Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Plagopterus argentissimus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a45da56058c44fdcb8902b21afcf3721&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.810j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Plagopterus argentissimus

Plagopterus argentissimus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Plagopterus argentissimus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Plagopterus argentissimus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=1656eca93af342bcb4d467915a50d7a5&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l5.1337j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically.

North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa and other endemic fishes from the Virgin River, Utah Richard A. Heckmann Brigham Young University James E. Deacon University of Nevada, Las Vegas Paul D. Greger University of Nevada.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Planigale ingrami subtilissima NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-investigate-the-mysterious-origin-of-flowering-plants/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=68a7e532772647d28f0e01031421a336&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The long-tailed planigale was described in 1906 by <a title="Oldfield Thomas" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldfield_Thomas">Oldfield Thomas</a>, who placed it in the genus <a title="Phascogale" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phascogale">Phascogale</a>. The species was moved in 1928 by <a title="Ellis Le Geyt Troughton" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellis_Le_Geyt_Troughton">Ellis Le Geyt Troughton</a>, who created the genus <a title="Planigale" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planigale">Planigale</a> for it and the other then-known species, the common planigale (P. maculata), and described the <a title="Narrow-nosed planigale" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrow-nosed_planigale">narrow-nosed planigale</a> (P. tenuirostris). The species has since suffered some <a title="Taxonomy (biology)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)">taxonomic</a> confusion, having been referred to as Planigale subtilissima; there has also been some confusion concerning subspecies. Currently, three subspecies are recognised. The long-tailed planigale (Planigale ingrami), also known as Ingram's <a title="Planigale" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planigale">planigale</a> or the northern planigale, is the smallest of all marsupials, and one of the smallest of all <a title="Mammal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal">mammals</a>. It is rarely seen but is a quite common inhabitant of the blacksoil plains, clay-soiled woodlands, and seasonally flooded grasslands of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=australia&amp;cvid=1da11e4c9c6444759ae73aeb4e4fc9ab&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Australia'</a>s <a title="Top End" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_End">Top End</a>.

Planigale ingrami subtilissima

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Planigale tenuirostris NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=wildlife&amp;cvid=0ba168346ebd49248756ea8a5b257bb2&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Wildlife</a> Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Planigale tenuirostris The narrow-nosed planigale was described by <a title="Ellis Le Geyt Troughton" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellis_Le_Geyt_Troughton">Ellis Le Geyt Troughton</a> in 1928, separating it from the <a title="Common planigale" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_planigale">common planigale</a> (P. maculata) with which it had previously been associated. The scientific name for the species means "slender-snouted flat-weasel"

Planigales are small rodent-like marsupials no greater than 7.5 cm, and weighing less than 10 g. The narrow-nosed planigale differs from other planigales in its more rufous colouring and smaller size – only the <a title="Long-tailed planigale" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-tailed_planigale">long-tailed planigale</a> is smaller. It is an active hunter of various <a class="mw-redirect" title="Invertebrates" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrates">invertebrates</a>, and is known as a fearless and pugnacious predator. Its flattened head is used as a wedge to prize apart grass stems and turn over leaves in the leaf litter. It will often attack prey larger than itself.

Planigale tenuirostris

Planigale tenuirostris NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Platanista gangetica minor. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fungi&amp;cvid=4c198209e07d4a2392a1e7d9db2dbbd8&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The South Asian river dolphin (Platanista gangetica) is an endangered freshwater or <a title="River dolphin" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_dolphin">river dolphin</a> found in the region of <a title="Indian subcontinent" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, which is split into two subspecies, the Ganges river dolphin (P. g. gangetica, ~3,500 individuals) and the Indus river dolphin (P. g. minor, ~1,500 individuals). The Ganges river dolphin is primarily found in the <a title="Ganges" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges">Ganges</a> and <a title="Brahmaputra River" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmaputra_River">Brahmaputra</a> Rivers and their tributaries in India, Bangladesh, and Nepal, while the Indus river dolphin is now found only in the main channel of the <a title="Indus River" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River">Indus River</a> in Pakistan and active channels connected to it between the Jinnah and Kotri barrages, and in the River <a class="mw-redirect" title="Beas" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beas">Beas</a> (a tributary of the Indus) in <a title="Punjab, India" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab,_India">Punjab</a> in India. From the 1970s until 1998, they were regarded as separate species; however, in 1998, their classification was changed from two separate species to subspecies of a single species (see taxonomy below). The Ganges river dolphin has been recognized by the government of India as its <a title="List of national animals" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_animals">National Aquatic Animal </a>and is the official animal of the Indian city of <a title="Guwahati" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guwahati">Guwahati</a>. The Indus river dolphin has been named as the National Mammal of Pakistan.

Platanista gangetica minor

Platanista gangetica minor. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Platysteira laticincta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Platysteira laticincta ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=5f659eade0014394aa0ce71864b2d41b&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j0l3j69i60l3.2599j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.  North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Platysteira laticincta

Platysteira laticincta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Plethobasus cicatricosus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Plethobasus cicatricosus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area,

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Plethobasus cicatricosus

Plethobasus cicatricosus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Plethobasus cicatricosus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Plethobasus cicatricosus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=5f659eade0014394aa0ce71864b2d41b&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j0l3j69i60l3.2599j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Plethobasus cooperianus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Plethobasus cooperianus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Plethobasus cooperianus

Plethobasus cooperianus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Plethobasus cyphyus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Plethobasus cyphyus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.  North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Plethobasus cyphyus

Plethobasus cyphyus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Plethodon neomexicanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. North America is a continent entirely within the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">Northern</a> Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

ITIS Reports -- Plethodon neomexicanus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Plethodon neomexicanus

Plethodon neomexicanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Plethodon nettingi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-investigate-the-mysterious-origin-of-flowering-plants/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

The Cheat Mountain salamander (Plethodon nettingi) is a <a title="Species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species">species</a> of small <a class="mw-redirect" title="Woodland salamander" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodland_salamander">woodland salamander</a> found only on <a title="Cheat Mountain" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheat_Mountain">Cheat Mountain</a>, and a few nearby mountains, in the eastern highlands of <a title="West Virginia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Virginia">West Virginia</a>. It and the <a title="West Virginia spring salamander" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Virginia_spring_salamander">West Virginia spring salamander</a> (Gyrinophilus subterraneus) are the only vertebrate species with ranges restricted to that state.

The Cheat Mountain salamander (CMS) has decreased in population due to destruction of its original <a class="mw-redirect" title="Red spruce" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_spruce">red spruce</a> forest habitat, as well as by pollution, <a title="Drought" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought">drought</a>, forest storm damage, and by competition with other salamanders, especially its relative, the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Red Back Salamander" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Back_Salamander">red-backed salamander</a> (P. cinereus).

Plethodon nettingi

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Plethodon shenandoah NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-models-will-help-identify-potentially-endangered-animals/"> animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The Shenandoah salamander (Plethodon shenandoah) is a small, terrestrial salamander found exclusively in <a title="" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenandoah_National_Park">Shenandoah National Park</a> in Virginia. The Shenandoah salamander inhabits a very small range of land on just three mountain peaks. Due to the small habitat range, interspecies competition, and climate change, the population of the Shenandoah salamander is vulnerable to extinction. Mitigating human effects on the habitat of the species will be essential in attempting to preserve and grow the population The adult Shenandoah salamander is slender and moderate in size, with a total length of 3.5 to 4.5 inches (7 cm - 10 cm). The species has two distinct color phases: striped and unstriped. The striped color phase has a narrow stripe down the center of its back that can range i

Plethodon shenandoah

Plethodon shenandoah NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pleurobema clava NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Pleurobema clava ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge approximately 40,000 to 17,000 years ago. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago (the beginning of the Archaic or Meso-Indian period.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pleurobema clava

Pleurobema clava NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pleurobema clava NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. Pleurobema clava

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fungi&amp;cvid=5fd654e1c3274c15b8fe56349a607525&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Clubshells prefer clean, loose sand and gravel in medium to small rivers and streams, burying themselves in the bottom substrate to depths of up to four inches. Once settled in, clubshells are long-lived, living possibly up to 50 years. Clubshells are endangered, most likely because of agricultural run-off, industrial waste, and the proliferation of the exotic invasive species the zebra mussel Prior to its endangered status, clubshells could be found in the Ohio, Cumberland, and Tennessee River systems, and Lake Erie drainages.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleurobema_clava#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Currently, however, these mussels can be found in the United States in the states of Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and West Virginia.

Pleurobema collina NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Pleurobema collina ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=06b35bb6abbe4895827a135617cc4687&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.1799j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pleurobema collina

Pleurobema collina NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pleurobema curtum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-models-will-help-identify-potentially-endangered-animals/">animals</a> and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=2a9949942fbd4cae8b5f7e8d592096b7&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pleurobema curtum, the black clubshell or Curtus's mussel, a <a title="Species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species">species</a> of <a class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater mussel" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwater_mussel">freshwater mussel</a>, an <a title="Aquatic animal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_animal">aquatic</a> <a class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivalve">bivalve</a> <a class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusk" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusk">mollusk</a> in the family <a title="Unionidae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unionidae">Unionidae</a>, the river mussels.The shell of the black clubshell (Pleurobema curtum) is about 2 in (5.1 cm) long and varies in color from light green in young mussels to a dark greenish-brown in older ones. The shell is subtriangular and inflated in front. The thin inner shell surface is an iridescent bluish Pleurobema curtum, the black clubshell or Curtus's mussel, a species of freshwater mussel, an aquatic bivalve mollusk in the family Unionidae, the river mussels. This species is endemic to the United States

This species is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to the <a title="United States" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States">United States</a>.

Pleurobema curtum

Pleurobema curtum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a...

A new study led by Pennsylvania State University has found that when deciding when they will get their next meal, different bee species may be attracted to different flower traits.&nbsp;



This finding, based on research with two species of solitary bees, highlights the intriguing ways bees select the flowers they visit.&nbsp;



The study illuminates the importance of floral traits such as number of blooms and nutritional content, expanding our understanding of plant–pollinator interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-species-with-distinct-priorities">Bee species with distinct priorities</h2>



The research focused on two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-threatens-solitary-bees-and-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solitary bee species</a>: the horned-face bee - known for pollinating apples and blueberries - and the alfalfa leafcutting bee, which pollinates alfalfa.&nbsp;



The scientists discovered that while the horned-face bee gravitated toward plants displaying a large quantity of flowers, the alfalfa leafcutting bee instead preferred blooms with a higher protein-to-lipid ratio in the pollen.



“Information on the foraging strategies of different bee species give insights for understanding how plant-pollinator interactions evolved,” said lead author Jaya Sravanthi Mokkapati, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>.&nbsp;



“Our study also highlights the need for more research on seasonal foraging habits among various bee species, which can deepen our understanding of their vital role in pollination and plant reproduction.”



This pronounced difference in focus - quantity for one species and nutritional quality for the other - demonstrates that even closely related insects can exhibit divergent foraging behaviors.&nbsp;



These variations matter for both ecological balance and practical considerations, such as when and how to restore pollinator habitats or ensure crop pollination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co-evolution-of-plants-and-pollinators">Co-evolution of plants and pollinators</h2>



Pollinators like bees and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a> have co-evolved over thousands of years, forming a symbiotic relationship. As bees gather nectar and pollen for sustenance, they assist in plant reproduction, transferring pollen between flowers.&nbsp;



Crops ranging from fruits to vegetables and nuts depend on this process, which is essential for producing much of the human food supply. However, many pollinator populations are declining, partly due to the loss of the flowering plants they rely on.



“Bees can be attracted to plants based on a number of traits, such as the color, scent, size, number and nutritional content of its flowers,” said&nbsp; co-author Christina Grozinger, a professor of Entomology at Penn State.&nbsp;



“However, because these traits are co-evolved in flowers, it can also be very challenging to pinpoint which traits are the ones attracting which bees.”



By analyzing these evolved plant traits, researchers can better grasp how bees make their foraging decisions and, in turn, how best to support pollinator populations in decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-flowers-for-quality">Choosing flowers for quality</h2>



The research team examined two solitary bee species precisely because of their distinct ecological niches.&nbsp;



The horned-face bee is active during the spring, a season marked by fewer resources and shorter bloom windows. The alfalfa leafcutting bee, on the other hand, emerges in summer, a time abundant in floral options.



“In contrast, the alfalfa leafcutting bee is a summer species that typically has access to more abundant resources,” Mokkapati said. “We hypothesized that these bees can afford to be more selective, choosing flowers based on nutritional quality instead of quantity.”



By observing how these bees visited plants, the scientists were able to pinpoint the different variables each species valued in its foraging. This approach included analyzing pollen content as well as recording the sheer number of flowers on each plant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-bee-conservation">Implications for bee conservation</h2>



According to the researchers, the results of this study have important implications for restoring and managing habitats for pollinators.&nbsp;



Landscapes might need to include plant varieties that offer either numerous flowers for bees that seek quantity or high-quality pollen for species focusing on nutritional benefits.&nbsp;



Ensuring these resources are available throughout the growing season could reinforce bee populations, enhance biodiversity, and bolster pollination services for agriculture.



“By raising awareness of how these gardens can provide essential resources for bees, we can inspire community involvement and commitment to preserving local biodiversity,” Mokkapati said.&nbsp;



“This collective effort not only benefits the bees but also enhances the beauty and ecological health of our surroundings.”



The researchers note that many pollinator populations require immediate interventions and that these strategies could help sustain not only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bees</a> (often the focus of public concern) but also lesser-known solitary bees like the horned-face and alfalfa leafcutting bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While the study reveals how these two bee species differ in their foraging strategies, the authors suggest deeper investigation is needed to uncover the reasons behind such variations.&nbsp;



Scientists aim to explore whether differences in sensory perception, genetic factors, or life history strategies inform why one bee species chooses to prioritize floral abundance while another looks for a certain balance of proteins and lipids in pollen.



By diving more deeply into these aspects, future research may shed light on how bees adapt to various environmental conditions. It could also identify potential vulnerabilities if, for example, climate change alters the availability or quality of their preferred flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ensuring-bee-health-and-biodiversity">Ensuring bee health and biodiversity</h2>



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> remain fundamental to global food security and ecosystem functioning, understanding these nuanced foraging preferences is critical.&nbsp;



The study emphasizes that it is not solely honey bees that matter - solitary bees and other pollinators have their own crucial roles.&nbsp;



Encouraging and facilitating plant diversity, offering both abundant blooms and nutrient-rich pollen sources, may prove key to preserving these vital insects for the benefit of ecosystems and agricultural communities alike.



In the broader context, this work illustrates how the interplay between plant traits and bee behaviors can shape pollinator communities.&nbsp;



By harnessing this understanding for conservation practices, we can cultivate healthier environments for bees and, in turn, sustain the pollination services that underpin so much of our food supply and natural heritage.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Some bees value quality over quantity in flower selection

A new study led by Pennsylvania State University has found...

Ancient societies had all sorts of attitudes toward altered states of mind. Some favored fermented drinks, while others explored psychoactive plants with potent effects. 



Either way, there is a growing body of evidence that many of our ancestors used mind-altering substances in ceremonial settings, personal rituals, and possibly even on the battlefield. 



From what we know about ancient cultures in Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean, and beyond, it seems people were curious about the boundaries of consciousness from the very beginning.



In a new paper in Praehistorische Zeitschrift, researchers discuss the possibility that certain Germanic fighters experimented with psychoactive substances to gain an edge in warfare.



The study was led by archaeologist <a href="https://akokowski.academia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Andrzej Kokowski</a> alongside biologists from <a href="https://study.gov.pl/university/maria-curie-sklodowska-university" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maria Curie-Skłodowska University</a> in Lublin, Poland, and it taps into a fascinating area of debate about what these ancient communities might have consumed before they clashed with soldiers of the mighty Roman Empire.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-humans-and-psychoactive-plants">Ancient humans and psychoactive plants</h2>



Ancient civilizations in the Middle East left us clues that they understood the power of certain psychoactive plants or plant extracts. 



Evidence from Mesopotamia <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/arcm.12806" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggests</a> that the Sumerians recognized the potential of poppy cultivation over 5,000 years ago.



Meanwhile, the Egyptians produced beer as early as <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/51721/chapter-abstract/419816733?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">8,000 years ago</a>, and some <a href="https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/43c3119d-743e-4c7b-a028-ca29b1ab3fc6/content" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> believe that they later discovered ways to harness the poppy’s narcotic components for medical and religious ceremonies.&nbsp;



Across the Mediterranean, the Greeks refined methods of harvesting poppy sap to make opium, which became a prized substance in certain circles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-tools-in-germanic-contexts">Hidden tools in Germanic contexts</h2>



The new study highlights how small artifacts, possibly too tiny to hold food, may have delivered stimulating powders or tinctures to those who wielded swords and shields. 



Although a direct chemical analysis of these artifacts would be the gold standard of proof, the researchers rely on indirect clues from burial and settlement sites. 



The authors remark that certain items fit into the category of “dispensers,” indicating they might have delivered a measured dose of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-linked-to-dramatic-rise-in-psychiatric-disorders/">potent substance</a> in the heat of conflict.



The team also introduce a thought-provoking line in their paper: “The ‘war on drugs’ seems to be the aberration.” 



This statement by the study's authors implies that, in ancient times, the notion of banning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-linked-to-dramatic-rise-in-psychiatric-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these substances</a> may not have been front and center. 



Instead, societies either tolerated or ritualized them, weaving them into social gatherings, medical treatments, and possibly warfare traditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-misconceptions-and-roman-views">Cultural misconceptions and Roman views</h2>



One of the more intriguing angles is how the Romans regarded their northern adversaries. Romans often portrayed the so-called “barbarians” as unsophisticated, suggesting that refined substances like opium were beyond their reach. 



Yet material findings seem to contradict that assumption. Scholars argue that people living outside Roman borders had their own knowledge networks, which may have included information on creative uses of plants and fungi.



Other historical studies support the idea that ancient communities across Europe and Asia <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-real-impact-of-burning-magic-herbs-in-spiritual-rituals/">experimented with an array of herbs</a>. 



A range of species, including henbane and belladonna, was accessible through trade routes and local foraging. The question is whether some of these plants could have boosted courage or dulled pain during battle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychoactive-plants-impact">Psychoactive plants impact</h2>



If these warriors had any way to harness psychoactive substances, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-drug-use-found-during-bronze-age-ceremonies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychological effects</a> might have included the numbing of fear or the triggering heightened aggression. 



In the face of enemy lines, an altered state could offer perceived protection or confidence.



Away from the battlefield, the same substances might have been used to ease injuries or find temporary relief from stress.



Researchers also point out that large-scale access to psychoactive plants or extracts would have demanded precise expertise. 



Someone in the community would have needed to cultivate and distribute these items, and would have known about their potency. 



This opens discussions about economic networks that financed these endeavors. It may also hint at the existence of supply chains stretching across large territories and bringing together resources from different regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-reflections-on-the-ancient-past">Modern reflections on the ancient past</h2>



Discussions about drug use in antiquity challenge our assumptions about humanity’s relationship with altered consciousness. Today’s laws and views on intoxicants are shaped by modern cultures and governments.&nbsp;



People often regard drug use as a specific modern problem or rebellious act. Yet, archaeological evidence suggests that it can be an age-old behavior shaped by survival, celebration, and even worship.



Some contemporary <a href="https://www.hellenic.org.au/post/ritual-religious-drug-use-in-ancient-greece" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> hold that these early experiments helped shape social cohesion, ritualistic practices, and medical traditions.&nbsp;



The further we look into prehistory, the more we see how deeply entwined these substances might have been with community life. Whether they were used to ramp up bravery in <a href="https://www.caymanchem.com/news/drugs-used-in-conflict-and-wars" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">war</a> or heal the wounded in small villages, they likely played a distinct role in shaping cultural identities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debates-and-continuing-questions">Debates and continuing questions</h2>



Studies on ancient drug use can provoke lively debate among archaeologists and historians. 



Some specialists believe that minimal chemical residue in the artifacts makes firm conclusions elusive. Others lean on contextual clues found near skeletal remains or in areas associated with combat. 



No matter the stance, each new piece of research fuels broader conversations about how ancient societies navigated social norms, survival strategies, and the universal human drive for altered experiences.



Several puzzles still remain. Did these <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25386392/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Germanic fighters</a> incorporate psychoactive mixtures into spiritual traditions as well? Were there dedicated roles for people in the community - like herbalists or specialists - who oversaw dosing?&nbsp;



These topics carry important anthropological questions about the balance between practical needs and personal exploration. Answers may emerge as more evidence surfaces, but for now, there is enough intrigue to keep experts on their toes.



The information for this article is published in the journal <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/pz-2024-2017/html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Praehistorische Zeitschrift</a>. 



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Ancient warriors may have used psychoactive plants for courage in battle

Ancient societies had all sorts of attitudes toward altered states...

Plants face the constant challenge of allocating energy between growth and defense. While growth ensures survival and reproduction, defense protects against harmful bacteria. 



Until now, scientists struggled to explain how plants achieve this balance. Researchers at Princeton University recently uncovered new insights into this process, revealing the surprising role of soil bacteria in managing plants' immune responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-soil-bacteria-help-plants">How soil bacteria help plants</h2>



Published in&nbsp;the journal Cell Reports, the study explores how certain soil bacteria impact plant immunity. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> produce enzymes that reduce immune activity in plants, enabling their roots to grow longer.



This discovery sheds light on how plants interact with microbiomes without triggering constant immune responses.



“This is trying to get at a really big biological question where there are not good answers - about how microbiomes interface with host immune systems,” said Jonathan Conway, the study’s senior author and an assistant professor of chemical and biological engineering.



“It’s a small step in the direction of trying to understand how microbes live on hosts - either plants or humans or other animals - all the time and don’t activate our immune responses constantly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-health-and-growth">Balancing health and growth</h2>



The team focused on Arabidopsis, a small mustard plant often used in research. They engineered Arabidopsis seedlings with heightened sensitivity to flagellin, a bacterial protein that typically activates immune responses. 



On exposure to flagellin, these plants directed energy toward immunity, resulting in stunted root growth.



To identify bacteria that could suppress this immune response, the researchers introduced 165 bacterial species to the seedlings. 



Remarkably, 41% of these isolates suppressed the stunted growth response, allowing roots to grow longer. Among these,&nbsp;Dyella japonica&nbsp;emerged as particularly effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enzyme-regulates-immune-system-response">Enzyme regulates immune system response </h2>



The researchers discovered that&nbsp;D. japonica, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil bacterium</a>, produces an enzyme called subtilase. This enzyme breaks down flagellin, a protein that normally triggers a plant's immune response. 



By degrading flagellin, subtilase prevents the plant's immune system from activating unnecessarily, enabling the roots to grow without being stunted.



To confirm subtilase's role, the team used genetic and biochemical techniques. These methods demonstrated that subtilase directly modulates the plant's immune response, proving its critical function.



Purifying the subtilase enzyme posed significant challenges, as obtaining a pure protein is essential for detailed analysis. A breakthrough came when Todd Naumann, a <a href="https://www.usda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USDA</a> chemist, suggested purifying the enzyme using yeast cells instead of bacteria. 



This alternative approach worked effectively, allowing the researchers to proceed with advanced studies on the enzyme's properties and functions.



“Now we can do chemistry with it, and we can actually look at this in vitro,” said co-first author Samuel Eastman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dual-role-of-soil-bacteria">Dual role of soil bacteria </h2>



The findings suggest that many soil bacteria may use similar enzymes to influence plant growth and immunity. This raises intriguing questions about the potential benefits for both plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-makes-flowers-more-attractive-to-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>. 



One theory is that the enzymes prevent pathogens from invading plant roots by disabling their flagella. Alternatively, the enzymes might help pathogens evade detection, potentially increasing the risk of disease.



“So, in that way it could be suppressing pathogens as well as the plant immune system,” Eastman noted. However, he warned of the risks in agricultural applications. 



“We don’t want to compromise the immune system, but we also want plants to save that immune response for when it matters.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-crop-growth-and-plant-health">Improving crop growth and plant health</h2>



The team’s work opens doors to harnessing beneficial bacteria for agriculture while minimizing risks. With further research, these findings could lead to innovative ways to improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electronic-soil-boosts-crop-growth-by-over-50/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop growth</a> without compromising plant health.



For now, scientists are one step closer to understanding the delicate balance of growth and defense in plants.



The study was a team effort involving nine <a href="https://www.princeton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton</a> researchers, including six undergraduates. Senior thesis projects played a vital role, such as that of Britley Jones from the Class of 2023.



Kaeli Ficco, another key contributor and a Princeton graduate, engineered mutant bacterial strains to confirm the genetic basis of immune suppression. 



“I really liked how discovery-based the project was,” Ficco said, reflecting on her contributions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/fulltext/S2211-1247(24)01414-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports</a>.



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Soil bacteria help plants balance growth and immunity

Plants face the constant challenge of allocating energy between growth...

The sixth extinction, also known as the Anthropocene extinction, refers to the ongoing, unprecedented loss of species. Unlike previous mass extinction events in Earth's history, which were driven by natural phenomena such as massive volcanic eruptions, the current extinction crisis is largely attributed to human activities.



In a recent study, a team of Irish researchers set out to examine how the public reacts to hearing the news of a species extinction. 



The analysis revealed that while social media users show an initial surge of sympathy, the sentiment fades quickly. This fleeting engagement raises questions about how deeply people connect with conservation issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-reaction-to-species-extinction">Public reaction to species extinction</h2>



The study was led by researchers from the University of Galway, <a href="https://www.ucd.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College Dublin</a>, and <a href="https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maynooth University</a>. The goal was to examine how people react to the extinction of different species.



The researchers focused on eight species, including the famous Lonesome George - the last known Pinta Island tortoise who became a symbol of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



They also studied lesser-known species, such as Captain Cook's bean snail and the Rabbs fringe-limbed treefrog, which have similarly disappeared from the planet.



To gather insights, the team used a method called "culturomics." This approach involves analyzing digital data to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-how-and-when-humans-and-mammals-will-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural trends</a> and public interest. 



By studying online activity, the researchers analyzed over two million <a href="https://www.wikipedia.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wikipedia</a> page visits and more than 100,000 tweets and retweets from 2007 to 2023. 



This data helped them understand how people react online to extinction news, revealing patterns of interest, mourning, and engagement across different platforms.



“In our study, we tracked changes in tweets and Wikipedia page visits before and after the extinction of eight species ranging from Lonesome George to more obscure species such as the bean snail,” explained Dr. Kevin Healy of the <a href="https://www.universityofgalway.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Galway</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spike-in-interest-then-silence">A spike in interest, then silence</h2>



The findings revealed that public interest in extinction news spikes dramatically on social media immediately after a species is declared extinct. 



“Overall, it does look like people care and are saddened by the news of extinction. We see words like 'RIP' and 'lost' commonly appear, and that the location of tweets expands from close to the species range to across the globe after extinction,” noted Dr. Susan Canavan, the study’s lead author.



The researchers found that while social media platforms see a short-lived surge in activity following news of a species' extinction, Wikipedia exhibits a different pattern. Wikipedia page visits remained steady over time, showing sustained interest in learning about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct species</a>.



This suggests that people turn to Wikipedia for deeper, long-term exploration of the topic, whereas social media reactions are often immediate and brief. 



The contrast highlights how different platforms serve distinct purposes: social media captures initial emotional responses and fleeting discussions, while Wikipedia supports extended engagement and information-seeking behavior. 



This difference signifies the varied ways people process and interact with extinction news depending on the platform they use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-awareness">Impact of awareness</h2>



The study highlights the potential power of public engagement in conservation. 



“People’s engagement with conservation issues, such as extinction, does matter, as it can drive funding, or add support for conservation policy and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-cheetah-day-2024-racing-against-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence conversations</a> on controversial topics such as attempting to bring species back from extinction using biotechnology,” Dr. Healy emphasized.



The passing of Lonesome George in 2012 captured worldwide attention. His death symbolized the vulnerability of species and highlighted the urgent need for conservation efforts to protect endangered animals.



Similarly, the extinction of other species, such as the Bramble Cay mosaic-tailed rat - the first mammal believed to have gone extinct due to climate change - and the West African black rhinoceros, sparked global discussions.



These events not only raised awareness about the threats facing wildlife but also ignited conversations on the broader impact of human activities on biodiversity. 



Each extinction served as a poignant reminder of the importance of conservation and the irreversible loss caused by species disappearing forever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mourning-species-extinction-in-the-digital-age">Mourning species extinction in the digital age</h2>



The research reveals a bittersweet reality: while people momentarily mourn extinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, the depth of engagement often doesn't last. 



The rise in global conversations about extinction on platforms like X (formerly Twitter) shows that people care, but the fleeting nature of this concern highlights the challenges conservation efforts face in maintaining momentum.



Ultimately, this study offers valuable insights into how the public connects with conservation issues. It also raises a crucial question: how can we transform brief moments of mourning into lasting action to prevent further losses?



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Public concern over species extinctions fades quickly

The sixth extinction, also known as the Anthropocene extinction, refers...

Volcanoes hold incredible power, but similar to plants and their root systems, most volcanic activity that occurs before an eruption happens beneath the surface.



Traditional monitoring tools focus on measuring seismic activity and collecting gas samples, yet these methods can miss subtle warning signs hidden in rugged landscapes. 



Researchers have been searching for additional ways to detect signs of unrest before eruptions happen, especially for volcanoes that are far from inhabited areas. They are now turning to plant life for clues and signs that a volcano is close to erupting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-dioxide-plants-and-volcanoes">Carbon dioxide, plants, and volcanoes</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Volcanic gases, like carbon dioxide</a>, are often released as magma pushes upward. Detecting them can be tricky because the same gases also appear in everyday life.



Certain remote volcanoes lack permanent sensors or easy access, which leads scientists to test creative approaches that might reveal small changes long before other instruments notice them.



One project was led by Robert Bogue from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> in Montreal, Canada, who worked with colleagues to measure patterns in vegetation health near hydrothermal areas in the Yellowstone Caldera. 



The results reveal how plants respond to changes in the ground beneath them, which may point to rising magma and a heightened risk of volcanic activity or the imminent eruption of a volcano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-and-volcanoes-as-allies">Plants and volcanoes as allies</h2>



Plants adjust how they grow when their surroundings shift. This adjustment includes changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> and patterns in leaf structure.



Variations in carbon dioxide, sulfur, and soil temperature can affect how trees flourish, and these factors often emerge in volcanic settings. 



Scientists reason that such signals might appear in plant tissues months or years before major events occur.



In the field, it can be hard to see small changes in vegetation by eye alone. Forests are vast, and weather can alter growth in ways unrelated to volcanoes. 



That is why satellite imaging has become popular. It can scan large areas and detect subtle hints of stress or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-learning-can-help-track-changes-in-forest-cover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusual greening</a> that might not stand out on the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beneath-the-canopy">Looking beneath the canopy</h2>



One helpful technique is the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (<a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/MeasuringVegetation/measuring_vegetation_2.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NDVI</a>). This calculation captures how vigorously plants are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/details-photosynthesis-water-viewed-atomic-level-cryo-microscope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesizing</a> by measuring chlorophyll levels.



Scores range from negative numbers up to 1, with higher numbers pointing to healthy leaves. By comparing these values in different spots over time, researchers can see if there are trends that may connect to shifts in the subsurface environment.



Studies in volcanic regions suggest that small bursts of carbon dioxide and heated fluids can initially fertilize local plants. But higher concentrations of harmful gases or very hot soil can stress and even kill them. 



Tracking these ups and downs over multiple years can reveal a story of underground changes that unfold gradually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tern-lake-as-a-proving-ground">Tern Lake as a proving ground</h2>



In Wyoming, the Tern Lake thermal area sits in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-music-will-yellowstones-seismic-activity-produce/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone Caldera</a>. From 1984 to 2022, archived Landsat images showed that tree health in this hydrothermal zone improved for about 16 years. 



Scientists believe the initial benefit may have come from extra nutrients reaching the soil. Then around the early 2000s, the satellite record captured a shift, with tree health dipping and many lodgepole pines dying near the center of activity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/plants_predict-volcanic-eruptions_satellite-photos_credit-McGill-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/plants_predict-volcanic-eruptions_satellite-photos_credit-McGill-University_1s.webp" alt="Images of the study area in 1994 compared to 2022, with the significant loss of trees in the epicenter of the hydrothermal area. Landsat images (c, d) highlight the decline in plant health in the central area with lighter color shading corresponding to lower Normalized Difference Vegetation Index values. Credit: Bogue et al. McGill University" class="wp-image-1955545"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Images of the study area in 1994 compared to 2022, with the significant loss of trees in the epicenter of the hydrothermal area. Landsat images (c, d) highlight the decline in plant health in the central area with lighter color shading corresponding to lower Normalized Difference Vegetation Index values. Credit: Bogue et al. McGill University</figcaption></figure>



Infrared data suggested that soil temperatures in parts of the site exceeded 122°F, and that poisonous gases and acidic fluids were breaking down <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant tissues</a>.



Over time, the zone of stress spread outward, and a bare patch of dead trees became more visible. This persistent change confirmed that a deeper process was heating the ground and altering the chemistry that plants depend on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-from-plants-that-a-volcano-is-waking-up">Signs from plants that a volcano is waking up</h2>



The research team linked these findings to pathways of hydrothermal fluids moving toward the surface. In some areas, mineral buildup may have clogged old routes, forcing new channels to open. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquake-activity-will-increase-due-to-glacial-retreat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earthquake data</a> supported this interpretation. Small tremors can indicate that magma or hot fluids are seeking different escape routes.



Collectively, these events point to activity that might have begun well before on-the-ground surveys took note.



Observations also suggest that this expansion reached a limit. Some recent field checks found signs of new seedlings taking hold in once-barren terrain. 



This could mean the local system is calming, at least for the moment. Changes in vegetation and plant life can serve as a reminder that volcanoes and their processes are not always linear. Conditions can shift as gases and fluids come and go.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



These discoveries illustrate how forests can serve as eyes on a hidden world. Researchers have often relied on thermal cameras and gas detectors to evaluate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic hazards</a>, but those instruments have limitations.



In some places, there is no easy way to install or maintain them. Harsh weather, dense canopies, and rough slopes can hamper efforts to collect reliable data.



Satellite imagery provides wide coverage without the need for a permanent presence in challenging locations. 



Vegetation-based monitoring is not a standalone method, but it can offer valuable hints for scientists. If the data show unusual patterns of greening or die-off, teams can schedule closer inspection or deploy instruments before any major event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanoes-plants-and-a-safer-tomorrow">Volcanoes, plants, and a safer tomorrow</h2>



Every volcano is unique. Some are surrounded by thick forests, while others sit in deserts or at high elevations. 



Where conditions support enough plant life, scientists can try vegetation indexes to look for shifts that might signal building magma. 



In other areas, this strategy may be less useful or confounded by drought, wildfires, or different species that react in unexpected ways.



The hope is to combine these plant observations with other signals. Minor quakes, ground swelling, and changes in gas composition all help create a clearer picture of what lies beneath the surface. 



Scientists continue to refine these approaches. As they gather more information, they can figure out how to focus resources on volcanoes that pose the greatest risk.



The story at Tern Lake shows that forests can act as an early warning system, revealing shifts that might mean an eruption is more likely. By studying these patterns, experts might someday issue alerts sooner than ever before.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023GC010938" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</a>.



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Plants and trees are able to predict volcano eruptions

Volcanoes hold incredible power, but similar to plants and their...

Ground,Coffee,In,Coffee,Maker,Portafilter,On,Coffee,Beans,Background,

Ever wondered if the flavor of your coffee could taste even better? A simple dash of water might hold the secret to a richer, smoother cup. 



New research reveals that adding moisture to coffee beans before grinding can significantly improve brewing flavor while preventing the mess and waste often caused by static electricity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-static-electricity-matters">Why static electricity matters</h2>



Grinding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-reduces-the-risk-of-certain-cancers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a> beans produces friction as the particles collide, rub together, and break apart. This process causes the ground coffee to develop a charge, which then produces static electricity.



The charged coffee particles stick together, forming clumps that can clog grinders. These clumps make it difficult to achieve a consistent grind, leading to uneven brewing and less flavorful coffee.



Scientists have investigated the impact of this static buildup on the brewing process. Their research revealed a simple yet effective solution: adding water to the beans before grinding. 



This moisture reduces static electricity, prevents clumping, and ensures smoother grinding, which ultimately improves the quality and flavor of the brewed coffee.



"Moisture, whether it's residual moisture inside the roasted coffee or external moisture added during grinding, is what dictates the amount of charge that is formed during grinding," explained Christopher Hendon, a materials chemist at the <a href="https://www.uoregon.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oregon</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-static-electricity-the-basics">Understanding static electricity -- the basics</h2>



Static electricity is what happens when there's an imbalance of tiny electric charges on the surface of an object. 



Everything around us is made up of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/x-ray-single-atom-captured-by-scientists-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiny particles called atoms</a>, and inside these atoms, there are even smaller particles called electrons. Electrons carry a negative charge, and they can move from one object to another.



For example, when you rub a balloon on your hair, some electrons from your hair move to the balloon, making the balloon negatively charged and your hair positively charged. This is why the balloon can stick to your hair or make your hair stand up - opposite charges attract!



We experience <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-of-static-electricity-has-finally-been-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">static electricity</a> a lot in everyday life. You might have felt it when you touch a metal doorknob and get a little shock, or when your clothes stick together after they come out of the dryer.



These shocks happen when the extra charges suddenly move from one thing to another, often through your body, which feels like a quick zap. 



Static electricity is more common in dry air because moisture in the air helps stop the buildup of charges. That’s why it tends to happen more in the winter when the air is dry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-better-coffee-brewing">Science of better coffee brewing</h2>



Hendon and Joshua Méndez Harper, a former volcanologist from the University of Oregon, investigated how moisture affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-coffee-is-missing-these-five-brain-boosting-spices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a> grinding. 



The researchers examined coffee beans from various origins, with different roasting levels and moisture contents. 



They measured key factors such as the static electricity generated during grinding, the size of the resulting particles, and the flavor profiles of the brewed coffee.



The study revealed that darker, drier coffee roasts are more susceptible to static electricity than lighter, moister beans. 



The increased brittleness of darker roasts leads to greater friction during grinding, which causes clumping and uneven grounds.



By adding a small amount of water to the beans before grinding, the researchers showed that static electricity could be reduced. 



This simple adjustment produced a smoother grind and improved consistency, enhancing the quality of the coffee.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-espresso-with-water">Stronger espresso with water</h2>



Harper and his team compared espresso brewed with beans ground with and without added moisture. 



They discovered that a light spritz of water not only reduced clumping but also improved the extraction process. The moist grounds allowed water to flow more evenly, and pulled more flavor from the coffee.



Hendon recommends adding about 20 microliters of water per gram of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robusta-coffee-could-save-our-morning-brew-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a>, which equals roughly half a milliliter for a single shot of espresso. 



This minor adjustment not only enhances the uniformity of the grind but also ensures a stronger and tastier cup of coffee, making it a simple yet effective technique for coffee enthusiasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-geophysics">Lessons from geophysics</h2>



The research also connects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-aging-drinking-coffee-can-add-years-to-your-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a> science with earth science. 



"There's a lot more to know about how coffee breaks, how it flows as particles, and how it interacts with water," said Harper. 



By studying coffee, scientists hope to gain insights into broader geophysical phenomena like landslides, volcanic eruptions, and soil water flow.



These parallels highlight how everyday activities like brewing coffee can inspire scientific breakthroughs in seemingly unrelated fields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spritz-your-beans-before-grinding">Spritz your beans before grinding </h2>



For coffee enthusiasts, the study provides an easy and practical tip: spritz your beans before grinding. By preventing clumping, the grinding process becomes smoother and more consistent, which leads to evenly sized grounds.



This consistency enhances the brewing process, allowing water to flow more uniformly through the coffee. 



The result is a richer and more flavorful espresso, making this method an easy way to elevate your coffee experience without requiring additional tools or complex techniques.



"A few simple squirts of water have solved the problems of clumping, channeling, and poor extractions while aiding in the pursuit of attaining the tastiest espresso," Hendon states.



So, the next time you prepare your morning brew, try adding a little water to your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-coffee-good-for-you-it-may-depend-on-your-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beans</a>. It’s a simple step with a big payoff - and who knows, your kitchen experiment might just inspire the next scientific breakthrough.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/matter/fulltext/S2590-2385(23)00568-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matter</a>.



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Coffee flavor can be greatly improved with a simple trick

Ever wondered if the flavor of your coffee could taste...

Peyote dots the southern tip of Texas, emerging amidst the dusty aridity and cracked earth like otherworldly creations. These bluish-green cacti, found only here and in northern Mexico, are no ordinary plants.



To the local Native American Church members, peyote is less of a plant and more of a holy presence. Places where peyote plants flourish are reverently referred to as the "peyote gardens."



Within the DNA of this modest plant lies a critical aspect of Native American culture. 



Peyote cacti have been steadfast companions to Indigenous communities, serving as healers for the physical and mental afflictions wrought by colonization, displacement, and the erosion of culture, religion, and language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sacred-plant-with-a-controlled-substance">Sacred plant with a controlled substance</h2>



One might wonder what makes the peyote plant coveted. It contains a spectrum of psychoactive alkaloids, primarily the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hallucinogen-use-is-on-the-rise-among-young-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hallucinogen</a> mescaline, which is known for its psychedelic properties.



Despite being a controlled substance under federal law, a 1994 amendment to the American Indian Religious Freedom Act allows Native Americans to use peyote for traditional religious purposes.



However, for the past two decades, access to this "medicine," as it is called, has been an escalating concern for the Native American practitioners of peyotism.



These practitioners, which make up a large group of 400,000 individuals in the United States, have raised concerns about their lack of access to peyote.



They attribute the dwindling availability of the slow-growing cactus to poaching, excessive harvesting, agricultural activities, housing developments, wind farms, the border wall, and the burgeoning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-offers-new-explanation-for-how-psychedelic-drugs-work/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychedelic</a> renaissance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-opinions-on-peyote-conservation">Diverse opinions on peyote conservation</h2>



While most agree about the dire need for peyote conservation, the Native American Church community houses a diversity of opinions on how to achieve this.



Some members are suspicious of investors' intentions and prefer government funding to safeguard the plant. Peyote, after all, represents more to them than a plant; it embodies the Creator's spirit.



Among many poignant anecdotes that highlight the spiritual significance of peyote, one stands out. 



Adrian Primeaux from the Yankton Sioux and Apache lineage recalls a tale of a malnourished Apache woman who was guided by a peyote plant to survival during a forced relocation by the U.S. government.



This plant wasn't merely a source of sustenance; it was a spiritual guide and a north star for the Native community navigating years of traumatic history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-return-of-peyote-gardens">The return of peyote gardens</h2>



In 2017, the National Council of Native American Churches purchased land in Hebbronville, Texas, to establish the Indigenous Peyote Conservation Initiative (IPCI). 



This non-profit organization oversees a peyote preserve that is not harvested but naturally propagated in its habitat.



Steven Benally, an IPCI board member, recalls his emotional return to the peyote gardens after years of disconnection, stating: "This is real!"



His words encapsulate the deep bond between the Native Americans and the peyote gardens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-delicate-balance-of-peyote-conservation">The delicate balance of peyote conservation</h2>



The debate on peyote conservation isn't a simple one. While some argue that cultivation outside of its natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> is necessary for the species's survival, many Native American Church members contest that such a move would dilute its sacred nature.



Hershel Clark, secretary for the Teesto chapter of the Azee Bee Nahagha of Diné Nation, explained that the ceremonial protocols were bestowed by the Creator. 



This is why growing peyote outside of its natural habitat or synthesizing it into pills is not supported.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-funding-and-future-of-peyote-preservation">Funding and future of peyote preservation</h2>



Funding has been a significant challenge for peyote preservation efforts. While the Native American Church of North America seeks financial support from the U.S. government, IPCI has taken a different route.



The non-profit kick-started their endeavours with funding from the Riverstyx Foundation run by Cody Swift, a psychotherapist and psychedelic therapy research supporter. 



The organization continues to seek philanthropic dollars to propel its mission while remaining open to government funding.



However, there is a degree of skepticism about the intentions of Swift and other investors among some members of the Native American Church. 



Regardless, there is an indisputable consensus: the sacred peyote plant must be protected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-supply-and-rising-demand">Limited supply and rising demand</h2>



It is clear that opening peyote up to a broader market could create a supply crisis that favors those with financial resources.



Native American Church members might find themselves struggling to access their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-real-impact-of-burning-magic-herbs-in-spiritual-rituals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sacred plant</a> while witnessing others use it in ways they consider profane. 



Zulema "Julie" Morales, one of only three licensed peyoteros legally allowed to harvest the plant for sale to church members, sympathizes with this sentiment.



Morales recalls a time when her father could fill a dozen large trays with peyote, but now she can barely fill one, not because of ethical harvesting practices, but because of illegal poaching.



As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/theory-of-native-american-origins-undermined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Native American</a> communities continue to cherish, protect, and conserve the sacred peyote plant, the rest of the world must extend their understanding and respect for the unique spiritual bond shared by the communities and this modest, yet powerful, plant. 



Let it be a lesson to us all about the harmonious coexistence of man and nature, and the profound sacredness that can spring from such a bond.



Information for this article comes from a <a href="https://www.nbcdfw.com/news/local/texas-news/psychedelic-renaissance-development-threaten-peyote/3728887/#:~:text=An%20initiative%20to%20conserve%20and%20protect%20peyote&amp;text=He%20recalls%20losing%20access%20to,to%20Native%20American%20Church%20members.">release</a> by the Associated Press.



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Sacred peyote gardens: A cultural legacy under threat

Peyote dots the southern tip of Texas, emerging amidst the...

More than one-third of all animals on Earth, from beetles to cows to elephants, subsist on plant-based diets. Since plants are typically low in calories, herbivorous creatures can already find it challenging to get the energy they need.&nbsp;



Now, as climate change affects growing conditions, some of the plant-based foods that animals rely on are losing some of their nutritional value.



Human activities continue to increase atmospheric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> levels and raise global temperatures. In response, many plants in ecosystems around the world are growing faster.&nbsp;



Some researchers refer to this phenomenon as the “greening of the Earth,” and it can potentially offset some greenhouse gas emissions by locking more carbon into plant matter. 



However, there is a trade-off: these rapidly growing plants often pack fewer nutrients into each bite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-quality-and-animal-population-declines">Plant quality and animal population declines</h2>



Together with her colleagues at the <a href="https://www.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Institution</a>, Ellen Welti studies how this type of nutrient dilution influences species across the food web - from tiny grasshoppers to giant pandas. 



They suspect that long-term declines in plant quality may be a largely unnoticed factor in falling animal populations. 



These changes in plant nutrition aren’t as visually obvious as rising sea levels, nor are they sudden like hurricanes or extreme heatwaves. Nonetheless, they can have significant impacts over time.



If plants become less nutritious, herbivores may need more time to find and consume enough food, making them more vulnerable to predators and other hazards. 



Inadequate nutrient intake can also reduce animals’ fitness, affecting their growth, reproduction, and survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-carbon-and-declining-nutrients">Rising carbon and declining nutrients</h2>



Scientists have already shown that climate change is causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-nutrient-loss-due-to-heavy-rainfall-threatens-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient</a> dilution in human food crops. 



Decreases in important micronutrients, such as iron, zinc, magnesium, and copper, are a particular concern. Records of crop nutrient content reveal that these elements have declined over time.



For humans, the loss of iron, zinc, and protein in staple foods is expected to worsen in the coming decades as CO₂ concentrations climb. 



Such deficiencies could significantly affect global health and survival, especially in regions that heavily depend on crops like rice and wheat, including parts of East and Central Asia.



The quality of livestock feed is also declining. Cattle, which already spend substantial time grazing, are finding it increasingly difficult to consume enough protein.&nbsp;



Protein concentrations in grasses are dropping across rangelands, diminishing animals’ weight gains and costing producers money. Moreover, wild species aren’t immune to nutrient dilution either.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bamboo-quality-and-panda-health">Bamboo quality and panda health</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancestors-of-giant-pandas-had-a-completely-different-diet/">Giant pandas</a>, a culturally significant threatened species, rely entirely on bamboo. 



Because pandas breed slowly and need extensive, uninterrupted bamboo forests for habitat, their existence is jeopardized by the conversion of land for agriculture and development. 



Pandas may also become an emblem of the risks posed by nutrient dilution.



The giant panda is considered an “umbrella species,” so preserving its habitat benefits many other organisms sharing its environment.&nbsp;



Notably, giant pandas consume large quantities of bamboo daily. Now, rising temperatures are reducing bamboo’s nutritional value and making it harder for the plant to survive.



Because bamboo is such an essential resource for pandas, any decline in its nutrients could affect panda health and population numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixed-outcomes-for-insects">Mixed outcomes for insects</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-insect-decline-what-are-the-causes-and-consequences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insects</a> play vital roles in pollination, serve as food sources for birds and animals, and fulfill other ecological functions. 



Yet many insect species worldwide are in decline, including in places less affected by direct human activities. Shifts in plant chemistry may be influencing these declines.



Numerous insects are plant feeders and thus likely to be influenced by reduced plant nutritional quality. 



Experiments have shown that when carbon dioxide levels go up, certain insect populations decrease, at least partly due to lower food quality.



However, not all insects respond similarly. Leaf-chewing insects, such as grasshoppers and caterpillars, appear most vulnerable, experiencing smaller body sizes and diminished reproduction.&nbsp;



Conversely, locusts thrive on plants rich in carbon and might flourish under elevated CO₂ conditions. Insects like aphids and cicadas, which feed on phloem rather than leaves, could also benefit from carbon-rich plant structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-quality-and-struggling-animals">Plant quality and struggling animals</h2>



Communities that are already nutrient-poor - like the ancient soils of Australia and the Amazon and Congo tropical basins - stand to be the most affected, since the animals in those areas already struggle to get enough nutrition.&nbsp;



Rapidly warming waters are likewise reducing the nutritional content of giant sea kelp, which serves as a crucial food source in the open ocean.



Certain herbivores may be hit harder, particularly those needing higher-quality diets. Hind-gut fermenters - such as rodents, rabbits, koalas, horses, rhinoceroses, and elephants - rely on microbes in their intestines to extract nutrients from fibrous plant materials, so they need nutrient-rich forage.&nbsp;



Smaller animals, with faster metabolisms, also depend on more nutrient-dense food and may struggle if plant quality falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



To grasp the role of nutrient dilution in population declines, more evidence is needed. This includes artificial experiments that raise CO₂ levels to mimic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-plants-adapt-to-changing-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, along with field studies that track changing plant chemistry and its impact on wild animal populations.



Over the long term, scientists aim to uncover how decreasing plant nutritional value might reshape food webs. Changes to plant species, traits, and interactions could alter relationships among predators, prey, and ecosystems at large.&nbsp;



At a time when climate change is already straining the planet, nutrient dilution adds another subtle yet far-reaching challenge that may reshape life on Earth.



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Plants and fruits are starting to lose their nutritional value

More than one-third of all animals on Earth, from beetles...

To a leaf, the impact of a raindrop is equivalent to a person being struck by a falling bowling ball. Despite this seemingly catastrophic force, leaves endure, and new research offers insights into the physics that make this possible.&nbsp;



These findings, detailed in a recent study published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prfluids/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevFluids.9.123605" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Fluids</a>, could have applications in agriculture, environmental science, and renewable energy technologies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamics-of-raindrops-and-plant-leaves">Dynamics of raindrops and plant leaves</h2>



The study, titled “Resonance and Damping in Drop-Cantilever Interactions,” used high-speed photography to closely examine what happens when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-turbulence-clouds-makes-tiny-water-droplets-turn-into-rain-showers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water droplet</a> hits a flexible plastic beam.&nbsp;



The researchers observed not only the deformation of the droplet but also how the beam vibrates in response to the impact. This setup mimics the interaction between raindrops and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-aging-discovered-in-plant-leaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant leaves</a>.



“In this study, we investigated the dynamics of a droplet impacting and oscillating a polycarbonate cantilever beam of nine varying lengths,” noted the researchers.



“We analyzed the cantilever's damping and vibration frequency in relation to a resonance length, where the frequencies of the droplet and the cantilever are equal.”



Sunghwan Jung, a professor of biological and environmental engineering at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>, likened the beam to a springboard. 



When the droplet strikes the beam, it triggers a dynamic interplay: the beam bends downward as the droplet stretches upward, and vice versa. 



Professor Jung explained that this opposing motion creates a “strong damping effect,” meaning the vibrations dissipate quickly. For plants, this rapid damping reduces stress on their structures, potentially prolonging their lifespan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raindrop-impacts-and-plant-recovery-nbsp">Raindrop impacts and plant recovery&nbsp;</h2>



One key discovery in the study was the role of resonance. Lead author Crystal Fowler, a doctoral student in biological engineering, noted an intriguing pattern.



When the natural frequency of the beam aligned with that of the droplet, the droplet moved significantly more, and the beam’s oscillations diminished more quickly.



This phenomenon, previously observed but not fully understood, revealed that synchronization between the frequencies of the beam and the droplet amplifies the droplet's motion, leading to enhanced damping.&nbsp;



The result is a quicker return to stability for the beam. For plants, this means they can recover more efficiently after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-increases-as-a-direct-result-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>, reducing mechanical strain and promoting longevity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-damping-effect-of-raindrop-impacts-nbsp">The damping effect of raindrop impacts&nbsp;</h2>



“Upon reaching the resonance length, the frequencies of both the droplet and the cantilever align, and the cantilever is out of phase with the oscillation of the droplet's apex. This leads to increased damping rates,” noted the researchers.



“At this resonance length, the droplet's force and the direction of the cantilever oppose each other. When the cantilever length exceeds the resonance length, it synchronizes more with the droplet apex. This alignment allows the droplet force and the cantilever to work in phase.”



According to the researchers, the findings provide fundamental insights into the damping effect of droplet impacts on elastic surfaces around resonance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-science-and-technology">Broader implications for science and technology</h2>



Understanding the dynamics of raindrop impact on leaves has implications beyond botany. This research sheds light on how rain moves through forest canopies and could inform studies of plant evolution and morphology.&nbsp;



For instance, Jung's lab has also explored how rain disperses spores and how plant vibrations could indicate hydration levels.



The findings also open doors to innovations in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tapping-into-the-natural-power-of-plants-for-renewable-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">renewable energy</a>. By replacing the plastic beam with a piezoelectric material - one that generates electricity when subjected to pressure - rainfall could become a source of power.&nbsp;



Professor Jung envisions a system where beams resembling plant structures harness energy from rain, creating a fusion of nature and technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-personal-milestone-in-discovery">A personal milestone in discovery</h2>



The study marks Fowler’s first publication and reflects her lifelong fascination with understanding the natural world.&nbsp;



Growing up in the Navajo Nation, surrounded by plants and gardens, Fowler developed an early interest in exploration and discovery. 



Her work in biological engineering now allows her to uncover the mechanisms that govern life’s resilience and adapt those principles for practical use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-inspired-energy-solutions-nbsp">Nature-inspired energy solutions&nbsp;</h2>



This research highlights the remarkable adaptations of plants to withstand environmental challenges and points to potential human applications inspired by nature.&nbsp;



From better understanding plant ecosystems to creating energy-harvesting technologies, the study demonstrates how curiosity-driven science can lead to innovative solutions for modern challenges.



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Nature-inspired energy: Lessons from leaves and raindrops

To a leaf, the impact of a raindrop is equivalent...

California’s vibrant native wildflowers face a growing threat: invasive grasses that form dense, suffocating layers of debris and prevent seed germination. 



According to a new study by the University of California, Riverside (UCR), a simple solution could lie in raking away this “thatch” - a layer of dead leaves and debris that blankets the ground.



This technique not only encourages biodiversity but also helps reduce fire risk in these ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-raking">What is raking?</h2>



Raking involves using a tool, like a rake, to physically remove surface debris, including leaves, dead grass, and other organic material, from the soil. This process, often part of gardening or land management, has the following applications beyond basic cleanup.



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Prepares soil for planting: By exposing bare soil, raking allows better water infiltration and nutrient absorption for seeds.</li>



<li>Improves soil aeration: Removing dense organic layers lets air circulate, enhancing microbial activity that is essential for healthy soil.</li>



<li>Prevents pest build-up: Thatch and debris can harbor pests and diseases; raking removes these potential threats.</li>



<li>Aids erosion control: By managing debris strategically, raking can prevent water runoff from eroding topsoil.</li>



<li>Enhances aesthetic appeal: In landscaped areas, raking maintains a neat, manicured appearance.</li>
</ol>



It’s a versatile, low-tech method that benefits both small-scale gardens and larger ecological restoration projects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raking-for-grass-management">Raking for grass management </h2>



The study, published in the journal Restoration Ecology, compared raking with other invasive grass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-global-change-to-stop-biodiversity-loss/">mana</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-global-change-to-stop-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gement</a> techniques like controlled burns, hand weeding, and herbicide application.



The results? Raking stands out as a low-cost, less labor-intensive, and ecologically friendly alternative.



“In these ecosystems, native seeds often fall on thick layers of thatch and can’t germinate. Raking the thatch lets light in and gives native plants a chance to grow,” explained <a href="https://profiles.ucr.edu/app/home/profile/markos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marko Spasojevic</a>, the study's lead author and UCR associate professor of plant ecology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-return-of-native-wildflowers">The return of native wildflowers</h2>



The research was conducted on grasslands near the UCR campus. The team used a grid of paired plots - one raked and one left untouched - to observe changes in plant communities over three years.



The findings revealed that raking significantly increased overall plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a>. Invasive grasses like ripgut brome declined, while native and exotic wildflowers, collectively known as forbs, thrived.



Ripgut brome, one of the dominant invasive species, is notorious for its sharp bristles that can injure grazing animals. 



“It’s super nasty for sheep and cattle to eat,” said Spasojevic. On the other hand, native flowers like the common fiddleneck, a species prevalent in Riverside, showed modest improvement when raking was applied.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growth-of-exotic-flowers">Growth of exotic flowers</h2>



However, the study revealed a trade-off. While raking reduced invasive grasses, it also encouraged the growth of certain exotic wildflowers, such as mustard, which can be highly invasive.



“Raking boosted native wildflowers by about 5% and exotic forbs by 7 to 10%,” said Advyth Ramachandran, co-leader of the project. 



“This doesn’t mean raking isn’t worthwhile. It’s a simple, low-cost method that could be a first step for restoring these systems,” noted Ramachandran, a former UCR undergraduate who is now studying plant ecology at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado, Boulder</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-seeds-initiative">The SEEDS initiative </h2>



This study represents more than just ecological research; it’s a proof of student-led innovation. The project traces its origins to the 1980s, when the study plots were created for an introductory biology class and later abandoned. 



During the COVID-19 pandemic, Ramachandran and fellow UCR students revived the site through the university’s SEEDS club, a grassroots research initiative.



“We built this project from scratch, writing protocols, identifying species, and involving over 25 undergraduates,” Ramachandran said. “It’s rare for undergraduates to initiate and lead publishable research like this.”



Spasojevic credited the project’s success to its accessibility. “The research site is on campus, so students could sample between classes. It lowered barriers for involvement and became a rich mentorship opportunity,” he said.



The SEEDS initiative continues to thrive, with students now collecting data for a fifth consecutive year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-implications-for-land-managers">Practical implications for land managers</h2>



The findings offer a practical, low-cost method for land managers seeking to restore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-light-sustains-biodiversity-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in California’s grasslands and coastal sage ecosystems. 



Native plants play a critical role in these ecosystems by providing food and habitat for local wildlife, supporting pollinators like bees, and preventing soil erosion. Meanwhile, invasive grasses pose multiple threats: outcompeting native plants, reducing biodiversity, and increasing wildfire risk with their dense, flammable layers.



“This project shows how small actions - like raking - can make meaningful differences in our ecosystems,” Ramachandran said. “It’s a promising step toward restoring California’s native landscapes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-california-s-native-wildflowers">Restoring California’s native wildflowers</h2>



The UCR team’s research highlights the importance of simple yet effective interventions in combating ecological challenges. As California continues to face threats from invasive grass species and wildfires, methods like raking could play a key role in preserving the state’s natural heritage.



Land managers and conservationists alike can take inspiration from the study’s findings, and apply this technique to boost native biodiversity while promoting community involvement in ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-darkspots-need-urgent-attention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restoration</a> efforts.



The success of the SEEDS initiative also underscores the power of student-driven research to address real-world environmental issues.



Restoring California’s wildflowers may not require monumental efforts. Sometimes, it’s as simple as picking up a rake.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec.14340" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Restoration Ecology</a>.



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California’s native wildflowers can be restored by raking dead grass

California’s vibrant native wildflowers face a growing threat: invasive grasses...

When you digest the fact that humans know less about the seamounts dotting our planet's oceans than about the vast expanse of outer space, it might take a moment to sink in. Only a fraction of these grandiose underwater mountains have even been mapped.



The 14,500 seamounts mapped to date are projected to be a mere fraction (less than 1%) of the actual total. This staggering disparity highlights how much of our oceanic world remains unexplored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dormant-volcano-teeming-with-life">A dormant volcano teeming with life</h2>



The story of the Davidson Seamount is just one example. Its name is a misnomer of sorts, as it is an underwater inactive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-underwater-volcanoes-become-explosive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> that is nestled off the Californian coast.



Discovered way back in 1933, this expansive entity covers 25 miles (40 kilometers) and has been dormant for the last 9.8 million years.



Despite the seeming desolation its description might suggest, this "dead" volcanic structure is buzzing with life.



It's home to magnificent coral reefs and extensive deep-sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-garden-thermal-springs-accelerate-octopus-egg-hatching-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopus gardens</a>, and offers a thriving ecosystem for marine animals including whales.



The unique biodiversity of the Davidson Seamount has made it a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-mountain-discovered-is-two-miles-high-and-home-to-flying-spaghetti-monsters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vital area</a> for marine research that has focused attention on the ecological importance of these underwater mountains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mysteries-of-underwater-mountains">The mysteries of underwater mountains </h2>



The Davidson Seamount, however, supports just a tiny fraction of the underwater splendors that remain unexplored.



Take a voyage to the Canadian coast where another ancient, and notably active, volcano was discovered. The site was found to be covered in millions of colossal eggs, laid by the ethereal Pacific white skates. 



For comparison, the previously known nursery of this species (in the Galapagos) had a mere sprinkling of eggs, as noted by a marine biologist at Fisheries and Oceans Canada.



The most recent voyage of discovery was led by experts from the <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Schmidt Ocean Institute</a>. The team unearthed a staggering 1.5-mile-high (2.4 kilometer) seamount, accompanied by three others in the southern Pacific.



One of these seamounts, situated along the Nazca ridge off the Chilean coast, offered a vision so astonishing that the explorers were left awe-struck.



They found themselves amidst a multitude of species that had never been seen by human eyes, which led them to draw parallels with a journey "through the cosmos."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-marine-species-revealed">Diverse marine species revealed</h2>



The month-long expedition proved highly fruitful. Unexpected residents of these depths were identified, including ghostly white <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sponge-gardens-found-deep-in-the-arctic-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sponge gardens</a>, flying spaghetti monsters (a type of colonial hydrozoan), Casper octopuses, millennium-old glass sponges and vast forests of bamboo corals.



A fascinating fact about the glass sponges is that they build intricate, cylindrical structures using spiky "spicules" and often house crustaceans until their death.



This unique interaction between different species creates a mutual relationship, where the captivated crustaceans clean the sponges and breed within them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vibrant-marine-life-on-underwater-mountains">Vibrant marine life on underwater mountains </h2>



The expedition revealed a vibrant and unexpected color palette in the depths of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-life-100-new-sea-creatures-found-in-chile/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chilean seamount</a>, with numerous species displaying bright red hues.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="C3wgg1waZW-4165386-12187" type="single"]</div>



Strange as it may seem, this coloration acts as a form of invisibility cloak in the depths where red light is absorbed first, leaving the species to appear black in the depths.



Alongside these species were cactus-like sea urchins and marine sponges that towered to human height.



A consortium of scientists from Ocean Census, who led the expedition planning, noted that this region of the southern Pacific exhibited a high level of endemic species - those that cannot be found anywhere else in the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seamounts-in-a-changing-climate">Seamounts in a changing climate</h2>



The significance of seamounts extends beyond hosting unique and vibrant marine life.



According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, seamounts are emerging as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-underwater-mountains-impact-ocean-circulation-climate-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vital sanctuaries</a> for marine life amidst the growing threats of climate change and warming oceans.



Their steep surfaces offer the right conditions for cold-water corals, sponges, and other surface-growing creatures.



The currents around these seamounts stimulate an upsurge of nutrients from the ocean floor, triggering phytoplankton growth that supports food chains within the marine world.



Additionally, these nutrient-rich areas act as hotspots for biodiversity, supporting species that are often rare or endemic to these environments.



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'Alien-like' marine life found on underwater mountains includes 100 new species

When you digest the fact that humans know less about...

Endangered animals