Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S.<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/"> Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Acaena exigua is an extinct species of flowering plant in the rose family known by the common name liliwai. It was endemic to Hawaii, where it was known from Kauaʻi and west Maui. It had not been seen or collected since 1957 and was feared extinct until 1997, when one plant was discovered in a remote montane bog on <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=maui&amp;cvid=11f593b142284a109c4b71b63cd85874&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Maui</a>. The plant died in 2000, and the species is now considered extinct.Acaena exigua A. Gray var. subtusstrigulosa Bitter: Classification. Click on a scientific name below to expand it in the PLANTS Classification Report. Rank Scientific Name and Common Name; Kingdom: Plantae – Plants Subkingdom: Tracheobionta

Acaena exigua

Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Harrisia portoricensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=animals&amp;cvid=9b5a135b4eac46e98d281129b0a8c3a7&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">animals</a> and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/fungi-characteristics-and-function/">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Geocarpon is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the family Caryophyllaceae. It contains the single species Geocarpon minimum, which is known by the common names tinytim and earth-fruit. It is a rare plant known from about 34 populations in the US states of Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas. There are a number of threats to its survival and it was listed as a threatened species of the United States in 1987. This plant has no children. Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists. Click on a place name to get a complete protected plant list for that location.

Harrisia portoricensis

Harrisia portoricensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Hedeoma todsenii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. Hedeoma todsenii is a rare species of flowering plant in the mint family known by the common name Todsen's pennyroyal, or Todsen's false pennyroyal. It is endemic to New Mexico in the United States, where it occurs in the San Andres and Sacramento Mountains. It is federally listed as an endangered species of the United States.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Hedeoma todsenii is a rare species of flowering plant in the mint family known by the common name Todsen's pennyroyal, or Todsen's false pennyroyal. It is endemic to New Mexico in the United States, where it occurs in the San Andres and Sacramento Mountains. It is federally listed as an endangered species of the United States.new and rare species from New Mexico. Madroño 26:184-187. *U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2001. Todsen's pennyroyal (Hedeoma todsenii R.S. Irving) revised recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, New Mexico Ecological Services Field Office, Albuquerque.

Hedeoma todsenii

Hedeoma todsenii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Hedyotis mannii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=afd27e02f0fa46e18f78f7cfdc84362a&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/"> animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Pilo, Hedyotis mannii, is a perennial plant in the coffee family (Rubiaceae) with smooth stems that are usually 1-2 ft (0.3-0.6 m) long. The stem is woody at the base and four-angled. The leaves are opposite, thin in texture, elliptic to sometimes lanceolate, and are usually 3-7 in (7.5-18 cm) long.Kadua laxiflora (formerly Hedyotis mannii) is a rare species of flowering plant in the coffee family known by the common names Mann's bluet and Hawaiian pilo.It is endemic to Hawaii, where it is known from Molokai, Lanai, and Maui.It is known to exist at four locations for a global population of under 100 plants. It is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.

Hedyotis mannii

Hedyotis mannii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Hedyotis megalantha NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Hedyotis megalantha ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a89f77701d234b96b3eaee1307656b94&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l4j69i60l3.1415j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Hedyotis megalantha

Hedyotis megalantha NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Hedyotis purpurea var. montana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a89f77701d234b96b3eaee1307656b94&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l4j69i60l3.1415j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states,

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Hedyotis purpurea var. montana

Hedyotis purpurea var. montana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Hedyotis schlechtendahliana var. remyi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a89f77701d234b96b3eaee1307656b94&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l4j69i60l3.1415j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states,

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Hedyotis schlechtendahliana var. remyi

Hedyotis schlechtendahliana var. remyi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Helenium virginicum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a89f77701d234b96b3eaee1307656b94&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l4j69i60l3.1415j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states,

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Helenium virginicum

Helenium virginicum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Helianthemum greenei NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Helianthemum greenei ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a89f77701d234b96b3eaee1307656b94&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l4j69i60l3.1415j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Helianthemum greenei

Helianthemum greenei NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Helianthus paradoxus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a89f77701d234b96b3eaee1307656b94&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l4j69i60l3.1415j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states,

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Helianthus paradoxus

Helianthus paradoxus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Helianthus schweinitzii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-set-a-bedtime-alarm-that-helps-them-survive-the-night/">plants,</a> animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world. Helianthus schweinitzii is a perennial wildflower endemic to the Piedmont physiographic province of North Carolina and South Carolina. Its common name is Schweinitz's sunflower. It is a member of the Sunflower Family. It is one of the rarest species of sunflower in the United States. It is common along utility and highway rights-of-way in North Carolina and South Carolina. There are only about 90 known populations, many containing less than 40 plants each. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services listed Schweinitz's sunflower as an endangered species on May 7, 1991.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Helianthus schweinitzii

Helianthus schweinitzii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Helianthus verticillatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=6f79fdfa4fb04db68af72a38d8ab49f4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Helianthus is a genus comprising about 70 species of annual and perennial flowering plants in the daisy family Asteraceae. Except for three South American species, the species of Helianthus are native to North America and Central America. The common names "sunflower" and "common sunflower" typically refer to the popular annual species Helianthus annuus, whose round flower heads in combination with the ligules look like the sun. This and other species, notably Jerusalem artichoke, are cultivated in temperate regions and some tropical regions as food crops for humans, cattle, and poultry, and as ornamental plants. The species H. annuus typically grows during the summer and into early fall, with the peak growth season being mid-summer.

Helianthus verticillatus

Helianthus verticillatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Helonias bullata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=085c9f9e2c554b57a792462608e36e60&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Helonias bullata (swamp pink) is a rare perennial rhizomatous herb native to the eastern United States, the only known species in the genus Helonias. The root system is extensive in comparison to the apparent size of the plant on the surface. Blooming in March to May, its fragrant flowers are pink and occur in a cluster at the end a vertical spike which may reach up to 3' in height. It has evergreen, lance-shaped, and parallel-veined leaves ranging from dark green to light yellow green in color that form a basal rosette

Helonias bullata

Helonias bullata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Heritiera longipetiolata

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source...

Hesperolinon congestum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=d3448cf3d8584b07aebe70d136ea9023&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Hesperolinon congestum, or Marin dwarf flax, is an annual <a title="Herb" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb">herb</a>, which is known to occur only in <a class="mw-redirect" title="San Mateo County" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Mateo_County">San Mateo</a>, San Francisco and Marin County, California, United States. This plant occurs chiefly on <a title="Serpentine soil" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpentine_soil">serpentine soils</a>, especially in dry native <a class="mw-redirect" title="Bunch grass" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunch_grass">bunch grasses</a>, <a title="Chaparral" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaparral">chaparral</a> or other <a title="Grassland" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassland">grasslands</a> at elevations less than 200 meters. The <a title="Flower" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower">flowers</a> are congested at the tips of the dichotomously branching stems. H. congestum is in flower between April and July. The outlook for this plant depends on survival of only about twenty small <a title="Colony (biology)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_(biology)">colonies</a>, most of which are not actively managed for protection, even though the <a title="Species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species">species</a> is federally and state-listed as <a class="mw-redirect" title="Threatened" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threatened">threatened</a>. This species is also less commonly known as Marin western flax.

Hesperolinon congestum

Hesperolinon congestum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Hesperomannia arborescens NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a89f77701d234b96b3eaee1307656b94&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l4j69i60l3.1415j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states,

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Hesperomannia arborescens

Hesperomannia arborescens NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Hesperomannia arbuscula NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Hesperomannia arbuscula, the Maui island-aster or Maui hesperomannia, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae that is endemic to the islands of Oʻahu and Maui in Hawaiʻi. It is found in mixed mesic and wet forests at elevations of 350–900 m. It is threatened by habitat loss.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Species. Hesperomannia arbuscula Hillebr. – Maui island-aster. Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children. Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists.

Hesperomannia arbuscula

Hesperomannia arbuscula NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Hesperomannia lydgatei

Hexastylis naniflora NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Hexastylis naniflora ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="http://North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

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Hexastylis naniflora

Hexastylis naniflora NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

When a new species enters an ecosystem, it might establish itself successfully or fail to gain a foothold. Researchers at MIT have recently devised a formula to predict these outcomes. The research is based on extensive modeling and laboratory experiments with soil bacteria. 



The findings, which could apply to ecosystems ranging from forests to the human gut microbiome, offer valuable insights into the dynamics of species interactions and potential applications in medicine and environmental science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanics-of-species-invasions">Mechanics of species invasions</h2>



<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> physicists, led by Jeff Gore, a professor of physics, analyzed hundreds of experimental scenarios to determine the factors that influence whether an introduced species succeeds.&nbsp;



The team’s formula, grounded in their research on bacterial communities, could have implications for understanding natural ecosystems, improving probiotics, or enhancing treatments like fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT).



“People eat a lot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/probiotics-help-overweight-dogs-shed-pounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">probiotics</a>, but many of them can never invade our gut microbiome at all, because if you introduce it, it does not necessarily mean that it can grow and colonize and benefit your health,” noted study lead author Jiliang Hu, a PhD student at MIT.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experimenting-with-bacterial-communities">Experimenting with bacterial communities</h2>



The researchers studied over 400 soil bacterial communities, each comprising 12 to 20 species native to soil around MIT. They introduced a new bacterial species into each community and monitored the outcomes over 12 days.&nbsp;



By sequencing bacterial genomes, the team assessed whether the invader had successfully established itself.



To further understand the role of environmental factors, the team varied the nutrient levels in the bacteria’s culture medium. High nutrient levels often led to intense species interactions, such as competition for food or inhibition through mechanisms like pH-mediated cross-toxin effects.



The researchers observed two types of community behavior: stable populations, where species numbers remained constant, and fluctuating populations, where species abundance varied over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-factors-in-successful-species-invasions-nbsp">Key factors in successful species invasions&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that fluctuations in population size were a critical determinant of invasion success. Communities with higher levels of fluctuation were more diverse and more prone to successful invasions.&nbsp;



“The fluctuation is not driven by changes in the environment, but it is internal fluctuation driven by the species interaction,” Hu explained. “And what we found is that the fluctuating communities are more readily invaded and also more diverse than the stable ones.”



In stable communities with less diversity and stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interspecies competition</a>, invaders were less likely to succeed. In fluctuating ecosystems, however, the invader sometimes coexisted with the original species, albeit in smaller numbers. In other cases, the invader outcompeted and replaced certain resident species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-interactions-and-the-survival-fraction-nbsp">Species interactions and the “survival fraction”&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers identified a factor they call the “survival fraction” - the proportion of the original species that remain after an invasion - as a reliable predictor of invasion success.&nbsp;



In natural ecosystems, this survival fraction could be approximated by comparing local diversity (species in a specific area) to regional diversity (species in a broader region).



Another important finding was the influence of the order in which species arrive in an ecosystem.&nbsp;



When species interactions were strong, the likelihood of an invader succeeding decreased if it was introduced later. However, when interactions were weaker, the arrival order had little impact, and communities reached similar equilibrium states regardless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-medicine-and-ecology">Implications for medicine and ecology</h2>



The researchers plan to apply their formula to larger ecosystems and explore its relevance to the human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut microbiome</a>. For example, the formula could help predict the success of probiotics or FMT treatments for infections like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-hospital-infections-have-a-mysterious-trigger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">C. difficile</a>.&nbsp;



“Invasions can be harmful or can be good depending on the context,” Hu noted. “In some cases, like probiotics, or FMT to treat C. difficile infection, we want the healthy species to invade successfully.”



In agriculture, the formula could guide efforts to introduce beneficial microbes into soil to enhance plant growth or protect crops from pathogens.&nbsp;



Similarly, it could inform conservation strategies by predicting how ecosystems might respond to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> or restoration efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Future studies will test whether the local-to-regional diversity ratio can predict invasion success in ecosystems where diversity data is available.&nbsp;



The team also aims to investigate the underlying mechanisms that drive the observed population fluctuations and how these dynamics apply across various ecological contexts.



This study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02618-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>, sheds light on the complex interplay of species interactions, diversity, and environmental factors in shaping the outcomes of biological invasions, with potential applications spanning environmental conservation, agriculture, and human health.



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Ecosystem attack: Predicting the success of species invasions

When a new species enters an ecosystem, it might establish...

A recent study from Washington State University (WSU) reveals that climate change poses significant challenges to apple orchards in some of the most productive regions of the United States.



The researchers conducted an extensive study that included over four decades of climate data. They analyzed how varying weather conditions influence the critical growth stages of apple trees.



These stages include bud break, flowering, fruit development, maturation, and color development - all of which are crucial for healthy yields and high-quality apples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-apple-growth">Climate change and apple growth</h2>



The study revealed alarming trends, particularly for the three most productive apple-growing counties in the United States:&nbsp;Yakima County in Washington,&nbsp;Kent County in Michigan, and&nbsp;Wayne County in New York. 



Among these,&nbsp;Yakima County - a powerhouse with over 48,800 acres of apple orchards - was found to be the most severely affected.



Yakima County exhibited harmful trends in five out of the six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-added-41-extra-days-of-dangerous-heat-in-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> metrics studied, indicating the region's heightened vulnerability. These metrics include factors like extreme heat, warm nights, reduced cold periods, and shifting frost dates, all of which disrupt the delicate balance needed for apple growth. 



The findings highlight the region’s significant exposure to the negative impacts of climate change, which could challenge its status as a leading apple producer in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-metrics-and-apple-production">Climate metrics and apple production</h2>



Apple production relies on specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate conditions</a> to ensure healthy growth, high yields, and good fruit quality. However, shifts in these conditions pose significant challenges:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-days">Extreme heat days</h3>



When temperatures exceed 93°F, apple trees face stress that can lead to sunburn on the fruit, reducing apple quality and marketability. Prolonged exposure to such heat can also impair tree health and productivity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-nights">Warm nights</h3>



Nighttime temperatures above&nbsp;59°F&nbsp;interfere with apple coloration. Proper color development is essential for market appeal, as it affects both the visual and perceived quality of the fruit.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-days-and-chill-portions">Cold days and chill portions</h3>



Apple trees need a specific number of cold hours (known as&nbsp;chill portions) during dormancy to reset their growth cycle. A reduction in these cold periods can lead to irregular flowering and lower yields.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spring-frost-timing">Spring frost timing</h3>



Changes in the timing of the last spring frost disrupt the blooming process. Late frosts can damage blossoms, leading to fewer fruit or misshapen apples.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-degree-days">Growing degree days</h3>



Warmer overall temperatures accelerate the growth process, potentially causing premature fruit development. This can affect the size, flavor, and storability of apples.



These changing climate conditions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upset the delicate balance</a> required for consistent and high-quality apple production. The western U.S., a major apple-producing region, has experienced the most pronounced negative trends in these metrics. 



This raises concerns not just for regional growers but for the entire U.S. apple industry, as these changes threaten both the quantity and quality of the fruit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compounding-threats-of-climate-change">Compounding threats of climate change </h2>



“We shouldn’t take the delicious apples we love to consume for granted,” said Deepti Singh, <a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a> climate scientist and the study’s corresponding author. 



“Changing climate conditions over multiple parts of the growth cycle pose potentially compounding threats to the production and quality of apples.”



This complexity stems from the perennial nature of apple trees. “What goes on in different seasons can affect long-term health as well as the performance and productivity of the apple tree during that specific season,” explained Lee Kalcsits, a WSU tree physiologist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-apples-from-climate-change">Protecting apples from climate change</h2>



Apple growers in Washington state are implementing adaptive measures to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-we-cut-down-all-oak-trees-isoprene-emissions-air-pollution-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">combat the effects of extreme heat </a>on their crops. 



Techniques like netting, which reduces direct sunlight to prevent sunburn, and evaporative cooling, which uses water misting systems to lower orchard temperatures, are helping protect fruit quality and tree health. 



These adaptations highlight both the resilience of the apple industry and the urgency of addressing climate change challenges. To support growers further, WSU researchers are working on large-scale solutions. 



Led by Lee Kalcsits, a $6.75 million USDA-funded project aims to mitigate the impact of extreme climate events on apple and pear crops. 



This collaborative, multi-institution effort seeks to develop strategies that growers across the nation can use to sustain production in an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-an-amazing-ability-to-adapt-to-new-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increasingly volatile climate</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-the-future">A blueprint for the future</h2>



“Washington is a great place to start to talk about adaptation,” said Kirti Rajagopalan, a WSU biological systems engineer and study co-author. 



If successful, the strategies tested here could serve as a blueprint for apple-growing regions nationwide.



As climate change risks grow, the apple industry’s ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt</a> will be crucial. With ongoing research and innovative solutions, there’s hope that the apples we cherish can continue to thrive in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad90f4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Apple orchards face compounding threats from climate change

A recent study from Washington State University (WSU) reveals that...

The sixth extinction, also known as the Anthropocene extinction, refers to the ongoing, unprecedented loss of species. Unlike previous mass extinction events in Earth's history, which were driven by natural phenomena such as massive volcanic eruptions, the current extinction crisis is largely attributed to human activities.



In a recent study, a team of Irish researchers set out to examine how the public reacts to hearing the news of a species extinction. 



The analysis revealed that while social media users show an initial surge of sympathy, the sentiment fades quickly. This fleeting engagement raises questions about how deeply people connect with conservation issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-reaction-to-species-extinction">Public reaction to species extinction</h2>



The study was led by researchers from the University of Galway, <a href="https://www.ucd.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College Dublin</a>, and <a href="https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maynooth University</a>. The goal was to examine how people react to the extinction of different species.



The researchers focused on eight species, including the famous Lonesome George - the last known Pinta Island tortoise who became a symbol of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



They also studied lesser-known species, such as Captain Cook's bean snail and the Rabbs fringe-limbed treefrog, which have similarly disappeared from the planet.



To gather insights, the team used a method called "culturomics." This approach involves analyzing digital data to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-how-and-when-humans-and-mammals-will-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural trends</a> and public interest. 



By studying online activity, the researchers analyzed over two million <a href="https://www.wikipedia.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wikipedia</a> page visits and more than 100,000 tweets and retweets from 2007 to 2023. 



This data helped them understand how people react online to extinction news, revealing patterns of interest, mourning, and engagement across different platforms.



“In our study, we tracked changes in tweets and Wikipedia page visits before and after the extinction of eight species ranging from Lonesome George to more obscure species such as the bean snail,” explained Dr. Kevin Healy of the <a href="https://www.universityofgalway.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Galway</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spike-in-interest-then-silence">A spike in interest, then silence</h2>



The findings revealed that public interest in extinction news spikes dramatically on social media immediately after a species is declared extinct. 



“Overall, it does look like people care and are saddened by the news of extinction. We see words like 'RIP' and 'lost' commonly appear, and that the location of tweets expands from close to the species range to across the globe after extinction,” noted Dr. Susan Canavan, the study’s lead author.



The researchers found that while social media platforms see a short-lived surge in activity following news of a species' extinction, Wikipedia exhibits a different pattern. Wikipedia page visits remained steady over time, showing sustained interest in learning about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct species</a>.



This suggests that people turn to Wikipedia for deeper, long-term exploration of the topic, whereas social media reactions are often immediate and brief. 



The contrast highlights how different platforms serve distinct purposes: social media captures initial emotional responses and fleeting discussions, while Wikipedia supports extended engagement and information-seeking behavior. 



This difference signifies the varied ways people process and interact with extinction news depending on the platform they use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-awareness">Impact of awareness</h2>



The study highlights the potential power of public engagement in conservation. 



“People’s engagement with conservation issues, such as extinction, does matter, as it can drive funding, or add support for conservation policy and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-cheetah-day-2024-racing-against-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence conversations</a> on controversial topics such as attempting to bring species back from extinction using biotechnology,” Dr. Healy emphasized.



The passing of Lonesome George in 2012 captured worldwide attention. His death symbolized the vulnerability of species and highlighted the urgent need for conservation efforts to protect endangered animals.



Similarly, the extinction of other species, such as the Bramble Cay mosaic-tailed rat - the first mammal believed to have gone extinct due to climate change - and the West African black rhinoceros, sparked global discussions.



These events not only raised awareness about the threats facing wildlife but also ignited conversations on the broader impact of human activities on biodiversity. 



Each extinction served as a poignant reminder of the importance of conservation and the irreversible loss caused by species disappearing forever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mourning-species-extinction-in-the-digital-age">Mourning species extinction in the digital age</h2>



The research reveals a bittersweet reality: while people momentarily mourn extinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, the depth of engagement often doesn't last. 



The rise in global conversations about extinction on platforms like X (formerly Twitter) shows that people care, but the fleeting nature of this concern highlights the challenges conservation efforts face in maintaining momentum.



Ultimately, this study offers valuable insights into how the public connects with conservation issues. It also raises a crucial question: how can we transform brief moments of mourning into lasting action to prevent further losses?



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Public concern over species extinctions fades quickly

The sixth extinction, also known as the Anthropocene extinction, refers...

Plants constantly juggle their energy between growth and defense against harmful bacteria. While the specifics of how they maintain this balance have long been unclear, researchers at Princeton University have discovered that certain soil bacteria play a crucial role in modulating plant immune responses, and allowing them to grow more efficiently.



“This is trying to get at a really big biological question where there are not good answers - about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiomes</a> interface with host immune systems,” said Jonathan Conway, senior author of the study and an assistant professor of chemical and biological engineering at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a>.&nbsp;



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2024.115063" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports</a>, highlights how specific microbes produce enzymes that can suppress plant immune activity, thus enabling healthier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autophagy-what-makes-plant-roots-grow-faster-stronger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">root growth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-immune-responses-with-model-plants">Testing immune responses with model plants</h2>



To investigate the interaction between plants and microbes, the researchers focused on Arabidopsis, a small plant commonly used in scientific studies. They genetically engineered Arabidopsis plants to have heightened immune sensitivity to flagellin, a bacterial protein that triggers immune responses.&nbsp;



This modification caused the plant’s roots to grow shorter, as its energy was diverted to immune defenses rather than root development.



The team introduced 165 bacterial species isolated from soil-grown Arabidopsis to the plants. Remarkably, 68 of these isolates, or about 41%, reduced the stunted root growth by suppressing the plant’s immune response.&nbsp;



One standout species, Dyella japonica, demonstrated exceptional ability in allowing the roots to grow longer by modulating immune activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-role-of-a-key-enzyme">Unveiling the role of a key enzyme</h2>



Further investigation into D. japonica revealed a gene encoding a subtilase enzyme. This enzyme had the potential to degrade the specific part of flagellin responsible for triggering the plant’s immune response.&nbsp;



Using genetic and biochemical tools, the researchers confirmed that the subtilase enzyme effectively broke down the flagellin fragment, thereby reducing the immune response and promoting root growth.



However, purifying the subtilase enzyme presented significant challenges. During a conference, postdoctoral researcher and co-first author Samuel Eastman connected with <a href="https://www.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> chemist Todd Naumann, who suggested purifying the enzyme using yeast cells instead of bacteria.&nbsp;



Within months, Naumann successfully purified the enzyme and sent it to Princeton. “Now we can do chemistry with it, and we can actually look at this in vitro,” Eastman explained. This collaboration allowed the team to conduct more detailed studies of the enzyme’s function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-study-of-plants-and-soil-bacteria">Extensive study of plants and soil bacteria </h2>



The study was a team effort involving contributions from several researchers and students. Screening 165 bacterial isolates and verifying their immune-modulating effects required extensive work.&nbsp;



“We’re able to achieve a level of investigation into this protein that wouldn’t have been possible without that collaboration,” said Eastman.



Students played a significant role in the project, including Princeton graduate Britley Jones, who contributed to screening the bacterial isolates for her senior thesis.&nbsp;



Co-first author Kaeli Ficco, now a Ph.D. student at Cornell University, engineered mutant bacterial strains to confirm the genetic requirement of the subtilase gene for immune suppression.&nbsp;



“I really liked how discovery-based the project was,” Ficco said, reflecting on how the work influenced her research trajectory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-plant-immune-health">Broader implications for plant immune health </h2>



Beyond studying the subtilase enzyme in D. japonica, the researchers identified similar genes in many other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-help-plants-balance-growth-and-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil bacteria</a>. Their assays showed that dozens of bacterial isolates could suppress flagellin-induced immunity in plants. This suggests that this mechanism may be widespread in the plant microbiome.



The team is now exploring why this enzyme may benefit both plants and bacteria. One hypothesis is that degrading pathogenic flagella reduces the ability of harmful bacteria to invade plant roots.&nbsp;



“So, in that way it could be suppressing pathogens as well as the plant immune system,” said Eastman. Alternatively, the enzyme might allow certain bacteria to bypass plant defenses, potentially making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diseases-flourish-in-city-landscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> more vulnerable to disease.



This dual possibility raises questions about applying these findings in agriculture.&nbsp;



“We don’t want to compromise the immune system, but we also want plants to save that immune response for when it matters,” Eastman emphasized.&nbsp;



The ultimate goal is to help plants “keep calm and keep growing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Further studies are needed to understand better how these enzymes can be leveraged in agricultural settings without increasing the plants’ susceptibility to pathogens.&nbsp;



By elucidating the relationship between soil microbes and plant immunity, this research offers promising avenues for optimizing crop growth while maintaining disease resistance.



This work marks a significant step toward uncovering the intricate dynamics between plant hosts and their microbiomes, and sheds light on how these interactions can be harnessed to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-footprint-a-new-frontier-in-sustainable-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable agriculture</a>.



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Soil bacteria help plants stay calm and keep growing

Plants constantly juggle their energy between growth and defense against...

From climate change to soil degradation, agriculture faces mounting challenges. A new study published in the journal Agriculture, Ecosystems &amp; Environment&nbsp;shines a spotlight on a promising solution: using cover crops as “living mulch.”



The research, led by scientists from the Institute of Applied Ecology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Shenyang, reveals how intercropping maize with cover crops can rejuvenate soil health and nutrient cycling.



Dr. Li Zhang and her team conducted a remarkable experiment in Changtu County, northeastern China. The researchers examined how legumes, grasses, and mixtures of both as cover crops influenced soil properties, microbial communities, and nutrient availability.



The findings could reshape sustainable farming practices globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-cover-crops">What are cover crops?</h2>



Cover crops are plants grown alongside or after the main crop to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-soil-day-2024-protecting-our-planets-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance soil health</a>. Unlike traditional practices where soil is left bare post-harvest, cover crops prevent erosion, enrich soil fertility, and promote the recycling of plant nutrients. 



“Soil degradation, caused by unsustainable farming practices, threatens food security. Cover crops offer a way to restore degraded farmland without compromising productivity,” Dr. Zhang explained.



The concept of “living mulch” involves growing cover crops between rows of maize throughout the crop’s lifecycle. This approach differs from relying solely on decomposing residues, and represents a proactive method to tackle soil degradation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-potential-of-cover-crops">Testing the potential of cover crops</h2>



The researchers implemented a field study with three treatments.



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Legume cover crops: These crops are known for their nitrogen-fixing ability, legumes add valuable nutrients to the soil.</li>



<li>Grass cover crops: Grasses contribute to carbon retention and enhance soil structure.</li>



<li>Mixed cover crops: This treatment involves combining legumes and grasses to leverage their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complementary benefits</a>.</li>
</ol>



Over the course of the experiment, the team assessed soil nutrient levels, microbial activity, and overall ecosystem health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-soil-potential">Unlocking soil potential</h2>



Each type of cover crop offered unique advantages:



Legumes increased dissolved organic carbon and available nitrogen in the soil. These changes altered microbial community dynamics, reducing microbial carbon limitations and boosting carbon cycling. Microbes could access essential nutrients more efficiently, thus enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-soil-esoil-boosts-crop-production-by-50-in-just-15-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overall soil health</a>.



Grasses maintained soil carbon and nitrogen levels while promoting microbial biomass growth. They also supported bacterial diversity, an essential factor for robust nutrient cycling.



Mixed crops of legumes and grasses were the most effective treatment. The combination improved carbon and nitrogen levels, balanced soil nutrients, and amplified microbial functions. Temporal shifts in microbial activity highlighted the dynamic benefits of this approach.



“The mixed cover crop system demonstrated remarkable potential to enhance microbial activity and maintain soil nutrient balance. This makes it an ideal solution for maize intercropping,” noted Dr. Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-soil-degradation">Addressing soil degradation</h2>



Soil degradation is a pressing issue, especially in black <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-soils-release-more-carbon-than-plants-can-replace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil</a> regions like northeastern China. These areas, crucial for food production, face declining fertility and erosion. The innovative use of cover crops as living mulch offers a scalable, sustainable solution.



By improving soil organic matter, balancing nutrients, and promoting microbial diversity, these plants reduce reliance on synthetic fertilizers.



This not only benefits the environment but also supports farmers by lowering input costs and enhancing long-term productivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-agriculture">Implications for global agriculture</h2>



The insights from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> are relevant well beyond the borders of northeastern China.



Globally, agricultural systems face challenges, like nutrient depletion, biodiversity loss, and climate-related pressures. Adopting plant-based systems could transform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-makes-flowers-more-attractive-to-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming practices</a>, and make agriculture more resilient and sustainable.



“Our research provides a roadmap for integrating cover crops into farming systems worldwide. It’s a win-win for farmers and the environment,” said Dr. Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-the-solution-with-cover-crops">Scaling the solution with cover crops</h2>



Despite the promising results, challenges remain. Farmers may need support to adopt cover crop practices, including education, resources, and policy incentives. 



Scaling these methods requires collaboration between researchers, policymakers, and agricultural stakeholders.



Future research will likely focus on optimizing plant mixtures for different regions and farming systems. Additionally, understanding the long-term economic benefits for farmers will be critical for widespread adoption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-growing-opportunity">A growing opportunity</h2>



The use of cover crops as living mulch offers a practical and sustainable way to address the problem of soil degradation. By enriching soil health, enhancing microbial activity, and supporting nutrient cycling, these systems pave the way for a more resilient agricultural future.



As Dr. Zhang’s research highlights, innovation in farming doesn’t always require high-tech solutions. Sometimes, the answer lies in the plants themselves - rooted in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smart-soil-can-absorb-water-from-the-air-and-feed-itself/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil</a> and ready to transform how we grow our food.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167880924004924?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agriculture, Ecosystems &amp; Environment</a>.



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Mixed cover crops may be the future of sustainable farming

From climate change to soil degradation, agriculture faces mounting challenges....

Plant leaves may seem unassuming, but beneath their glossy surfaces lies a surprising discovery: they are coated with a diverse array of RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecules. 



This finding has the potential to reshape our understanding of plant biology and the interactions between plants and the environment.



The study was led by Lucía Borniego and Meenu Singla-Rastogi, postdoctoral fellows at Indiana University Bloomington, alongside Roger Innes, a professor of biology. 



The research offers a fresh perspective on the complex relationships between plants and microbes.



“What excites us most about this discovery is that it indicates plants may control their microbiomes, in part, by regulating gene expression in microbes using cross-kingdom RNA interference, also known as RNAi,” said Innes. 



But what does this mean, and why is it significant?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-discovery-plant-rnas-on-leaf-surfaces">Revolutionary discovery: Plant RNAs on leaf surfaces</h2>



RNA, a fragile molecule, typically degrades quickly outside a cell unless protected. However, this study reveals that plants secrete viable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-recovered-from-an-extinct-species-tasmanian-tiger-for-first-time-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA</a> onto their leaf surfaces, where it remains surprisingly stable. 



This discovery suggests that plant-derived RNA could directly influence microbial communities on leaf surfaces by engaging in cross-kingdom RNAi - a process whereby RNA from one organism affects gene expression in another.



Cross-kingdom RNAi is not new in biology. Scientists have known that organisms can exchange RNA to regulate genes. What’s remarkable here is the idea that plants may use this mechanism to interact with microbes that are colonizing their surfaces.



“Only recently has it been shown that RNAs produced by one organism can be taken up by another organism and then base pair with RNAs in the recipient organism,” Innes explained. RNA interference appears to occur in just about all living organisms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-rna-and-polysaccharides-in-plants">Role of RNA and polysaccharides in plants</h2>



The research team found abundant RNAs on the leaf surfaces of&nbsp;Arabidopsis thaliana, a model plant widely used in scientific studies. 



These RNAs were stable, likely because they formed condensates with polysaccharides, such as pectin. 



As a component of the plant cell wall, pectin appears to play a protective role, ensuring that RNA molecules can persist outside plant cells.



The implications are profound. Stable RNA on leaf surfaces means that microbes colonizing these areas are exposed to plant RNA. This exposure could influence microbial gene expression, potentially determining which microbial species can thrive on leaf surfaces.



This ability to “curate” microbial communities could impact plant health, disease resistance, and overall growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter-the-bigger-picture">Why does this matter? The bigger picture</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond plants. 



“The manipulation of microbial communities by environmental RNA is likely taking place in our own guts as well, with RNA being secreted by our intestinal epithelial cells,” noted Innes.



This means that understanding plant-microbe interactions could shed light on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-cells-communicate-with-each-other-through-rna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">similar processes in humans</a> and other animals.



The connection doesn’t end there. Think about the salad you had for lunch. The RNA on the surface of those leafy greens could interact with your gut microbiome, influencing its composition and, potentially, your health. 



While this hypothesis requires further research, it opens up fascinating possibilities about how our diets could impact our microbial ecosystems directly .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-applications-in-agriculture-and-medicine">Potential applications in agriculture and medicine</h2>



This discovery isn’t just a scientific curiosity; it could have real-world applications. If plants can use RNA to influence microbial communities, farmers might one day harness this ability to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop health</a>. 



For example, plants could be genetically engineered to secrete specific RNAs that discourage harmful microbes or promote beneficial ones.



In medicine, understanding how RNA influences microbial ecosystems could lead to new therapies. Imagine using RNA-based treatments to modulate the gut microbiome in patients with digestive disorders or metabolic diseases. 



While these applications are speculative, the groundwork laid by this study provides a roadmap for possible future exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-further-research-on-plant-rna">Call for further research on plant RNA</h2>



While this study provides valuable insights, it also raises new questions. 



How do specific RNAs influence microbial gene expression? Are there particular microbes that are more susceptible to RNA interference? And what environmental factors affect RNA stability on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-make-life-and-death-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant surfaces</a>?



Additionally, the potential interaction between plant RNAs and the human microbiome deserves closer examination. Could consuming RNA-coated plants have measurable effects on human health? 



Future research will need to address these questions to unlock the full potential of these findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-nature-s-complexity">A window into nature’s complexity</h2>



This discovery reminds us of nature’s intricate complexity. From the stability of RNA on plant surfaces to its potential to shape microbial communities, the study offers a glimpse into the complexity of hidden genetic mechanisms.



The research also highlights the interconnectedness of life on Earth - how plants, microbes, and even humans are linked by molecular interactions that transcend species boundaries.



“It is quite possible that RNA on leaf surfaces, like salad, could influence our own gut microbiomes,” said Innes.



This idea challenges us to rethink our relationship with plants, not just as sources of food or oxygen, but as active participants in a dynamic, interconnected biosphere.



The research was a collaborative effort. In addition to the <a href="https://bloomington.iu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indiana University</a> team, contributors included Patricia Baldrich and Blake C. Meyers from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Davis</a>, and Madison McGregor from the <a href="https://www.danforthcenter.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Donald Danforth Plant Science Center</a>.



The interdisciplinary nature of this research makes it even more noteworthy. By combining biology, chemistry, and molecular genetics, the team uncovered a layer of plant-microbe interaction that had remained hidden until now.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409090121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Plants may control their own microbiomes

Plant leaves may seem unassuming, but beneath their glossy surfaces...

Ever wondered if the flavor of your coffee could taste even better? A simple dash of water might hold the secret to a richer, smoother cup. 



New research reveals that adding moisture to coffee beans before grinding can significantly improve brewing flavor while preventing the mess and waste often caused by static electricity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-flavor-and-electrons">Coffee flavor and electrons</h2>



Grinding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-reduces-the-risk-of-certain-cancers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a> beans produces friction as the particles collide, rub together, and break apart. This process causes the ground coffee to develop a charge, which then produces static electricity.



The charged coffee particles stick together, forming clumps that can clog grinders. These clumps make it difficult to achieve a consistent grind, leading to uneven brewing and less flavorful coffee.



Scientists have investigated the impact of this static buildup on the brewing process. Their research revealed a simple yet effective solution: adding water to the beans before grinding. 



This moisture reduces static electricity, prevents clumping, and ensures smoother grinding, which ultimately improves the quality and flavor of the brewed coffee.



"Moisture, whether it's residual moisture inside the roasted coffee or external moisture added during grinding, is what dictates the amount of charge that is formed during grinding," explained Christopher Hendon, a materials chemist at the <a href="https://www.uoregon.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oregon</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-static-electricity-the-basics">Understanding static electricity -- the basics</h2>



Static electricity is what happens when there's an imbalance of tiny electric charges on the surface of an object. 



Everything around us is made up of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/x-ray-single-atom-captured-by-scientists-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiny particles called atoms</a>, and inside these atoms, there are even smaller particles called electrons. Electrons carry a negative charge, and they can move from one object to another.



For example, when you rub a balloon on your hair, some electrons from your hair move to the balloon, making the balloon negatively charged and your hair positively charged. This is why the balloon can stick to your hair or make your hair stand up - opposite charges attract!



We experience <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-of-static-electricity-has-finally-been-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">static electricity</a> a lot in everyday life. You might have felt it when you touch a metal doorknob and get a little shock, or when your clothes stick together after they come out of the dryer.



These shocks happen when the extra charges suddenly move from one thing to another, often through your body, which feels like a quick zap. 



Static electricity is more common in dry air because moisture in the air helps stop the buildup of charges. That’s why it tends to happen more in the winter when the air is dry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-better-coffee-brewing">Science of better coffee brewing</h2>



Hendon and Joshua Méndez Harper, a former volcanologist from the University of Oregon, investigated how moisture affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-coffee-is-missing-these-five-brain-boosting-spices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a> grinding. 



The researchers examined coffee beans from various origins, with different roasting levels and moisture contents. 



They measured key factors such as the static electricity generated during grinding, the size of the resulting particles, and the flavor profiles of the brewed coffee.



The study revealed that darker, drier coffee roasts are more susceptible to static electricity than lighter, moister beans. 



The increased brittleness of darker roasts leads to greater friction during grinding, which causes clumping and uneven grounds.



By adding a small amount of water to the beans before grinding, the researchers showed that static electricity could be reduced. 



This simple adjustment produced a smoother grind and improved consistency, enhancing the quality of the coffee.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-espresso-with-water">Stronger espresso with water</h2>



Harper and his team compared espresso brewed with beans ground with and without added moisture. 



They discovered that a light spritz of water not only reduced clumping but also improved the extraction process. The moist grounds allowed water to flow more evenly, and pulled more flavor from the coffee.



Hendon recommends adding about 20 microliters of water per gram of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robusta-coffee-could-save-our-morning-brew-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a>, which equals roughly half a milliliter for a single shot of espresso. 



This minor adjustment not only enhances the uniformity of the grind but also ensures a stronger and tastier cup of coffee, making it a simple yet effective technique for coffee enthusiasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-geophysics">Lessons from geophysics</h2>



The research also connects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-aging-drinking-coffee-can-add-years-to-your-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a> science with earth science. 



"There's a lot more to know about how coffee breaks, how it flows as particles, and how it interacts with water," said Harper. 



By studying coffee, scientists hope to gain insights into broader geophysical phenomena like landslides, volcanic eruptions, and soil water flow.



These parallels highlight how everyday activities like brewing coffee can inspire scientific breakthroughs in seemingly unrelated fields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spritz-your-beans-before-grinding">Spritz your beans before grinding </h2>



For coffee enthusiasts, the study provides an easy and practical tip: spritz your beans before grinding. By preventing clumping, the grinding process becomes smoother and more consistent, which leads to evenly sized grounds.



This consistency enhances the brewing process, allowing water to flow more uniformly through the coffee. 



The result is a richer and more flavorful espresso, making this method an easy way to elevate your coffee experience without requiring additional tools or complex techniques.



"A few simple squirts of water have solved the problems of clumping, channeling, and poor extractions while aiding in the pursuit of attaining the tastiest espresso," Hendon states.



So, the next time you prepare your morning brew, try adding a little water to your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-coffee-good-for-you-it-may-depend-on-your-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beans</a>. It’s a simple step with a big payoff - and who knows, your kitchen experiment might just inspire the next scientific breakthrough.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/matter/fulltext/S2590-2385(23)00568-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matter</a>.



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Coffee flavor can be greatly improved with this simple trick

Ever wondered if the flavor of your coffee could taste...

Volcanoes hold incredible power, but similar to plants and their root systems, most volcanic activity that occurs before an eruption happens beneath the surface.



Traditional monitoring tools focus on measuring seismic activity and collecting gas samples, yet these methods can miss subtle warning signs hidden in rugged landscapes. 



Researchers have been searching for additional ways to detect signs of unrest before eruptions happen, especially for volcanoes that are far from inhabited areas. They are now turning to plant life for clues and signs that a volcano is close to erupting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-dioxide-plants-and-volcanoes">Carbon dioxide, plants, and volcanoes</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Volcanic gases, like carbon dioxide</a>, are often released as magma pushes upward. Detecting them can be tricky because the same gases also appear in everyday life.



Certain remote volcanoes lack permanent sensors or easy access, which leads scientists to test creative approaches that might reveal small changes long before other instruments notice them.



One project was led by Robert Bogue from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> in Montreal, Canada, who worked with colleagues to measure patterns in vegetation health near hydrothermal areas in the Yellowstone Caldera. 



The results reveal how plants respond to changes in the ground beneath them, which may point to rising magma and a heightened risk of volcanic activity or the imminent eruption of a volcano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-and-volcanoes-as-allies">Plants and volcanoes as allies</h2>



Plants adjust how they grow when their surroundings shift. This adjustment includes changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> and patterns in leaf structure.



Variations in carbon dioxide, sulfur, and soil temperature can affect how trees flourish, and these factors often emerge in volcanic settings. 



Scientists reason that such signals might appear in plant tissues months or years before major events occur.



In the field, it can be hard to see small changes in vegetation by eye alone. Forests are vast, and weather can alter growth in ways unrelated to volcanoes. 



That is why satellite imaging has become popular. It can scan large areas and detect subtle hints of stress or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-learning-can-help-track-changes-in-forest-cover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusual greening</a> that might not stand out on the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beneath-the-canopy">Looking beneath the canopy</h2>



One helpful technique is the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (<a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/MeasuringVegetation/measuring_vegetation_2.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NDVI</a>). This calculation captures how vigorously plants are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/details-photosynthesis-water-viewed-atomic-level-cryo-microscope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesizing</a> by measuring chlorophyll levels.



Scores range from negative numbers up to 1, with higher numbers pointing to healthy leaves. By comparing these values in different spots over time, researchers can see if there are trends that may connect to shifts in the subsurface environment.



Studies in volcanic regions suggest that small bursts of carbon dioxide and heated fluids can initially fertilize local plants. But higher concentrations of harmful gases or very hot soil can stress and even kill them. 



Tracking these ups and downs over multiple years can reveal a story of underground changes that unfold gradually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tern-lake-as-a-proving-ground">Tern Lake as a proving ground</h2>



In Wyoming, the Tern Lake thermal area sits in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-music-will-yellowstones-seismic-activity-produce/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone Caldera</a>. From 1984 to 2022, archived Landsat images showed that tree health in this hydrothermal zone improved for about 16 years. 



Scientists believe the initial benefit may have come from extra nutrients reaching the soil. Then around the early 2000s, the satellite record captured a shift, with tree health dipping and many lodgepole pines dying near the center of activity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/plants_predict-volcanic-eruptions_satellite-photos_credit-McGill-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/plants_predict-volcanic-eruptions_satellite-photos_credit-McGill-University_1s.webp" alt="Images of the study area in 1994 compared to 2022, with the significant loss of trees in the epicenter of the hydrothermal area. Landsat images (c, d) highlight the decline in plant health in the central area with lighter color shading corresponding to lower Normalized Difference Vegetation Index values. Credit: Bogue et al. McGill University" class="wp-image-1955545"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Images of the study area in 1994 compared to 2022, with the significant loss of trees in the epicenter of the hydrothermal area. Landsat images (c, d) highlight the decline in plant health in the central area with lighter color shading corresponding to lower Normalized Difference Vegetation Index values. Credit: Bogue et al. McGill University</figcaption></figure>



Infrared data suggested that soil temperatures in parts of the site exceeded 122°F, and that poisonous gases and acidic fluids were breaking down <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant tissues</a>.



Over time, the zone of stress spread outward, and a bare patch of dead trees became more visible. This persistent change confirmed that a deeper process was heating the ground and altering the chemistry that plants depend on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-from-plants-that-a-volcano-is-waking-up">Signs from plants that a volcano is waking up</h2>



The research team linked these findings to pathways of hydrothermal fluids moving toward the surface. In some areas, mineral buildup may have clogged old routes, forcing new channels to open. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquake-activity-will-increase-due-to-glacial-retreat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earthquake data</a> supported this interpretation. Small tremors can indicate that magma or hot fluids are seeking different escape routes.



Collectively, these events point to activity that might have begun well before on-the-ground surveys took note.



Observations also suggest that this expansion reached a limit. Some recent field checks found signs of new seedlings taking hold in once-barren terrain. 



This could mean the local system is calming, at least for the moment. Changes in vegetation and plant life can serve as a reminder that volcanoes and their processes are not always linear. Conditions can shift as gases and fluids come and go.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



These discoveries illustrate how forests can serve as eyes on a hidden world. Researchers have often relied on thermal cameras and gas detectors to evaluate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic hazards</a>, but those instruments have limitations.



In some places, there is no easy way to install or maintain them. Harsh weather, dense canopies, and rough slopes can hamper efforts to collect reliable data.



Satellite imagery provides wide coverage without the need for a permanent presence in challenging locations. 



Vegetation-based monitoring is not a standalone method, but it can offer valuable hints for scientists. If the data show unusual patterns of greening or die-off, teams can schedule closer inspection or deploy instruments before any major event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanoes-plants-and-a-safer-tomorrow">Volcanoes, plants, and a safer tomorrow</h2>



Every volcano is unique. Some are surrounded by thick forests, while others sit in deserts or at high elevations. 



Where conditions support enough plant life, scientists can try vegetation indexes to look for shifts that might signal building magma. 



In other areas, this strategy may be less useful or confounded by drought, wildfires, or different species that react in unexpected ways.



The hope is to combine these plant observations with other signals. Minor quakes, ground swelling, and changes in gas composition all help create a clearer picture of what lies beneath the surface. 



Scientists continue to refine these approaches. As they gather more information, they can figure out how to focus resources on volcanoes that pose the greatest risk.



The story at Tern Lake shows that forests can act as an early warning system, revealing shifts that might mean an eruption is more likely. By studying these patterns, experts might someday issue alerts sooner than ever before.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023GC010938" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</a>.



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Plants and trees are able to predict volcano eruptions

Volcanoes hold incredible power, but similar to plants and their...

Many of the foods we enjoy, such as apples, almonds, and pumpkin spices, rely on pollinators like bees and butterflies. These organisms play a critical role in producing one-third of our food supply and significantly impact the quality, flavor, and market value of crops.



A recent study&nbsp;by researchers from the University of Göttingen sheds light on this underexplored yet critical aspect of agriculture.



Pollinators influence crop quality through their movement across plantations and the variety of plants they visit. However, current strategies tend to focus heavily on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-wars-plants-compete-for-space-on-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supporting pollinators</a> while neglecting the importance of plant quality.



The researchers argue that understanding species-specific pollinator behavior and strategic crop variety distribution can significantly enhance fruit quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollination-s-impact-on-global-agriculture">Pollination’s impact on global agriculture</h2>



Animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a> plays a vital role in global agriculture, contributing to two-thirds of the world's most important crops. 



These crops - such as fruits, nuts, and pulses - rely on pollinators like bees and are valued at hundreds of billions of US dollars annually. Beyond supporting food production, animal pollination ensures the supply of essential nutrients.



For instance, pollinator-dependent crops provide over 90% of the dietary vitamin C we consume, along with substantial levels of carotenoids and antioxidants, which are crucial for human health.



Pollinators, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2024-bee-engaged-with-youth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>, directly enhance the nutritional and commercial value of crops. In the case of rapeseed, bees increase its polyunsaturated fatty acid and total oil content, making the crop healthier and more valuable. 



Similarly, they improve avocado production by boosting the oil content and increasing the fruit's weight, leading to better quality and higher market value. This highlights the indispensable role of animal pollination not just in crop yields but also in enhancing food quality and nutritional benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinators-and-fruit-quality">Pollinators and fruit quality</h2>



The research highlights that not all pollinators or crops are the same when it comes to improving fruit quality. The type of pollinator species, the variety of the crop, and the quality of the pollen they transfer all play crucial roles in determining the final quality of the fruit.



If there are changes in how pollinators behave or in the arrangement of plants within a field, cross-pollination between different plant varieties might not happen effectively. This can lead to reduced fruit quality or failed pollination altogether.



Therefore, it is not just about having enough pollinators present, but also ensuring the right types of pollinators <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plants-generate-heat-to-attract-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interact with crops</a> in the right ways and at the right times. 



The spatial movement of pollinators and how they engage with different plant varieties in the field are key factors in producing high-quality crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-need-for-quality-oriented-research">The need for quality-oriented research</h2>



The study was conducted by Professor Teja Tscharntke, Dr. Carolina Ocampo-Ariza, and Dr. Wiebke Kämper from the Functional Agrobiodiversity and Agroecology Group at the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a>.



“The results of our review show that future research should not only focus on the quantity but also more on the quality of the crops. After all, a better nutrient composition benefits the health of consumers,” noted the researchers.



They advocate for the following: promoting cross-pollination by considering crop variety and pollen quality; comparing the quality of self-pollinated and cross-pollinated varieties; and designing cultivated areas and landscapes to maximize pollinator mobility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-crop-improvement-with-pollinators">Sustainable crop improvement with pollinators</h2>



By applying these recommendations, agriculture can achieve more than just higher yields - crops can be produced with superior nutritional value. This calls for a detailed understanding of how pollinator behavior, crop variety, and pollen quality interact to influence fruit quality.



An effective strategy ensures that pollinators are not only present but also appropriately paired with the right crop varieties. This targeted approach boosts nutrient content, enhances sensory appeal, and raises the commercial value of crops.



Such practices directly benefit farmers through better harvests and profits, while consumers gain access to healthier, more nutritious food.



Additionally, this approach supports <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-twist-in-the-evolution-of-plant-pollinator-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable agriculture</a> by promoting biodiversity and optimizing pollinator movement. It promotes a balanced system where the needs of the environment, farmers, and consumers are met, contributing to long-term agricultural success.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/fulltext/S1360-1385(24)00272-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Plant Science</a>.



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How pollinators boost the nutritional value of crops

Many of the foods we enjoy, such as apples, almonds,...

A new study led by Pennsylvania State University has found that when deciding when they will get their next meal, different bee species may be attracted to different flower traits.&nbsp;



This finding, based on research with two species of solitary bees, highlights the intriguing ways bees select the flowers they visit.&nbsp;



The study illuminates the importance of floral traits such as number of blooms and nutritional content, expanding our understanding of plant–pollinator interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-species-with-distinct-priorities">Bee species with distinct priorities</h2>



The research focused on two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-threatens-solitary-bees-and-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solitary bee species</a>: the horned-face bee - known for pollinating apples and blueberries - and the alfalfa leafcutting bee, which pollinates alfalfa.&nbsp;



The scientists discovered that while the horned-face bee gravitated toward plants displaying a large quantity of flowers, the alfalfa leafcutting bee instead preferred blooms with a higher protein-to-lipid ratio in the pollen.



“Information on the foraging strategies of different bee species give insights for understanding how plant-pollinator interactions evolved,” said lead author Jaya Sravanthi Mokkapati, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>.&nbsp;



“Our study also highlights the need for more research on seasonal foraging habits among various bee species, which can deepen our understanding of their vital role in pollination and plant reproduction.”



This pronounced difference in focus - quantity for one species and nutritional quality for the other - demonstrates that even closely related insects can exhibit divergent foraging behaviors.&nbsp;



These variations matter for both ecological balance and practical considerations, such as when and how to restore pollinator habitats or ensure crop pollination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co-evolution-of-plants-and-pollinators">Co-evolution of plants and pollinators</h2>



Pollinators like bees and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a> have co-evolved over thousands of years, forming a symbiotic relationship. As bees gather nectar and pollen for sustenance, they assist in plant reproduction, transferring pollen between flowers.&nbsp;



Crops ranging from fruits to vegetables and nuts depend on this process, which is essential for producing much of the human food supply. However, many pollinator populations are declining, partly due to the loss of the flowering plants they rely on.



“Bees can be attracted to plants based on a number of traits, such as the color, scent, size, number and nutritional content of its flowers,” said&nbsp; co-author Christina Grozinger, a professor of Entomology at Penn State.&nbsp;



“However, because these traits are co-evolved in flowers, it can also be very challenging to pinpoint which traits are the ones attracting which bees.”



By analyzing these evolved plant traits, researchers can better grasp how bees make their foraging decisions and, in turn, how best to support pollinator populations in decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-flowers-for-quality">Choosing flowers for quality</h2>



The research team examined two solitary bee species precisely because of their distinct ecological niches.&nbsp;



The horned-face bee is active during the spring, a season marked by fewer resources and shorter bloom windows. The alfalfa leafcutting bee, on the other hand, emerges in summer, a time abundant in floral options.



“In contrast, the alfalfa leafcutting bee is a summer species that typically has access to more abundant resources,” Mokkapati said. “We hypothesized that these bees can afford to be more selective, choosing flowers based on nutritional quality instead of quantity.”



By observing how these bees visited plants, the scientists were able to pinpoint the different variables each species valued in its foraging. This approach included analyzing pollen content as well as recording the sheer number of flowers on each plant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-bee-conservation">Implications for bee conservation</h2>



According to the researchers, the results of this study have important implications for restoring and managing habitats for pollinators.&nbsp;



Landscapes might need to include plant varieties that offer either numerous flowers for bees that seek quantity or high-quality pollen for species focusing on nutritional benefits.&nbsp;



Ensuring these resources are available throughout the growing season could reinforce bee populations, enhance biodiversity, and bolster pollination services for agriculture.



“By raising awareness of how these gardens can provide essential resources for bees, we can inspire community involvement and commitment to preserving local biodiversity,” Mokkapati said.&nbsp;



“This collective effort not only benefits the bees but also enhances the beauty and ecological health of our surroundings.”



The researchers note that many pollinator populations require immediate interventions and that these strategies could help sustain not only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bees</a> (often the focus of public concern) but also lesser-known solitary bees like the horned-face and alfalfa leafcutting bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While the study reveals how these two bee species differ in their foraging strategies, the authors suggest deeper investigation is needed to uncover the reasons behind such variations.&nbsp;



Scientists aim to explore whether differences in sensory perception, genetic factors, or life history strategies inform why one bee species chooses to prioritize floral abundance while another looks for a certain balance of proteins and lipids in pollen.



By diving more deeply into these aspects, future research may shed light on how bees adapt to various environmental conditions. It could also identify potential vulnerabilities if, for example, climate change alters the availability or quality of their preferred flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ensuring-bee-health-and-biodiversity">Ensuring bee health and biodiversity</h2>



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> remain fundamental to global food security and ecosystem functioning, understanding these nuanced foraging preferences is critical.&nbsp;



The study emphasizes that it is not solely honey bees that matter - solitary bees and other pollinators have their own crucial roles.&nbsp;



Encouraging and facilitating plant diversity, offering both abundant blooms and nutrient-rich pollen sources, may prove key to preserving these vital insects for the benefit of ecosystems and agricultural communities alike.



In the broader context, this work illustrates how the interplay between plant traits and bee behaviors can shape pollinator communities.&nbsp;



By harnessing this understanding for conservation practices, we can cultivate healthier environments for bees and, in turn, sustain the pollination services that underpin so much of our food supply and natural heritage.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Some bees value quality over quantity in flower selection

A new study led by Pennsylvania State University has found...

Ancient societies had all sorts of attitudes toward altered states of mind. Some favored fermented drinks, while others explored psychoactive plants with potent effects. 



Either way, there is a growing body of evidence that many of our ancestors used mind-altering substances in ceremonial settings, personal rituals, and possibly even on the battlefield. 



From what we know about ancient cultures in Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean, and beyond, it seems people were curious about the boundaries of consciousness from the very beginning.



In a new paper in Praehistorische Zeitschrift, researchers discuss the possibility that certain Germanic fighters experimented with psychoactive substances to gain an edge in warfare.



The study was led by archaeologist <a href="https://akokowski.academia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Andrzej Kokowski</a> alongside biologists from <a href="https://study.gov.pl/university/maria-curie-sklodowska-university" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maria Curie-Skłodowska University</a> in Lublin, Poland, and it taps into a fascinating area of debate about what these ancient communities might have consumed before they clashed with soldiers of the mighty Roman Empire.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-humans-and-psychoactive-plants">Ancient humans and psychoactive plants</h2>



Ancient civilizations in the Middle East left us clues that they understood the power of certain psychoactive plants or plant extracts. 



Evidence from Mesopotamia <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/arcm.12806" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggests</a> that the Sumerians recognized the potential of poppy cultivation over 5,000 years ago.



Meanwhile, the Egyptians produced beer as early as <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/51721/chapter-abstract/419816733?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">8,000 years ago</a>, and some <a href="https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/43c3119d-743e-4c7b-a028-ca29b1ab3fc6/content" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> believe that they later discovered ways to harness the poppy’s narcotic components for medical and religious ceremonies.&nbsp;



Across the Mediterranean, the Greeks refined methods of harvesting poppy sap to make opium, which became a prized substance in certain circles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-tools-in-germanic-contexts">Hidden tools in Germanic contexts</h2>



The new study highlights how small artifacts, possibly too tiny to hold food, may have delivered stimulating powders or tinctures to those who wielded swords and shields. 



Although a direct chemical analysis of these artifacts would be the gold standard of proof, the researchers rely on indirect clues from burial and settlement sites. 



The authors remark that certain items fit into the category of “dispensers,” indicating they might have delivered a measured dose of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-linked-to-dramatic-rise-in-psychiatric-disorders/">potent substance</a> in the heat of conflict.



The team also introduce a thought-provoking line in their paper: “The ‘war on drugs’ seems to be the aberration.” 



This statement by the study's authors implies that, in ancient times, the notion of banning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-linked-to-dramatic-rise-in-psychiatric-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these substances</a> may not have been front and center. 



Instead, societies either tolerated or ritualized them, weaving them into social gatherings, medical treatments, and possibly warfare traditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-misconceptions-and-roman-views">Cultural misconceptions and Roman views</h2>



One of the more intriguing angles is how the Romans regarded their northern adversaries. Romans often portrayed the so-called “barbarians” as unsophisticated, suggesting that refined substances like opium were beyond their reach. 



Yet material findings seem to contradict that assumption. Scholars argue that people living outside Roman borders had their own knowledge networks, which may have included information on creative uses of plants and fungi.



Other historical studies support the idea that ancient communities across Europe and Asia <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-real-impact-of-burning-magic-herbs-in-spiritual-rituals/">experimented with an array of herbs</a>. 



A range of species, including henbane and belladonna, was accessible through trade routes and local foraging. The question is whether some of these plants could have boosted courage or dulled pain during battle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychoactive-plants-impact">Psychoactive plants impact</h2>



If these warriors had any way to harness psychoactive substances, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-drug-use-found-during-bronze-age-ceremonies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychological effects</a> might have included the numbing of fear or the triggering heightened aggression. 



In the face of enemy lines, an altered state could offer perceived protection or confidence.



Away from the battlefield, the same substances might have been used to ease injuries or find temporary relief from stress.



Researchers also point out that large-scale access to psychoactive plants or extracts would have demanded precise expertise. 



Someone in the community would have needed to cultivate and distribute these items, and would have known about their potency. 



This opens discussions about economic networks that financed these endeavors. It may also hint at the existence of supply chains stretching across large territories and bringing together resources from different regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-reflections-on-the-ancient-past">Modern reflections on the ancient past</h2>



Discussions about drug use in antiquity challenge our assumptions about humanity’s relationship with altered consciousness. Today’s laws and views on intoxicants are shaped by modern cultures and governments.&nbsp;



People often regard drug use as a specific modern problem or rebellious act. Yet, archaeological evidence suggests that it can be an age-old behavior shaped by survival, celebration, and even worship.



Some contemporary <a href="https://www.hellenic.org.au/post/ritual-religious-drug-use-in-ancient-greece" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> hold that these early experiments helped shape social cohesion, ritualistic practices, and medical traditions.&nbsp;



The further we look into prehistory, the more we see how deeply entwined these substances might have been with community life. Whether they were used to ramp up bravery in <a href="https://www.caymanchem.com/news/drugs-used-in-conflict-and-wars" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">war</a> or heal the wounded in small villages, they likely played a distinct role in shaping cultural identities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debates-and-continuing-questions">Debates and continuing questions</h2>



Studies on ancient drug use can provoke lively debate among archaeologists and historians. 



Some specialists believe that minimal chemical residue in the artifacts makes firm conclusions elusive. Others lean on contextual clues found near skeletal remains or in areas associated with combat. 



No matter the stance, each new piece of research fuels broader conversations about how ancient societies navigated social norms, survival strategies, and the universal human drive for altered experiences.



Several puzzles still remain. Did these <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25386392/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Germanic fighters</a> incorporate psychoactive mixtures into spiritual traditions as well? Were there dedicated roles for people in the community - like herbalists or specialists - who oversaw dosing?&nbsp;



These topics carry important anthropological questions about the balance between practical needs and personal exploration. Answers may emerge as more evidence surfaces, but for now, there is enough intrigue to keep experts on their toes.



The information for this article is published in the journal <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/pz-2024-2017/html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Praehistorische Zeitschrift</a>. 



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Ancient warriors may have used psychoactive plants for courage in battle

Ancient societies had all sorts of attitudes toward altered states...

Endangered plants