Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S.<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/"> Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Acaena exigua is an extinct species of flowering plant in the rose family known by the common name liliwai. It was endemic to Hawaii, where it was known from Kauaʻi and west Maui. It had not been seen or collected since 1957 and was feared extinct until 1997, when one plant was discovered in a remote montane bog on <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=maui&amp;cvid=11f593b142284a109c4b71b63cd85874&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Maui</a>. The plant died in 2000, and the species is now considered extinct.Acaena exigua A. Gray var. subtusstrigulosa Bitter: Classification. Click on a scientific name below to expand it in the PLANTS Classification Report. Rank Scientific Name and Common Name; Kingdom: Plantae – Plants Subkingdom: Tracheobionta

Acaena exigua

Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Astragalus lentiginosus var. coachellae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Astragalus lentiginosus is a species of legume known by the common names spotted locoweed and freckled milkvetch. It is native to western <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=9d9a0a4c5dff44d78078fc35d7f1dc5d&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a>, where it grows in many habitat types. There are a great number of wild varieties of this species, and they vary in appearance. The flower and the fruit of a given individual are generally needed to identify it down to the variety.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. member of the Fabaceae (pea family), is an annual or short-lived perennial endemic to the Coachella Valley, Riverside County in the southern California portion of the western Sonoran desert. Astragalus lentiginosus var. coachellae is strongly affiliated with active, stabilized, and shielded sandy substrates

Astragalus lentiginosus var. coachellae

Astragalus lentiginosus var. coachellae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Astragalus lentiginosus var. piscinensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Astragalus lentiginosus var. piscinensis ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a2805716fa254ddab0ac2db53248d72d&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.Geographic subdivisions for Astragalus lentiginosus var. piscinensis: c SNE (near Bishop, Mono, Inyo cos.). MAP CONTROLS 1. You can change the display of the base map and layers by clicking on the layer.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Astragalus lentiginosus is a species of legume known by the common names spotted locoweed and freckled milkvetch. It is native to western North America, where it grows in many habitat types. There are a great number of wild varieties of this species, and they vary in appearance. The flower and the fruit of a given individual are generally needed to identify it down to the variety.

Astragalus lentiginosus var. piscinensis

Astragalus lentiginosus var. piscinensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Astragalus magdalenae var. peirsonii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Astragalus magdalenae var. peirsonii ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=dfd2e924f46c415f803e08b528f071fd&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.Astragalus is a large genus of over 3,000 species  of <a title="Herb" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb">herbs</a> and small <a title="Shrub" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrub">shrubs</a>, belonging to the <a title="Legume" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legume">legume</a> family <a title="Fabaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabaceae">Fabaceae</a> and the <a title="Subfamily" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subfamily">subfamily</a> <a title="Faboideae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faboideae">Faboideae</a>. It is the <a title="List of the largest genera of flowering plants" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_largest_genera_of_flowering_plants">largest genus of plants in terms of described species</a>. The genus is native to temperate regions of the <a title="Northern Hemisphere" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a>. Common names include milkvetch (most species), <a title="Locoweed" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locoweed">locoweed</a> (in North America, some species)  and goat's-thorn (<a title="Astragalus gummifer" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astragalus_gummifer">A. gummifer</a>, <a title="Astragalus tragacantha" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astragalus_tragacantha">A. tragacantha</a>). Some pale-flowered vetches (<a title="Vicia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicia">Vicia</a> spp.) are similar in appearance, but they are more <a title="Vine" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vine">vine</a>-like than Astragalus.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Astragalus magdalenae var. peirsonii

Astragalus magdalenae var. peirsonii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Astragalus montii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=487d8c488f1e41ef8e8d73ea0fa7c961&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports --Astragalus montii  ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Astragalus montii is a rare species of flowering plant in the legume family known by the common name heliotrope milkvetch. It is endemic to <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=utah&amp;cvid=450ec5cbd19149e4bdf5802c233ced29&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Utah</a> in the United States, where there are only three known populations. It is a federally listed threatened species of the United States. This species is often treated as a variety of Astragalus limnocharis.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Plant Symbol = ASLIM Contributed by: USDA NRCS Idaho and Utah Plant Materials Program . Heliotrope milkvetch (Astragalus limnocharis . var. montii). Photo by Duane Atwood. Uses . There are no known human uses of heliotrope milkvetch. Sheep are known to graze the leaves and stems. Status.

Astragalus montii

Astragalus montii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Astragalus osterhoutii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=7ce226872fd5423db5919ad118aada0d&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

Astragalus osterhoutii is a rare species of milkvetch known by the common name Osterhout milkvetch. It is endemic to Grand County, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=colorado&amp;cvid=de8095f429bf47e798564111f755ab72&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Colorado,</a> where it is known from a few populations in Middle Park, a mountain basin. There are five or six occurrences. It is a federally listed endangered species.This plant has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists.

ITIS Reports -- Astragalus osterhoutii ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=beeaa33b3541445b80dc1a31712d1f93&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

<main aria-label="Search Results">
<div class="b_caption"></div>
<div class="b_caption">

Your guide to gardening in North America and beyond. From what plants to grow and how to grow them, join our society to read the latest Rock Garden Quarterly or engage in our annual Seed Exchange. We promote the cultivation, conservation, and knowledge of rock garden plants, their value, habits and geographical distribution. This includes woodland and alpines as well as desert, bog and steppe ...

</div>
</main>FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Astragalus osterhoutii

Astragalus osterhoutii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Astragalus phoenix NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/plants-cannot-keep-up-with-rising-co2-levels/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Astragalus phoenix ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a2805716fa254ddab0ac2db53248d72d&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

The plant is locally <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ash_Meadows_National_Wildlife_Refuge">Ash Meadows</a>, a desert <a title="Oasis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oasis">oasis</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Wildlife refuge" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_refuge">wildlife refuge</a> in the <a title="Amargosa Desert" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amargosa_Desert">Amargosa Desert</a>.

The habitat is made up of stark, white <a class="mw-redirect" title="Sink (geography)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sink_(geography)">flats</a> and <a title="Arroyo (creek)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arroyo_(creek)">washes</a> in a <a title="Wetland" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland">wetland</a> area that is fed by seeps and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Spring (hydrosphere)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)">springs</a> and undergoes <a title="Evaporation" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation">evaporation</a>, leaving behind a hard mineral crust on the land.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astragalus_phoenix#cite_note-tnc-1">[1]</a>

The plant grows in undisturbed areas of the crust. It can be found at about 13 sites in a seven-by-three-mile range.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astragalus_phoenix#cite_note-tnc-1">[1]</a>

It is one of several rare plants and animals endemic to the Ash Meadows—<a title="Amargosa Valley" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amargosa_Valley">Amargosa Valley</a> area. Other plants occurring in the area include <a title="Distichlis spicata" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distichlis_spicata">saltgrass</a> (Distichlis spicata), <a title="Atriplex confertifolia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atriplex_confertifolia">shadscale</a> (Atriplex confertifolia), and <a title="Isocoma acradenia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isocoma_acradenia">alkali goldenbush</a>

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Astragalus phoenix

Astragalus phoenix NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Astragalus pycnostachyus var. lanosissimus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Astragalus pycnostachyus var. lanosissimus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=84f1e8e9658b4caea7e69e7c7dff2555&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i59j0j69i60l3.1774j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Astragalus pycnostachyus var. lanosissimus

Astragalus pycnostachyus var. lanosissimus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Astragalus robbinsii var. jesupi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=animals&amp;cvid=6caf827153ad4fffa27c8d2fea6c064d&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">animals</a> and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=43d7a64fc0044595b1795367ad1d7d7a&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Jesup's milk-vetch, Astragalus robbinsii var. jesupi, is a perennial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-weeds-resistant-herbicides/">herb</a> with featherlike compound leaves; each oblong or elliptical leaflet is only 0.4-0.8 in (1-2 cm long. Several slightly hairy stems, 8-24 in (20-60 cm) tall, grow from a woody rhizome.

Violet to bluish-purple flowers appear in late May or early June. The fruit is a flattened tapered pod. The form of the pod is important in differentiating among the three <a class="interlinked" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/places/united-states-and-canada/miscellaneous-us-geography/new-england">New England</a> varieties of A. robbinsii. Of the other varieties, A. robbinsii var. robbinsii is now extinct, and var. minor is very rare in <a class="interlinked" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/places/united-states-and-canada/miscellaneous-us-geography/new-england">New England</a>.Jesup's milk-vetch prefers rocky bluffs along river banks, where it roots securely in silt-filled cracks of calcareous bedrock outcrops. Spring flooding annually scours the rock surfaces, ridding the milk-vetch of its competitor plants and depositing fertile soil. Shade provided by the mature hard-wood trees along the river bank is an important factor in the plant's survival.

Astragalus robbinsii var. jesupi

Astragalus robbinsii var. jesupi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Astragalus tener var. titi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/"> Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Astragalus tener var. titi ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.This is an annual herb producing upright stems up to 30 cm (12 in) tall. The leaves are up to 9 cm (3.5 in) in length and made up of several lance-shaped to oval leaflets. The <a title="Inflorescence" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> is a dense cluster of pinkish-purple white-smudged flowers. The fruit is a narrow <a title="Legume" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legume">legume</a> pod up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long and usually containing two smooth seeds.Astragalus tener is a species of <a title="Astragalus" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astragalus">milkvetch</a> known by the common name alkali milkvetch. It is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California">California</a>, where it grows in both coastal and inland areas such as the <a title="Central Valley (California)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Valley_(California)">Central Valley</a>, especially in moist places.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Astragalus tener var. titi

Astragalus tener var. titi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Astragalus tricarinatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=animals&amp;cvid=355ecbe7e67844368fb991be5452a786&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.It is <a title="" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California">California</a>, where it can be found in the region where the <a title="San Bernardino Mountains" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Bernardino_Mountains">San Bernardino Mountains</a> meet the <a title="Mojave Desert" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojave_Desert">Mojave Desert</a> and the <a title="Colorado Desert" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Desert">Colorado Desert</a>. It grows in desert scrub and expanses of rock litter amongst stands of <a title="Yucca brevifolia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yucca_brevifolia">Joshua trees</a>. The plant is known from only one location and there were twenty individuals remaining there in 1998, when it was federally listed as an <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a>.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

This is a perennial herb growing in clumps up to about 25 cm (9.8 in) tall. The leaves are up to 20 cm (7.9 in) long and made up of several silvery-green hairy leaflets. The <a title="Inflorescence" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> holds 5 to 15 cream-colored flowers each about 2 cm (0.79 in) in length.

The fruit is a flat <a title="Legume" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legume">legume</a> pod up to about 4 cm (1.6 in) long. The pod is curved and has three distinct ribs.

Astragalus tricarinatus

Astragalus tricarinatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Astrophytum asterias NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-butterflies-are-set-to-become-widespread-across-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a89f77701d234b96b3eaee1307656b94&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l4j69i60l3.1415j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Astrophytum asterias

Astrophytum asterias NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Atriplex coronata var. notatior NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Atriplex coronata var. notatior ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Atriplex coronata var. notatior Common Name: San Jacinto Valley crownscale Family: Chenopodiaceae Synonyms: Element Code: PDCHE040C2 Full Name: Atriplex coronata Wats. var. notatior Jeps. USDA PLANTS Symbol: ATCON 2001 Barry Du Bois Biology ; Lifeform: annual herb Blooming Period.

Atriplex coronata is an annual herb producing stiff erect or leaning straw-colored stems up to about 30 centimeters tall. The gray scaly leaves are one or two centimeters long.

The flowers are generally oval shaped. The seeds are just over a millimeter long.rownscale Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Atriplex coronata var. notatior

Atriplex coronata var. notatior NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Auerodendron pauciflorum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Auerodendron pauciflorum ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/plants-cannot-keep-up-with-rising-co2-levels/">plants</a>, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Auerodendron pauciflorum is a rare species of <a title="Flowering plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant">flowering plant</a> in the family <a title="Rhamnaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhamnaceae">Rhamnaceae</a>. One <a title="English language" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language">English language</a> common name is turtlefat. It is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Puerto Rico" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, where it is known from only one population in <a title="Isabela, Puerto Rico" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabela,_Puerto_Rico">Isabela</a>. At the time the plant was federally listed as an <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a> by the United States in 1994, only ten individual plants were known to exist. By 1997, there were 19 known specimens.

This <a title="Shrub" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrub">shrub</a> is native to the <a title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests">subtropical moist forests</a> on the <a title="Limestone" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone">limestone</a> hills in the northwestern corner of Puerto Rico. It was nearly eliminated due to several forces in its habitat. The land is privately owned and desirable for development with plans for construction of a <a title="Resort" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resort">resort</a> and <a title="Cell site" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_site">cell phone towers</a>. The hills are quarried for limestone and <a title="Deforestation" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation">deforestation</a> is ongoing.  The plant is already extremely rare, making it vulnerable to extinction from any one event. <a title="Vandalism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandalism">Vandalism</a> could significantly reduce the population

Auerodendron pauciflorum

Auerodendron pauciflorum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Ayenia limitaris NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Ayenia limitaris ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

This is a <a title="Shrub" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrub">shrub</a> growing up to 1.5 meters (5 feet) tall. The alternately arranged leaves have hairy heart-shaped blades with toothed edges. The small flowers have pinkish, greenish, or whitish petals. The fruit is a prickly capsule divided into five cells.

The plant's native habitat was made up of <a title="Subtropics" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtropics">subtropical</a> <a title="Riparian zone" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_zone">riparian</a> woodland covered in dense thickets in the <a title="Floodplain" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodplain">floodplains</a> of the Rio Grande <a title="River delta" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_delta">delta</a>. It is probably adapted to periodic <a title="Flood" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood">flooding</a> in the area, an event that is largely contained and prevented today. Only about 5% of the natural habitat, the Texas ebony-anacua (<a title="Ebenopsis ebano" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebenopsis_ebano">Ebenopsis ebano</a>/<a title="Ehretia anacua" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehretia_anacua">Ehretia anacua</a>) plant community, remains in this area. the rest has been <a title="Fence" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fence">fenced</a> and fragmented by <a title="Road" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road">roads</a>, <a title="Canal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal">canals</a>, and <a title="Ditch" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditch">ditches</a>, plowed for <a title="Agriculture" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture">agricultural</a> use, and compacted by herds of <a title="Cattle" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattle">cattle</a>. <a title="Introduced species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduced_species">Introduced plant species</a> such as <a title="Megathyrsus maximus" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megathyrsus_maximus">Guinea grass</a> (Megathyrsus maximus) have taken hold

Ayenia limitaris

Ayenia limitaris NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Baccharis vanessae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.Baccharis vanessae is a rare <a title="California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California">California</a> species of <a title="Baccharis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baccharis">baccharis</a> known by the common name Encinitas baccharis. It is native primarily to <a title="San Diego County, California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_County,_California">San Diego County, California</a>, almost <a class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic">endemic</a> to the county except for one population a few miles over the county line in <a class="mw-redirect" title="Riverside County" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverside_County">Riverside County</a>. It is a member of the <a title="Chaparral" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaparral">chaparral</a> flora. It is a federally listed threatened species. It is present in several sites in <a title="Encinitas, California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encinitas,_California">Encinitas</a>, and it is known from other parts of the county from the coastline to the mountains on various substrates. There are perhaps 15 populations remaining, for a total of about 2000 individuals.  Some of the remaining occurrences are on land which may be cleared for development

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Baccharis vanessae

Baccharis vanessae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Banara vanderbiltii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Banara vanderbiltii is a rare species of <a title="Plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant">plant</a> in the <a title="Salicaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salicaceae">willow family</a> known by the common name palo de ramon. It is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Puerto Rico" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, where there are fewer than 20 known individuals left in the wild. At the time it was listed as an <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a> of the United States in 1987, there were only six plants remaining.

This is an evergreen <a title="Shrub" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrub">shrub</a> which can grow up to 9 meters tall, bearing rough-textured hairy leaves up to 12 centimeters long by 4 wide. The flowers are yellow and have many <a title="Stamen" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamen">stamens</a>. The red-purple fruits provide food for birds, including the <a title="Bananaquit" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bananaquit">bananaquit</a> (Coereba flaveola) and the <a title="Western spindalis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_spindalis">western spindalis</a> (Spindalis zena).

The shrub grows in moist forests on <a title="Limestone" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone">limestone</a> substrates. Its habitat has been subject to <a title="Deforestation" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation">deforestation</a>, the main cause of its rarity. Land is cleared for <a title="Agriculture" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture">agriculture</a>, including <a title="Coffee" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee">coffee</a> <a title="Plantation" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantation">plantations</a>, and <a title="Livestock" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livestock">livestock</a> are <a title="Grazing" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grazing">grazed</a> in the area. <a title="Military exercise" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_exercise">Military exercises</a> have also occurred nearby, with sections of the forest being trampled.

The plant was known to occur near <a title="San Juan, Puerto Rico" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Juan,_Puerto_Rico">San Juan</a> long ago, but these occurrences have long since been <a title="Local extinction" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_extinction">extirpated</a> by urban development. It now occurs only in one area along the northwestern coast, with one tiny population located near <a title="Cayey, Puerto Rico" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayey,_Puerto_Rico">Cayey</a> and a second, smaller one near <a title="Bayamón, Puerto Rico" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayam%C3%B3n,_Puerto_Rico">Bayamón</a>

Banara vanderbiltii

Banara vanderbiltii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Baptisia arachnifera NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.Baptisia arachnifera, commonly known as hairy rattleweed, cobwebby wild indigo, hairy wild indigo, and hairy false indigo, is an endangered species of flowering <a title="Plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant">plant</a> in the legume family. Its native habitat is limited to sandy soils in pinewoods along the <a title="Coastal plain" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_plain">coastal plain</a> of the <a title="U.S. state" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state">U.S. state</a> of <a title="Georgia (U.S. state)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)">Georgia</a>.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Baptisia arachnifera is a <a class="mw-redirect" title="Perennial" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial">perennial</a> that grows to a height of forty to eighty centimeters and is "covered with grayish-white, cobwebby hairs". Blue-green, simple <a title="Leaf" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf">leaves</a> are alternate and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Leaf shape" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf_shape">heart-shaped</a>. They range in size from 2–6 cm long by 1.5–5 cm wide

Baptisia arachnifera

Baptisia arachnifera NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Berberis nevinii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Berberis nevinii ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

Mahonia nevinii (syn. Berberis nevinii, Odostemon nevinii, known by the common name Nevin's barberry, is a species of flowering shrub in the <a title="Berberidaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berberidaceae">barberry family</a>.

This plant is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Southern California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_California">southern California</a>, where it is known from very few occurrences in the riparian areas of <a title="Chaparral" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaparral">chaparral</a> in inland canyons and foothills. It is a California state and United States federally listed <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a>, since 1987 and 1998,  respectively. There are thought to be about 500 individuals remaining, with half of those being naturally occurring <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/plants-cannot-keep-up-with-rising-co2-levels/">plants</a>. It is also cultivated in gardens and parks as an ornamental and barrier plant

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Berberis nevinii

Berberis nevinii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Every holiday season, Americans buy nearly 30 million live Christmas trees. Many households cherish the scent of pine that drifts through their halls. The fragrance, which is often described as crisp and woodsy, can set a cheerful tone. Yet there is much more to this refreshing aroma.



That <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-gives-pine-trees-fresh-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fresh smell</a> comes from substances known as volatile organic compounds, or VOCs. These are airborne chemicals that can be released by a wide range of items inside a home.



Fresh paint, cleaning solutions, and newly purchased furniture all have distinct VOC profiles that contribute to the atmosphere we breathe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-and-its-driving-force">Research and its driving force</h2>



"Our nose is a good chemical sensor," said Dustin Poppendieck, an environmental engineer at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). 



"We know that these trees are emitting something, and the question then becomes: How big of a source is it? We wanted to explore which chemicals are emitted and how much, and to put that into the context of other sources of chemicals in a house."



In a recent study, he and his colleagues took a Douglas fir and enclosed it in a specialized chamber. The team wanted to gauge which compounds lingered and how they might shift in a controlled environment. They kept track of the emissions for 17 days to gather a clear picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vocs-in-the-home">VOCs in the home</h2>



VOCs appear in many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chemicals-linked-to-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">household products </a>and activities. They come from cleaners, new carpeting, varnishes, personal care items, and similar sources. Some have a pleasant smell that appeals to people, while others cause throat irritation and watery eyes for those who are sensitive.



Many manufacturers now produce items with fewer VOCs, including paint labeled as low-emission. People are also more aware of how indoor air quality impacts overall well-being, so they weigh their choices when buying scented or chemical-based goods. Even simple habits, like regularly airing out rooms, can help manage exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-christmas-tree-in-a-chamber">Christmas tree in a chamber</h2>



In the experiment, the researchers placed a decorated tree inside a chamber designed to mimic typical indoor conditions. The lights switched on and off every 12 hours, outside air came in at a realistic pace, and the tree was watered each day.



A specialized instrument called proton-transfer reaction mass spectrometry tracked airborne compounds in real time. This method offers a detailed look at changing levels of chemicals in the air. 



The researchers observed which specific compounds were released during the first few days and how quickly they dropped as time went on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-the-scent">A closer look at the scent</h2>



Monoterpenes emerged as the primary source of the tree’s signature <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-gives-pine-trees-fresh-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aroma</a>. These molecules also show up in fragrant products such as certain air fresheners and scented candles. They spiked early in the study, before tapering off within the first 72 hours.



According to the measurements, the initial concentration of monoterpenes equaled levels found in a freshly built house or a newly opened plug-in air freshener. From there, the emissions dropped by nearly tenfold. 



The scientists noted that 52 different types of monoterpenes appeared, illustrating how varied these natural compounds can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-christmas-trees-and-ozone">Christmas trees and ozone</h2>



The team also introduced ozone to see if it would interact with the tree’s emissions. Ozone near ground level can form through chemical reactions triggered by light. Outdoors, it has been linked to coughing and throat irritation when levels become elevated.



In the chamber, ozone caused monoterpenes to transform into new byproducts. One of these compounds was formaldehyde, measured at about one part per billion in this setup. That number is much smaller compared to the 20 to 30 parts per billion typically found in U.S. houses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indoor-air-perspectives">Indoor air perspectives</h2>



For some individuals, the rush of VOCs from a freshly displayed tree can lead to mild respiratory responses. The watery eyes or runny nose often show up during the initial phase when emissions peak. Opening a window can help if these symptoms arise.



Outside of that, the changes in indoor air chemistry did not reach levels likely to raise alarms. The data indicated that although there was a clear spike in certain compounds, normal ventilation methods were effective at dispersing them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-steps-to-avoid-issues">Simple steps to avoid issues</h2>



People who prefer a newly cut tree might consider leaving it outside or in a garage for about three days before setting it up indoors. The intensity of monoterpene emissions falls naturally during that waiting period, which can lessen any initial surge.



Keeping doors or windows ajar, especially when first moving the tree into a living area, also allows any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-household-products-expose-people-to-dangerous-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lingering chemicals</a> to escape. These small adjustments may help families enjoy a traditional tree without worrying about minor discomforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-context-for-the-season">Context for the season</h2>



The investigators pursued this research to fill knowledge gaps about how natural decorations might affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioengineered-super-plant-acts-as-natural-indoor-air-purifier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">indoor air</a>. The study, published in the journal Indoor Environments, highlights the dynamic relationship between conifer emissions and everyday living spaces.



Beyond Douglas fir trees, many items in our homes give off VOCs that shape the air we breathe. Recognizing the major sources can guide practical ways to manage them, whether through better ventilation or careful selection of household products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awareness-of-indoor-air-quality">Awareness of indoor air quality </h2>



For those concerned about VOCs, the biggest wave of tree-related emissions occurs early on. Poppendieck advises airing out the living area if irritation becomes noticeable. He also notes that storing the tree for a bit in a cooler spot often eases the transition.



"But for most people, this shouldn't be a major concern. I'm still going to have a Christmas tree in my house," said Poppendieck.



For some, the fresh scent of a real tree remains a part of the season. Awareness of indoor air quality tips can keep the experience enjoyable.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2950362023000024?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indoor Environments</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Christmas trees and VOCs: The source of that fresh, clean holiday smell

Every holiday season, Americans buy nearly 30 million live Christmas...

Honey, often described as “liquid gold,” has captivated civilizations for millennia. Long prized for its sweetness, it has also been used in diverse cultures and traditions to soothe sore throats, support wound healing, and even address infections.&nbsp;



While honey’s anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties have earned it a place in both kitchens and home remedies, questions remain about the science behind these claims.&nbsp;



What exactly gives honey its therapeutic potential, and how do the microorganisms within it influence its benefits and safety?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-microbiology-of-honey">The microbiology of honey</h2>



When people think of honey, they usually picture a sticky, golden sweetener ready to drizzle on toast or stir into tea. Yet behind this simplicity lies a rich microbial community.&nbsp;



Honey carries a variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microorganisms</a> that together create a microscopic ecosystem. 



This local microbiome in honey prompts inquiries about its safety, particularly regarding how honey is produced, whether it’s consumed raw or pasteurized, and the risks it may pose for certain individuals, such as infants.



Honey primarily consists of sugars (mainly fructose and glucose), water, and organic compounds produced by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-are-making-less-honey-and-five-decades-of-data-reveals-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>. 



While the western honeybee, Apis mellifera, is the dominant species in large-scale honey production, at least eight other bee species - including Apis cerana and Apis nigrocincta - are also known to produce honey. 



Each species, along with environmental and floral variations, can influence the composition of the honey they create.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-microbes">The role of microbes</h2>



Bees generate honey through a multifaceted process involving the collection of nectar and honeydew from flowers and subsequent enzymatic transformations within the hive.&nbsp;



During this process, microorganisms - such as Bacillus, Saccharomyces, and Aspergillus - are introduced to the honey via the bees’ digestive tracts and from external sources like air, soil, and plant matter.



Some microbes, particularly lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, are beneficial. They can contribute to honey’s acidity and preserve it against spoilage.&nbsp;



Conversely, certain yeasts, such as Candida and Saccharomyces, may thrive in honey that has excessive moisture, potentially causing fermentation or spoilage. 



Thus, honey’s microbial profile is shaped by the floral environment, geographic location, bee health, and other situational elements.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honeybee</a> gut microbiome itself plays a critical part in shaping honey’s characteristics. In addition to lactic acid bacteria, microbes like Enterobacter and Klebsiella help maintain bee health.&nbsp;



If this beneficial microbial community becomes unbalanced - due to factors such as disease or environmental stress - bees can become susceptible to infections, including fungal pathogens like Aspergillus fumigatus.&nbsp;



This fungus can harm both immunocompromised humans and bee larvae, emphasizing the shared health interests of bees and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-s-remarkable-self-preservation-abilities">Honey’s remarkable self-preservation abilities</h2>



Despite harboring an assortment of microbes, honey naturally resists spoilage and pathogenic bacteria. One central reason lies in the enzyme glucose oxidase, which worker bees secrete from their hypopharyngeal glands.&nbsp;



When bees combine this enzyme with glucose in the nectar, it produces hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and water. The resulting hydrogen peroxide remains encased in the honey, helping lower its pH to levels unfavorable for bacterial growth.



Additionally, honey’s high sugar content and minimal water availability (i.e., low moisture) create an osmotic environment hostile to many microorganisms. 



These traits together form a potent natural defense that helps honey avoid quick spoilage, even when stored at room temperature for extended periods.



Still, honey’s acidity can vary according to seasonal flora and the particular flowers the bees visit. More than 300 honey varieties exist around the world, each uniquely shaped by local botanical and environmental factors.&nbsp;



In the United States alone, one can find distinct honeys like buckwheat honey in the Midwest or citrus blossom honey in Florida and southern California.&nbsp;



Globally, the famed Manuka honey originates from Leptospermum scoparium flowers in New Zealand and Australia and is celebrated for its heightened antibacterial effects, often attributed to methylglyoxal (MGO).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-medicinal-properties-of-honey">Medicinal properties of honey</h2>



Manuka honey is one of the most researched types, largely due to the presence of MGO, which is formed from dihydroxyacetone (DHA) in Manuka flower nectar.&nbsp;



Studies suggest that Manuka honey is more potent against certain bacteria, like Pseudomonas aeruginosa, than generic honeys. 



However, evidence shows that various constituents of Manuka honey, including hydrogen peroxide and an osmotic effect, work together to amplify its antimicrobial strength.



While Manuka honey has garnered attention for wound care and infection control, clinical research on its effectiveness for broader health issues - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-detects-changes-in-gut-health-to-help-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut health</a>, diabetes, or cancer - remains limited.&nbsp;



A few clinical trials point to Manuka honey’s potential to ease throat discomfort in chemotherapy patients, but these studies have not conclusively shown that honey surpasses existing treatments.&nbsp;



Further investigations are needed to determine whether honey’s properties can be harnessed reliably in mainstream healthcare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-benefits-and-safety">Balancing benefits and safety</h2>



One key distinction in honey is whether it’s raw or pasteurized. Raw honey undergoes minimal filtration and retains more of its natural microbes, including pollen particles and other hive components.&nbsp;



Some argue this confers extra health advantages, like enhanced antioxidant and probiotic qualities. However, raw honey also poses allergy risks to individuals sensitive to pollen or bee-derived proteins.



Pasteurized honey, processed at high temperatures to lower its microbial load, can be safer in terms of minimizing fermentation or spoilage. 



Yet pasteurization may also reduce honey’s beneficial enzymes and microbes, potentially lessening any therapeutic qualities. 



Regardless of processing, improper honey storage - especially exposure to moisture, heat, or air - can trigger spoilage or microbial growth, underscoring the need for careful handling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-consumption-risks">Honey consumption risks</h2>



While honey is generally considered safe, one well-known concern is the presence of Clostridium botulinum spores. Though relatively rare, these spores can produce a potent neurotoxin that induces botulism, a serious condition marked by muscle weakness and possible paralysis.&nbsp;



Infants under one year old are particularly vulnerable because their developing digestive tracts are ill-equipped to counteract C. botulinum spores. 



Consequently, pediatric and public health guidelines strongly advise against giving honey to infants less than 12 months of age. 



Although botulism risk in older children and adults is minimal, the possibility of contamination underscores the importance of following storage and processing recommendations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-s-role-in-health-and-research">Honey’s role in health and research</h2>



As scientists deepen their understanding of honey’s chemistry and the interplay of its microbial inhabitants, possibilities emerge for broader applications.&nbsp;



Honey’s mix of sugars, enzymes, and natural compounds could prove relevant in addressing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-viruses-to-combat-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic-resistant</a> infections, improving wound healing, and perhaps even aiding in metabolic or gastrointestinal disorders. However, robust, large-scale clinical trials remain necessary to confirm many of these potential benefits.



Still, anecdotal evidence and limited studies already support honey’s use in alleviating mild conditions, like sore throats or minor cuts. Traditional medicine in many cultures has leveraged honey’s soothing properties for centuries.&nbsp;



Modern science is now trying to define these uses more precisely, distinguishing home remedies from evidence-based healthcare solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spectrum-of-varieties">A spectrum of varieties</h2>



Honey is incredibly diverse, owing to factors like bee species, local flora, and environmental conditions. Orange blossom honey from Florida, for example, differs not only in taste from avocado honey in California or buckwheat honey in New York, but also in antioxidant capacity and potential microbial composition.&nbsp;



Globally, Manuka honey remains the most studied, but dozens of specialty honeys in various regions hold cultural and medicinal significance, reflecting how nature’s subtleties shape each batch.



Understanding this variety can guide consumers seeking specific flavors or purported health benefits. It can also inform researchers studying how different nectar sources yield distinct antimicrobial or antioxidant properties in honey, potentially expanding its role in food science and medicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-honey-s-future-as-a-resource">Looking ahead: Honey’s future as a resource</h2>



Honey stands as an intriguing intersection of biology, chemistry, ecology, and culinary art. While marketed primarily as a sweetener, its composition reveals a wealth of complex interactions among sugars, enzymes, microbes, and floral compounds.&nbsp;



These interactions contribute to honey’s distinctive flavor profiles, antimicrobial resilience, and prospective therapeutic potential.



Ongoing research into honey’s properties - including how it fights certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intestinal-bacteria-could-help-you-live-a-very-long-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>, whether it can bolster wound healing, and its broader impact on human health - reflects a growing recognition of nature’s capacity to inspire and innovate.&nbsp;



As studies become more rigorous, honey’s status in modern integrative medicine and food science may continue to rise, provided that researchers address the gaps and ensure consumer safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-as-a-natural-marvel-nbsp">Honey as a natural marvel&nbsp;</h2>



Honey’s enduring popularity stems not only from its sweet taste but also from the remarkable benefits attributed to it over centuries of traditional use.&nbsp;



Contemporary investigations highlight how honey’s microbial makeup, enzymatic processes, and sugar chemistry coalesce to create a product that is both delicious and potentially health-affirming.&nbsp;



Although definitive scientific consensus on many of honey’s medical applications remains elusive, its low-risk nature and storied past suggest that honey will continue to delight and possibly heal.



By bridging knowledge from microbiology, beekeeping, environmental science, and clinical research, scientists stand poised to uncover additional facets of honey’s significance.&nbsp;



Whether stirred into tea or considered for more formal therapeutic roles, honey’s multifaceted profile ensures that it remains a subject of fascination in culinary, cultural, and medical contexts.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Nature's sweet remedy: Honey is a microbial marvel

Honey, often described as “liquid gold,” has captivated civilizations for...

As the holiday season approaches, homes worldwide are decorated with evergreen conifers like spruce and pine. Beyond spreading warmth and joy as Christmas trees, these resilient conifers thrive in harsh natural environments - enduring everything from frigid winters to intense sunlight in boreal forests.



Scientists at Umeå University are shedding light on how these remarkable trees endure such adversities and remain lush and green year-round.



The experts found that conifers possess unique adaptations that allow them to thrive in some of the planet's most challenging environments.



The findings not only deepen our understanding of conifers but also hint at potential applications in conservation and crop resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-conifers-the-basics">Understanding conifers -- the basics</h2>



Conifer trees are some of the most recognizable and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-some-leaves-live-longer-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evergreen giants</a> you’ll find in forests around the world. Think of pine, spruce, fir, and cedar trees with their needle-like leaves and sturdy cones. 



These trees are well adapted to various climates, especially colder and drier regions, because their shape helps them shed snow and conserve water.



Conifers have been around for millions of years, dominating many landscapes long before flowering plants took the stage. 



Their evergreen nature means they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-changes-what-happens-to-boreal-forests-after-fire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stay green</a> all year round, providing a constant splash of color even during the bleakest winters.



Beyond their striking appearance, conifer trees play a crucial role in the environment and our daily lives. They are vital for producing oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide, helping to combat climate change. 



The wood from conifers is used in building everything from homes to paper products, making them <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-trees-are-best-at-purifying-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">essential to many industries</a>. 



Plus, conifer forests are home to countless wildlife species, offering habitats and food sources for animals like birds, squirrels, and deer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photosynthesis-strategies-of-conifers">Photosynthesis strategies of conifers</h2>



The process of photosynthesis is conserved across most plants, yet conifers exhibit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distinct strategies</a> that set them apart. 



One such adaptation is a structural change in their thylakoid membranes - the sites where photosynthesis occurs. During winter, Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII), typically separated in most plants, come closer together in a phenomenon known as spill-over.



"This helps them to safely dissipate extra energy and avoid damage from too much sunlight in the cold," explained Stefan Jansson, a professor in the <a href="https://www.upsc.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umeå Plant Science Center</a>.



This mechanism prevents excess light from overwhelming their photosynthetic machinery, enabling them to survive harsh winters unscathed.



Previously, researchers referred to this process as "sustained quenching," likening it to a photosynthetic lockdown. However, the precise mechanism remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-electron-flow">Alternative electron flow</h2>



In addition to spill-over, conifers possess a second survival strategy: alternative electron flow - a key aspect of their resilience in harsh winter environments.



This method involves the use of&nbsp;flavodiiron proteins, which redirect electrons during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-cleverly-adapt-to-withstand-storms-and-high-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>. This redirection ensures that the photosynthetic system remains balanced, even when faced with intense sunlight and freezing temperatures.



Alternative electron flow acts as a backup mechanism to handle excess energy, preventing the photosynthetic machinery from becoming overloaded and damaged. 



This is particularly critical in winter when sunlight can be strong but the freezing conditions make energy dissipation challenging.



Together with&nbsp;spill-over, where Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII) collaborate to dissipate extra energy, these strategies form a dual defense system. 



Spill-over reduces the risk of light-induced damage, while alternative electron flow maintains the system's stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-adaptations-of-conifers">Unique adaptations of conifers</h2>



Conifers' photosynthetic apparatus also diverges from that of flowering plants (angiosperms) in other significant ways. 



For instance, they lack certain light-harvesting proteins found in angiosperms. This unique configuration might explain why conifers thrive in nutrient-poor, cold, and water-scarce environments.



"All together, this can explain why conifers are the dominant species in boreal forests, thriving where few others can, perhaps at the expense of advantages during less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-in-the-wrong-place-can-make-cities-hotter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenging conditions</a>," noted Pushan Bag, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-crop-resilience">Implications for crop resilience </h2>



Understanding the survival mechanisms of conifers goes beyond academic curiosity. As the climate changes, insights into how conifers adapt to extreme conditions may inform conservation strategies and predict forest responses to new environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-diversity-makes-forests-more-resilient-against-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges</a>.



These findings could also guide the development of crops that are resilient to extreme weather, ensuring food security in an unpredictable future.



"This paper highlights the intricate adaptations of conifers to extreme winter conditions. By combining structural, molecular, and evolutionary insights, it advances our understanding of how these trees have come to dominate some of the harshest ecosystems on Earth," said study co-author Alexander Ivanov.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incredible-resilience-of-conifers">Incredible resilience of conifers</h2>



Conifers’ ability to adapt and thrive in severe conditions is a proof of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-in-big-trouble-and-scientists-are-sounding-the-alarm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature's ingenuity</a>. Their unique photosynthetic strategies, refined over millennia, ensure their survival in environments where most plants would falter.



As researchers continue to explore these mechanisms, they uncover not only the secrets of these hardy evergreens but also pathways to address pressing challenges like climate change and food insecurity.



This festive season, as you admire the beauty of a Christmas tree, take a moment to appreciate the incredible resilience and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary brilliance</a> of conifers. 



They are not just symbols of joy and celebration but also living proof of nature's ability to overcome adversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/fulltext/S1360-1385(24)00300-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Plant Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Christmas trees have unique strategies to survive harsh winters

As the holiday season approaches, homes worldwide are decorated with...

Ever thought that saving trees was as simple as stopping deforestation? Think again. A new study from Ecuador's Amazon reveals a more complicated story, where the survival of trees depends on a delicate dance between plants and animals - and this dance is falling apart.



Research from the Universidad de las Américas (UDLA) in Ecuador, led by Dr. Juan Ernesto Guevara-Andino and Dr. María-José Endara, has revealed some startling numbers.



About 14% of tree species in the Ecuadorian Amazon are critically endangered, while almost half (47%) could go extinct if things don't change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-with-smaller-fruits">Trees with smaller fruits</h2>



Size matters in the Amazon, but not in the way you'd expect. Trees with smaller fruits are having an especially tough time. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> rely on specific animals to spread their seeds, and those animals are becoming harder to find.



It's like a restaurant losing its delivery drivers - the food's ready to go, but there's no way to get it where it needs to be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-amazonian-trees">Threats to Amazonian trees</h2>



While most of us think of logging when we hear about threats to the Amazon, the reality is far more complex.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-living-organism-consists-of-47000-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trees</a> don't live in isolation - they are part of a community that includes insects, birds, and mammals. Each species plays its role, whether it's pollinating flowers or spreading seeds.



"Thus, our results highlight the importance of incorporating meaningful ecological traits in extinction risk estimates, such as those related to reproduction and life history strategies," explained Dr. Endara.



Her words point to a crucial fact: we can't save trees without understanding their relationships with other species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-not-as-safe-as-we-thought">Protected areas: Not as safe as we thought</h2>



One may think trees in protected areas would be safe. However, the study found otherwise. Even in Yasuní National Park, Ecuador's crown jewel of conservation, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees are in trouble</a>.



"For example, we found that some endemic tree species populations are experiencing high levels of threat by deforestation inside the Yasuní National Park, the biggest and most iconic protected area in the Ecuadorian Amazon," noted Dr. Guevara-Andino.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approach-to-protecting-amazon-trees">New approach to protecting Amazon trees</h2>



The old way of protecting trees mainly focused on stopping deforestation. But this study shows we need to think bigger. 



We need to protect not just the trees, but the entire system that they are part of - including the animals that help them reproduce and spread.



This means conservation plans need to consider things like which animals disperse each tree's seeds, how different species depend on each other, and what happens when one species disappears from the system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-ecuador">Looking beyond Ecuador</h2>



What's happening in Ecuador isn't just Ecuador's problem. The <a href="https://www.udla.cl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UDLA</a> study gives us clues about what might be happening in other rainforests around the world. 



When we lose one species, it affects many others - like pulling one thread and watching a whole sweater unravel.



The good news is that understanding these connections gives us new ways to help. By protecting both trees and the animals they depend on, we have a better chance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keeping these forests alive</a> for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-amazon-s-trees">Saving the Amazon's trees</h2>



The numbers from this study - 14% critically endangered tree species and and 47% threatened - should wake us up.



But they also point the way forward. We can't just focus on stopping chainsaws. We need to protect the whole forest community - from the smallest pollinator to the largest seed-dispersing animal.



The path ahead isn't simple, but it's clear. To save the Amazon's trees, we need to think about forests differently. They're not just collections of trees - they're complex communities where every species plays a vital role. And just like any community, they are stronger when all of their members are healthy and present.



The research does more than just raise alarms. It shows us that saving trees means saving relationships - between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-an-amazing-ability-to-adapt-to-new-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> and animals, between species and their environment, and ultimately, between humans and nature. The question now is whether we'll act on this knowledge in time to make a difference.



The trees of Ecuador's Amazon face many threats, but perhaps the biggest one is our own limited understanding of how forests really work. This study helps fix that problem. Now it's up to us to use this knowledge to protect not just the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-greening-predicting-the-cooling-effects-of-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a>, but the entire web of life they're part of.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10606" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Amazon trees are critically endangered, even in protected areas

Ever thought that saving trees was as simple as stopping...

In many parts of the world, drought leaves farmers struggling. Dry fields often translate into puny harvests and financial heartache.



Traditional methods of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-in-dry-landscapes-have-surprising-diversity/">checking plants for dryness</a> are slow, and rely heavily on visible signs like wilting leaves. By the time farmers notice, it can be too late to prevent major losses.



Last month, researchers unveiled a promising solution: a sensor that detects dryness in plants up to 48 hours before symptoms first appear. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-clues-hidden-in-plant-fluids">Early clues hidden in plant fluids</h2>



Subtle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-that-detect-plant-stress-could-revolutionize-farming/">chemical shifts</a> deep inside a plant’s tissues can hint at dehydration long before leaves look limp. 



Instead of waiting for obvious signs, researchers used these sensors to measure pH levels inside living plants, thus detecting the early signs of stress.



A decrease in acidity signals the onset of dehydration, and the sensors are designed to detect this shift early. By embedding these <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00216-023-05003-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensors</a> into plant tissues, scientists aim to give farmers an edge in managing water stress.



This research was led by Michael Strano at the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (<a href="https://smart.mit.edu/post/smart-researchers-pioneer-method-to-detect-dehydration-in-plants" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMART</a>), in collaboration with Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory and MIT.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-these-tiny-sensors">Inside these tiny sensors</h2>



The secret to this approach lies in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0039914023003648" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Covalent Organic Framework (COF) sensors</a>. These advanced materials are built from carbon-containing molecules that are arranged in crystal-like grids. They shift colors in response to changes in pH, making them ideal for tracking plant health.



However, COFs had not been used in biological systems until researchers combined them with <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/ma/d4ma00479e" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silk fibroin microneedles</a>. These microneedles allow the sensors to penetrate plant xylem tissues gently and effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-vision-of-ph-changes">Clear vision of pH changes</h2>



The silk fibroin microneedles are transparent, which enables real-time observation of pH changes inside plants. Drought stress triggers a rise in pH, which these sensors detect through subtle shifts in color.



This breakthrough offers farmers a way to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53532-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spot stress early</a> and intervene before visible damage occurs. As climate change intensifies, tools like these could become essential for maintaining crop yields.



“This type of sensor can be easily attached to the plant and queried with simple instrumentation,” explained <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/innovator/michael-strano/">Michael Strano,</a> SMART researcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precision-agriculture-for-harsh-times">Precision agriculture for harsh times</h2>



Agriculture faces increasing challenges from climate unpredictability and rising costs. Many farmers rely on reactive methods to manage crops, which leads to resource inefficiencies.



The new sensors enable proactive measures by offering precise insights into a plant’s internal health. With these <a href="https://smart.mit.edu/research/distap/about-distap" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a>, growers can conserve water, apply nutrients strategically, and minimize waste.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-voices-behind-the-silk-cof-marriage">Voices behind the silk-COF marriage</h2>



“These sensors make agriculture more precise under the challenges of climate change,” said <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=vDv5NCcAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Benedetto Marelli,</a> SMART researcher. By integrating nanosensors with biomaterials, the technology offers a seamless method for monitoring plant health.



This innovation enables researchers to explore plant stress indicators more comprehensively. Furthermore, it supports global efforts to improve agricultural sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-subtle-ph-shifts-in-practice">Detecting subtle pH shifts in practice</h2>



When dryness begins to stress a plant, pH levels increase. The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53532-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COF sensors</a> capture these shifts by changing from dark red to red.



This simple visual cue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiktok-can-help-farmers-discuss-climate-change/">helps farmers</a> detect problems without requiring expensive equipment. By addressing water stress earlier, farmers can protect their crops and reduce overall losses.



“We’ve developed a method to detect pH changes in plant tissues to prevent yield loss,” said <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1fO3teIAAAAJ&amp;hl=zh-CN" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Song Wang</a>, SMART researcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-sensor-design">Practical sensor design</h2>



The sensors are minimally invasive and easy to use. Farmers can monitor results with a smartphone camera, capturing color changes directly from the sensor.



“SF microneedles allow real-time mapping of plant health in a minimally invasive way,” confirmed <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=eb8KurwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Yangyang Han</a>, SMART researcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-to-more-targets">Looking ahead to more targets</h2>



The researchers plan to expand this technology beyond pH detection. They aim to design sensors capable of measuring plant hormones and metabolites, which would provide even deeper insights into plant health.



By tracking multiple indicators, COF sensors could revolutionize crop management by enabling farmers to safeguard their crops and resources effectively. This would help farmers adapt to changing environmental conditions, and demonstrate the potential for precision <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-nutrient-loss-due-to-heavy-rainfall-threatens-agriculture/">agriculture</a> to tackle the challenges of climate change and food security.&nbsp;



The research was published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53532-7">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny sensors can detect dehydration before it destroys crops

In many parts of the world, drought leaves farmers struggling....

In 1969, paleobotanists identified fossilized leaves in eastern Utah belonging to the extinct species Othniophyton elongatum, a name that translates to “alien plant.” Initially, researchers speculated it might be part of the ginseng family.&nbsp;



However, new discoveries have turned this assumption on its head. Recent fossil specimens reveal that this ancient plant is even stranger than previously thought, challenging how scientists classify extinct flora.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alien-plant-with-an-unknown-family">Alien plant with an unknown family</h2>



Steven Manchester, curator of paleobotany at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, has spent years studying 47-million-year-old fossils from Utah.&nbsp;



During a visit to the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, Manchester encountered an unusually well-preserved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant fossil</a> from the same area as the original Othniophyton elongatum leaves. This fossil included leaves, fruits, and flowers attached to a woody stem - a rare find.



“This fossil is rare in having the twig with attached fruits and leaves. Usually those are found separately,” Manchester said.



Further analysis revealed that these fossils were from the same species as the 1969 find. However, the new evidence showed that Othniophyton elongatum didn’t fit within the ginseng family -- or any other known plant family.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-plant-with-no-living-relatives">A plant with no living relatives</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Alien-plant.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">To uncover the origins</a> of Othniophyton elongatum, Manchester and his colleagues compared the physical features of the fossils to over 400 modern plant families. Despite their extensive search, they couldn’t find a match.



“There are many things for which we have good evidence to put in a modern family or genus, but you can’t always shoehorn these things,” Manchester said.



This was the case with Othniophyton elongatum. Its peculiar combination of traits - including leaves, fruits, and flowers - defied placement in any known group. Even extinct families failed to provide a fit.



The research highlights a significant challenge in paleobotany: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-plants-on-earth-could-be-saved-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct plants</a> from less than 65 million years ago are often assigned to modern families or genera.&nbsp;



This practice can distort our understanding of ancient biodiversity, creating the false impression that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric ecosystems</a> were more similar to today’s than they actually were.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-fossils-from-an-ancient-lake">Strange fossils from an ancient lake</h2>



The fossils were discovered in the Green River Formation near the ghost town of Rainbow in eastern Utah. This formation, a massive inland lake system 47 million years ago, provided ideal conditions for preserving plants and animals in remarkable detail.



Low-oxygen sediments and volcanic ash slowed decomposition, resulting in the preservation of fish, reptiles, birds, and plants, including the fossils of Othniophyton elongatum.&nbsp;



However, the original specimens collected in 1969 offered limited information. Researchers could only analyze the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-had-complex-leaf-vein-networks-200-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaves</a>, which resembled compound leaves commonly found in the ginseng family.



New fossils, though, painted a very different picture. Leaves attached directly to stems, rather than in a compound arrangement, ruled out the ginseng family.&nbsp;



Additional features, including the plant’s fruits and flowers, ruled out other families like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fairy-circles-kill-all-newly-planted-grasses-deepening-their-mystery/">grasses</a> and magnolias. Even with such detailed specimens, the team remained stumped.



“The two twigs we found show the same kind of leaf attached, but they're not compound. They’re simple, which eliminates the possibility of it being anything in that family,” Manchester explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-the-alien-plant">A new look at the alien plant</h2>



For years, the fossils sat in storage as researchers struggled to make sense of them. Then, new technology offered a breakthrough. The Florida Museum of Natural History established a microscopy workstation that allowed the team to examine the fossils in unprecedented detail.



Using a digital microscope with computer-enhanced shadow illumination, Manchester and his colleagues discovered features they had previously missed. The minute fruits revealed micro-impressions of their internal anatomy, including developing seeds.



“Normally we don't expect to see that preserved in these types of fossils, but maybe we've been overlooking it because our equipment didn’t pick up that kind of topographic relief,” Manchester said.



One of the most striking aspects was the plant’s stamens, the male reproductive organs of its flowers. In most plants, stamens detach after fertilization, but in Othniophyton elongatum, they remain attached to the mature fruits - an unusual trait not seen in any modern plant.



“Usually, stamens will fall away as the fruit develops. And this thing seems unusual in that it's retaining the stamens at the time it has mature fruits with seeds ready to disperse. We haven't seen that in anything modern,” Manchester noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shedding-light-on-ancient-ecosystems">Shedding light on ancient ecosystems</h2>



The study’s lead author, Julian Correa-Narvaez, a doctoral student at the University of Florida, emphasized the importance of the discovery. “It’s important because it gives us a little bit of a clue about how these organisms were evolving and adapting in different places,” he said.



The diversity within plant families can be astonishing. For example, seemingly unrelated species like poison ivy, cashews, and mangoes belong to the same family, which contains over 800 species. However, with Othniophyton elongatum, scientists can only speculate about how much diversity has been lost to time.



Similar discoveries from the Green River Formation have unveiled other extinct plant groups, showing that it remains a rich site for paleobotanical mysteries.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-alien-plant">Significance of the alien plant</h2>



Digital tools like <a href="https://www.idigbio.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDigBio</a>, which allow researchers to access museum specimens remotely, are helping to unlock these mysteries and advance our understanding of plant evolution.



The discovery of Othniophyton elongatum not only expands our knowledge of extinct plants but also challenges assumptions about how ancient ecosystems functioned.&nbsp;



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcae196" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Botany</a>, this study serves as a reminder of how much remains to be discovered in the fossil record - and how evolving technology can illuminate the secrets of the distant past.



Image Credit: Florida Museum of Natural History photo by Jeff Gage



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fossil mystery: The "alien plant" that defies classification

In 1969, paleobotanists identified fossilized leaves in eastern Utah belonging...

Evolution is a fascinating concept that explains how life changes over generations. 



Imagine looking at photographs of your great-grandparents, grandparents, and parents, side by side. You’d notice resemblances, but also distinct differences in features.



This is evolution in its simplest form: descent with modification. Over countless generations, these modifications accumulate, resulting in the incredible diversity of life we see today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misconceptions-on-evolution-of-life">Misconceptions on evolution of life</h2>



For a long time, people believed evolution was a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mars-became-uninhabitable-after-being-life-supporting-ocean-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">process</a> that always moved forward, improving life and making organisms more advanced or perfect over time. 



This idea gave rise to the theory of&nbsp;orthogenesis, which suggested that evolution followed a straight, predictable path toward more sophisticated or optimized forms.



However, traditional depictions of evolution, like Rudolph Zallinger’s famous "The Road to Homo Sapiens," suggest a stepwise journey toward increasingly complex forms.



Even though orthogenesis is no longer accepted scientifically, the idea still lingers. Many people unconsciously think of evolution as a progression, which oversimplifies its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complexity and adaptability</a>.



But evolution lacks a predetermined endpoint. “Organisms evolve by natural selection acting at a specific geologic moment, or simply by drift, without strong selection in any direction,” explained Jacob Suissa, an assistant professor of Plant Evolutionary Biology at the <a href="https://www.utk.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee</a>.



This means evolution is more akin to a tangled web than a one-way street.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-irreversible-evolution-of-life">Irreversible evolution of life</h2>



In 1893, Belgian paleontologist Louis Dollo introduced the idea that once an organism evolves a specific set of traits, it cannot reverse to its earlier form.



This concept, known as Dollo's Law of Irreversibility, suggests that evolution is a one-way process. For instance, if a species evolves a complex adaptation, it is unlikely to shed that adaptation and return to its simpler, ancestral state.



While this idea has faced criticism, it continues to shape our understanding of evolutionary specialization. 



Many biologists believe that once organisms develop highly complex traits, such as seeds in plants or wings in birds, reversing to a simpler, ancestral state becomes nearly impossible due to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">layers of complexity</a> involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-plant-reproduction">Evolution of plant reproduction </h2>



A clear example can be seen in the evolution of plant reproduction. Early vascular plants like Cooksonia had simple, stem-like structures called telomes, which performed dual functions - photosynthesis (making food) and reproduction (releasing spores).



Over millions of years, plants evolved specialized structures that separated these functions. They developed seeds, cones, and flowers to enhance reproduction efficiency. These advanced adaptations appear irreversible, as plants with such traits have not reverted to using simpler structures like telomes.



In essence, Dollo’s Law highlights the difficulty of "undoing" complexity in evolution, which is why such reversals are rare and surprising when they occur.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ferns-challenge-the-narrative">Ferns challenge the narrative</h2>



Unlike most plants, ferns defy the idea of irreversible evolution of life. They exhibit two main reproductive strategies:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Monomorphism&nbsp;– Using the same leaf type for photosynthesis and spore production.</li>



<li>Dimorphism&nbsp;– Having separate leaf types for these functions.</li>
</ol>



In their study, Suissa and <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/makaleh-smith-717638215/">Makaleh Smith</a>, a former undergraduate research intern at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> discovered that some ferns - particularly in the Blechnaceae family - had reverted from dimorphism to monomorphism.



This finding challenges the traditional view that reproductive specialization is a one-way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary path</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-ferns-so-flexible">What makes ferns so flexible? </h2>



The key to flexibility in ferns lies in their lack of seeds, flowers, and fruits. While seed plants rely on highly specialized reproductive structures, ferns retain the ability to modify their spore-producing strategies.



“Imagine taking a fertile fern leaf, shrinking it down and wrapping it up tightly into a tiny pellet. That’s basically what an unfertilized seed is,” explained Suissa.



Without the constraints of seeds, ferns can adapt their reproductive methods more freely, demonstrating a remarkable evolutionary plasticity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-the-evolution-of-life">Implications for the evolution of life</h2>



Understanding the flexibility of ferns provides valuable insights into how organisms respond to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-evolved-similar-inner-ears-despite-different-ancestry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental changes</a>. 



Species with rigid, "one-way" evolutionary paths may struggle to adapt to new pressures. In contrast, the ability of ferns to "evolve backward" highlights the importance of retaining adaptability in a rapidly changing world.



“Ultimately, our study underscores a fundamental lesson in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-evolution-completing-the-timetree-of-life-for-all-of-our-closest-relatives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary biology</a>: there is no "correct" direction in evolution, no march toward an end goal,” concluded Suissa.



Evolution is a dynamic, non-linear process that is continually shaped by the environment and chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-branching-tree-not-a-ladder">A branching tree, not a ladder</h2>



The study implies that the evolution of different life forms doesn’t work like climbing a ladder where each step is better or higher than the last. Instead, it’s like a tree with many branches, each representing a species or group adapting differently to its environment.



These adaptations lead to a wide variety of forms and functions, demonstrating that there is no single path or endpoint in evolution. 



Some traits evolve to suit specific conditions, while others may develop in entirely different directions in response to diverse challenges.



By understanding this complexity, we gain a deeper appreciation for the vast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-evolution-was-shaped-by-environmental-crises-land-and-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of life</a> on Earth. The research encourages us to move away from oversimplified ideas of evolutionary history and embrace the intricate, non-linear processes that shape life over time.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ferns evolving backward: A new look at the evolution of life

Evolution is a fascinating concept that explains how life changes...

Shrubs are a key factor in the challenging task of restoring forests after catastrophic wildfires. Beyond planting new tree seedlings, it’s essential to determine when and where to plant for the best chance of success.



Recent research from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a> highlights how shrubs can significantly influence the success of forest recovery, acting as both allies and competitors in the regrowth process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrubs-competing-with-trees">Shrubs competing with trees </h2>



"Generally, where there are more shrubs, the climate and soil are more hospitable for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-alter-photosynthesis-and-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant growth</a>," noted Derek Young, the lead author of the research paper. "But what that also means is there’s more competition for trees.”



In regions with higher shrub populations, it seems that planting seedlings within a year of a wildfire might yield the best results. These seedlings will then have a head start before the woody shrubs begin to repopulate the area.



Conversely, in areas where shrubs are scarce, the most effective time to plant is reportedly three years after a fire, which gives soil conditions time to stabilize and recover from the intense heat of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-wildfire-years-are-just-getting-started/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfire</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dual-role-of-shrubs-in-forest-recovery">The dual role of shrubs in forest recovery</h2>



Shrubs often act as ecological engineers, modifying their environment in ways that can either benefit or hinder <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/initiatives-to-plant-billions-of-trees-threatened-by-seedling-undersupply/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree seedlings</a>. 



On one hand, their roots help stabilize soil and prevent erosion, which is especially vital after a wildfire. 



On the other hand, shrubs compete with tree seedlings for water, nutrients, and sunlight, creating challenging conditions for growth.



This dual role makes it critical to understand the specific ecosystem dynamics before implementing large-scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-plants-used-in-reforestation-projects-do-not-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reforestation</a> efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrubs-shade-and-tree-growth">Shrubs, shade, and tree growth</h2>



Another interesting insight from the study is that in extremely harsh post-fire conditions, existing plant life might actually support the growth of new tree seedlings.



Shrubs, in particular, can provide shade, which reduces soil temperatures and protects fragile seedlings from excessive sun exposure.



“Some vegetation in those really harsh sites might actually facilitate tree establishment by providing shade,” said Young.



This finding challenges the common assumption that shrubs are always detrimental to tree growth, and suggests that they can play a protective role in certain environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimizing-forest-recovery-after-fires">Optimizing forest recovery after fires</h2>



In a rapidly warming world, understanding how to effectively promote forest recovery is of vital importance.



Wildfires are growing more intense and frequent, leaving vast areas of scorched land in need of restoration.



“We’re aiming to help optimize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-tree-planting-warm-earth-science-behind-albedo-effect/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree planting</a> by targeting it to where it’s really needed. Doing this matters because we’re facing a reforestation backlog – limited capacity to replant and a lot of severely burned area,” explained study senior author Andrew Latimer.



This research provides a roadmap for making more strategic decisions about where, when, and how to plant trees in wildfire-affected areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-the-past-to-guide-the-future">Learning from the past to guide the future</h2>



The team’s study involved an extensive survey of areas in California’s Sierra Nevada, representing a range of climates and management strategies. 



These regions were replanted with conifer tree seedlings one to three years after experiencing intense wildfires.



To gather data, the researchers created circular plots measuring 400 square meters, including both replanted and non-planted areas. 



By meticulously counting seedlings, measuring shrub cover, and analyzing environmental variables, the team was able to quantify how different factors influence forest composition and tree survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-path-to-recovery">Mapping the path to recovery</h2>



One of the most fascinating outcomes of the study is the development of predictive models that allow researchers to map where trees are likely to thrive post-wildfire.



“Now we have quantified the effects of certain environmental variables that allow us to make those maps,” Young said.



Future experiments will explore the effects of removing shrubs two years after a fire to observe how it influences tree regeneration. 



The team also plans to use drones and aerial imagery to monitor wildfire sites and assess the long-term impact of various management strategies over the past four decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-the-future-of-forest-management">Balancing the future of forest management</h2>



As wildfires continue to reshape landscapes across the globe, balancing the role of shrubs in forest recovery becomes increasingly important. 



While shrubs may initially seem like obstacles, they can also serve as partners in reforestation, especially in areas with extreme environmental conditions.



This research provides valuable insights for land managers, conservationists, and policymakers working to restore forests in the era of climate change.



By understanding the complex interplay between shrubs and trees, we can create more resilient and sustainable ecosystems for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112724006583?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Shrubs play a dual role in forest recovery following wildfires

Shrubs are a key factor in the challenging task of...

Blueberries have long been admired for their taste and versatility in the kitchen. They pop up in countless dishes, from sweet pastries to savory sauces. 



Many people enjoy their fresh, slightly tart flavor, but there is much more to these berries than a pleasant taste.



The fact that blueberries are considered a “superfood” is not just talk (Chaudière &amp; Ferrari-Iliou, 1999). 



This berry may hold the key to improvements in several areas of human well-being, and people are starting to pay closer attention to what it can do inside the body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-essential-nutrients-in-blueberries">Essential nutrients in blueberries</h2>



They pack an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-sized-fruit-strawberries-weigh-60-percent-more-than-they-did-12-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">abundance of vitamins</a>, such as vitamin C, as well as a hefty dose of antioxidants (Thomas, 2004). These nutrients help the body defend itself against everyday stress.



Blueberries were first cultivated by Native Americans and later spread far and wide due to their hardy nature and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-messing-with-vital-microbes-in-blueberries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">easy adaptability</a>.



They fit nicely into snacks, desserts, and even main dishes, adding a layer of both flavor and nutrition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-inflammation">Balancing inflammation</h2>



According to <a href="https://www.uottawa.ca/faculty-health-sciences/interdisciplinary/our-professors/karen-phillips" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Karen Phillips</a> at The National Food Research Center, certain compounds inside blueberries, like proanthocyanidins, may help the body handle unwanted inflammation (Retamales &amp; Hancock, 2012).



When there is too much inflammation, it can cause trouble with healing and contribute to tissue injury and disease. 



These plant compounds seem to bring balance. Getting them into one’s routine through a handful of blueberries might help the body feel more at ease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blueberries-for-cancer-and-aging">Blueberries for cancer and aging</h2>



In 2015, around 220,000 patients were diagnosed with cancer in Spain (<a href="https://seom.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spanish Society of Medical Oncology</a>, as cited in Gough, 1994). Such figures are hard to ignore.



Some studies have examined whether eating blueberries could influence the way the body manages abnormal cells.



Research suggests that these berries contain substances like gallic acid and resveratrol, which have been linked with reduced growth of certain abnormal cells (Wilms et al., 2007).



Although this should not be seen as a promise to preventing all problems, it may add a bit of hope that dietary changes can make a difference.



Proanthocyanidins may protect against changes that are linked with aging (Ivarsson et al., 2023). By helping mop up the undesirable free radicals that lead to wear and tear, blueberries may aid in promoting health as years pass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-function-support">Brain function support</h2>



The mind deserves protection too. Substances within blueberries <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-why-blueberries-are-blue/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">may help</a> neurons work better by fending off damage caused by harmful processes (Caruso et al., 2022).



Adding a serving of blueberries to a meal might help the brain stay on track. Many believe this berry could be one piece of the puzzle when it comes to keeping memory and mental sharpness in good shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blueberries-looking-after-dna">Blueberries looking after DNA</h2>



When cells age, they can suffer damage that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-dna-is-more-common-in-people-with-autism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">affects DNA</a> (Wilms et al., 2007). 



Blueberries contain antioxidants that may help reduce the harm done to this critical genetic material, thus allowing cells to continue functioning smoothly.



With fewer harmful changes in our DNA, we may be able to avoid some serious health issues as we age. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-with-sugar-balance">Helping with sugar balance</h2>



For individuals facing insulin resistance, blueberries have caught researchers’ eyes. A 2010 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20467011/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> suggested that these berries might help the body respond better to insulin (Stull et al., 2010).



By helping maintain stable blood sugar levels, they can be a useful addition to a meal plan, especially for those looking to keep sugar swings in check.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-healthy-cholesterol">Supporting healthy cholesterol</h2>



According to the <a href="https://www.usa.gov/agencies/u-s-department-of-agriculture" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United States Department of Agriculture</a>, blueberries are thought to be strong helpers in addressing cholesterol concerns (U.S. Department of Agriculture, as cited in Retamales &amp; Hancock, 2012).



By encouraging an environment that keeps good cholesterol levels humming along and discourages the buildup of problematic cholesterol, blueberries may promote healthier circulation within our blood vessels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blueberries-boost-circulation-memory-and-eye-health">Blueberries boost circulation, memory, and eye health</h2>



Healthy blood flow is important. Emerging information suggests that adding these berries to the diet may help reduce blood pressure and support better circulation (Vendrame &amp; Klimis-Zacas, 2019).



This could help our body systems run more efficiently. A boost in nutrient delivery and improved overall function may spring from this simple dietary addition.



Some studies involving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-transmit-more-viruses-to-animals-than-we-catch-from-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans and animals</a> have linked blueberries with better memory and improved cognitive performance (Pribis &amp; Shukitt-Hale, 2014; Krikorian et al., 2010). By supporting communication among brain cells, blueberries may make it easier for the mind to keep track of details and ideas.



The antioxidants inside blueberries, called anthocyanins, have been studied in connection with eye health (Huang et al., 2018). By helping protect delicate structures in the eye, these components may reduce the risks tied to exposure and strain. Adding blueberries now might help keep eyes working well for longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-a-healthier-body-size">Shaping a healthier body size</h2>



For those watching their weight, blueberries slide in as a fiber-filled, low-calorie snack (Kalt et al., 2020). They bring a sense of fullness that can help hold off unhealthy cravings. 



They may also help keep blood sugar levels more stable. All these factors point towards blueberries as a superfood with an important place in a sensible eating plan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unexpected-boost-in-intimate-life">An unexpected boost in intimate life</h2>



Nitric oxide plays a role in healthy circulation. 



Research suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/compounds-found-blueberries-could-treat-inflammatory-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">compounds</a> in blueberries may influence levels of this molecule, which has been tied to processes connected with performance (Yale School of Medicine, as cited in Gough, 1994).



Their vitamins help with blood circulation, including that of the scalp, which can support healthier hair as a result. By helping to improve overall body function, blueberries can contribute to how people look and feel on the outside too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glowing-skin-and-stronger-defenses">Glowing skin and stronger defenses</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inaoside-new-antioxidant-discovered-laetiporus-cremeiporus-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antioxidants</a> in blueberries keep our skin feeling smooth and youthful (Ivarsson et al., 2023). As part of a skincare plan, they may tip the balance toward a more vibrant look.



Rich in vitamin C and other nutrients, these berries can support the immune system’s day-to-day job (Chaudière &amp; Ferrari-Iliou, 1999). They may help the body stand tall when facing challenges, from minor sniffles to bigger threats.



The research referred to in this article is supported by studies published in:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li><a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/14/4/819" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrients</a> (Caruso et al., 2022, doi: 10.3390/nu14040819).</li>



<li>Food and Chemical Toxicology (Chaudière and Ferrari-Iliou, 1999).</li>



<li><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022316622071085?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Nutrition</a> (Stull et al., 2010, doi: 10.3945/jn.110.125336).</li>



<li><a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jf9029332" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry</a> (Krikorian et al., 2010, doi: 10.1021/jf9029332)</li>



<li><a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3921/12/6/1261" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antioxidants</a> (Ivarsson et al., 2023, doi: 10.3390/antiox12061261)</li>



<li><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2018/1862462" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity</a> (Huang et al., 2018, doi: 10.1155/2018/1862462)</li>



<li><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2161831322002538?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advances in Nutrition</a> (Kalt et al., 2020, doi: 10.1093/advances/nmz065).</li>
</ul>



These peer-reviewed studies provide scientific evidence of the benefits associated with blueberry consumption.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

15 benefits of eating blueberries, the superfood that greatly improves health

Blueberries have long been admired for their taste and versatility...

On February 2, 1887, residents of Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania turned to a large rodent to predict the arrival of spring, marking the first official Groundhog Day.&nbsp;



Over 130 years later, according to Rob Guralnick, curator of biodiversity informatics at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, we haven’t made much progress in predicting seasonal changes.



“We can’t generate good forecasts for whether spring will arrive early or late next year nearly as well as we can make predictions about the weather,” Guralnick said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-the-climate-response-of-plants">Predicting the climate response of plants</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-oceans-hidden-influence-on-global-weather-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weather patterns</a> undoubtedly influence the seasons, but how plants and animals respond to those changes - a field called phenology - is equally important.&nbsp;



While meteorologists can reliably forecast temperatures months ahead, predicting when plants will sprout leaves or flowers remains a challenge. Add climate change into the mix, and the puzzle becomes even harder to solve.



However, a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01807-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a> offers promising advancements.&nbsp;



By improving existing methods and incorporating the rate at which springtime temperatures rise, the study accurately predicts how seasonal cycles have shifted over the past 150 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-bloom-earlier-in-a-warmer-climate">Plants bloom earlier in a warmer climate </h2>



The breakthrough came after researchers rediscovered a forgotten 19th-century report containing thousands of phenological observations across the eastern United States.&nbsp;



This report - the earliest citizen science project organized by the <a href="https://www.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Institution</a> - documented when plants and animals became active across regions stretching from Michigan to Florida.



Theresa Crimmins, director of the <a href="https://www.usanpn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USA National Phenology Network</a> and co-author of the study, stumbled upon the report while researching for a book chapter.&nbsp;



“I dug up this old document and realized there was actual data in it. Most of the other reports that had been referenced were just summaries,” said Crimmins.



The team used these historical records as a baseline. By comparing them with modern observations, they uncovered striking shifts.



“All 18 species advanced their leaf growth and flowering phenology,” Crimmins explained. “On average, it’s occurring more than three weeks earlier than it did in the past. There are some species that are flowering more than a month earlier.”



The findings confirm what scientists suspected: global warming has led to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-spring-follows-the-hottest-february-on-record/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier springs</a> and longer summers. Yet the study’s use of historical data over such an extensive time period is rare, making the results particularly compelling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-regions-are-changing-faster-than-others">Some regions are changing faster than others</h2>



Interestingly, not all areas of the U.S. have experienced the same shifts. Phenology in the Northeast has advanced far more than in the Southeast, highlighting variations in the rate of change across latitudes.&nbsp;



Traditional models used to predict <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-actively-shaped-earths-climate-cycle-throughout-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant activity</a> focus on two main variables: a plant’s location and the amount of warm weather needed for it to grow. While these models work for specific species in localized areas, they struggle to explain broader trends across diverse ecosystems.



“Not only is there variation across species, there’s variation across latitudes in the rate of global warming. Climate is warming faster at higher latitudes,” said co-author Lindsay Campbell, an assistant professor at the University of Florida’s <a href="https://fmel.ifas.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory</a>.



These complexities can result in unexpected patterns. For example, red maples, which typically bloom early in spring, may be outpaced by pink azaleas - traditionally later bloomers - if they grow in an area where temperatures rise quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-missing-factor-warming-velocity">A missing factor: Warming velocity</h2>



To solve these mysteries, Guralnick suspected an overlooked factor: the rate at which temperatures increase in spring, also called “warming velocity.”&nbsp;



Areas near large bodies of water, for example, warm more slowly because water retains heat longer than air. Such regions tend to experience gradual warming and milder winters.



To test this idea, Michaela Keys and Carolyn Davis, two museum interns, digitized the Smithsonian’s historical data. Co-author Erin Grady, a graduate student at the University of Florida, compiled modern observations from citizen science platforms like <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iNaturalist</a> and the National Phenology Network.



Once the team ran the numbers, the results were clear: adding warming velocity dramatically improved the accuracy of their predictions. It also provided explanations for anomalies like late-blooming plants flowering ahead of early bloomers under certain conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-dance-between-plants-and-climate-change-nbsp">Complex dance between plants and climate change&nbsp;</h2>



These findings have important implications for conservation. As global temperatures continue to rise, species are not only shifting their seasonal cycles but also changing where they live. For conservationists, being able to predict these changes is vital for protecting ecosystems.



“I’ve always been skeptical about whether we’ll be able to predict what the world will look like in the near future, but I think we’re getting better at it as we take a more holistic view and as we get the underlying processes nailed down,” Guralnick said. “Doing so helps us manage the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> we have left.”



By combining historical observations with modern data and improved models, scientists are inching closer to understanding the complex dance between plants, temperature, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-defy-climate-change-through-acclimation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.&nbsp;



As the planet warms, tools like these will be crucial for anticipating and mitigating the impacts of a shifting world.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Predicting how climate change will alter plant growth cycles

On February 2, 1887, residents of Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania turned to...

Scientists have announced the discovery of a species of lipstick vine that is completely new to science, found in the depths of the Philippine rainforest.



This species, which has never been documented in botanical records, has sparked a wave of excitement among scientists and nature enthusiasts alike. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-expedition-into-the-heart-of-luzon">An expedition into the heart of Luzon</h2>



A daring expedition by a team of botanists in 2022 led them into Barangay Balbalasang <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-biodiversity-in-rainforest-canopies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a>, a remote and virtually inaccessible part of Luzon island. 



The journey began with days of rugged travel to reach the rainforest, which was filled with unforgiving thickets that demanded to be sliced with machetes. In these wild conditions, the researchers discovered their prize.



The team included Jayson Mansibang, Adriane Tobias, and Pastor L. Malabrigo from the <a href="https://uplb.edu.ph/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Philippines Los Baños</a>, along with Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the Oxford Botanic Garden and Arboretum.



The researchers stayed with the Banao Tribe, an indigenous community that protects the local forest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-lipstick-vine-unlike-any-other">A lipstick vine unlike any other</h2>



Among the species found in the forest, one stood out - a specimen of the lipstick vine, a genus known as Aeschynanthus.



This plant had a distinct pattern of delicate purple mottling which painted its flowers in a pattern similar to that of a European <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/foxgloves-rapidly-evolved-in-the-presence-of-hummingbirds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foxglove</a>.



"We were trekking through dense vegetation when suddenly we spotted a luminous white, purple-spotted flower dangling above our heads," said Dr. Thorogood.



"We suspected immediately that it was new to science. It’s so exciting that beautiful species like this are still there waiting to be described.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery-of-a-new-lipstick-vine">The discovery of a new lipstick vine </h2>



The team named the plant Aeschynanthus pentatrichomatus from the Latin ‘penta,’ meaning five, and ‘trichomatus’ referring to the trichomes - hair-like outgrowths deep in the throats of the flowers.



Lipstick vines, encompassing nearly 180 tropical and subtropical species, are known for their tubular, bud-like appearance. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woody-vines-amplify-the-effects-of-lightning-in-tropical-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vines</a>, often adorning other plants and trees, boast vibrantly colored flowers that attract birds for pollination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-concerns-amid-climate-change">Conservation concerns amid climate change</h2>



Sadly, this newfound beauty already faces a critical risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-plants-on-earth-could-be-saved-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a>. Rapid climate change, driving increasingly intense typhoons, relentlessly threatens the plant's natural habitat.



The Barangay Balbalasang rainforest remains remarkably intact, housing numerous species that cannot be found anywhere else in the world. The researchers hope that the new discovery can help support conservation efforts to protect the region.



"We dedicate this discovery not only to the unique beauty of the Banao forest but also to the Banao People themselves, who, through their care and stewardship, have ensured the conservation of rare species within these precious forests," said Tobias.



"It’s rare to find Aeschynanthus in such an environment, and as young botanists, we were thrilled to discover something so distinct.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-s-plant-data-darkspots">The world's plant data darkspots </h2>



“Many new species remain undocumented in the world’s ‘plant data <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-darkspots-need-urgent-attention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">darkspots</a>’ - up to 15% of the world’s flora in fact," noted Dr. Thorogood.



"Finding these ‘known unknowns’ is essential for understanding and protecting biodiversity. That’s what makes discoveries such as this one so important for conservation science.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-importance-of-lipstick-vines">Ecological importance of lipstick vines</h2>



The discovery of Aeschynanthus pentatrichomatus sheds light on the ecological importance of lipstick vines in tropical ecosystems. 



As epiphytes, these plants grow on trees without harming them, creating microhabitats that support diverse wildlife. 



Their vividly colored flowers play a vital role in attracting pollinators, particularly birds, which are essential for maintaining the delicate balance of tropical rainforests.



Beyond their ecological contributions, lipstick vines are indicators of environmental health. Their presence often signifies a well-preserved ecosystem, as these plants thrive only in stable and intact habitats. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-a-unique-rainforest">Protecting a unique rainforest </h2>



The discovery of this new species in Barangay Balbalasang emphasizes the rainforest’s unique biodiversity and the urgent need to safeguard it.



With nearly 180 known species of Aeschynanthus, each adapted to its specific environment, the newly discovered species offers valuable insights into the evolution of plant-pollinator relationships and the resilience of tropical flora in the face of climate change. 



Protecting Aeschynanthus pentatrichomatus is not just about preserving a single species; it is about safeguarding the intricate web of life that it supports.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://nsojournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/njb.04580" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nordic Journal of Botany</a>.



Image Credit: Chris Thorogood



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Beautiful new 'lipstick vine' found in the Philippine rainforest

Scientists have announced the discovery of a species of lipstick...

Endangered plants