Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Zapus hudsonius preblei. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=4420542195604c0fabc43f706d679a4c&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/fungi-characteristics-and-function/">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world. Zapus hudsonius preblei

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

The mouse is around nine inches long, 60% of which is the tail, and can jump in bounds of four feet when threatened. It usually travels slowly. It swims and climbs grass stems. It has long hind legs and a long, slender, scaly tail that it uses to <a class="mw-redirect" title="Communicate" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicate">communicate</a> by making drumming noises. It also communicates using clucks and chirps.

The mice are born without hair (naked) and live nearly two years. They <a title="Hibernation" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibernation">hibernate</a> an estimated 7-8 months - from September or October through late May or early June - building themselves a soft vegetation nest, typically at a location with a northerly aspect. The Colorado <a class="mw-redirect" title="Breeding season" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breeding_season">breeding season</a> is believed to be June through August, with two litters - in July and August - but there are records of three litters in a season. The average litter size is five, but can range from two to eight.

Zapus hudsonius preblei

Zapus hudsonius preblei. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Zosterops albogularis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/perennial-vegetables-to-grow-in-north-america/">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=wildlife&amp;cvid=879b6182a54c48e6a4208ef9b0da5c1a&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> Wildlife</a> Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Zosterops albogularis It reaches a length up 13 to 14 centimetres and therefore it is one of the largest white-eyes. The wingspan is 7.5 cm and the weight is about 30 grams. Its appearance is characterized by a pale green head, an olive green coloured neck and white throat and belly parts. A further feature is a conspicuous eye ring of white feathers. Males and females are coloured similarly. Its diet consists of fruits, berries, nectar, and insects. Its only habitat is a 5 km² large forested area around Mount Pitt on Norfolk Island where it lives solitary. In the breeding season from October to December the couple build a cup-shaped nest in which two white eggs are laid. The incubation time lasts eleven days and another eleven days later the juveniles became fully fledged.

Zosterops albogularis

Zosterops albogularis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Zosterops conspicillatus conspicillatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-wildfires-in-manitoba-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- Zosterops conspicillatus conspicillatus The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface

Zosterops conspicillatus conspicillatus

Zosterops conspicillatus conspicillatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Zosterops modesta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-wildfires-in-manitoba-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Zosterops modesta ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north%20america&amp;qs=n&amp;form=QBRE&amp;sp=-1&amp;pq=&amp;sc=0-0&amp;sk=&amp;cvid=2A486C7EEB7F4DC9A48B1971A274D39A">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Zosterops modesta

Zosterops modesta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Zosterops rotensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-wildfires-in-manitoba-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- Zosterops rotensis The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north%20america&amp;qs=n&amp;form=QBRE&amp;sp=-1&amp;pq=&amp;sc=0-0&amp;sk=&amp;cvid=2A486C7EEB7F4DC9A48B1971A274D39A">North America</a> is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface

Zosterops rotensis

Zosterops rotensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Climate change has emerged as a formidable challenge to plant life on Earth. Changes in the environment, which plants are unaccustomed to, disrupt their growth, posing grave risks. 



Increasingly, plant scientists strive to comprehend how these environmental changes will impact plant life and whether plants can acclimate to a new status quo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptations-of-paper-birch-trees">Adaptations of paper birch trees</h2>



A team of researchers from the Walker lab at the <a href="https://msu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a>-U.S. Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, or PRL, has set their sights on how paper birch trees adapt to changing environments. They are keen on understanding the management of an important plant process known as photorespiration.



"If plant metabolism was a freeway system, photorespiration would be the second-highest trafficked road,” noted Berkley Walker, an associate professor in the Department of Plant Biology in the PRL.



The question is whether the roads of this crucial pathway can handle all this traffic under present and predicted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-shatters-heat-records-earths-hottest-year-is-here/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate conditions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-acclimation-in-humans-and-plants">Acclimation in humans and plants </h2>



Acclimation refers to the adjustment of living organisms to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-are-largely-unprepared-for-the-effects-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">altered conditions</a>. In humans, we acclimate when we adapt to the cold weather of winter or while getting accustomed to a new job.



However, plants must acclimate too, which is made complex by the fact that the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and global warming have contrasting effects on photosynthesis and photorespiration.



As the temperature rises, so does photorespiration, but when CO2 levels rise, photorespiration decreases. This interplay may modify the efficiency of photorespiration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paper-birch-response-to-climate">Paper birch response to climate</h2>



In a study published in the journal Scientific Reports, the research team examined whether paper birch trees adjusted the activity of photorespiratory enzymes under varying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-days-getting-longer-rotation-slows-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a>.



Paper birch trees were selected because they inhabit boreal forest biomes located in the northernmost parts of the planet, which are expected to be among the ecosystems hit hardest by climate change.



The experimental growth conditions mirrored current, moderate, and extreme climate change scenarios for these boreal forest regions, as outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 



In each scenario, researchers modified the CO2 concentration and increased air temperatures in various combinations.



“This study explored whether plants fine-tuned their enzyme capacity based on demand or whether they keep a buffer, so they have extra capacity in reserve to handle unpredictable changes,” said Luke Gregory, former graduate student in the Walker lab and first author on the study.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-growth-in-a-changing-climate">Plant growth in a changing climate </h2>



Trees for the study were grown from seeds at the <a href="https://www.uwo.ca/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Western Ontario</a> by researchers in Professor Danielle Way’s lab. They used the university’s Biotron, a research facility capable of simulating almost any climate on Earth.



Surprisingly, the experts found that the trees did not increase their enzyme capacity depending on the climate they were grown in. Instead, they maintained similar capacities across all six future climate scenarios.



Remarkably, the measured enzyme capacities were more than adequate for the photorespiratory pathway, implying that the trees were poised to grow even under changing conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-resilience-in-changing-climates">Plant resilience in changing climates</h2>



Gregory highlighted an intriguing find: the plants have a “safety factor” or buffer capacity that enables them to cope with different changes, whether under current, moderate, or extreme conditions.



This discovery offers a glimmer of hope that plants have a built-in mechanism which might help them survive the adverse effects of climate change, at least in terms of photorespiration.



That being said, this research is just one piece of the larger puzzle in comprehending how photorespiration is and will continue to be impacted by human-induced climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-resilience-in-the-face-of-climate-change">Plant resilience in the face of climate change </h2>



“It’s important that we understand how plants are responding to current conditions and future conditions because we need them in our lives,” said Gregory. 



The question of whether plants can acclimate or adapt over generations to these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-of-2023-weakened-earths-carbon-storage-capacity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">altered environments</a> is pertinent as they provide us with oxygen, food, and energy.



This study opens a new window to appreciate and understand plant resilience in the face of the relentless challenges posed by climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77049-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Plants defy climate change through acclimation

Climate change has emerged as a formidable challenge to plant...

Across the globe, approximately 8.7 million different plant species exist, with around a quarter of them dwelling in the ocean.



For centuries, our understanding of these species, particularly those on land, has been largely shaped by their physical characteristics. 



The process of identifying species based on their morphological characteristics was first established by 18th-century scientist Carl Linnaeus.



However, new findings suggest that this method may not be as comprehensive as we once thought. The research suggests that DNA holds the key to uncovering the identities of plants. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-dna-to-identify-plant-species">Using DNA to identify plant species</h2>



While Linnaeus's method has guided our identification of species for centuries, advancements in technology have ushered in a new era of species identification - through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-ocean-dna-study-uncovers-mysteries-of-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA sequencing</a>. 



Over the last decade, biologists have begun to depend heavily on DNA sequencing to distinguish between species more accurately. This approach typically involves analyzing a single, species-specific site in the DNA, but it's not foolproof.



"There are times when different plant species are difficult to characterize from a small DNA sequence. But now DNA sequencing has taken several steps forward and we have been able to identify completely new species by analyzing a larger part of the genome," explained Zaynab Shaik, author of a doctoral thesis at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-case-of-the-cryptic-daisies">The case of the cryptic daisies</h2>



Shaik's research zeroes in on a group of daisies in the Cape Province of her native South Africa. This collection comprises 66 recognized species, and the first of these species was described in 1753.



Despite their prevalence and commonality, some daisies in the region have puzzled botanists. These "cryptic" plants appear identical in leaf and flower structure, growth habit, and distribution, yet they boast significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/just-a-few-genetic-differences-tailor-flowers-to-specific-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic differences</a>.



"It is important that we have a better understanding of plant relationships and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-tracking-is-crucial-for-preserving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> on Earth. It is easy to imagine how wrong it could be if we discover that a plant is suitable for use as a base in a drug, and then we pick another, similar, species instead, which may not have the same properties at all," said Shaik.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-reveals-new-plant-species">DNA reveals new plant species </h2>



Shaik's DNA analyses of these cryptic daisies have led to the unmasking of four new species. She noted that these species aren't new creations hidden in unexplored terrains. 



"When I'm asked about this, there's a bit of an anti-climax when I explain that it's not that I've found a new daisy in a remote location that no one has seen before. But these have been admired for a long time, but they have been mistaken for another species."



Shaik's identification method, known as integrative taxonomy, merges traditional observational techniques with modern DNA sequencing. 



This combination enhances our knowledge of species boundaries and is expected to ramp up the rate of new species discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-more-discoveries-to-be-made">Many more discoveries to be made</h2>



Shaik hints at a possible underestimation of the biodiversity in the Cape region and, by extension, other parts of the world. 



"In the Cape, it has been thought that only 1 percent of biodiversity remains to be discovered. My results suggest that it could be much more than that. And the same should reasonably apply to other areas of the globe."



Thus, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-parrots-in-the-illegal-wildlife-trade-with-dna-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA technology</a>, progressing hand in hand with traditional methods, is undeniably reshaping our understanding of Earth's biodiversity. 



As we continue to unravel more secrets within the realm of genetics, the question arises: how much more of nature's mysteries are waiting to be unveiled?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-and-plant-species-discovery">Technology and plant species discovery</h2>



The integration of DNA sequencing with traditional taxonomy, known as integrative taxonomy, is becoming the cornerstone of modern biodiversity studies. 



Unlike conventional methods that rely solely on observable physical traits, this approach combines morphological analysis with molecular data, offering a multi-dimensional view of species identification. 



This hybrid method addresses limitations found in singular approaches and helps clarify ambiguities, particularly in species with minimal visible differences.



Integrative taxonomy is not only accelerating the pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-magic-new-species-discovered-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species discovery</a> but also refining conservation strategies.



By identifying genetic differences that aren't apparent through morphology alone, researchers can better understand which populations may be at risk and develop more effective protection measures. 



This evolving field highlights the importance of embracing modern technology alongside traditional scientific practices to enrich our understanding of life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S025462992400320X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South African Journal of Botany</a>.



Image Credit: Zaynab Shaik



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DNA technology will accelerate the pace of plant species discovery

Across the globe, approximately 8.7 million different plant species exist,...

Pando, an extraordinary organism residing in Utah, quietly stands out among the myriad of living beings that inhabit our planet, captivating scientists and nature enthusiasts alike. 



This remarkable colony of quaking aspen trees (Populus tremuloides) stretches across 106 acres, and is connected by an extensive underground root system that forms a single, unified organism rather than just a forest of unrelated individuals.



With its remarkable size and age, Pando dwarfs its fellow inhabitants, holding the potential to be not only the oldest living being but also the largest organism on Earth. It is a symbol of nature's resilience and complexity over millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-utah-s-pride-the-incredible-pando">Utah's pride: The incredible Pando</h2>



A group of American researchers has suggested that this 106-acre woodland in the heart of Utah could have originated from a single seedling, which sprouted 34,000 years ago, pre-dating the end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">last ice age</a>.



Even bolder estimates propose that this clonal organism, which appears to consist of 47,000 separate trees, might have been present tens of thousands of years earlier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-astonishing-life-of-clonal-organisms">The astonishing life of clonal organisms</h2>



Pando (which means "I spread" in Latin) is intriguing because of its massive size, but it also boasts a unique genetic identity shared by all its individual parts that are linked together through one vast network of roots.



This form of asexual reproduction makes Pando a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/listening-to-the-largest-and-oldest-tree-on-earth-what-does-it-have-to-say/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clonal organism</a>, with each 'tree' being a part of the whole, rooted and growing from the same entity. 



There are other life forms, including fungi and the bristlecone pines on the White Mountains in eastern California, that display similar capabilities. They survive through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-had-a-breakthrough-in-cloning-coconut-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cloning</a> methods for hundreds, or even thousands of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-pando-s-historical-tales">Unlocking Pando's historical tales</h2>



To discern Pando's true age more accurately, the research team meticulously collected around 500 samples, including root, leaf, and bark, from different parts of this giant organism.



They also obtained specimens from other, unrelated aspens and embarked on a journey to sequence their DNA.



The scientists identified 4,000 genetic variations within these samples, and the mutation patterns narrated a captivating story that dates back potentially between 16,000 and 80,000 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-genetic-enigma">Unraveling the genetic enigma</h2>



The researchers, led by Rozenn Pineau of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>, noted that they had initially expected a close genetic correlation between trees that are physically near each other.



"You would expect that the trees that are spatially close are also closer genetically," Pineau told Helena Kudiabor at Nature. "But this is not exactly what we find. We found a spatial signal, but that is much weaker than what we expected."



Those trees that were in close proximity did share more similar mutations than those that were far apart - but only slightly more.



This discovery adds a new layer of complexity to understanding Pando's genetic structure and resilience.



Additional research focusing on Pando's mutation history and its genomic protection methods could provide insights into how this plant (and other similar organisms) has managed to survive for millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ensuring-pando-s-enduring-legacy">Ensuring Pando's enduring legacy</h2>



Concerns are mounting over the longevity of Pando. Ensuring its survival will require a deep understanding of this ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant's resilience</a> against the assaults of man and nature.



Moreover, similar investigations into other clonal organisms elsewhere may offer Pando competition for its venerable title. 



One competitor lies in a patch of Posidonia oceanica seagrass off the Spanish island of Formentera, which some believe to be more than 200,000 years old.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ecological-significance-of-pando">The ecological significance of Pando</h2>



Pando is more than just a marvel of age and size; it plays a crucial role in the local ecosystem. 



This vast network of quaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aspen-forests-could-reverse-biodiversity-loss-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aspens</a> supports a diversity of wildlife by providing habitat and food for numerous species, from insects and birds to larger mammals such as deer and elk.



The interconnected root system of Pando also aids in soil stabilization, which prevents erosion and supports the health of the surrounding environment.



However, understanding Pando's ecological contributions has become more urgent than ever, as climate change and human activities threaten its survival. 



Efforts to study and preserve this unique organism are now critical, not only to protect its ancient legacy but also to help maintain the delicate balance of the ecosystem it anchors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-enduring-hymns-of-pando">The enduring hymns of Pando</h2>



Pando's survival through the ages is a tribute to time itself. It stands as a constant reminder of the ancient world, sharing with us stories of an era long gone. 



As we continue to unravel the mysteries of Pando, we can only hope that this ancient marvel stands tall and flourishes in the years to come.



The research is published in <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.10.19.619233v2">BioRxiv</a>.



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The world's largest living organism consists of 47,000 trees

Pando, an extraordinary organism residing in Utah, quietly stands out...

Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp;



In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp;



Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata) setting the record with a genome size over 50 times larger than that of humans.



This diversity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> size reveals the vast variety of life forms on Earth, but it also raises a fascinating question: If smaller genomes lead to faster, more efficient growth, why do some species have larger genomes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-smaller-genome-sizes">Advantages of smaller genome sizes</h2>



The replication of DNA is essential for cell production and growth, making smaller genomes more efficient as they require fewer resources and time to replicate.&nbsp;



Smaller genomes demand fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a>, especially the DNA-building elements nitrogen and phosphorus, making them ideal for rapid growth and reproduction.



Because of these advantages, it’s not surprising that most species have evolved with relatively small genomes.&nbsp;



However, large genomes persist in some organisms, suggesting that these genomes may confer certain benefits in specific environments, where the costs of carrying extra DNA are outweighed by unique growth advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-large-genome-benefits-in-grasses">Exploring large genome benefits in grasses</h2>



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a> has recently studied the potential benefits of large genomes in grass species. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fairy-circles-kill-all-newly-planted-grasses-deepening-their-mystery/">Grasses</a>, a vast plant family found worldwide from arctic tundras to tropical savannas, vary in genome size, making them an ideal group to examine how genome size affects growth in different conditions.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.20150" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>, examined the growth of various grass species under conditions mimicking their natural environments - high temperatures, low nutrients, and drought. 



The scientists compared growth rates to each species’ genome size and observed that while grasses with smaller genomes generally grew better across most conditions, larger genomes provided advantages in two specific scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-genomes-thrive-in-nutrient-rich-environments">Large genomes thrive in nutrient-rich environments</h2>



The first scenario where larger genomes proved beneficial was in nutrient-rich soils. While low nutrient levels slowed down large-genome grasses, those with large genomes thrived in high-nutrient environments.&nbsp;



Here, the extra DNA content meant larger cells that produced more biomass, such as leaves, which allowed these plants to outgrow and overshadow neighbors with smaller genomes.&nbsp;



In nutrient-poor areas, however, the demands of replicating additional DNA outweighed these benefits, making smaller genomes more favorable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-seasons-and-genome-sizes">Growing seasons and genome sizes</h2>



The second advantage for large-genome grasses occurred in cooler environments, such as temperate regions with lower growing season temperatures.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-grow-more-branches-and-become-bushy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant growth</a> typically has two stages: cell division, where new cells are generated, and cell expansion, where cells swell with water to help the plant grow taller or spread. 



Cool temperatures significantly slow down cell division, but they have less impact on cell expansion.&nbsp;



Consequently, grasses with larger cells, which accompany large genomes, can expand more rapidly by cell enlargement even in cooler weather, outpacing smaller-genome plants that rely on faster cell division in warmer temperatures.



This cell expansion process explains the early spring growth of plants like daffodils and bluebells, which also have large genomes.&nbsp;



These plants perform much of their cell division in warmer months, allowing them to use cell expansion to grow quickly in early spring, well before smaller-genome plants begin to compete for light and nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-diversity">Genome size diversity</h2>



The diversity in genome sizes among grasses may be one reason for their global success, as it allows them to adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions.&nbsp;



While smaller genomes typically support efficient growth, larger genomes offer unique advantages in specific environments, enabling certain species to thrive where others cannot.&nbsp;



This genetic diversity in grasses underscores the importance of variation in supporting species’ survival and adaptability across ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-and-evolutionary-success">Genome size and evolutionary success</h2>



The relationship between genome size and survival is not limited to plants. Our own medium-sized genome has supported humanity’s adaptability, though we don’t face the same nutrient limitations as stationary plants.&nbsp;



Unlike grasses, humans can move to seek out food and resources, which may allow us to bear the metabolic costs associated with our DNA without significant limitation.&nbsp;



This mobility highlights how different species leverage their genetic make-up in conjunction with unique behaviors and environmental interactions to thrive across diverse habitats.



In summary, the role of genome size in evolutionary success is nuanced and complex.&nbsp;



From the efficient replication of small genomes to the adaptability enabled by larger ones, genome size continues to shape the ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-forests-proving-resilient-both-climate-change-human-actions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> and global distribution of life on Earth.



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How does genome size impact evolutionary success?

Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in...

Rainforests are not just a symbol of natural beauty; they are a crucial component of our planet’s ecosystem. Yet, climate change poses an imminent threat to these vital habitats and beyond.



Up to two-thirds of the world’s temperate rainforests could fall victim to climate change by the year 2100 according to a new study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-assessment-of-temperate-rainforests">Global assessment of temperate rainforests</h2>



The study is one of its kind - the first-ever global assessment of the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperate-rainforests-can-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> on temperate rainforests.



"Temperate rainforests are rare ecosystems found only in wet and cool regions, making them vulnerable to a warming climate. They are important to conserve because they host unique species and can store high amounts of carbon," noted the study authors. 



With the help of comprehensive maps detailing tree cover, forest conditions, and climate data, the researchers were able to evaluate how human activity and climate change have collectively impacted the world's temperate rainforests and how they might continue to do so.



Although covering less than one percent of the Earth's land surface, temperate rainforests have a significant role to play. The forests are located in many countries such as Canada, the United States, Chile, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and the UK.



They are globally acknowledged for their ecological importance. Their high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-losing-their-carbon-storage-capacity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage capacity</a> exceeds that of forests in other latitudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-temperate-forests">The future of temperate forests</h2>



The researchers predict that in the most pessimistic scenario, we stand to lose up to 68 percent of our planet's temperate rainforests in the coming decades. In certain regions, this loss might reach a staggering 90 percent.



However, there's a silver lining: our actions can change the trajectory. If we take robust measures against <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Ffossil-carbon-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuel</a> emissions, the projected loss would be only about 23 percent.



Rapid and decisive actions could further curtail this loss to a mere nine percent. This, once again, emphasizes the dire need for urgent, effective steps to counter climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-most-vulnerable-forests">Identifying the most vulnerable forests</h2>



The research was led by Ben Silver, a research fellow at Leeds' School of Earth and Environment.



"Unmitigated climate change is a disaster for temperate rainforest in the UK and globally, as they cannot survive the kinds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scorching-summer-of-2024-could-make-it-the-hottest-year-on-record/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high summer temperatures</a> which we are starting to observe more regularly and are only predicted to worsen in future climate change simulations," said Silver. 



"Our study also shows that if we work hard to slow climate change it is not too late to save the world’s temperate rainforests." 



"We hope our study will support the conservation of temperate rainforests by identifying those areas that are the least or the most vulnerable to climate change, and where there is potential to restore forest."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-british-rainforests-a-case-study">British rainforests: A case study</h2>



Temperate rainforests dot the UK's western seaboard, forming one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-a-mix-of-habitats-are-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiverse habitats</a>.



It's here that the high humidity and low temperature range create the perfect conditions for moisture-loving lichens and bryophytes.



Britain's temperate rainforests cover less than one percent of the land. Yet, the UK stands with more potential for restoration than any other place globally, hosting a quarter of the world's unforested temperate rainforest climate zone.



The researchers found that temperate rainforests in the UK are resilient to low and medium amounts of future warming.



Professor Dominick Spracklen, co-author of the study, emphasized the need for the UK to lead the world in temperate rainforest restoration.



"The UK could and should be a global leader in restoration of temperate rainforests. New funding and bold action by large landowners are urgently needed to help deliver government targets for temperate rainforest restoration," said Spracklen.



Dr. Dominick A. DellaSala, Chief Scientist of the U.S group Wild Heritage, reiterated the importance of the world’s rainforests as the "lungs of the planet."



"All the world’s rainforests are the ‘lungs of the planet’ that must be protected and restored as natural climate solutions to avoid the worst of global overheating," said Dr. DellaSalla.



"Temperate rainforests need to take their place alongside tropical rainforests and the boreal forests of the north as strategically vital to a safe climate."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF004812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Two-thirds of temperate rainforests could be lost this century

Rainforests are not just a symbol of natural beauty; they...

We often hear about the insidious creep of climate change and the warming that's altering landscapes around the world. Well, the Arctic and its plants aren't immune to this silent invasion.



New evidence suggests that it's not just the temperature change we should be monitoring, but also our hoofed friends out on the tundra. Arctic greening, as it is often called, might be more about caribou and muskoxen than we ever realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greening-of-the-arctic-landscape">Greening of the Arctic landscape </h2>



Research released from the University of California, Davis (<a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/academics/graduate" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>) indicates that the large grazers of the Arctic landscape - the caribou and muskoxen - have a direct effect on the timing and abundance of Arctic plants.



This correlation reveals significant implications for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-planting-trees-in-the-arctic-is-not-a-good-climate-solution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overall Arctic ecosystem</a>. 



The findings were recently detailed in a study published in the journal PNAS Nexus and illuminate the vital role that these large herbivores play in our understanding of the Arctic ecosystem.



The focus of the narrative so far has been climate change and the increasing temperatures, but there seems to be more to it than that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-emerging-in-the-arctic">Plants emerging in the Arctic</h2>



To fully appreciate the impact of this discovery, it's essential that we first understand phenology- the study of timing and patterns in nature.



It's what alerts us when birds are migrating, or when a plant first bursts to life or bursts into bloom. Within the context of a rapidly warming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-melting-arctic-sea-ice-could-disrupt-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a>, understanding these patterns becomes critical.



“Caribou and muskoxen play a key role in how soon plants emerge and this translates to how abundant they become,” said lead author Eric Post, a professor and arctic ecologist in the UC Davis Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology. 



“This is an important, and overlooked, factor we need to consider as we seek to more fully understand climate change impacts on tundra vegetation in the Arctic.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herbivores-and-plant-growth">Herbivores and plant growth </h2>



The research that led to these insights was conducted over a period of 22 years near Kangerlussuaq, Greenland. Here, Post and his team designed an exclusion experiment to understand the effect of herbivores on the timing of plant growth and abundance.



The researchers compared the timing of spring green-up of nine plant species with and without the grazing animals, from 2009 to 2017.



The overall conclusion was that plants where caribou or muskoxen were present underwent earlier green-up and enjoyed greater abundance later into the growing season.



However, not all plants responded equally to the grazing. While about two-thirds of plants greened up earlier, and three-quarters thrived more effectively later in the season with grazing animals present, some species such as dwarf birch and harebell emerged later when grazers were present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-herbivore-grazing">Impact of herbivore grazing</h2>



While it's still unclear why Arctic plants respond this way to the presence of grazers, what is clear is that there is a connection.



“We’re used to thinking of the timing of plant availability as impacting the productivity of grazing animals, but not the reverse,” Post said. “The absence or presence of herbivores can also impact the timing of plant growth and their productivity.”



This understanding becomes increasingly important in light of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-warming-four-times-faster-than-global-average/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">current decline</a> of many caribou populations in the Arctic. According to the IUCN Red List, migratory tundra caribou are now considered vulnerable, having lost more than half of their total abundance since the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planting-trees-in-the-arctic">Planting trees in the Arctic</h2>



In a related study, Post suggested that supporting sustainable populations of herbivores in the Arctic could be a more effective nature-based solution to climate change in the region than planting trees there. The findings of the PNAS Nexus study lend credence to this suggestion.



We now have a better understanding of the crucial role our hoofed friends play in the Arctic ecosystem, but it is clear that more research is needed.



The challenge is enormous, yet with every bit of new knowledge, we get one step closer to a comprehensive understanding of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-alters-the-atmosphere-in-the-remote-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic ecosystem</a> and how we can best protect it against the backdrop of climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/PNASNEXUS-2024-00279RR" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Arctic grazers secretly shape plant growth and survival

We often hear about the insidious creep of climate change...

Psilocybin, a compound at the forefront of psychedelic research, has sparked new hope in the perennial quest for an effective cure for psychiatric ailments, particularly anorexia nervosa. 



A clinical trial conducted by researchers at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) highlights how this compound could potentially revolutionize treatment methods and result in improved clinical outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-s-effect-on-anorexia-patients">Psilocybin’s effect on anorexia patients</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-disorders-can-be-contagious-among-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anorexia nervosa</a> is a psychiatric disorder that has resisted conventional treatments and currently has no effective medications approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. It is also the psychiatric illness that holds the record for having the highest mortality rate.



The <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSD</a> research explores the effect of psilocybin treatment on this condition and provides a first-hand account of its consequences.



“Our findings suggest that psilocybin may be helpful in supporting meaningful psychological change in a subset of people with anorexia nervosa," explained Dr. Stephanie Knatz Peck, lead author of the study.



"What's particularly interesting is that 60% of participants reported a reduction in the importance of physical appearance, while 70% noted quality-of-life improvements and shifts in personal identity."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-treatment-outcomes">Psilocybin treatment outcomes </h2>



The clinical trial revealed some fascinating outcomes. An overwhelming 90% of participants described their psilocybin session as one of the top five most meaningful experiences of their lives.



Additionally, 40% of the subjects showed clinically significant reductions in eating disorder psychopathology.



However, despite these positive results, the study notes that improvements in psychological outlook did not necessarily translate to weight restoration. 



Furthermore, psilocybin treatment appeared to work very effectively for some individuals while others showed minimal improvements. 



These discrepancies highlight the need for further research, particularly into how genetic variations in serotonin receptors might influence treatment outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transformative-experience-for-some-patients">Transformative experience for some patients </h2>



The impact of this treatment transcends the scientific data and filters into the personal lives of the subjects. 



As one participant shared: “You are able to act in a way that maybe had felt unachievable before, if you set the right intention.”



Another participant echoed similar sentiments, stating: “Things might not look that different from the outside, but they feel completely different from the inside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



The study employed a single 25mg dose of psilocybin alongside specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overweight-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychological</a> support before, during, and after administration. 



Despite showcasing potential, the results also highlight the intricacy of treating anorexia nervosa and suggest a synergistic approach might be the most effective.



Dr. Walter H. Kaye, the study's senior author and UCSD Eating Disorders Treatment Center director, maintains that while the findings are promising, they need to be backed by larger, well-controlled studies. 



This includes the use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-imaging-method-will-unravel-mysteries-of-neural-processes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain imaging</a> and genetic analysis to ascertain who might benefit most from this innovative treatment approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personalized-medicine-for-eating-disorders">Personalized medicine for eating disorders </h2>



The fascinating findings of the clinical trial initiated new trajectories for personalized medicine for eating disorders. 



However, it also sparked a flurry of questions around optimizing therapeutic protocols for this vulnerable demographic. 



Surely, it's a profound addition to the current discourse around non-traditional treatment methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-psilocybin-therapy">Challenges of psilocybin therapy</h2>



The promise of psilocybin as a treatment for anorexia nervosa comes with its share of challenges. One major concern is ensuring that the therapy takes place in a safe, supportive environment. 



Psychedelic experiences can be intense and unpredictable, making it crucial to have professional guidance in place to support patients before, during, and after treatment.



This guidance helps maximize the benefits while minimizing any potential risks or adverse reactions.



There are also questions about how psilocybin therapy could fit into existing treatment plans. Researchers are looking at how it might complement traditional methods like <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=cognitive-behavioral%20therapy&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive-behavioral therapy</a> to boost long-term recovery. 



As more studies are conducted, it will be vital to address these challenges and questions. Only then can psilocybin potentially become a reliable, safe, and effective treatment option for those battling the complexities of anorexia nervosa.



The journey forward is one of thorough research, careful observation, and continued exploration to bring the best possible outcome to patients who need it most.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427429/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Medicine</a>.



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Psilocybin shows promise for treating anorexia

Psilocybin, a compound at the forefront of psychedelic research, has...

Researchers have discovered that mangrove forests - a shield against destructive storms across many coastlines - are now suffocating underwater in the Maldives.



The data shows that the combination of an escalating sea level and a shift in Indian Ocean conditions has caused some Maldivian islands to lose more than half of their mangrove <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cover</a> since 2020.



The researchers, led by Lucy Carruthers and Dr. Vasile Ersek of Northumbria University, noted that this isn't a singular incident affecting only the Maldives. 



The experts said that extreme climate events represent an emerging threat to mangroves and coastal ecosystems worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowly-deteriorating-mangroves">Slowly deteriorating mangroves</h2>



In 2020, the mangroves on more than a quarter of the Maldives islands started showing signs of slow deterioration, sliding into a state known as dieback, before bidding the world adieu. 



The intensity of this mangrove loss phenomenon was captured by satellite imagery. The experts found that some islands had lost more than half of their mangrove cover.



For their investigation of mangrove dieback, the researchers combined evidence from sea level, climate data, and remote sensing. Field observations of sediment geochemistry and dendrology were also taken into consideration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-salinity-stress-in-mangroves">Signs of salinity stress in mangroves </h2>



According to the results, the dead trees exhibited increased signs of salinity stress when compared to their living counterparts.



This stress gives us a clue that the tree roots were having a tough time dealing with the heightened salt levels, which played a key role in their demise.



The scientists concluded that sea levels around the Maldives had risen at an escalated rate of over 30mm per year from 2017 to 2020. 



Adding fuel to the fire, there was a particularly intense shift in the Indian Ocean Dipole during this period. This brought along warmer sea surface temperatures and a sea-level increase in the Western Indian Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-tidal-movement">Limited tidal movement </h2>



While mangroves do have a way to cope with slow and steady rising seas by building up sediment, they found the pace of sea level rise over the past few years too fast to keep up with. 



Due to limited tidal movements in the basin areas where many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mangrove forests</a> grow, the rising sea levels essentially drowned them. 



The lack of tidal movement and the consequent flooding obstructed the mangroves from building the sediment they needed to stay above water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-magnitude-of-forest-dieback">Extreme magnitude of forest dieback</h2>



Dr. Vasile Ersek is an associate professor in Northumbria University’s <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/academic-departments/geography-and-environmental-sciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences</a>.



"Dieback was first observed in the center of low-lying basin areas before gradually spreading outwards," said Dr. Ersek.



"As these basin areas have something we call limited tidal flushing we saw evidence of the rising sea level inundating the forests with seawater. This prolonged exposure created higher concentrations of salt."



“As the mangroves’ build-up of sediment slowed down due to the pace of the rising sea level, the soil salinity increased beyond what even these salt-tolerant trees could handle. Essentially, the mangroves were drowning."



Dr. Ersek noted that the extreme magnitude of dieback seen in the Maldives is a vivid illustration of how climate change may push natural systems past their limits, with cascading consequences for both nature and people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-mangroves-in-a-warning-climate">Future of mangroves in a warning climate</h2>



Lucy Carruthers, the study's lead author, is now a postdoctoral scholar in <a href="https://coastal.ecu.edu/faculty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Carolina University’s Department of Coastal Studies</a>.



“Sea level in the region reached its highest point on tide gauge records when the dieback occurred in 2020. This coincided with an intense positive phase in the Indian Ocean Dipole which can induce climate extremes for countries within the Indian Ocean," said Carruthers. 



“As our planet continues to warm, we can expect to see the Indian Ocean Dipole occurring more frequently and at higher magnitude, meaning events like this mangrove die-off may become more common."



“These remarkable forests have thrived at the interface of land and sea for many centuries. Whether they can survive the rapid changes of the coming decades will depend largely on our actions in managing the climate crisis today.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-73776-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Drowning mangroves: Climate change is pushing nature past its limits

Researchers have discovered that mangrove forests - a shield against...

Incredibly, trees have their own savvy ways of handling destructive winds during storms and cyclones. But, how do they do it? 



This was the driving question behind a recent study conducted by an international team of researchers from Japan, Germany, and France. The experts explored the fascinating swaying behaviors of Cryptomeria japonica, also known as the Japanese Cedar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-and-wind-stress">Forests and wind stress</h2>



Let's face it - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather conditions</a>, which include tropical and extratropical cyclones and tornadoes, are no less than calamities. 



They damage our forests, leading to environmental and financial losses. Fallen trees can disrupt entire ecosystems, and cleaning up the mess is not exactly cheap.



In addition, with climate change on the rise, we can expect increasingly severe storms in the future. With this in mind, it is important that we understand how forests respond to wind stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-trees-react-to-wind">How trees react to wind</h2>



This is not the first time scientists have examined the resilience of trees. However, previous studies have not given us a clear understanding of how trees react to wind across different forest configurations and weather conditions.



Recognizing this knowledge gap, the team embarked on a mission to unravel the mysteries of tree movements and wind resistance.



The research team was led by Professor Kana Kamimura, an expert in the School of Science and Technology at <a href="https://www.shinshu-u.ac.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shinshu University</a>, Japan.



Other team members included Kazuki Nanko, Asako Matsumoto, and Saneyoshi Ueno from the <a href="https://www.ffpri.affrc.go.jp/ffpri/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute</a> in Japan, and Barry Gardiner from the <a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Freiburg</a> in Germany and the Institut Européen de la Forêt Cultivée- <a href="https://www.plantedforests.org/fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IEFC</a>, France.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-in-various-wind-conditions">Trees in various wind conditions</h2>



"Several techniques have been developed to predict wind damage. However, they largely depend on empirical data and parameters, and overlook how wind damage occurs," noted Professor Kamimura.



"Our research aims to shed light on how winds directly impact trees and how trees reduce the stress from winds to survive."



For the investigation, the researchers monitored the behavior of trees during various wind conditions.



Their laboratory was the great outdoors, where they set up two Cryptomeria japonica plots in November 2017 in Kasumigaura City, Japan. 



The experts paid special attention to how these trees managed to dodge strong winds, gathering data over two years, including during multiple typhoons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-secret-defense-strategy">Trees' secret defense strategy</h2>



The results of the study were remarkable. The researchers found that cedar trees have two distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival modes</a>, depending on wind speed.



With lighter winds, the trees swayed at around 2-2.3 cycles per second, with their branches absorbing much of the wind energy. But when the winds got rough, the resilient trees switched to a slower swaying pattern, moving together as one unit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-speed-vs-tree-density">Wind speed vs. tree density</h2>



The transition between the two swaying modes was found to depend on the wind speed and also on the forest density. 



The densely populated P-100 plot made the shift at wind speeds between 1.79 and 7.44 meters per second. On the other hand, the transition happened at slightly lower wind speeds in the less dense P-50 plot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-of-typhoon-trami">Case of typhoon Trami</h2>



Typhoon Trami, in 2018, offered the team a real-world scenario to test their theories. They found that the thinned P-50 plot, despite its 48% resistance, suffered significant damage. 



“The 52% difference between actual and expected resistance values was likely due to the roots weakening because of strong winds, even before the winds became more severe," noted Professor Kamimura.



"This root fatigue occurred because the trees moved more due to less support from nearby trees and more wind penetrating the plot." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-forest-management">Implications for forest management</h2>



The insights drawn from this study are indeed valuable. They have revealed the crucial balance between thinning practices and wind resistance in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest management</a>. 



Thinning, although helpful in promoting tree growth, can make forests more vulnerable to storms, especially soon after the thinning process.



"With more frequent storms in a changing climate, forest management practices must adapt to maintain resilience," concluded Professor Kamimura.



So, as we face a future with more storms, let's stand together, just like our trees, ready to sway but not break in the face of adversity. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112724005358?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Trees cleverly adapt to withstand storms and high winds

Incredibly, trees have their own savvy ways of handling destructive...

It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in Earth's history between 1.8 billion and 800 million years ago, when life's complexity didn't extend much beyond single-celled organisms.



Apart from the occasional multicellular life form, most of the living species during that time period were simple, unicellular organisms that had minimal requirements for life. 



But don't mistake "boring" for insignificant. This epoch of evolution laid the foundation for the drama of complex multicellularity that would eventually lead to us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-fuel-for-evolution">Energy: Fuel for evolution</h2>



The boring billion period appears to mark a time when the evolution of complex life was delayed and conditions were so stable as to border on stagnant. 



Scientists state that oxygen levels at this time were drastically decreased and conditions were fairly harsh for most forms of life.



A new study by Michael Lynch of <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> has revealed that the transition from unicellular to multicellular life forms would have come at a cost.



Using the water flea, Daphnia, as a <a href="https://phys.org/tags/model+organism/">model organism</a>, the study shows that multicellular organisms require more than a tenfold increase in energy compared with the simpler, unicellular organisms characteristic of the boring billion period. 



"No one doubts that multicellularity can bring substantial advantages to the table, but the privilege of attaining such benefits comes at a steep investment cost," said Lynch, who directs the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fbiodesign.asu.edu%2Fmechanisms-of-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution</a> at ASU.



The study emphasizes the importance of respiration and other metabolic processes in navigating the transition to more complex life forms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-complexity">Cost of complexity </h2>



Every organism, from the smallest bacterium to a human, is driven by energy. Having an entire body made of only one cell reduces the need for energy and nutrients to grow and reproduce. 



But multicellular organisms, like plants, animals, and fungi, have to maintain a multitude of cells in complex tissues, organs and structures. And this places a far higher energy demand on the organism.



As the cell count increases in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular organism</a>, so does the demand on ATP synthase, the molecular machinery in cells that manufactures ATP, the universal energy currency. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1s.webp" alt="A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś" class="wp-image-1950209"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś</figcaption></figure>



Each new cell in a multicellular body is another mouth to feed in terms of energy, and the cost increases with the number of cells.



The findings of the Daphnia study show that metazoans - the group that includes multicellular creatures - need a lot more ATP synthase complexes in each cell than their simpler, unicellular counterparts.



In fact, for every increment in body mass, these organisms require 30 to 50 times more oxygen than simpler, unicellular creatures. This additional oxygen supports the complex needs for metabolism, cellular communication, and tissue maintenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-comes-at-a-price">Size comes at a price</h2>



Growth isn't cheap, particularly for multicellular organisms. 



While larger, unicellular organisms, like some amoebas, become more efficient as they grow, multicellular organisms face unique challenges that require extra energy to sustain their larger sizes and more complex structures.



Given this steep energy price, why did multicellularity evolve at all? 



The answer seems to be that multicellular life offers evolutionary advantages, such as being able to consume unicellular organisms en masse, evade predators, and live in various environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-energy-barriers">Overcoming energy barriers</h2>



To surmount the energetic challenges presented by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-snowball-earth-conditions-drove-evolution-complex-multicellular-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellularity</a>, organisms have developed remarkable adaptations to utilize their resources efficiently. 



One key adaptation is the division of labor between specialized cells, tissues, and organs; this specialization allows for optimized energy usage where cells perform distinct functions more efficiently than they would if they had to carry out all the different life activities.



For example, mitochondria within eukaryotic cells have evolved highly efficient pathways to generate ATP, thus maximizing the energy harvested from different substrates.



Furthermore, the development of vascular systems in plants and circulatory systems in animals allows for the effective distribution of energy resources, and ensures that all cells have access to the oxygen and nutrients necessary to produce energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-boring-billion">Implications of the "boring billion"</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary narrative of the "boring billion" holds powerful implications for modern scientific research. 



This era not only reflects the energy-centric challenges of the past but also informs the fields of synthetic biology, evolutionary biology, and bioengineering.



By studying the metabolic pathways and energy efficiencies developed during this period, researchers can potentially design bio-inspired systems and organisms with enhanced functionalities and sustainability.



Furthermore, insights gained from this epoch's evolutionary innovations could pioneer future advancements in medical therapies, agriculture, and ecosystem management. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This study primarily focuses on aerobic, animal-like organisms. But there's a vast and varied spectrum of life out there, including plants and fungi, and the researchers plan to extend their investigations to these life forms. 



Future insights could shed light on why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biggest-known-space-cloud-of-life-building-complex-chemicals-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life forms</a> took a considerable time to appear and diversify on our planet.



Multicellular life has high energy demands and this study suggests that the constraints of bioenergy could be a universal phenomenon that is applicable to any carbon-based, oxygen-breathing life, no matter where it exists in the universe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2414742121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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'Boring billion' wasn’t a dull period, it fueled a shift to complex life

It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in...

Plants captivate us as they grow not only upward but also in width, expanding their girth. Imagine a pencil-thin tree growing taller without becoming sturdy - hardly stable, right?



Our perception of plants reveals a simple truth: they must grow outwards as well as upwards. Yet, most research focuses on the tips of shoots, where a plant's height increases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-grow-stronger">How plants grow stronger</h2>



"Plants can’t grow endlessly in height. They also need to grow in thickness, or they would simply fall over," noted biologist Kirsten Ten Tusscher from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>.



So, while examining the increase in a tree’s height makes sense, understanding how they get "broader" is just as crucial.



We've all marveled at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-trees-help-the-endangered-wolf-lichen-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older trees</a> growing visibly thicker and more robust over time. This outward growth, especially in trees, is necessary for structural strength.



What's the key to this increase in width over time? It's all in the cambium layer's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-stem-cells-could-support-human-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a>.



These crucial cells are the ones calling the shots, producing wood to support the tree's structure as it grows. However, until now, the genetic mechanisms behind the activation of these stem cells has remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-processes-in-plants">Growing processes in plants</h2>



In collaboration with colleagues from the University of Helsinki, Durham University, and the University of California, Ten Tusscher and her team set out to solve this mystery. The researchers designed and developed a computer model that played a central role in the study.



The model provided invaluable insights and made significant predictions while supporting the laboratory results of the team members.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-replicating-the-magic">Replicating the magic</h2>



Where the scientific community had studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aspen-trees-change-their-genetic-structure-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> for growth in height before, increase in width was uncharted territory. Until now, it was unclear which genes enable these cambium&nbsp;<a href="https://phys.org/tags/stem+cells/">stem cells</a>&nbsp;to become active and how this is controlled.



Ten Tusscher's model tackled the genes controlling thickness growth and shed light on the activation processes. The model's results were astonishing.



The output from the model indicated that growth in thickness is controlled by specific chemical signals within the cambium layer. Gradients in these chemical signals intersect to form a precise zone where stem cells are "switched on."



This subsequently guides the cells to produce woody tissue, thereby ensuring the continuous formation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-engineered-wood-poplar-cottonwood-trees-store-more-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wood</a> throughout the plant’s life. The steady process guarantees the strength and stability a plant needs in order to support its upwards growth.



The model centered on the small plant, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-adjust-roots-to-reach-their-preferred-form-of-nitrogen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis</a>, a popular choice with biologists worldwide who study plant growth.



It demonstrated how cambium stem cells are activated and sustained, facilitating continuous thickness growth throughout a plant's life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-scientific-triumphs">Beyond scientific triumphs</h2>



Unraveling the mystery of growth in thickness isn't just a scientific triumph; it has practical implications in forestry and climate action.



"If you fully understand plant growth, and develop a tree that grows twice as fast in thickness, it's a great benefit for more sustainable timber industry," noted Ten Tusscher.



"It's also advantageous for climate efforts, as faster-growing trees can store more CO₂. Perhaps, it could even help researchers tune thickness growth in crops for better agricultural yield." 



This study, therefore, not only quenches a scientific curiosity but could also lead to a greener, healthier planet. Furthermore, it has profound implications for our environment and economy. 



Plants' hidden growth secret, it turns out, is a secret no more!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



With climate change at the forefront of global challenges, the knowledge gained from this study could transform approaches to reforestation and sustainable timber production in future.



Enhanced growth in tree thickness means greater carbon storage capacity, which plays a critical role in carbon sequestration efforts.



Moreover, unlocking the secrets of cambium-driven growth can guide innovations in crop breeding to optimize plants that produce higher yields and withstand environmental stresses.



By harnessing this newfound understanding, scientists can develop plants that not only meet timber and agricultural demands but also contribute to climate resilience.



The findings of the study pave the way for practical applications that could lead to a greener, more sustainable future, where plants not only reach sky-high but also play an even larger role in supporting life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adj8752" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Scientists uncover how plants grow wider, not just taller

Plants captivate us as they grow not only upward but...

Endangered animals