me as a first-year PhD student to be on the very edge of newly developing technologies and software that was coming out to help handle all of this massive genomic data we were creating,” Harkess reflected.&nbsp;



“This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-genome-size-impact-evolutionary-success/">genome</a> reveals so much about the evolution of flowers, but also about the evolution of my own research career and the way I, and now my entire laboratory, view reproduction through the lens of diversity.”



Carey, who was a postdoctoral fellow in the Harkess lab when the new genome assembly was completed, led much of the genome analysis, including the study of the Amborella sex chromosomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-technology-and-plant-reproduction">Advanced technology and plant reproduction </h2>



Thanks to advanced sequencing and assembly technology, as well as emerging computational tools, Carey and the team at the HudsonAlpha Genome Sequencing Center were able to assemble a significantly improved Amborella genome.&nbsp;



The new, highly contiguous genome reference made it easier to search for the Amborella <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sex chromosomes</a>, which are Z and W chromosomes, unlike the familiar human X and Y chromosomes.



“The first Amborella genome was a mixture of short segments of DNA from different sequencing types and technologies,” Carey explained.&nbsp;



“Advancements in long-read sequencing and access to other pieces of information, like Hi-C data, allowed us to assemble larger pieces that made it easier to search for the ZW chromosomes than if it were in lots of smaller pieces.”



In addition to the improved sequencing tools, the team stayed at the forefront of new computational methods.&nbsp;



They developed a pipeline called cytogenetics-by-sequencing to more easily and cost-effectively identify and characterize sex chromosomes in plants, successfully applying it to nearly 30 dioecious plant and animal species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mechanisms-of-sex-determination">The mechanisms of sex determination</h2>



Through their analysis of the Amborella sex chromosomes, the researchers discovered intriguing aspects of the plant's sex-determination system.&nbsp;



Notably, the Z and W chromosomes are relatively young, having emerged more than 100 million years after Amborella diverged from other flowering plant lineages.



In many sex-determination systems, such as the human Y chromosome, the sex chromosomes stop exchanging genetic material with their partner chromosome - a phenomenon known as recombination suppression.&nbsp;



This allows the two sex chromosomes to diverge over time due to different rearrangements, deletions, and insertions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-associated-with-flower-evolution">Genes associated with flower evolution</h2>



While the team found evidence of suppressed recombination in Amborella, the Z and W chromosomes appear very similar, making their assembly more challenging.



“The cytogenetics-by-sequencing pipeline helped us to identify a difficult border on the Amborella sex chromosomes: where they no longer recombine,” Carey noted.&nbsp;



“This is an important task because within this region of non-recombination are expected to be the carpel and stamen sterility genes associated with the evolution of separate female and male plants.”



By carefully analyzing the sex chromosomes, Carey and the team identified two genes hypothesized to be responsible for sex determination in Amborella.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-agriculture-and-plant-breeding">Implications for agriculture and plant breeding</h2>



“The big picture takeaway from this study is that we're learning another exception for how you can maintain separate sexes in plants,” Harkess said.&nbsp;



“That gives us another tool in our toolkit for engineering new ways to do plant breeding, creating separate sexes, preventing plants from self-pollinating, and enforcing outcrossing in a way that is controllable and predictable.”



The new Amborella genome project was part of the <a href="https://jgi.doe.gov/csp-2018-leebens-mack-open-green-genomes-initiative/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Open Green Genomes Initiative</a>, a Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute Community Science Program.



“The Open Green Genomes initiative is filling phylogenetic gaps in the availability of reference-quality genomes for land plants,” said Leebens-Mack, lead principal investigator for the initiative.&nbsp;



“Our haplotype-resolved chromosomal assembly of the Amborella genome has enabled us to better understand aspects of the ancestral angiosperm genome and the derived characteristics of Amborella's sex chromosomes."



This research not only advances our understanding of plant reproduction but also offers practical applications for agriculture and plant breeding.&nbsp;



By unraveling the genetic mechanisms behind sex determination in plants, scientists can develop new strategies to improve crop yields, enhance biodiversity, and ensure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food security</a>.



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A new window into the early evolution of flowering plants

Plant reproduction is fundamental to our food systems and ecological...

Every living being has a unique way of dealing with adversity. Amid the length and breadth of fauna, bats have always stunned us with their exceptional navigational skills, largely attributable to their acute sense of hearing. But what happens when these creatures lose their most critical sense - can they still find their way in the dark?



New research from The Johns Hopkins University breaks fresh ground in this area, revealing that bats, in fact, do switch to a backup plan when their hearing takes a hit. 



This extraordinary discovery broadens our understanding of the adaptability of the brain in the face of sensory deprivation. But, is this ability exclusive to bats, or could it be lurking in other animals or even us humans?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bats-adapt-to-hearing-loss">How bats adapt to hearing loss</h2>



Picture a scenario where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-have-acoustic-mental-maps-to-navigate-total-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">echolocating bats</a>, who rely heavily on hearing, face a sudden shutdown of a key auditory region in their brain. 



One would anticipate some serious navigational glitches. Not really, as the research team at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins</a> found out.



We've seen animals and humans alike adapt to sensory deprivation. Amid the clamor of a crowded bar, you might lean closer to a friend to hear them better. Your pet might cock its head to catch a faint rustling. 



The question here is - how does an echolocating bat, for whom hearing is a lifeline, cope with such a loss?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-adapt-to-compromised-hearing">Bats adapt to compromised hearing </h2>



To explore this, the researchers designed a unique experiment. The bats were trained to fly down a corridor and through a window to fetch a treat from a platform. 



Next, the same task was repeated, but with a twist. A critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-bats-can-remember-the-past-and-plan-for-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auditory pathway</a> in the bats' midbrain was temporarily blocked, an effect equivalent to most auditory signals from reaching the brain's deep regions.



The results are nothing short of surprising. Despite their compromised hearing, the bats were able to navigate the course quite impressively, right from the first attempt. 



No, they weren't as sleek as before and did bump into things. But what mattered was that every bat adapted instantly.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vjQug3TsGx-4062597-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-flight-and-vocalizations">Changes in flight and vocalizations</h2>



“Bats have this amazing flexible adaptive behavior that they can employ anytime,” said study senior author&nbsp;Cynthia F. Moss, a Johns Hopkins neuroscientist who studies bats.



The bats chose to fly lower, aligned themselves along walls, and made more frequent and lengthier calls. This amplification of echo signals compensated for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-noisy-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">navigation</a>.



“Echolocation acts like strobes, so they were basically taking more snapshots to help them get the missing information,” said study co-author Clarice A. Diebold, a former Johns Hopkins graduate student who is now a postdoctoral student at <a href="https://washu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University</a> in St. Louis.



Interestingly, these adaptations are usually observed when bats counteract external noise, but in this case, the sound processing deficit was internal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hardwired-adaptation-what-it-means">Hardwired adaptation: What it means</h2>



Despite repeated experiments, the bats' compensation skills didn't refine further, implying these weren't learned behaviors. The adaptations were innate, hardwired into their brain circuits.



The research team was taken aback by the bats' residual hearing, despite a disabled auditory region. Moss theorizes that bats could be leveraging an unidentified auditory pathway or that unaffected neurons could be aiding hearing in ways unknown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-hearing-role-of-other-senses-of-bats">Beyond hearing: Role of other senses of bats</h2>



This remarkable adaptability raises questions about the role of other senses in bats' navigational prowess. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-bat-appreciation-day-the-crucial-role-of-bats-in-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bats</a> are known to possess highly sensitive tactile receptors on their wings, enabling them to gather environmental information through subtle air currents. 



These tactile cues may offer supplementary, albeit less precise, spatial information when auditory guidance falters. Furthermore, olfactory and visual inputs could contribute to forming a cohesive map of their surroundings, providing a multi-sensory approach to navigation. 



Understanding how bats integrate these various sensory inputs enriches our knowledge of their survival strategies and sheds light on the remarkable plasticity of neural pathways in response to sensory impairments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-sensory-rehab">Implications for human sensory rehab</h2>



The findings from this study offer novel insights that could influence approaches in human sensory rehabilitation. 



Drawing parallels between bats' innate adaptation to auditory deficits and human attempts to cope with sensory loss opens avenues for developing more effective prosthetic devices or training protocols. 



Just as bats utilize a combination of residual hearing and other sensory inputs, humans can potentially harness multi-sensory strategies to compensate for deficits, enhancing quality of life. 



The research invites further exploration into the brain's capacity for adaptation and may ultimately lead to groundbreaking advancements in sensory repair and augmentation technologies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-auditory-processing">Insights into auditory processing </h2>



This study doesn't just highlight how bats navigate through a hearing crisis, but also nudges us to ponder - could this phenomenon hold true for other creatures or even humans?



“You’d think an animal wouldn’t be able to hear at all,” Moss said. “But it suggests that there might be multiple pathways for sound to travel to the auditory cortex.”



Although it's a path less tread, the insights we could gain about auditory processing and adaptive responses in humans could be monumental. It's a thrilling prospect, one that could potentially revolutionize the way we perceive and address sensory deficits in the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01440-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Can bats still navigate in the dark without their hearing?

Every living being has a unique way of dealing with...

Ethiopian wolves, which are primarily carnivorous, have been observed feeding on the Ethiopian red hot poker flower - an unusual and fascinating behavior.



Furthermore, careful observations have revealed that the wolves are not only feeding on the nectar of these flowers but are also inadvertently playing a pivotal role in the pollination process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollination-by-ethiopian-wolves">Pollination by Ethiopian wolves </h2>



As the wolves feed, their muzzles become generously dusted with pollen, allowing them to transport the pollen from one flower to another as they continue to feed.



This remarkable behavior is possibly the first observed instance of plant-pollinator interaction that involves a large predator.



It’s a rarity to spot a primarily meat-eating predator indulging in nectar; this behavior challenges common perceptions and opens up exciting new avenues for research.



Dr. Sandra Lai is a senior scientist from the University of Oxford and lead author of the study.



"These findings highlight just how much we still have to learn about one of the world's most-threatened <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/assessments-of-large-african-carnivores-urgently-needed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carnivores</a>. It also demonstrates the complexity of interactions between different species living on the beautiful Roof of Africa. This extremely unique and biodiverse ecosystem remains under threat from habitat loss and fragmentation," noted Dr. Lai.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-source-of-energy">Unusual source of energy</h2>



Professor Claudio Sillero, the director of the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP) and a distinguished faculty member from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>, was the first person to observe this behavior.



"I first became aware of the nectar of the Ethiopian red hot poker when I saw children of shepherds in the Bale Mountains licking the flowers. In no time, I had a taste of it myself - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sipping-on-nectar-hummingbirds-consume-a-surprising-amount-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nectar</a> was pleasantly sweet," said Professor Sillero.



"When I later saw the wolves doing the same, I knew they were enjoying themselves, tapping into this unusual source of energy. I am chuffed that we have now reported this behaviour as being commonplace among Ethiopian wolves and explored its ecological significance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethiopian-wolves-guardians-of-the-highlands">Ethiopian wolves: Guardians of the highlands</h2>



Ethiopia's&nbsp;endangered&nbsp;wolf,&nbsp;or&nbsp;"Roof of Africa's fox," is one of the world's most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-is-tracking-endangered-animal-habitats-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered</a> carnivores.



The species is&nbsp;only&nbsp;found on&nbsp;Ethiopia's&nbsp;high-altitude grasslands&nbsp;where it is an&nbsp;essential part of this fragile Afroalpine ecosystem.



With fewer than 500 individuals left in the wild, their survival speaks to the challenges and beauty of this unique landscape.



Ethiopian&nbsp;wolves live&nbsp;in&nbsp;approximately&nbsp;99 packs&nbsp;that&nbsp;are&nbsp;to be found in six isolated, highland regions. They are entirely dependent&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;environment&nbsp;in which they&nbsp;live. The threats&nbsp;from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hippopotamus-population-hit-hard-by-habitat-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat&nbsp;destruction</a>&nbsp;and human activity&nbsp;are perpetual pressures on the remaining individuals.



Even though&nbsp;their&nbsp;count is&nbsp;low, these wolves play an&nbsp;important&nbsp;role in&nbsp;being&nbsp;the top predator of the ecosystem and controlling&nbsp;rodent&nbsp;populations,&nbsp;which form the majority of their prey.



These&nbsp;are&nbsp;no&nbsp;ordinary&nbsp;wolves;&nbsp;they are guardians of a habitat that is&nbsp;home&nbsp;to&nbsp;countless species, including many other plants and pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethiopian-wolf-conservation-program">Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Program</h2>



Initiated in 1995, the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Program (EWCP) has made sustained efforts to protect these unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-may-not-be-heroes-but-theyre-not-villains-either/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolves</a> and their precious habitat from extinction and threats.



It is a collaborative initiative between the Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU) at the University of Oxford, the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA), and Dinkenesh Ethiopia. 



This iniative holds the distinction of being the longest-running conservation program in Ethiopia, and has worked relentlessly to safeguard the future of natural habitats for the benefit of wildlife and the people who co-habit these highlands.



Being witness to such remarkable behavior from these wolves reinforces the importance of our conservation efforts and renews our commitment to preserving these magnificent creatures and their habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wolves-and-flowers-a-symbiotic-connection">Wolves and flowers: A symbiotic connection</h2>



The unexpected interaction between Ethiopian wolves and the Ethiopian red hot poker flower highlights the intricate relationships that can exist between species in delicate ecosystems.



While the wolves gain a supplementary energy source through the flower’s nectar, the plants benefit from a reliable pollinator that helps ensure their successful reproduction.



This symbiotic relationship demonstrates how even apex predators can contribute to the health of their environment in surprising ways.



Such interactions also emphasize the interconnectedness of life in the Ethiopian highlands where every species, from the smallest plant to the largest predator, plays a vital role in sustaining the ecosystem.



Recognizing and studying these complex dynamics could open doors to more innovative and inclusive conservation strategies that prioritize not just individual species but the broader web of life in ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.4470" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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First wolf species discovered that eats fruit and pollinates flowers

Ethiopian wolves, which are primarily carnivorous, have been observed feeding...

In the pursuit of a more sustainable future, the scientific community tirelessly works on innovative solutions to confront the plastic crisis. Now, an exciting development paves the way towards a different form of ocean-friendly plastic that promotes environmental sustainability.



The team behind this novel innovation comes from the prestigious RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science, led by Takuzo Aida.



The study, published in the journal Science, presents a new plastic variant that is both sturdy and biodegradable with a unique attribute - it disintegrates in seawater. 



This means the plastic will not contribute to the mounting issue of microplastic pollution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-microplastics-and-nanoplastics">Understanding microplastics and nanoplastics</h2>



Current plastics never fully degrade, they shrink and become even more harmful. Microplastics and nanoplastics are tiny pieces of plastic that have broken down from larger plastic items or are manufactured at small sizes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-steadily-increasing-in-freshwater-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastics</a> are generally defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 millimeters, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanoplastics-can-alter-the-course-of-antibiotics-within-our-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanoplastics</a> are even smaller, typically less than 100 nanometers. 



You can find them in everyday products like cosmetics, cleaning supplies, and synthetic clothing, as well as from the degradation of larger plastic debris in the environment. 



These minuscule plastics are everywhere -- from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-the-tissue-and-skeletons-of-corals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deepest oceans</a> to the highest mountains -- because they’re so small and lightweight that they easily spread through air, water, and soil.



These tiny particles can be ingested by marine life, birds, and even humans, potentially causing physical harm or introducing harmful chemicals into the food chain. 



In ecosystems, they can disrupt habitats and harm organisms that mistake them for food. For humans, there’s ongoing research into the different ways these plastics <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-every-semen-sample-tested/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">affect our health</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-the-plastic-pitfall">Overcoming the plastic pitfall</h2>



Ironically, it is the durability of plastic that is its most desirable feature but this also causes its most significant environmental issue.



Plastics linger in the environment for centuries, wreaking havoc on ecosystems, particularly in the ocean. Traditional plastics, which are non-biodegradable, gradually fragment and contribute enormously to environmental harm.



The current biodegradable counterparts like polylactic acid (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodegradable-plastic-materials-do-not-biodegrade-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLA</a>), while a step forward, remain water insoluble, and fail to degrade in the ocean.



The result is the accumulation of harmful microplastics in our oceans, that threaten <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-found-in-every-aquatic-species-tested/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquatic life</a> and infiltrate our food chains.



Recognizing these challenges, Aida and his team ventured into the realm of supramolecular plastics. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastics-may-live-an-immortal-life-thanks-to-new-techniques/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polymers</a>, with structures held together by reversible interactions, provided a new avenue for exploration.



By combining two ionic monomers, the researchers created a new type of plastic that displays both strength and flexibility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-plastic-material-in-ocean">New plastic material in ocean</h2>



The initial tests used sodium hexametaphosphate, a common food additive, and different guanidinium ion-based monomers. 



Since both monomers can be metabolized by bacteria, the plastic biodegrades once dissolved into its components.



The team found that the key to the stability of these plastics lies in the use of cross-linked salt bridges. The bonds in the plastics are not weak but rather strong and stable.



The critical discovery was creating cross links that are irreversible - unless exposed to electrolytes like those found in seawater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creation-of-new-plastics">Creation of new plastics</h2>



After mixing the two monomers in water, the team noticed two separate liquids. One was thick and viscous, containing the necessary cross-linked salt bridges, while the other was watery with salt ions.



The 'desalting' process became a critical step as, without it, the resulting material was a brittle crystal that was unusable as a plastic.



These plastics exhibit an array of desirable characteristics such as non-toxicity, non-flammability, and the capacity to reshape at temperatures above 120°C, similar to other thermoplastics.



Different types of guanidinium sulfates yielded plastics of varying hardnesses and tensile strengths, comparable or even superior to conventional plastics. 



The versatility of the plastic suggests that it can be customized according to necessity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-ocean-friendly-plastics">Future of ocean-friendly plastics</h2>



The researchers also tested the new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/upcycling-plastic-waste-into-valuable-products/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic's recyclability</a> and biodegradability. Astonishingly, they were able to recover 91% hexametaphosphate and 82% guanidinium after dissolving the plastic in salt water.



Soil tests revealed complete degradation of the new plastic over ten days, even proving beneficial by supplying the soil with phosphorous and nitrogen, akin to a fertilizer effect.



“With this new material, we have created a new family of plastics that are strong, stable, recyclable, can serve multiple functions and, importantly, do not generate microplastics,” said Aida.



This powerful innovation exemplifies the possibilities of combining science, ingenuity, and a commitment to sustainability. With these ocean-friendly plastics, we are one step closer to a cleaner, healthier, and more sustainable world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-lab-to-the-real-world">From the lab to the real world</h2>



While this breakthrough from <a href="https://www.riken.jp/en/research/labs/cems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science</a> is exciting, moving it from the lab to real-world use is no small task.



Scaling up production will require fine-tuning the manufacturing process to ensure it's both cost-effective and practical for widespread adoption. 



One critical hurdle is how to optimize the desalting step, which plays a vital role in creating the plastic’s unique properties, without driving up production costs. This innovation is a small but significant step toward tackling the massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-pollution-has-become-a-global-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic problem</a>.



It offers a glimpse of what’s possible when cutting-edge science and environmental responsibility come together. 



While challenges remain, this new plastic material could pave the way for a cleaner, healthier world of oceans.



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New type of plastic is recyclable and fully dissolves in ocean water

In the pursuit of a more sustainable future, the scientific...

Cold sores are annoying, unwanted, and often catch us off-guard, but new research suggests these small nuisances could be an unexpected caution flag for a much scarier health concern - dementia.



Researchers in Sweden have unearthed a link between cold sores and a heightened risk of developing the memory-stealing ailment.



In a long-term study that followed over a thousand elderly individuals for 15 years, a worrying pattern emerged.



The participants who had endured an infection by HSV-1, the pesky herpes virus that causes cold sores, were twice as likely to fall prey to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dementia-was-extremely-rare-in-ancient-times-so-why-is-it-now-so-prevalent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a>.



Even though the team couldn't pinpoint a concrete reason for this alarming correlation, they theorized it might lie with the virus's insidious behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-sores-harbingers-of-inflammation">Cold sores: harbingers of inflammation?</h2>



Once inside your body, the herpes virus (HSV-1) makes its home in the nerve cells - indefinitely. It gives rise to intermittent flare-ups, which could trigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-mild-inflammation-can-majorly-damage-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inflammation</a> within the nervous system.



This inflammation may stress and harm the delicate tissue within your nervous system and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-impacts-the-brain-through-inflammation-not-infection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>. 



Over time, the resulting damage might potentially set the stage for symptoms associated with dementia, like confusion, memory impairment, and gradual breakdown of brain tissue.



This new understanding adds another layer of complexity to the ongoing investigation regarding the link between common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-have-eyes-and-ears-on-their-hosts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> and an increased risk of dementia in later life.



In fact, researchers have also implicated the varicella-zoster virus, the culprit behind ailments like chickenpox and shingles, in affecting brain health. 



However, the evidence does not point unequivocally towards a positive correlation in this case, and some studies have refuted any link between these viruses and cognitive decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hsv-1-and-us-an-unwanted-relationship">HSV-1 and us: an unwanted relationship?</h2>



According to data from Johns Hopkins University, the HSV-1 virus affects between 50 and 80 percent of American adults.



Although closely related, this virus is distinct from HSV-2, the pathogen involved in sexually transmitted herpes. 



HSV-1 primarily spreads through intimate contact such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bizarre-history-of-kissing-it-wasnt-always-romantic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kissing</a> or oral sex, and can even pass from mother to child in the womb, potentially causing serious side effects in children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hsv-1-a-manageable-menace">HSV-1: a manageable menace?</h2>



Once infected, the symptoms can be mild and manageable. 



Usual initial signs include a fever, swollen lymph nodes, a sore throat, and sores on the mouth and gums.



After the first flare-up, symptoms can disappear entirely, only to reappear periodically as a red, ulcerous sore on the mouth or lip. 



In such instances, doctors usually prescribe antiviral medication or suggest over-the-counter painkillers to alleviate the discomfort and manage inflammation.



For the longest time, we were under the impression that these unsightly cold sores were the only lingering effects of HSV-1, but recent years have brought a more sinister link to light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-swedish-study-cold-sores-and-dementia-risk">The Swedish study: cold sores and dementia risk</h2>



The team of researchers who brought this potential link to our attention hail from <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a> and published their findings in the Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease in December 2023.



Their rigorous study followed 1,002 Swedes, of which 80 percent carried HSV-1, over a 15-year span. 



By the end of the study, 32 subjects had developed Alzheimer's disease and 63 percent developed some form of dementia - representing 11 percent of the participants in total.



The majority of these individuals, about 89 percent, had herpes.



Even though the team took into account factors like education and genetic predisposition to Alzheimer's, they were unable to adjust for the effect of age or the potential impact of other health concerns like heart disease and diabetes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-two-studies">A tale of two studies</h2>



The Uppsala study is not the first to explore the relationship between herpes and dementia. 



A 2024 study from South Korea involving over 750,000 participants also found that those with HSV and the varicella-zoster virus were more likely to develop dementia.



However, a 2019 review from several UK universities found the link between dementia and HSV-1 inconclusive, and it failed to establish a strong association.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-verdict">The verdict</h2>



Dr Jagan PillaI from the Cleveland Clinic believes the studies are not convincing enough to conclude that herpes could cause dementia. 



Regarding the 2019 UK study, he suggests that we need better quality studies in future.



Along the same lines, Dr Monica Gandhi, an infectious disease specialist at UC San Francisco, points out that herpes infection rates are significantly higher than dementia rates, casting doubt on a potential connection.



"Given how common herpes virus infection is [in] young people, I would not let this study concern you too much," she states, reassuringly. 



While the link between cold sores and dementia remains tenuous, what is certain is that more comprehensive and high-quality studies are needed. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad230718" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Alzheimer's Disease</a>.



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Cold sores and dementia: The unexpected connection

Cold sores are annoying, unwanted, and often catch us off-guard,...

Is America losing its battle against obesity? According to recent data, around 72-75% of U.S. adults are either overweight or obese. 



The harsh reality is that approximately 86 million people struggle to maintain a healthy body mass index (BMI) of under 25.



This alarming statistic, as described by the researchers in a new study, is nothing short of an "epidemic."



The findings highlight how these trends have become steadily worse over decades, signaling a persistent public health crisis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-obesity-rates-in-america">Obesity rates in America</h2>



Despite this bleak prognosis, there may still be a silver lining in sight. Separate research conducted by the CDC hints towards a possible decline in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-obesity-rates-spiked-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity rates</a>, referred to as the "Ozempic effect."



The CDC's national survey, spanning from 2021 to 2023, provides a glimpse into the most recent health trends and shines a ray of hope that mitigates some of the concern arising from the raw data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-invisible-threat">The invisible threat</h2>



Why is there this large-scale concern over obesity? The answer lies in the myriad <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-now-affects-more-than-a-billion-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health issues</a> that come part and parcel with being overweight, such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer.



Moreover, the burden of obesity extends beyond the individual, as healthcare costs related to obesity totaled a staggering $481 billion in 2016. 



The mounting costs and the rising tide of obesity are fueled by several factors, including the accessibility and affordability of healthy, fresh food and the consumer's choice to eat processed foods that are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-average-american-consumes-80-pounds-of-sugar-per-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high in sugar</a> and fat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-failure-to-tackle-the-epidemic">Failure to tackle the epidemic </h2>



This comprehensive study on obesity rates in America was published recently in the journal The Lancet. The experts collated data from 134 sources that dated from 1980 to 2021.



The research was conducted by a team of over 100 scientists from international organizations, forming a group known as the GBD 2021 U.S. Obesity Forecasting Collaborators.



The CDC's surveys, Gallup polls and long-term studies, like Women's Health Across the Nation, were all part of the rich mosaic of data sources used to curate this extensive research material.



Study lead author Professor Emmanuela Gakidou is an expert in the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>.  



“Our analysis lays bare the decades-long failure to tackle the growing overweight and obesity epidemic in the USA," said Professor Gakidou.



"The catastrophic consequences of the surge in overweight and obesity among children are already evident in the rising prevalence of childhood hypertension and type 2 diabetes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-obesity-in-america">Future of obesity in America</h2>



The research team devised maps depicting areas of obesity prevalence from 1990 to 2021, after segregating data by age and gender. 



The experts further extrapolated these trends and built a model to predict scenarios for the next 25 years.



The model predicts that, by 2050, there will be 43.1 million obese or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/being-overweight-makes-it-harder-for-brain-to-resist-unhealthy-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overweight</a> children and adolescents, and 213 million obese or overweight adults. 



This translates to one in three adolescents and two in three adults who will be grappling with obesity.



The most concerning revelation was the increasing trend of obesity among children. 



According to research from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a>, children struggling with their weight are more likely to develop health issues like diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, and psychological problems.



They also have a higher risk of dying young compared to children of average weight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-pop-culture">Role of pop culture</h2>



Modern pop culture has played a pivotal role in shaping perceptions about food intake and obesity in America.



Muk-bang creators like Nicholas Perry, better known by his username Nikocado Avocado, share videos of themselves binging on massive amounts of food, consuming more than 10,000 calories in a single sitting. 



These motivations are predominantly monetary, with Perry amassing 150 pounds and a net worth of $2 million over seven years as a food creator.



However, this trend is not without its casualties. The grim reality of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/binge-eating-linked-to-a-specific-set-of-brain-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">binge eating</a> was highlighted by the tragic death of TikToker Brittany Sauer, who felt she had "ruined her life" with binge eating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-institutional-change">Call for institutional change</h2>



While there have been recent strides made in weight loss - especially with more people turning to GLP-1 inhibitors like Ozempic - experts suggest that institutional change is necessary to curb obesity in America.



Changes could include everything from widening insurance coverage for weight loss procedures to tightening regulations on sugar and fat content in consumer products, and even making healthy options more affordable.



Public health campaigns focusing on education and awareness are also critical to empowering individuals to make healthier lifestyle choices.



"Without major reform, the forecasted trends will be devastating at the individual and population level, and the associated disease burden and economic costs will continue to escalate," concluded the researchers.



The full study is published in <a href="https://www.healthdata.org/news-events/newsroom/news-releases/lancet-without-immediate-action-nearly-260-million-people-usa#:~:text=Continuation%20of%20these%20trends%20would,%25%20to%2082.1">The Lancet</a>.



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75% of U.S. adults are overweight in what doctors are now calling "an epidemic"

Is America losing its battle against obesity? According to recent...

Once purely the stuff of science fiction, we are steadily realizing that our primate cousins, the chimpanzees, have been quietly upgrading their technology tools. 



They have been doing so for thousands of years, and it seems their progress is fueled by the exchange of ideas through migrations among different populations. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-art-of-tool-use-in-chimpanzees">Art of tool use in chimpanzees</h2>



While chimpanzees might not develop smartphones or launch spaceships anytime soon, they have been exhibiting an intriguing trend. 



Gradually, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-cultures-are-more-complex-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimps</a> are enhancing their tool-using prowess, a process that has transpired over epochs - quite similar to us humans. 



In fact, the study proposes the idea that our distant ape ancestors also utilized the power of social networks to better their technologies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-amazing-chimpanzee-realm">The amazing chimpanzee realm</h2>



The scientists were enthralled by the observation that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-feel-the-pressure-to-perform-with-an-audience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimps</a> have a knack for performing complex tasks such as tool use and then passing these skills onto the next generation. Now, that's quite a feat for a creature that many still consider to be "less evolved."



But here's the twist. Despite us humans progressing from stone tools to space shuttles, the chimp "culture" - defined as socially learned behaviors - appeared somewhat stuck in time.



And this is precisely what Cassandra Gunasekaram, a doctoral student at the University of Zurich, decided to question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-use-connections-to-upgrade-tools">Chimpanzees use connections to upgrade tools</h2>



The researchers combined genetic data from historic chimpanzee migrations across Africa with observations of 15 unique foraging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-rapid-gestures-in-conversations-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> across various populations and sub-groups.



The behaviors were segmented into three categories: those requiring no tools, those needing simple tools, and those involving complex toolsets.



The researchers were particularly impressed by the Congo chimps' remarkable toolset use, where they utilized a sturdy stick to bore a tunnel into the ground to reach termite nests. 



Then, with a plant stem modified into a brush by chewing, they would "fish" for termites in the tunnel they created.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-catalysts-for-enhanced-tool-use">Catalysts for enhanced tool use</h2>



The study unveiled that advanced tool use was significantly linked to populations connected by genetic exchanges over the last 5,000–15,000 years. 



This stirred the idea that such behaviors proliferated when groups interacted. The most complex tool use was observed where three subspecies overlapped, demonstrating how inter-group relations enrich cultural knowledge.



On the other hand, simpler behaviors, such as foraging without tools, appear less associated with migration and likely evolved autonomously in different regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-chimpanzees-and-tool-evolution">Humans, chimpanzees, and tool evolution</h2>



Gunasekaram hammers home how this mirrors our own species' journey wherein the exchange of ideas and incremental innovation have been pivotal to our technological leaps - right from the humble abacus to the modern smartphone.



"They've become so complex that one person alone could not reinvent them from scratch," Gunasekaram said.



Yet, unlike humans, chimps have sparse chances to meet new individuals and ideas. This is mainly because migrations unfold slowly, propelled by sexually mature females relocating to new communities to evade inbreeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-the-challenges">Overcoming the challenges</h2>



Turning to ancient genetic flows analysis helped the research team tackle one of the largest hurdles in studying the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-continue-learning-as-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzee</a> culture: the limited observation window. 



This historical data was important considering that we have been scientifically studying the species for only around a century.



Moreover, as Gunasekaram pinpointed, chimpanzee tools consist of perishable materials like sticks and stems, making it nearly impossible to track how their artifacts have evolved over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-chimpanzee-culture">Future of chimpanzee culture</h2>



So, are we anticipating chimps matching human ingenuity? Highly unlikely. But given enough time, they could potentially become more efficient foragers.



Already, some populations show advancements in cracking nuts with stone-made hammers and anvils. One group has even invented a stabilizer for the anvil, according to Gunasekaram.



Indeed, this research reveals that chimpanzees' tool-using capabilities embody a form of "culture" - one that is dynamic, adaptable, and, most importantly, unique to separate communities.



Who knows what other surprises our primate counterparts might have in store as they continue to evolve through the ebbs and flows of time?



The study titled "Population connectivity shapes the distribution and complexity of chimpanzee cumulative culture" is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk3381" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Chimpanzees are constantly mastering new tools

Once purely the stuff of science fiction, we are steadily...

In the midst of our busy lives, those seemingly insignificant everyday experiences - like booking a flight home for Thanksgiving or writing a thank-you note - may feel less meaningful.



But according to Erin Westgate, assistant professor of psychology at the University of Florida, these experiences carry more value than we attribute them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purpose-behind-the-research">Purpose behind the research</h2>



Alongside her team at the <a href="https://socialcognition.psych.ufl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Social Cognition and Emotion Lab</a>, Westgate recently secured a grant from the National Science Foundation.



The researchers intended to examine why people underestimate the significance of future life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiences</a>. The spark for this exploration ignited during Westgate's school days.



“This started a long time ago when I was in grad school where I was talking to another student who asked me if we know how meaningful events will be in the future,” Westgate said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meaningful-experience-of-thanksgiving">Meaningful experience of Thanksgiving</h2>



The question prompted an interesting study involving <a href="https://www.virginia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Virginia</a> undergraduates. The students were asked about their expectations of the upcoming Thanksgiving holiday's meaningfulness and their thoughts afterward. 



“Surely people know how significant Thanksgiving will be, right? It’s the poster child for gratitude and meaning,” Westgate said.



Much to Westgate's surprise, the students extensively misjudged their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-likes-have-a-strong-emotional-effect-on-young-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feelings</a> about the holiday.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-out-on-meaningful-experiences">Missing out on meaningful experiences </h2>



Fast forward to the pandemic-ridden 2020. Westgate revisited her initial findings, asking, “We found it once, but can we find it again?”



With a larger sample of University of Florida undergraduates, the results echoed the first study. People chronically underestimated the value of their Thanksgiving holiday.



“We want to live meaningful lives, we want to do meaningful things and so if we are not realizing that an experience is going to be meaningful, we may be less likely to do it and miss out on these potential sources of meaning in our own lives,” Westgate said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decision-factors-in-meaningful-experiences">Decision factors in meaningful experiences</h2>



The research indicated a key factor in decision-making - anticipated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-emotions-linked-to-unique-brain-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feelings</a>.



Whether it's a life-altering decision like a career choice or a family start, or a minor one like attending a holiday event, our decisions lean towards promoting a sense of purpose and fulfillment.



Over the course of a three-year study, Westgate aims to condense the reasons behind our underestimation of experiences - from our career choices to the seemingly mundane task of writing thank-you notes.



The research considers both positive and negative experiences, including the acceptance or rejection of medical school applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-sense-of-events">Making sense of events</h2>



The study also explores personal growth experiences that entail discomfort, leading to avoiding certain decisions out of fear.



Still, these very decisions could play an instrumental role in developing resilience and yielding deep satisfaction.



“We don’t make sense of events until they actually happen. We don’t process events until we need to, when they actually happen and not before,” said Westgate. Jumping the gun might lead us to underestimate the potential meaning of certain events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-solutions-for-underestimation">Seeking solutions for underestimation</h2>



The research aims to go beyond merely identifying problems; it seeks actionable solutions. Many of us often overlook the true value of meaningful experiences. 



This oversight can lead to a less fulfilling life, as we fail to appreciate the depth and significance of our everyday moments. By delving into the reasons behind this underestimation, Westgate’s work strives to illuminate the cognitive biases and misconceptions that cloud our perception of meaning.



Understanding the root of these misconceptions is crucial. It involves exploring psychological patterns and societal influences that lead individuals to undervalue their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotional-intelligence-may-be-secret-to-academic-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiences</a>. 



By identifying these patterns, the research can offer strategies to shift our perspectives and encourage a deeper appreciation of our lives. This shift could not only enhance individual well-being but also promote a more profound connection with others and the world around us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harnessing-meaningful-experiences-in-daily-life">Harnessing meaningful experiences in daily life</h2>



The findings suggest that by becoming more aware of our tendency to underestimate the meaningfulness of experiences, individuals can purposefully cultivate more fulfilling daily lives.



Simple changes, such as being more present in the moment, keeping a gratitude journal, or actively reflecting on past experiences, can enhance appreciation for life's ordinary events. 



These practices can help individuals recognize the intrinsic value in seemingly minor experiences, thereby enriching personal happiness and well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-psychological-interventions">Implications for psychological interventions</h2>



The research carries significant implications for psychological interventions aiming to promote mental well-being. Interventions could focus on enhancing awareness of meaningful experiences and encouraging individuals to engage in activities that nurture a sense of purpose.



By integrating these insights into therapy and counseling, mental health practitioners can better support clients in recognizing and capitalizing on the meaningful dimensions of their lives, potentially improving mental resilience and overall life satisfaction.



“Sometimes we go into a project, and we know what we are going to find. This is one of those projects that surprised us,” concluded Westgate.



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We often undervalue the most meaningful experiences in life

In the midst of our busy lives, those seemingly insignificant...

Diamond rain and super-ionic water are among the more dramatic theories proposed to explain the mysterious interiors of Uranus and Neptune, the ice giants of our solar system.&nbsp;



However, a planetary scientist from the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, has introduced a compelling alternative: the interiors of these planets are layered, with materials separating like oil and water.&nbsp;



This separation could explain the planets' unusual magnetic fields and challenges earlier theories about their interiors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-layered-model-for-the-ice-giants">A layered model for the ice giants</h2>



In a paper published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2403981121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, Burkhard Militzer, a professor of earth and planetary science at UC Berkeley, suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decades-after-voyager-2-flew-by-uranus-we-finally-know-what-it-saw/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uranus</a> and Neptune have interiors composed of two distinct layers.&nbsp;



Beneath the planets’ thick hydrogen-and-helium atmospheres, a deep ocean of water-rich material lies above a highly compressed, hydrocarbon-rich fluid composed of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen.



Militzer's computer simulations show that under the extreme pressures and temperatures inside these planets, water (H₂O), methane (CH₄), and ammonia (NH₃) naturally separate. This separation occurs because hydrogen is squeezed out of methane and ammonia, leading to the formation of immiscible layers.



“We now have, I would say, a good theory why Uranus and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-new-moons-discovered-around-neptune-and-uranus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neptune</a> have really different fields, and it's very different from Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn,” Militzer explained. “It's like oil and water, except the hydrogen-rich layer goes on top, and the heavier material stays below.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-fields-and-convection">Magnetic fields and convection</h2>



The theory provides a potential explanation for the irregular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> of Uranus and Neptune, which were discovered by NASA's Voyager 2 mission in the 1980s.&nbsp;



Unlike Earth’s strong, dipolar magnetic field - which results from convection in the planet's liquid outer core - Uranus and Neptune have disorganized magnetic fields.



Convection, a process where hot material rises and cooler material sinks, generates magnetic fields in planetary interiors. For Uranus and Neptune, the lack of a large-scale, convecting layer in their interiors suggests that the materials within are layered and do not mix.



In Militzer's model, the upper water-rich layer likely convects, creating the observed disorganized magnetic field, while the deeper, hydrocarbon-rich layer remains stable and stratified, preventing global convection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-conditions-of-uranus-and-neptune">Extreme conditions of Uranus and Neptune </h2>



Militzer’s breakthrough came after a decade of research. Ten years ago, he used computer models with 100 atoms to simulate the behavior of elements in the planets’ interiors but could not replicate the formation of layers.



Last year, leveraging machine learning and more powerful computing tools, he increased the number of atoms in his model to 540.&nbsp;



This allowed him to simulate the behavior of materials under the extreme pressures and temperatures inside Uranus and Neptune - up to 3.4 million times Earth's atmospheric pressure and temperatures around 4,750 Kelvin (8,000°F).



“One day, I looked at the model, and the water had separated from the carbon and nitrogen,” Militzer said. “What I couldn't do 10 years ago was now happening.”



The model revealed that as pressure increases with depth, hydrogen is squeezed out, forming a stable layer of carbon-nitrogen-hydrogen material, almost like a plastic polymer. This hydrocarbon-rich layer lies beneath the convecting, water-rich layer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gravity-fields-measured-by-voyager-2-nbsp">Gravity fields measured by Voyager 2&nbsp;</h2>



When Militzer modeled the gravitational effects of a layered Uranus and Neptune, the results matched the gravity fields measured by Voyager 2 nearly 40 years ago.&nbsp;



His model predicts that below Uranus’ 3,000-mile-thick atmosphere lies a water-rich layer about 5,000 miles thick.&nbsp;



Beneath this layer is a hydrocarbon-rich layer of similar thickness, with a rocky core about the size of Mercury. Neptune, though more massive than Uranus, has a thinner atmosphere but similar water-rich and hydrocarbon-rich layers. Its rocky core is slightly larger, approximately the size of Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-exoplanets">Implications for exoplanets</h2>



If Militzer's theory is correct, it has implications beyond our solar system.&nbsp;



Planets similar in size to Uranus and Neptune, often referred to as sub-Neptune <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neptune-like-exoplanets-atmospheres-interesting-earth-size-neighbors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a>, are among the most common types of planets discovered around other stars. These exoplanets may also have layered interiors with distinct chemical compositions and magnetic fields.



“If other star systems have similar compositions to ours, ice giants around those stars could well have similar internal structures,” Militzer noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-interiors-of-uranus-and-neptune">The interiors of Uranus and Neptune </h2>



Militzer hopes to collaborate with experimental physicists to recreate the extreme conditions of Uranus and Neptune’s interiors in laboratory settings.&nbsp;



By testing the behavior of fluids with elemental proportions found in the protosolar system, researchers could verify whether immiscible layers naturally form.



Future space missions may also provide definitive proof. A proposed NASA mission to Uranus could include a Doppler imager to measure planetary vibrations.&nbsp;



According to Militzer, a layered planet would vibrate at different frequencies than one with a fully convecting interior. His next project involves calculating these vibrations using his computational model.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-peculiarities-of-uranus-and-neptune">The peculiarities of Uranus and Neptune </h2>



Militzer's findings challenge popular theories about Uranus and Neptune, such as the idea of diamond rain in the planets’ interiors or the exotic properties of super-ionic water.



“If you ask my colleagues, 'What do you think explains the fields of Uranus and Neptune?' they may say, ‘Well, maybe it's this diamond rain, but maybe it's this water property which we call super-ionic,’” Militzer said.&nbsp;



“From my perspective, this is not plausible. But if we have this separation into two separate layers, that should explain it.”



Militzer's layered model offers a comprehensive explanation for the peculiarities of Uranus and Neptune, from their magnetic fields to their gravitational signatures.&nbsp;



By identifying the separation of water-rich and hydrocarbon-rich layers as the key factor, the study advances our understanding of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-ice-giant-uranus-in-stunning-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice giants</a> and opens new possibilities for exploring planetary interiors.



Future laboratory experiments and space missions could confirm these findings, not only shedding light on the mysteries of Uranus and Neptune but also providing insights into the structure of similar planets across the galaxy.



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What lies beneath the surface of Uranus and Neptune?

Diamond rain and super-ionic water are among the more dramatic...

Date	Citation Page	Title
06/02/1970	35 FR 8491 8498	Part 17 - Conservation of Endangered Species and Other Fish or Wildlife (First List of Endangered Foreign Fish and Wildlife as Appendix A)
04/14/1970	35 FR 6069	Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (Endangered Species Conservation); 35 FR 6069