Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S.<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/"> Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Acaena exigua is an extinct species of flowering plant in the rose family known by the common name liliwai. It was endemic to Hawaii, where it was known from Kauaʻi and west Maui. It had not been seen or collected since 1957 and was feared extinct until 1997, when one plant was discovered in a remote montane bog on <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=maui&amp;cvid=11f593b142284a109c4b71b63cd85874&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Maui</a>. The plant died in 2000, and the species is now considered extinct.Acaena exigua A. Gray var. subtusstrigulosa Bitter: Classification. Click on a scientific name below to expand it in the PLANTS Classification Report. Rank Scientific Name and Common Name; Kingdom: Plantae – Plants Subkingdom: Tracheobionta

Acaena exigua

Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Lysimachia daphnoides NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=09de391b94ed4b88adaecc3d4807c2ff&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Lysimachia daphnoides is a rare species of flowering plant in the Primulaceae known by several common names, including Pacific loosestrife, lehua makanoe, kolekole lehua, and kolokolo kuahiwi. It is endemic to Hawaii, where there are only three populations remaining on the island of Kauai. It was federally listed as an endangered species of the United States in 2010.ource: Primulaceae of North America Update, database (version 2011) Acquired: 2011 : Notes: Updated for ITIS by the Flora of North America Expertise Network, in connection with an update for USDA PLANTS (2007-2010) Reference for: Lysimachia daphnoides

Lysimachia daphnoides

Lysimachia daphnoides NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Lysimachia filifolia NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=459bdd4304d54bfc9a81e5f0d6bb2c11&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-largest-mammals-were-a-casualty-of-climate-change/">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Lysimachia filifolia is a rare species of flowering plant in the Primulaceae known by the common name Wailua River yellow loosestrife. It is endemic to Hawaii, where there are two populations on Oahu and one on Kauai. It is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.Genus. Lysimachia L. – yellow loosestrife. Species. Lysimachia filifolia Forbes – Wailua River yellow loosestrife. Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children. Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state.Lysimachia filifolia is a small shrub in the primrose family that reaches 0.5-1.6 ft (15.2-48.8 cm) in height. The linear leaves measure 0.6-2.1 in (1.5-5.3 cm) long, 0.01-0.07 in (0.3-1.7 mm) wide, and are usually alternately arranged.

Lysimachia filifolia

Lysimachia filifolia NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Lysimachia iniki NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fungi&amp;cvid=4b64aafb45a3489fbfc52e0e9adb0f08&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Lysimachia iniki is a rare species of flowering plant in the family Primulaceae known by the common names Wailua River yellow loosestrife and Wailua River island-loosestrife. It is endemic to Hawaii, where there is only one known occurrence existing on the island of Kauai. The plant was federally listed as an endangered species of the United States in 2010. Lysimachia iniki SPECIES STATUS: Genetic Safety Net Species Hawai‘i Natural Heritage Ranking – Critically Imperiled (G1) Endemism – Kaua‘i SPECIES INFORMATION: Shrubs with pendulous branches 30‐150 cm long. Leaf blades are 37‐45 mm long and 35‐38 mm wide. Flowers solitary in leaf axils.

Lysimachia iniki

Lysimachia iniki NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Lysimachia lydgatei NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Lysimachia lydgatei ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=09de391b94ed4b88adaecc3d4807c2ff&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.ysimachia lydgatei is a rare species of flowering plant in the family Primulaceae known by the common name Maui yellow loosestrife. It is endemic to Hawaii, where there are only four occurrences remaining on the island of Maui, the total number of plants under 300. It is federally listed as an endangered species of the United States.Maui yellow loosestrife Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists.

Lysimachia lydgatei

Lysimachia lydgatei NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Lysimachia maxima NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/fungi-characteristics-and-function/">fungi,</a> and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Lysimachia maxima is a rare species of flowering plant in the family Primulaceae known by the common name Pelekunu Trail yellow loosestrife. It is endemic to Hawaii, where there are only two small populations remaining on the island of Molokai. It is federally listed as an endangered species of the United States. Pelekunu Trail yellow loosestrife Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists

Lysimachia maxima

Lysimachia maxima NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Lysimachia pendens NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Lysimachia pendens ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=6a8a6a2a06f74de1853d1855a76fb264&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.consisting of 193 accepted species of flowering plants traditionally classified in the family Primulaceae. Based on a molecular phylogenetic study it was transferred to the family Myrsinaceae, before this family was later merged into the Primulaceae.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Lysimachia pendens is a rare species of flowering plant in the family Primulaceae known by the common name broad-leaf yellow loosestrife. It is endemic to Hawaii, where there is a single occurrence known on the island of Kauai. It was federally listed as an endangered species of the United States in 2010.arr Show All Show Tabs broad-leaf yellow loosestrife General Information; Symbol: LYPE3 Group: Dicot Family: Primulaceae Duration: Perennial: Growth Habit: Shrub: Native Status: HI N: Data Source and Documentation: About our new maps.

Lysimachia pendens

Lysimachia pendens NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Lysimachia scopulensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals,<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fungi&amp;cvid=72ed80a867ad412ea3dadd1008ec4f61&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.A fungus (plural: fungi or funguses ) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants and animals.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Lysimachia scopulensis is a rare species of flowering plant in the family Primulaceae known by the common name shiny-leaf yellow loosestrife. It is endemic to Hawaii, where there are two small populations on the island of Kauai. It was federally listed as an endangered species of the United States in 2010.Lysimachia scopulensis Marr Show All Show Tabs shiny-leaf yellow loosestrife General Information; Symbol: LYSC2 Group: Dicot Family: Primulaceae Duration: Perennial: Growth Habit: Shrub: Native Status: HI N: Data Source and Documentation: About our new maps.

Lysimachia scopulensis

Lysimachia scopulensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Lysimachia venosa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-set-a-bedtime-alarm-that-helps-them-survive-the-night/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=09de391b94ed4b88adaecc3d4807c2ff&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Lysimachia venosa is a rare species of flowering plant in the family Primulaceae known by the common name veined yellow loosestrife. It is endemic to Hawaii, where it is known only from the island of Kauai. The plant was only collected twice, last in 1911, but in 1991, a branch was discovered that had broken off the steep cliffs above the headwaters of the Wailua River. The branch was from a plant of this species and may have fallen from the summit of Mount Waialeale. No more specimens have been found since and the plant may be extinct, but some experts believe it may still exist in unsurveyed parts of the habitat. It was federally listed as an endangered species of the United States in 2010.

Lysimachia venosa

Lysimachia venosa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Macbridea alba NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-can-hide-the-effects-of-climate-stress-for-years/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Macbridea alba is a rare species of flowering plant in the mint family known by the common name white birds-in-a-nest. It is endemic to Florida in the United States, where it is found in four counties in the Florida Panhandle. It is threatened by the loss and degradation of its habitat, and it is federally listed as a threatened species of the United States. Macbridea alba Chapm. – white birds-in-a-nest. Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children. Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists.

Macbridea alba

Macbridea alba NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Cordia subcordata

Maesa walkeri NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=2834e2ca5d7748e282b6619e230f4dbe&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-set-a-bedtime-alarm-that-helps-them-survive-the-night/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.An Maesa walkeri  in uska species han <a title="Magnoliopsida" href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnoliopsida">Magnoliopsida</a> nga ginhulagway ni F. R. Fosberg ngan Amp; M.-h. Sachet. An Maesa walkeri in nahilalakip ha <a title="Genus" href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus">genus</a> nga <a title="Maesa" href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maesa">Maesa</a>, ngan <a class="mw-redirect" title="Familia" href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia">familia</a> nga <a title="Primulaceae" href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primulaceae">Primulaceae</a>. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista. Anopheles walkeri is a species of mosquito found predominantly throughout the Mississippi River Valley, with its habitat ranging as far north as southern Quebec, Canada. The eggs of A. walkeri are laid directly on the water surface in freshwater swamp habitats. Since its eggs are not resistant to desiccation, this species is restricted to swampy regions with plenty of water.Why we need to publish a rule.Under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act or ESA), a species may warrant protection through listing if it is endangered or threatened throughout all or a significant portion of its range. Listing a species as an endangered or threatened species can only be completed by issuing a rule

Maesa walkeri

Maesa walkeri NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Malacothamnus clementinus, San Clemente Island, SBBG Research 2005

Malacothamnus clementinus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/faking-death-is-a-good-way-for-animals-to-stay-alive/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Malacothamnus clementinus is a rare species of flowering plant in the mallow family known by the common name San Clemente Island bushmallow. It is endemic to San Clemente Island, one of the Channel Islands of California, where it is known from fewer than ten occurrences in the steep, rocky seaside canyons. The plant became a federally listed endangered species in 1977 when it was limited to a single population nearing extinction due to herbivory by the feral goats which once infested the small island. The goats have since been removed and the plant is recovering well, but many threats still remain, including competition with introduced species of plants, wildfire, erosion, and damage to the landscape by United States Navy bombing exercises.

Malacothamnus clementinus

Malacothamnus clementinus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Malacothamnus fasciculatus var. nesioticus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=09de391b94ed4b88adaecc3d4807c2ff&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Malacothamnus fasciculatus, with the common name chaparral mallow, is a species of flowering plant in the mallow family. It is found in far western North America.Flowers come out in summer and are arranged on an elongated cluster. A shrub can have of thousands of pale pink flowers with petals under a centimeter long. One variety of this species, var. nesioticus, is a rare plant endemic to Santa Cruz Island, one of the Channel Islands of California, where only about 120 individuals remain. a small soft-woody shrub in the mallow (Malvaceae) family. It grows up to 2 meters (6 feet) tall, with slender branches, palmate leaves, and rose-colored flowers. This endemic variety is

Malacothamnus fasciculatus var. nesioticus

Malacothamnus fasciculatus var. nesioticus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Malacothrix indecora NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=b7fc888c25ca4630930572955a2658cb&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-set-a-bedtime-alarm-that-helps-them-survive-the-night/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Malacothrix indecora is a rare species of flowering plant in the aster family known by the common name Santa Cruz Island desertdandelion. It is endemic to the Channel Islands of California, where it is known from only a few populations on three of the eight islands. As of 2000, there were three occurrences on San Miguel Island, two on Santa Rosa Island, and one on Santa Cruz Island. It grows on the bluffs and rocky coastal grasslands of the islands. Like many Channel Islands endemics, this plant is naturally limited in distribution and has been threatened by the presence of destructive introduced mammals, in this case, feral pigs. The plant became a federally listed endangered species in 1997. This is a mat-forming annual herb which spreads low to the ground no more than about 10 centimeters high. The fleshy leaves have dull lobes. The inflorescence is an array of flower heads lined with oval-shaped phyllaries. The ray florets are under a centimeter long and yellow in color.

Malacothrix indecora

Malacothrix indecora NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Malacothrix squalida NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/faking-death-is-a-good-way-for-animals-to-stay-alive/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Malacothrix squalida is a rare species of flowering plant in the aster family known by the common name Santa Cruz desertdandelion. It is endemic to Santa Cruz and Anacapa Islands, two of the eight Channel Islands of California, where it grows on rocky seaside bluffs and cliffs. The plant is very limited in distribution and today exists only in degraded habitat on these two small islands. It was last collected from Santa Cruz Island in 1968, and two populations were noted on Anacapa Island in 1998; in drought years there may be no plants at all. It became a federally listed endangered species in 1997.

Malacothrix squalida

Malacothrix squalida NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Manihot walkerae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants,<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=animals&amp;cvid=2f2a480bcb0246f4bccf73b8e670a9fc&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> animals</a> and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-set-a-bedtime-alarm-that-helps-them-survive-the-night/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Manihot walkerae ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.The fleshy, underground root stores water and nutrients, and produces new stems each year. which dies back during dry periods or following a freeze. The fleshy, underground root stores water and nutrients, and produces new stems each year. The plant has a dull almond odor caused by the presence of hydrogen cyanide in all parts of the plant.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Manihot walkerae, commonly known as Walker's manihot, is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, that is native to the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas in the United States and Tamaulipas in Mexico. The specific name honours amateur botanist Thelma Ratcliff Walker, who discovered the type specimen near Mission and La Joya, Texas in 1942.

Manihot walkerae

Manihot walkerae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Marshallia mohrii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/fungi-characteristics-and-function/">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Marshallia mohrii is a perennial herb species, endemic to the Southeastern United States, in several locations in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. The first recorded discovery of the species was in 1882 by Dr. Charles Mohr, hence the botanical species name and common name. Marshallia mohrii grows to around 1–2.5 ft in height, with 2.5 cm wide tubular-shaped flowers found in 2-6 flower masses. The flowers can range in color from white, to pale pink or lavender. The leaves of the plant are <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Leaf%20shape%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">lanceolate</a> to ovate in shape, ranging from 6–10 cm long and 2 cm wide, with three parallel veins. The leaves are larger.

Marshallia mohrii

Marshallia mohrii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Marsilea villosa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-can-hide-the-effects-of-climate-stress-for-years/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=aabaaf0664504637a276e95fd90173b7&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Marsilea villosa, the ʻihiʻihi or villous waterclover, is a species of fern that is endemic to the islands of Oʻahu, Molokaʻi and Niʻihau in Hawaii. It is found exclusively in areas that experience periodic flooding and become ephemeral pools within low elevation dry forests and shrublands. Standing water allows the sporocarp to open and release spores. It also enables the resulting sperm to swim toward and fertilize female ova. For new plants to become established, the waters must subside. Sporocarps only form once the soil has dried to a certain level. Like other species in its genus, the leaves of M. villosa resemble those of a four-leaf clover.

Marsilea villosa

Marsilea villosa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Melanthera tenuifolia NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-set-a-bedtime-alarm-that-helps-them-survive-the-night/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=09de391b94ed4b88adaecc3d4807c2ff&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Melanthera tenuifolia is a rare species of flowering plant in the aster family known by the common names Waianae Range nehe and slender-leaf nehe. It is endemic to Hawaii, where it is known only from the island of Oahu. It grows on mountain slopes and ridges and is limited to the Waianae Range of Oahu. There are 10 occurrences for a total population between 2,000 and 3,000 individuals. Identify and map all extant wild populations: Ongoing Not Current: Prior to FY 1995: Other: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services Division, The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii, Division of Forestry and Wildlife, Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, U.S.

Melanthera tenuifolia

Melanthera tenuifolia NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

The humble carrot may be more powerful than we realized. Beyond its culinary versatility, this nutrient-rich root vegetable is gaining attention for its potential health benefits. Recent research suggests that carrots could play a significant role in the fight against type 2 diabetes.



The study was conducted by a team of experts from the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Denmark</a> (SDU), Odense University Hospital, and the University of Copenhagen. 



The researchers found that carrots boost the body's regulation of blood sugar levels and have a beneficial influence on gut bacteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-type-2-diabetes">What is type 2 diabetes?</h2>



Type 2 diabetes is a widespread and growing public health concern, impacting millions of people worldwide. 



Characterized by the body’s inability to effectively use insulin, this chronic condition can lead to serious complications including heart disease, kidney damage, nerve issues, and vision loss.



The prevalence of type 2 diabetes has been steadily rising, fueled by factors such as sedentary lifestyles, unhealthy diets, and increasing rates of obesity. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-a-snack-food">More than just a snack food </h2>



According to the World Health Organization, the number of people living with diabetes has nearly quadrupled over the past few decades - highlighting the urgent need for effective prevention, management, and treatment strategies.



Current treatments for type 2 diabetes involve dietary changes and drugs, which can be quite irritating. 



The researchers propose that carrots, which are rich in bioactive compounds, may offer a natural way to complement existing treatments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bioactive-compounds-in-carrots">Bioactive compounds in carrots </h2>



To test their theory, the scientists placed laboratory mice with type 2 diabetes in two groups for a period of 16 weeks.



One group was fed a high fat diet that was supplemented with 10% freeze-dried powder of carrots, while the other group did not receive carrots in their diets.



The team found that mice on the carrot-enriched diet developed better regulation of blood sugar and a healthier gut microbiome.



The experts concluded that it was the bioactive compounds in carrots, such as short-chain fatty acid-promoting agents, which led to these improvements.



"Carrots altered the composition of the gut microbiome - the billions of microorganisms living in the gut that play a crucial role in digestion and health. Mice consuming carrots exhibited a healthier balance of gut bacteria," noted Morten Kobæk Larsen, who coordinated the research project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carrots-and-gut-bacteria">Carrots and gut bacteria</h2>



The mice that were fed carrots had more bacteria that ferment short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which are small molecules produced when bacterial populations ferment dietary fibers.



These molecules are crucial for regulating energy metabolism and blood sugar. They play a crucial role in helping maintain homeostasis of the gut microbiota and reducing inflammation.



"Everything we eat affects the composition of gut bacteria. Consuming carrots shifts the gut bacteria towards a healthier balance, benefiting mice with type 2 diabetes," explained Larsen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-strategies-for-type-2-diabetes">Dietary strategies for type 2 diabetes</h2>



Carrots contain bioactive substances derived from unsaturated fatty acids that enhance cells' ability to absorb sugar, aiding in blood sugar regulation and overall metabolic health. 



Other vegetables such as parsley, celery, and parsnips contain similar compounds.



"We see carrots as a potential component of future dietary strategies for type 2 diabetes. Other vegetables in the carrot family might have similar properties," said Lars Porskjær Christensen, a professor of analytical chemistry and natural product chemistry at SDU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While the research is promising, it has not been directly applied to humans. The experts believe the next step is to conduct human clinical trials.



"Such studies are costly, and we are working to secure external funding to conduct a smaller clinical trial with carrots containing relatively high amounts of bioactive compounds," said Christensen.



The researchers hope that this could pave the way for larger clinical studies to help provide preventative measures against type 2 diabetes.



Of course, preparation does play a part in retaining the health-promoting substances found in carrots.



"Even with prolonged frying or boiling, some bioactive compounds remain. However, raw or lightly cooked carrots seem to be the best option to retain as many beneficial compounds as possible," concluded Christensen.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://ascpt.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cts.70090" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clinical and Translational Science</a>.



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Carrots may help manage diabetes by improving gut health

The humble carrot may be more powerful than we realized....

Picture a charming blueberry farm, where vibrant bushes brim with richly colored fruit and sunlit leaves shimmer in the light. Yet, a change is on the horizon.



Blueberry plants are now under threat, with their vibrant appearance dulled and growth stunted by a powdery white substance. 



The culprit is a fungus called Erysiphe vaccinii, which is responsible for the disease known as powdery mildew.



A recent study from North Carolina State University reveals the alarming global spread of&nbsp;Erysiphe vaccinii in blueberries. 



Powdery mildew reduces yield and increases fungicide reliance. It is currently impacting blueberry production on multiple continents. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-spread-of-fungal-blueberry-disease">Global spread of fungal blueberry disease </h2>



According to the study, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-fungus-found-in-garden-soils-across-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungus</a> has spread globally over the past 12 years, after originating in the eastern United States. 



"We’re watching this global spread happen right now, in real time," said Michael Bradshaw, assistant professor of plant pathology at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NC State</a>.



The fungus responsible for powdery mildew creates a white, powdery layer on the surface of infected plants. 



This coating not only disrupts the plant’s ability to absorb sunlight for photosynthesis but also steals essential nutrients from the plant’s tissues.



As a result, the plant’s growth is stunted, and its overall health declines - making it weaker and less productive.



"There are other closely related powdery mildews that affect plants like wild berries or eucalyptus, but these are genetically different from the ones spreading across the world on blueberries," noted Bradshaw.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-spread-of-powdery-mildew">Tracking the spread of powdery mildew </h2>



The researchers examined 173 samples of infected blueberry leaves to study the spread of powdery mildew disease. These samples included both historic specimens from herbariums (some collected over 150 years ago) and more recent samples from various countries.



Through genetic testing, the team discovered that the strains causing the current outbreaks are entirely new and different from those found in the older specimens. They identified two distinct introductions of the fungus into the global blueberry-growing regions.



One strain spread to China, Mexico, and California and the other strain was found in Morocco, Peru, and Portugal.



Bradshaw suggested that humans likely played a major role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diseases-flourish-in-city-landscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spread of the fungus</a> by transporting infected nursery plants across borders.



“If you’re sending plant material across the world, you’re likely spreading this fungus with it,” he stated. This highlights how the global plant trade can inadvertently introduce harmful pathogens to new regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-the-disease-on-blueberries">Impact of the disease on blueberries</h2>



Powdery mildew has a significant economic impact on the blueberry industry, costing between $47 million and $530 million every year. 



These costs stem primarily from the increased use of fungicides needed to prevent or manage the disease, as well as from potential losses in crop yield.



The study also identifies regions like the U.S. Pacific Northwest as being particularly vulnerable to future outbreaks. This area has environmental conditions that are ideal for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-fungi-diversity-can-be-pulled-out-of-thin-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a> to thrive, such as the right combination of temperature and humidity, yet the fungus has not yet been reported there.



Proactive monitoring and management are urgently needed to prevent the disease from taking hold in such high-risk regions.



Bradshaw noted that agricultural practices could influence disease severity. "Some areas that grow blueberries in tunnels, or enclosed areas, seem to have worse disease outcomes than areas that grow blueberries outdoors without any covering, like in North Carolina," he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-farmers-manage-powdery-mildew">Helping farmers manage powdery mildew </h2>



To help farmers manage powdery mildew more effectively, the researchers developed a public database designed to identify different strains of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungus</a>. Growers can use this tool to input data about the fungus affecting their crops and determine which specific strain is present in their fields. 



This information is crucial because it helps farmers understand the characteristics of the strain they are dealing with, including its level of virulence (how damaging it can be) and whether it is resistant to commonly used fungicides. 



By knowing these details, farmers can make more informed decisions about how to control the disease and protect their crops.



“Understanding the genetics can warn farmers about which strain they have, whether it is resistant to fungicides, and how the disease is spreading,” Bradshaw explained.



This research highlights the urgent need to address powdery mildew’s global spread. By improving monitoring and control strategies, the study offers hope for safeguarding the blueberry industry from this emerging disease.



The research was supported by the National Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF</a>) and <a href="https://novonordiskfonden.dk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Novo Nordisk Foundation</a>.



The findings are published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/nph.20351" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



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Disease attacking blueberry plants is spreading around the world

Picture a charming blueberry farm, where vibrant bushes brim with...

When we think about the food habits of our prehistoric ancestors, our minds often wander to a time filled with animal hunts, meat-rich meals, and little thought given to plant-based foods.



Collectively, we’ve bought into the narrative that the diet of early humans was primarily carnivorous.



However, new research is causing us to reconsider this long-held belief, revealing that plant-based foods played a far more significant role in our ancestors’ diets than previously thought.



On the fertile banks of the Jordan River, south of northern Israel’s Hula Valley, a profound archaeological discovery was made. It challenges the common conception of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-our-stomach-microbes-reveal-about-ancient-human-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric human diets</a>, painting a distinctly different picture of our ancestors’ eating habits.



The archaeological study suggests that early hominids didn’t just rely on animal protein; they were voracious consumers of a range of plant-based foods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-a-major-energy-source-for-early-humans">Plants: A major energy source for early humans</h2>



The discovery of ancient starch grains was the study's primary focus. These grains, believed to be approximately 780,000 years old, were found on basalt stone tools at an old settlement site near Gesher Benot Ya’akov.



This significant location, positioned on the shores of the historic Hula Lake, is a treasure trove for archaeologists. It offers countless layers of settlements, alongside fossilized animal remains and plant remnants like seeds and fruits.



The findings provide crucial evidence of early humans’ extensive use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-based-food-production-would-have-extremely-positive-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based</a> resources for sustenance.



By analyzing the preserved starch grains, the researchers have identified a broad spectrum of plant species that were processed and consumed by ancient hominids.



The results of the study highlight the adaptability of early humans in utilizing their environment to meet dietary needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-plant-based-foods-in-early-diets">Role of plant-based foods in early diets</h2>



The study essentially debunks the widely accepted notion that the diet of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-diets-early-humans-richer-berries-nuts-plants-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient humans</a> relied on animal protein - a belief often encouraged by the popular "paleo" diet interpretations.



Considering the rarity of plant-based food remains in archaeological sites and the frequency of animal bone findings, this assumption is understandable. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/plant-based-diet_early-humans_discovery_credit-Melamed_Ahituv_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/plant-based-diet_early-humans_discovery_credit-Melamed_Ahituv_1s.webp" alt="Examples of some of the plants recovered from Gesher Benot Ya'akov percussive tools, including both the whole plant, the edible part, and the characteristic starch grains. From left to right: oak, yellow water lily, and common oat (scale is 20 µm). Credit: Dr. Hadar Ahituv and Dr. Yoel Melamed" class="wp-image-1956094"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of some of the plants recovered from Gesher Benot Ya'akov percussive tools, including both the whole plant, the edible part, and the characteristic starch grains. From left to right: oak, yellow water lily, and common oat (scale is 20 µm). Credit: Dr. Hadar Ahituv and Dr. Yoel Melamed</figcaption></figure>



Nevertheless, the presence of starch grains on prehistoric tools offers fresh insights into the crucial role of plant-based foods in ancient diets.



These foods - particularly starchy tubers, nuts, and roots - are carbohydrate powerhouses that are vital to fuel the energy demands of the human brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-connection-to-plant-based-foods">Deep connection to plant-based foods</h2>



Beyond offering an alternative perspective on hominids' dietary habits, the study also highlights their advanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-humans-used-ancient-plant-fiber-technology-to-make-tools-39000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-processing methods</a>. The findings shed light on the adaptability and ingenuity of early humans.



The research was conducted as part of Dr. Hadar Ahituv's doctoral thesis at <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a>’s Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology. 



Dr. Ahituv is now at the Laboratory for Ancient Food Processing Technologies (<a href="https://arch.haifa.ac.il/2013/12/25/laboratory-for-groundstone-research/#:~:text=The%20Laboratory%20for%20Ancient%20Food,associated%20graduate%20and%20undergraduate%20students." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LAFPT</a>) at Haifa University’s Zinman Institute of Archaeology.



The researchers found starch grains on basalt maces and anvils - tools associated with cracking and crushing plant foods.



These tools provided clear evidence of plant processing, demonstrating that early humans prepared a diverse array of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-you-eat-can-literally-change-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based foods</a>. These included acorns, cereals, legumes, and aquatic plants.



"This discovery underscores the significance of plant foods in our ancestors' evolution," noted Dr. Ahituv. 



"We now recognize that early hominids gathered a range of plants year-round and processed them using basalt tools, opening a new chapter in the understanding of early human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-environmental-impacts-of-various-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diets</a> and their deep connection to plant-based foods."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-evolution-and-complex-social-societies">Human evolution and complex social societies</h2>



The ancient artifacts also offer insights into the prehistoric hominids' social and cognitive behaviors.



The systematic tools used for plant processing hint at an elevated level of cooperation and social structure, with these early humans likely operating within larger social groups. 



Their ability to utilize a diverse array of resources from both water and land-based environments showcases an intimate knowledge of their surrounding environment that was similar to the human connection with nature today.



This research builds on revolutionary discoveries, providing valuable insights into the dietary habits of our ancient ancestors, while offering a fresh perspective on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human evolution</a> and the emergence of complex societies.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418661121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Early humans thrived on plant-based diets, not just meat, over 780,000 year ago

When we think about the food habits of our prehistoric...

Hotter, drier North American climates will curtail the growth of a critical fungus used to keep the invasive spongy moth (Lymantria dispar) in check, according to computer models recently devised by scientists.



The research, led by the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> and the <a href="https://www.anl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Argonne National Laboratory</a>, highlights the interconnected nature of climate change impacts by showing how higher temperatures can ripple through ecosystems and alter species interactions in unexpected ways.



Greg Dwyer is a professor of ecology and evolution at UChicago and senior author of the study.&nbsp;



“The vast majority of previous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> studies look at individual organisms, but a small amount of climate change can have a big effect when you compound it across multiple species,” said Dwyer.&nbsp;



“So, computer models are crucial for understanding the effects of climate change on species interactions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spongy-moth-a-destructive-invader">Spongy moth: A destructive invader</h2>



Introduced to North America in 1869, the spongy moth originates from Europe. 



Female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bella-moths-use-toxins-to-deter-predators-and-attract-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moths</a> deposit their eggs on various surfaces - such as branches, stacked firewood, and outdoor furniture - which people can inadvertently transport far beyond the moth’s initial release site in Massachusetts. 



Once hatched, the caterpillars voraciously consume the leaves of hardwood forests, particularly oaks, leading to large-scale defoliation and significant tree mortality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-vs-forest-invaders">Fungi vs. forest invaders</h2>



Relief arrived in 1989, when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-all-fungi-matter-not-just-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungus</a> Entomophaga maimaiga began to spread among spongy moth populations.&nbsp;



While it’s not certain how or when this non-native fungus arrived in North America - whether intentionally introduced for control or accidentally imported - the fungus effectively curbed moth outbreaks for decades.&nbsp;



Another pathogen, the nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV), also helps keep spongy moth numbers down, but it requires large moth populations to spread efficiently. 



The E. maimaiga fungus, in contrast, can develop in small moth populations before major destruction sets in, provided that conditions are cool and moist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-warming-affects-moth-fungus-dynamics">How warming affects moth-fungus dynamics</h2>



As part of their study, Dwyer and his colleagues collaborated with atmospheric scientists Jiali Wang and Rao Kotamarthi from the Argonne National Laboratory to integrate advanced climate modeling into existing spongy moth population models.&nbsp;



By refining large-scale climate data to capture regional differences in temperature and precipitation, the research team could project how changing environments affect the interplay of spongy moths, their predators, and pathogens like E. maimaiga.



The simulations revealed that rising temperatures and drier weather reduce the infection rates of E. maimaiga, resulting in fewer moth deaths. 



As spongy moths become more likely to survive and reproduce, they cause more extensive defoliation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiplication-of-the-spongy-moth">Multiplication of the spongy moth</h2>



“Even small reductions in mortality rate for the moths lead to big increases in defoliation,” Dwyer explained. 



“If they don’t get killed off when they’re at low density one year, then the next year they’ll be back at higher density. You get this multiplication process going on.”



Recent seasonal trends have already hinted at what the future might hold. Below-average rainfall paired with above-average temperatures helped spur significant moth outbreaks, earlier than the researchers expected.&nbsp;



“Our projections were pessimistic, but probably not pessimistic enough. It’s very concerning,” said Dwyer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-domino-effect-of-climate-change">The domino effect of climate change</h2>



The study highlights the importance of treating species interactions as dynamic systems, where even slight changes in temperature or humidity can cascade across multiple organisms.&nbsp;



In this case, the spongy moth, the fungus that infects it, and the overall forest ecosystem are interlinked. As warmer, drier conditions limit E. maimaiga, spongy moth numbers surge, ultimately threatening <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-play-a-vital-role-in-maintaining-forest-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest health</a> and stability.



The spongy moth’s destructive capacity poses a financial burden as well, given the expensive efforts needed to manage infestations and the losses in timber and ecosystem services resulting from tree deaths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-spongy-moth-populations-nbsp">Controlling spongy moth populations&nbsp;</h2>



By drawing attention to the vulnerability of E. maimaiga under climate change, the study suggests that forest managers and policymakers might need alternative or supplemental approaches to control spongy moth populations.&nbsp;



In addition, other species could be affected in similarly indirect ways - a warning that climate change can reshape ecological communities through multiple layers of interaction.



In the future, the team hopes to test its model’s predictions in real-world settings and refine it to factor in additional complexities, such as geographic variations in forest composition and predator species.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-health-of-our-forests-nbsp">Preserving the health of our forests&nbsp;</h2>



By deepening our understanding of how climate change influences species relationships, researchers can help guide effective solutions for preserving forest health and maintaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>.



Overall, the research highlights a broader truth about ecological management in a changing world: when one piece of the puzzle shifts, the entire system can behave in unexpected ways.&nbsp;



As Dwyer put it, “a small amount of climate change can have a big effect when you compound it across multiple species,” and the spongy moth’s changing fate exemplifies that message.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02204-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Nature's defense against the invasive spongy moth is fading

Hotter, drier North American climates will curtail the growth of...

Wild mushrooms, especially those found in local forests, have sparked a lot of curiosity among nutrition enthusiasts. Some of these mushrooms contain amino acids and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-proven-to-be-a-nutritional-treasure-packed-with-antioxidants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antioxidants</a> that support human health.



Researchers have now focused on one specific amino acid, tryptophan, which our bodies use to produce molecules linked to mood and sleep regulation. 



Although we often hear that dairy products and turkey are good sources of this substance, certain wild mushrooms may also be worthy contenders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mushrooms-in-everyday-diet">Mushrooms in everyday diet</h2>



Growing consumer interest in nutrient-rich and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-food-systems-are-gaining-momentum/">sustainable foods</a> has encouraged scientists to look more closely at mushrooms. 



Many regions of the United States enjoy mushroom-based dishes, but consumers in Europe and North Africa have also increased their mushroom consumption.



The quest for these nutritional benefits has led to new methods of extracting and measuring key mushroom components, including amino acids. 



<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alejandro-R-Lopez" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alejandro R. López</a>, a scientist from the <a href="https://www.uca.es/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cádiz</a> in Spain, has carried out several studies to extract and measure tryptophan content and antioxidant activity in wild mushrooms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-tryptophan">Exploring tryptophan</h2>



Tryptophan is crucial because our bodies cannot produce it on their own. It supports the production of <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/serotonin-the-natural-mood-booster" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serotonin</a>, the chemical that influences our mood, and <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/melatonin-what-you-need-to-know#:~:text=Melatonin%20is%20a%20hormone%20that,in%20the%20body%20beyond%20sleep." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melatonin</a>, a substance tied to daily sleep patterns. 



Experts have paid special attention to this amino acid in mushrooms due to its potential to assist with healthy cell function and <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/oxidative-stress" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxidative stress</a>. “The concentrations ranged from 0.042 mg/g to 0.742 mg/g,” claimed López, where he and the team explained their examination of how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/synthetic-psilocybin-less-effective-therapy-than-natural-mushroom-extract/">natural extracts</a> from mushrooms could support the body’s own defenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-approach-that-made-a-difference">The approach that made a difference</h2>



Previous <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8228365/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">efforts</a> to measure tryptophan sometimes involved large volumes of harsh solvents or high heat that could degrade heat-sensitive compounds.&nbsp;



Recently, investigators adopted ultrasound-assisted extraction with a milder temperature (77 °F, 25 °C) and a moderate amount of ethanol. 



This choice used fewer harmful chemicals, made the process faster, and preserved the delicate nature of the bioactive substances. 



They also adjusted factors like the amplitude of the ultrasound probe and the duration of sonication. This method was developed using a statistical design called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/box-behnken-design" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Box-Behnken</a>, which guided the research team in finding the sweet spot for extraction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-mushroom-extracts">Wild mushroom extracts</h2>



A separate part of the project looked at each mushroom’s ability to scavenge <a href="https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/what-are-free-radicals-a-dietitian-explains.h00-159699912.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">free radicals</a>. Two common tests, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8878429/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DPPH</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/abts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ABTS</a>, measured antioxidant capacity in percentages. 



Some mushrooms showed around 17.7%, while others reached up to 71.6%. Meanwhile, a range of 7.2% to 24.9% emerged for the ABTS test. 



Another area of investigation considered how effectively these mushrooms might help slow the activity of <a href="https://pdb101.rcsb.org/motm/54" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acetylcholinesterase</a> (AChE). 



This enzyme is tied to neurological changes in aging conditions. The samples tested offered inhibition percentages between 13.1% and 49.8%. 



Researchers compared their findings with other documented values for similar mushrooms. Some species, especially those in the Lactarius genus, had strong antioxidant readings and moderate to notable <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/acetylcholinesterase-inhibitor" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AChE-inhibitory activity</a>. 



These signs hint that the mushrooms in question may be valuable as dietary options that help maintain normal nervous system activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-health-and-wild-mushrooms">Human health and wild mushrooms</h2>



While these results spark fresh ideas about mushrooms and tryptophan, more steps are necessary. Cell and animal research could add depth to these findings, especially regarding the link between mushroom-derived tryptophan and <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3744903/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging-related conditions</a>.&nbsp;



Another helpful move would be to see if preparation methods, such as cooking or drying, affect tryptophan levels in ways that matter for daily intake.&nbsp;



For the time being, the data supports the notion that certain wild mushrooms may serve as a suitable dietary source of tryptophan, alongside antioxidant compounds. 



They are also appealing for those looking to expand food choices that align with healthy diets. These mushrooms display interesting properties that might benefit individuals curious about options to support cognitive well-being.



The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814624036562" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Chemistry</a>.



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Wild mushrooms contain substances that improve sleep, mood and cognitive health

Wild mushrooms, especially those found in local forests, have sparked...

Researchers at Montana State University (MSU) have unearthed a remarkable ancient forest preserved under ice on the Beartooth Plateau, providing a rare look into how warming climates could reshape alpine ecosystems.&nbsp;



The study, published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2412162121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, analyzes the remnants of a mature whitebark pine forest that once thrived at an elevation of 10,000 feet during a period of warmer temperatures roughly 6,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-exposed-by-melting-ice">Ancient forest exposed by melting ice</h2>



The forest, which endured for centuries before cooling temperatures forced it to retreat downslope, was sealed under ice approximately 5,500 years ago due to a shift in summer solar radiation and subsequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-cooling-not-warming-caused-a-major-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic cooling</a>.&nbsp;



“This is pretty dramatic evidence of ecosystem change due to temperature warming. It's an amazing story of how dynamic these systems are,” said David McWethy, one of the study’s authors and an associate professor in <a href="https://www.montana.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSU</a>’s Department of Earth Sciences.



Unlike glaciers, ice patches do not flow and instead preserve deposited materials such as pollen, charcoal, and macrofossils in their frozen layers. These conditions allowed the forest to remain intact until recent warming caused the ice to melt, exposing the ancient remnants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-effort-to-decode-climate-history">Collaborative effort to decode climate history</h2>



The idea to explore the Beartooth Plateau for ancient climate clues stemmed from earlier discoveries by Craig Lee, now an assistant professor at MSU. In 2007, Lee uncovered a 10,300-year-old atlatl fragment in the region, suggesting that layers of ice held vast records of cultural and environmental history.



“Most of our best long-term climate records come from Greenland and Antarctica. It's not a small thing to find ice patches that persisted for that long a time period at lower latitudes in the interior continent,” McWethy noted.



Building on this discovery, McWethy, Lee, and Greg Pederson, a paleoclimatologist with the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey</a>, began investigating the ice patches in 2016. By 2018, their team expanded the project to study additional alpine ice patches in the region.&nbsp;



This collaborative effort involved tribes, federal agencies, and multiple universities and focused on reconstructing the area’s long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-temperature-has-changed-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate history</a> and its influence on Indigenous peoples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-the-ancient-alpine-ecosystem">Reconstructing the ancient alpine ecosystem</h2>



To piece together the story of the forest, the team examined multiple elements of this alpine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpine-ecosystems-are-thrown-off-balance-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>. Using ice cores, they analyzed water isotopes and organic material, while Pederson harvested cross-sections of ancient wood for radiocarbon dating. 



The findings confirmed that during a period of moderate and moist climate, tree lines shifted upward, allowing whitebark pine forests to thrive for 500 years.



“The plateau seems to have been the perfect place to allow for ice patches to establish and persist for thousands of years, recording important information on past climate, human activity and environmental change,” Pederson said.



The study suggests that as today’s climate warms, tree lines could rise again, transforming areas of alpine tundra into forest. However, Pederson cautioned that factors such as precipitation, wind, and snowpack would influence the density, distribution, and composition of these potential new forests.&nbsp;



“Growing season temperatures are the primary control on tree line elevation and latitude, but other factors such as moisture, wind, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-driven-climate-change-is-to-blame-for-sharp-snowpack-declines-since-1980/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snowpack</a> and human disturbance may play an important role in dictating forest structure and elevational limits,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-alpine-ecosystems">Implications for alpine ecosystems</h2>



The researchers warn that these changes could have profound impacts on the region’s ecosystem and resources. Rising tree lines might alter high-altitude snowpack, which serves as a critical water source for irrigation and hydroelectric power.&nbsp;



Additionally, if forests encroach on tundra areas, they could increase the risk of wildfires due to changing fuel conditions.



Cathy Whitlock, a climate expert and MSU Regents Professor Emerita, emphasized the broader implications. She noted that reduced snowpack could strain water supplies, while McWethy added that the establishment of forests in tundra areas might fundamentally alter the region’s fire dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-the-past-to-predict-the-future">Learning from the past to predict the future</h2>



The study emphasizes the importance of understanding past ecological changes to prepare for future challenges.&nbsp;



“That’s the reason why studies of past ecological change are more than interesting pieces of science. They have much larger implications for the resources we all depend on,” Pederson said.



As climate change accelerates, the Beartooth Plateau’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient forest</a> serves as both a stark reminder of the Earth’s dynamic ecosystems and a window into the potential future of high-altitude environments.



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Frozen forest reveals climate impacts on alpine ecosystems

Researchers at Montana State University (MSU) have unearthed a remarkable...

When we marvel at the wonders of nature - like the sweet aroma of spring roses, the melodies of songbirds, or the brilliant colors of autumn leaves - there's an unsung hero working quietly behind the scenes: the ozone layer.



This thin shield in the stratosphere protects Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation (UVR), safeguarding biodiversity and enabling life as we know it. 



Yet, the formation of this vital layer took over 2 billion years, and recent research reveals why it faced such a prolonged delay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-battle-of-elements-in-earth-s-early-ozone-layer">Battle of elements in Earth's early ozone layer</h2>



A study led by experts at Yale University sheds light on an ancient atmospheric battle between iodine and oxygen.



This competition, the researchers propose, stalled the stabilization of the ozone layer, delaying the emergence and diversification of complex life on Earth.



“The origin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ozone-day-2024-advancing-climate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversification</a> of complex life on Earth remains one of the most profound and enduring questions in natural science,” said Jingjun Liu, the study's lead author. 



The research challenges the long-held belief that evolutionary delays were purely due to time requirements, offering a fresh perspective on the role of atmospheric chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-complex-life-wait">Why did complex life wait?</h2>



Despite cyanobacteria existing for 2.7 billion years, land plants did not appear until 450 million years ago. Similarly, complex life fossils are absent before the Cambrian era. 



Traditionally, scientists attributed these delays to slow evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-threaten-the-recovery-of-the-ozone-layer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>.



“That notion fails to explain how and why complex life originated and diversified,” said Professor Noah Planavsky, senior author of the study.



The research suggests that the true culprit was iodine. Elevated marine iodine concentrations disrupted the formation of a stable ozone layer, allowing intense UV radiation to bombard the Earth’s surface. 



This harsh environment made the planet inhospitable to complex terrestrial life for billions of years.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="s5PVS16IhO-4201105-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-iodine-and-ozone-depletion">Marine iodine and ozone depletion </h2>



Ozone forms through a delicate interplay between atmospheric oxygen and UVR. While oxygen levels eventually rose, the study found that high marine iodide emissions - salts formed by iodine - prevented a protective ozone shield from stabilizing.



These emissions led to ozone destruction akin to the damage caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) during the 20th-century Antarctic ozone hole crisis.



“Iodine-driven catalytic cycles for ozone destruction are kinetically much faster than those involving reactive chlorine,” explained Professor Planavsky.



As a result, even slight increases in marine iodine could have caused significant ozone depletion, exposing the Earth’s surface to harmful UVR for billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-earth-s-history">New perspective on Earth’s history</h2>



Liu and the research team from <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> used geological evidence and ocean-atmosphere models to reconstruct iodine-ozone dynamics. 



The findings reveal that unstable and low ozone levels likely persisted from 2.4 billion to 0.5 billion years ago. Even with high oxygen production, periodic UV radiation surges would have hindered the evolution of land-based life.



This remarkable research reshapes our understanding of Earth’s history, revealing how atmospheric chemistry influenced life’s timeline. As we continue to uncover the mysteries of our planet’s past, we deepen our appreciation for the delicate balance that sustains life today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-earth-s-ozone-layer">Significance of Earth's ozone layer </h2>



The formation of the ozone layer was a long and complex process, taking billions of years to stabilize. It emerged from a "battle" between elements like iodine and oxygen in Earth's early atmosphere. 



This natural shield, located in the stratosphere, plays a critical role in protecting life on Earth by blocking harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decline-in-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-an-encouraging-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultraviolet radiation</a> from the sun.



The ozone layer is not just a scientific marvel; it represents the deep connections between Earth's systems and life itself. Without it, life as we know it - plants, animals, and even the small joys like the scent of flowers, the sound of birdsong, and the colors of changing leaves - would not thrive.



Today, this shield faces threats from human activities, such as pollution and the release of ozone-depleting chemicals. Protecting the ozone layer isn’t just about maintaining the planet’s natural beauty; it’s about safeguarding the very foundation of life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.



Video Credit: Yale University 



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Earth’s ozone layer took more than two billion years to stabilize

When we marvel at the wonders of nature - like...

When a new species enters an ecosystem, it might establish itself successfully or fail to gain a foothold. Researchers at MIT have recently devised a formula to predict these outcomes. The research is based on extensive modeling and laboratory experiments with soil bacteria. 



The findings, which could apply to ecosystems ranging from forests to the human gut microbiome, offer valuable insights into the dynamics of species interactions and potential applications in medicine and environmental science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanics-of-species-invasions">Mechanics of species invasions</h2>



<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> physicists, led by Jeff Gore, a professor of physics, analyzed hundreds of experimental scenarios to determine the factors that influence whether an introduced species succeeds.&nbsp;



The team’s formula, grounded in their research on bacterial communities, could have implications for understanding natural ecosystems, improving probiotics, or enhancing treatments like fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT).



“People eat a lot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/probiotics-help-overweight-dogs-shed-pounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">probiotics</a>, but many of them can never invade our gut microbiome at all, because if you introduce it, it does not necessarily mean that it can grow and colonize and benefit your health,” noted study lead author Jiliang Hu, a PhD student at MIT.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experimenting-with-bacterial-communities">Experimenting with bacterial communities</h2>



The researchers studied over 400 soil bacterial communities, each comprising 12 to 20 species native to soil around MIT. They introduced a new bacterial species into each community and monitored the outcomes over 12 days.&nbsp;



By sequencing bacterial genomes, the team assessed whether the invader had successfully established itself.



To further understand the role of environmental factors, the team varied the nutrient levels in the bacteria’s culture medium. High nutrient levels often led to intense species interactions, such as competition for food or inhibition through mechanisms like pH-mediated cross-toxin effects.



The researchers observed two types of community behavior: stable populations, where species numbers remained constant, and fluctuating populations, where species abundance varied over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-factors-in-successful-species-invasions-nbsp">Key factors in successful species invasions&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that fluctuations in population size were a critical determinant of invasion success. Communities with higher levels of fluctuation were more diverse and more prone to successful invasions.&nbsp;



“The fluctuation is not driven by changes in the environment, but it is internal fluctuation driven by the species interaction,” Hu explained. “And what we found is that the fluctuating communities are more readily invaded and also more diverse than the stable ones.”



In stable communities with less diversity and stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interspecies competition</a>, invaders were less likely to succeed. In fluctuating ecosystems, however, the invader sometimes coexisted with the original species, albeit in smaller numbers. In other cases, the invader outcompeted and replaced certain resident species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-interactions-and-the-survival-fraction-nbsp">Species interactions and the “survival fraction”&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers identified a factor they call the “survival fraction” - the proportion of the original species that remain after an invasion - as a reliable predictor of invasion success.&nbsp;



In natural ecosystems, this survival fraction could be approximated by comparing local diversity (species in a specific area) to regional diversity (species in a broader region).



Another important finding was the influence of the order in which species arrive in an ecosystem.&nbsp;



When species interactions were strong, the likelihood of an invader succeeding decreased if it was introduced later. However, when interactions were weaker, the arrival order had little impact, and communities reached similar equilibrium states regardless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-medicine-and-ecology">Implications for medicine and ecology</h2>



The researchers plan to apply their formula to larger ecosystems and explore its relevance to the human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut microbiome</a>. For example, the formula could help predict the success of probiotics or FMT treatments for infections like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-hospital-infections-have-a-mysterious-trigger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">C. difficile</a>.&nbsp;



“Invasions can be harmful or can be good depending on the context,” Hu noted. “In some cases, like probiotics, or FMT to treat C. difficile infection, we want the healthy species to invade successfully.”



In agriculture, the formula could guide efforts to introduce beneficial microbes into soil to enhance plant growth or protect crops from pathogens.&nbsp;



Similarly, it could inform conservation strategies by predicting how ecosystems might respond to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> or restoration efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Future studies will test whether the local-to-regional diversity ratio can predict invasion success in ecosystems where diversity data is available.&nbsp;



The team also aims to investigate the underlying mechanisms that drive the observed population fluctuations and how these dynamics apply across various ecological contexts.



This study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02618-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>, sheds light on the complex interplay of species interactions, diversity, and environmental factors in shaping the outcomes of biological invasions, with potential applications spanning environmental conservation, agriculture, and human health.



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Ecosystem attack: Predicting the success of species invasions

When a new species enters an ecosystem, it might establish...

A recent study from Washington State University (WSU) reveals that climate change poses significant challenges to apple orchards in some of the most productive regions of the United States.



The researchers conducted an extensive study that included over four decades of climate data. They analyzed how varying weather conditions influence the critical growth stages of apple trees.



These stages include bud break, flowering, fruit development, maturation, and color development - all of which are crucial for healthy yields and high-quality apples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-apple-growth">Climate change and apple growth</h2>



The study revealed alarming trends, particularly for the three most productive apple-growing counties in the United States:&nbsp;Yakima County in Washington,&nbsp;Kent County in Michigan, and&nbsp;Wayne County in New York. 



Among these,&nbsp;Yakima County - a powerhouse with over 48,800 acres of apple orchards - was found to be the most severely affected.



Yakima County exhibited harmful trends in five out of the six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-added-41-extra-days-of-dangerous-heat-in-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> metrics studied, indicating the region's heightened vulnerability. These metrics include factors like extreme heat, warm nights, reduced cold periods, and shifting frost dates, all of which disrupt the delicate balance needed for apple growth. 



The findings highlight the region’s significant exposure to the negative impacts of climate change, which could challenge its status as a leading apple producer in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-metrics-and-apple-production">Climate metrics and apple production</h2>



Apple production relies on specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate conditions</a> to ensure healthy growth, high yields, and good fruit quality. However, shifts in these conditions pose significant challenges:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-days">Extreme heat days</h3>



When temperatures exceed 93°F, apple trees face stress that can lead to sunburn on the fruit, reducing apple quality and marketability. Prolonged exposure to such heat can also impair tree health and productivity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-nights">Warm nights</h3>



Nighttime temperatures above&nbsp;59°F&nbsp;interfere with apple coloration. Proper color development is essential for market appeal, as it affects both the visual and perceived quality of the fruit.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-days-and-chill-portions">Cold days and chill portions</h3>



Apple trees need a specific number of cold hours (known as&nbsp;chill portions) during dormancy to reset their growth cycle. A reduction in these cold periods can lead to irregular flowering and lower yields.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spring-frost-timing">Spring frost timing</h3>



Changes in the timing of the last spring frost disrupt the blooming process. Late frosts can damage blossoms, leading to fewer fruit or misshapen apples.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-degree-days">Growing degree days</h3>



Warmer overall temperatures accelerate the growth process, potentially causing premature fruit development. This can affect the size, flavor, and storability of apples.



These changing climate conditions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upset the delicate balance</a> required for consistent and high-quality apple production. The western U.S., a major apple-producing region, has experienced the most pronounced negative trends in these metrics. 



This raises concerns not just for regional growers but for the entire U.S. apple industry, as these changes threaten both the quantity and quality of the fruit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compounding-threats-of-climate-change">Compounding threats of climate change </h2>



“We shouldn’t take the delicious apples we love to consume for granted,” said Deepti Singh, <a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a> climate scientist and the study’s corresponding author. 



“Changing climate conditions over multiple parts of the growth cycle pose potentially compounding threats to the production and quality of apples.”



This complexity stems from the perennial nature of apple trees. “What goes on in different seasons can affect long-term health as well as the performance and productivity of the apple tree during that specific season,” explained Lee Kalcsits, a WSU tree physiologist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-apples-from-climate-change">Protecting apples from climate change</h2>



Apple growers in Washington state are implementing adaptive measures to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-we-cut-down-all-oak-trees-isoprene-emissions-air-pollution-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">combat the effects of extreme heat </a>on their crops. 



Techniques like netting, which reduces direct sunlight to prevent sunburn, and evaporative cooling, which uses water misting systems to lower orchard temperatures, are helping protect fruit quality and tree health. 



These adaptations highlight both the resilience of the apple industry and the urgency of addressing climate change challenges. To support growers further, WSU researchers are working on large-scale solutions. 



Led by Lee Kalcsits, a $6.75 million USDA-funded project aims to mitigate the impact of extreme climate events on apple and pear crops. 



This collaborative, multi-institution effort seeks to develop strategies that growers across the nation can use to sustain production in an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-an-amazing-ability-to-adapt-to-new-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increasingly volatile climate</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-the-future">A blueprint for the future</h2>



“Washington is a great place to start to talk about adaptation,” said Kirti Rajagopalan, a WSU biological systems engineer and study co-author. 



If successful, the strategies tested here could serve as a blueprint for apple-growing regions nationwide.



As climate change risks grow, the apple industry’s ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt</a> will be crucial. With ongoing research and innovative solutions, there’s hope that the apples we cherish can continue to thrive in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad90f4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Apple orchards face compounding threats from climate change

A recent study from Washington State University (WSU) reveals that...

The sixth extinction, also known as the Anthropocene extinction, refers to the ongoing, unprecedented loss of species. Unlike previous mass extinction events in Earth's history, which were driven by natural phenomena such as massive volcanic eruptions, the current extinction crisis is largely attributed to human activities.



In a recent study, a team of Irish researchers set out to examine how the public reacts to hearing the news of a species extinction. 



The analysis revealed that while social media users show an initial surge of sympathy, the sentiment fades quickly. This fleeting engagement raises questions about how deeply people connect with conservation issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-reaction-to-species-extinction">Public reaction to species extinction</h2>



The study was led by researchers from the University of Galway, <a href="https://www.ucd.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College Dublin</a>, and <a href="https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maynooth University</a>. The goal was to examine how people react to the extinction of different species.



The researchers focused on eight species, including the famous Lonesome George - the last known Pinta Island tortoise who became a symbol of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



They also studied lesser-known species, such as Captain Cook's bean snail and the Rabbs fringe-limbed treefrog, which have similarly disappeared from the planet.



To gather insights, the team used a method called "culturomics." This approach involves analyzing digital data to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-how-and-when-humans-and-mammals-will-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural trends</a> and public interest. 



By studying online activity, the researchers analyzed over two million <a href="https://www.wikipedia.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wikipedia</a> page visits and more than 100,000 tweets and retweets from 2007 to 2023. 



This data helped them understand how people react online to extinction news, revealing patterns of interest, mourning, and engagement across different platforms.



“In our study, we tracked changes in tweets and Wikipedia page visits before and after the extinction of eight species ranging from Lonesome George to more obscure species such as the bean snail,” explained Dr. Kevin Healy of the <a href="https://www.universityofgalway.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Galway</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spike-in-interest-then-silence">A spike in interest, then silence</h2>



The findings revealed that public interest in extinction news spikes dramatically on social media immediately after a species is declared extinct. 



“Overall, it does look like people care and are saddened by the news of extinction. We see words like 'RIP' and 'lost' commonly appear, and that the location of tweets expands from close to the species range to across the globe after extinction,” noted Dr. Susan Canavan, the study’s lead author.



The researchers found that while social media platforms see a short-lived surge in activity following news of a species' extinction, Wikipedia exhibits a different pattern. Wikipedia page visits remained steady over time, showing sustained interest in learning about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct species</a>.



This suggests that people turn to Wikipedia for deeper, long-term exploration of the topic, whereas social media reactions are often immediate and brief. 



The contrast highlights how different platforms serve distinct purposes: social media captures initial emotional responses and fleeting discussions, while Wikipedia supports extended engagement and information-seeking behavior. 



This difference signifies the varied ways people process and interact with extinction news depending on the platform they use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-awareness">Impact of awareness</h2>



The study highlights the potential power of public engagement in conservation. 



“People’s engagement with conservation issues, such as extinction, does matter, as it can drive funding, or add support for conservation policy and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-cheetah-day-2024-racing-against-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence conversations</a> on controversial topics such as attempting to bring species back from extinction using biotechnology,” Dr. Healy emphasized.



The passing of Lonesome George in 2012 captured worldwide attention. His death symbolized the vulnerability of species and highlighted the urgent need for conservation efforts to protect endangered animals.



Similarly, the extinction of other species, such as the Bramble Cay mosaic-tailed rat - the first mammal believed to have gone extinct due to climate change - and the West African black rhinoceros, sparked global discussions.



These events not only raised awareness about the threats facing wildlife but also ignited conversations on the broader impact of human activities on biodiversity. 



Each extinction served as a poignant reminder of the importance of conservation and the irreversible loss caused by species disappearing forever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mourning-species-extinction-in-the-digital-age">Mourning species extinction in the digital age</h2>



The research reveals a bittersweet reality: while people momentarily mourn extinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, the depth of engagement often doesn't last. 



The rise in global conversations about extinction on platforms like X (formerly Twitter) shows that people care, but the fleeting nature of this concern highlights the challenges conservation efforts face in maintaining momentum.



Ultimately, this study offers valuable insights into how the public connects with conservation issues. It also raises a crucial question: how can we transform brief moments of mourning into lasting action to prevent further losses?



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Public concern over species extinctions fades quickly

The sixth extinction, also known as the Anthropocene extinction, refers...

Plants constantly juggle their energy between growth and defense against harmful bacteria. While the specifics of how they maintain this balance have long been unclear, researchers at Princeton University have discovered that certain soil bacteria play a crucial role in modulating plant immune responses, and allowing them to grow more efficiently.



“This is trying to get at a really big biological question where there are not good answers - about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiomes</a> interface with host immune systems,” said Jonathan Conway, senior author of the study and an assistant professor of chemical and biological engineering at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a>.&nbsp;



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2024.115063" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports</a>, highlights how specific microbes produce enzymes that can suppress plant immune activity, thus enabling healthier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autophagy-what-makes-plant-roots-grow-faster-stronger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">root growth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-immune-responses-with-model-plants">Testing immune responses with model plants</h2>



To investigate the interaction between plants and microbes, the researchers focused on Arabidopsis, a small plant commonly used in scientific studies. They genetically engineered Arabidopsis plants to have heightened immune sensitivity to flagellin, a bacterial protein that triggers immune responses.&nbsp;



This modification caused the plant’s roots to grow shorter, as its energy was diverted to immune defenses rather than root development.



The team introduced 165 bacterial species isolated from soil-grown Arabidopsis to the plants. Remarkably, 68 of these isolates, or about 41%, reduced the stunted root growth by suppressing the plant’s immune response.&nbsp;



One standout species, Dyella japonica, demonstrated exceptional ability in allowing the roots to grow longer by modulating immune activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-role-of-a-key-enzyme">Unveiling the role of a key enzyme</h2>



Further investigation into D. japonica revealed a gene encoding a subtilase enzyme. This enzyme had the potential to degrade the specific part of flagellin responsible for triggering the plant’s immune response.&nbsp;



Using genetic and biochemical tools, the researchers confirmed that the subtilase enzyme effectively broke down the flagellin fragment, thereby reducing the immune response and promoting root growth.



However, purifying the subtilase enzyme presented significant challenges. During a conference, postdoctoral researcher and co-first author Samuel Eastman connected with <a href="https://www.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> chemist Todd Naumann, who suggested purifying the enzyme using yeast cells instead of bacteria.&nbsp;



Within months, Naumann successfully purified the enzyme and sent it to Princeton. “Now we can do chemistry with it, and we can actually look at this in vitro,” Eastman explained. This collaboration allowed the team to conduct more detailed studies of the enzyme’s function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-study-of-plants-and-soil-bacteria">Extensive study of plants and soil bacteria </h2>



The study was a team effort involving contributions from several researchers and students. Screening 165 bacterial isolates and verifying their immune-modulating effects required extensive work.&nbsp;



“We’re able to achieve a level of investigation into this protein that wouldn’t have been possible without that collaboration,” said Eastman.



Students played a significant role in the project, including Princeton graduate Britley Jones, who contributed to screening the bacterial isolates for her senior thesis.&nbsp;



Co-first author Kaeli Ficco, now a Ph.D. student at Cornell University, engineered mutant bacterial strains to confirm the genetic requirement of the subtilase gene for immune suppression.&nbsp;



“I really liked how discovery-based the project was,” Ficco said, reflecting on how the work influenced her research trajectory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-plant-immune-health">Broader implications for plant immune health </h2>



Beyond studying the subtilase enzyme in D. japonica, the researchers identified similar genes in many other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-help-plants-balance-growth-and-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil bacteria</a>. Their assays showed that dozens of bacterial isolates could suppress flagellin-induced immunity in plants. This suggests that this mechanism may be widespread in the plant microbiome.



The team is now exploring why this enzyme may benefit both plants and bacteria. One hypothesis is that degrading pathogenic flagella reduces the ability of harmful bacteria to invade plant roots.&nbsp;



“So, in that way it could be suppressing pathogens as well as the plant immune system,” said Eastman. Alternatively, the enzyme might allow certain bacteria to bypass plant defenses, potentially making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diseases-flourish-in-city-landscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> more vulnerable to disease.



This dual possibility raises questions about applying these findings in agriculture.&nbsp;



“We don’t want to compromise the immune system, but we also want plants to save that immune response for when it matters,” Eastman emphasized.&nbsp;



The ultimate goal is to help plants “keep calm and keep growing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Further studies are needed to understand better how these enzymes can be leveraged in agricultural settings without increasing the plants’ susceptibility to pathogens.&nbsp;



By elucidating the relationship between soil microbes and plant immunity, this research offers promising avenues for optimizing crop growth while maintaining disease resistance.



This work marks a significant step toward uncovering the intricate dynamics between plant hosts and their microbiomes, and sheds light on how these interactions can be harnessed to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-footprint-a-new-frontier-in-sustainable-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable agriculture</a>.



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Soil bacteria help plants stay calm and keep growing

Plants constantly juggle their energy between growth and defense against...

Endangered plants