Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Orthalicus reses (not incl. nesodryas) NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=b6fcc359a2584a94a2f8a4c56ba13c15&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.957j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Stock Island tree snail (Orthalicus reses, not includingnesodryas) is an arboreal snail inhabiting the hardwood hammocks of the Florida Keys. It was listed as threatened because of populatio Orthalicus reses, common name the Stock Island, Florida tree snail, is a species of large tropical air-breathing land snail, a tree snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Orthalicidae. It was first described in 1830 by the American naturalist Thomas Say. The holotype, a specimen probably collected in Key West, was subsequently lost. Over a hundred years later, in 1946, the American biologist Henry Augustus Pilsbry redescribed the species using a specimen from Stock Island.

Orthalicus reses (not incl. nesodryas)

Orthalicus reses (not incl. nesodryas) NatureServe Explorer Species Reports --...

Oryx dammah NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Oryx dammah ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=29a591bc72854bf6bf6a70f1093a422d&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.1685j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The scimitar oryx (Oryx dammah), also known as the scimitar-horned oryx and the Sahara oryx, is a species of Oryx that was once widespread across North Africa. The species went extinct in the wild in 2000, but a group was released into an acclimation enclosure within the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve in 2016, then reintroduced back into the wild. Twenty-one additional animals were placed in the acclimation enclosure in 2017. The scimitar oryx has a long taxonomic history since its scientific description in 1816 by Lorenz Oken, who named it Oryx algazel. This antelope stands a little more than 1 metre (3.3 ft) at the shoulder. The males weigh 140–210 kg (310–460 lb) and the females weigh 91–140 kg (201–309 lb). The coat is white with a red-brown chest and black markings on the forehead and down the length of the nose.

Oryx dammah

Oryx dammah NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Oryx leucoryx NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=29a591bc72854bf6bf6a70f1093a422d&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.1685j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world. Like the other minibosses in Oryx’s Sanctuary, Leucoryx is named after a species of antelope in the Oryx genus; in this case, Oryx leucoryx (common name: Arabian oryx or White oryx). Leucoryx’s light and dark forms reference Papa Emeritus IV and Papa Nihil from the band Ghost.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Arabian oryx or white oryx is a medium-sized antelope with a distinct shoulder bump, long, straight horns, and a tufted tail. It is a bovid, and the smallest member of the genus Oryx, native to desert and steppe areas of the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabian oryx was extinct in the wild by the early 1970s, but was saved in zoos and private reserves, and was reintroduced into the wild starting in 1980.

Oryx leucoryx

Oryx leucoryx NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Oryzomys palustris natator NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Oryzomys palustris natator ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=29a591bc72854bf6bf6a70f1093a422d&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.1685j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The marsh rice rat (Oryzomys palustris) is a semiaquatic North American rodent in the family Cricetidae. It usually occurs in wetland habitats, such as swamps and salt marshes. It is found mostly in the eastern and southern United States, from New Jersey and Kansas south to Florida and northeasternmost Tamaulipas, Mexico; its range previously extended further west and north, where it may have been a commensal in corn-cultivating communities. Weighing about 40 to 80 g (1.4 to 2.8 oz), the marsh rice rat is a medium-sized rodent that resembles the common black and brown rat. The upperparts are generally gray-brown, but are reddish in many Florida populations. The feet show several specializations for life in the water. The skull is large and flattened, and is short at the front. John Bachman discovered the marsh rice rat in 1816, and it was formally described in 1837. Several subspecies have been described since the 1890s, mainly from Florida, but disagreement exists over their validity. The Florida Keys population is sometimes classified as a different species

Oryzomys palustris natator

Oryzomys palustris natator NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Osteolaemus tetraspis osborni NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.  The second subspecies has had a somewhat convoluted taxonomicalhistory.

ITIS Reports -- Osteolaemus tetraspis osborni ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=29a591bc72854bf6bf6a70f1093a422d&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.1685j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.  this may be due to the fact that Osteolaemus has a similar ecology the dwarf caimans.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The dwarf crocodile, also known as the African dwarf crocodile, broad-snouted crocodile or bony crocodile, is an African crocodile that is also the smallest extant species of crocodile. Sampling has identified three genetically distinct populations. Some feel that the findings should elevate the subspecies to full species status.  A second morphological form, discovered in the upper Congo River Basin, was described as a new genus

Osteolaemus tetraspis osborni

Osteolaemus tetraspis osborni NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Osteolaemus tetraspis tetraspis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Osteolaemus tetraspis tetraspis ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=29a591bc72854bf6bf6a70f1093a422d&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.1685j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The dwarf crocodile, also known as the African dwarf crocodile, broad-snouted crocodile or bony crocodile, is an African crocodile that is also the smallest extant species of crocodile. Sampling has identified three genetically distinct populations. Some feel that the findings should elevate the subspecies to full species status.

It was first described as Osteoblepharon osborni by <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Karl%20Patterson%20Schmidt%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Schmidt</a> in 1919, based on a few <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Zoological%20specimen%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">specimens</a> from the Upper <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Congo%20River%20Basin%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Congo River Basin</a> in what is now the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Democratic%20Republic%20of%20Congo%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Democratic Republic of Congo</a>. However, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Robert%20F.%20Inger%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Inger</a> in a 1948 paper found the specimens wanting of characteristics that would justify a generic separation from Osteolaemus and referred the specimens to Osteolaemus osborni. In 1961, it was reduced to subspecies rank.

Osteolaemus tetraspis tetraspis

Osteolaemus tetraspis tetraspis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Ostodes strigatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">c</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stickleback-fish-provide-new-insight-into-natural-selection/">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Ostodes is a genus of tropical land snails with gills and an operculum, terrestrial gastropod mollusks in the family Neocyclotidae (according to the taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet &amp; Rocroi, 2005).

Gastropoda Facts. Jennifer Kennedy is an environmental educator who has more than 20 years of experience studying and educating the public about the oceans. The class Gastropoda includes snails, slugs, limpets, and sea hares; the common name for all of these animals is "gastropods.".

The Class Gastropoda includes snails, slugs, limpets and sea hairs - all animals referred to as 'gastropods.' Gastropods are mollusks, and an extremely diverse group that includes over 40,000 species. Envision a <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=sea&amp;cvid=1b0cd9401e2f4dba890bd86a3f679bae&amp;aqs=edge..69i57j0l3j69i60l2j69i61.701j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">sea</a> shell, and you're thinking about a gastropod, although this class contains many shell-less animals as well. 03 of 04 Conchs

Ostodes strigatus

Ostodes strigatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Otus ireneae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Otus ireneae ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=b6fcc359a2584a94a2f8a4c56ba13c15&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.957j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The Sokoke Scops Owl is a very small owl with small ear-tufts. Grey, rufous and dark brown morphs

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Sokoke scops owl is an owl found in Kenya and Tanzania. The greatest population of this species of owl is in the Cynometra-Manilkara forest, which is less than one-third of the Sokoke Forest. It is also found in the Afzelia-Cynometra forest. This owl is listed as Endangered because it has a very small, severely fragmented range, within which its population and the quality of its habitat is declining.

Otus ireneae

Otus ireneae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Otus magicus (=insularis) insularis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

The <a class="mw-redirect" title="" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(biology)">range</a> of this bird when first described in 1880 were the <a title="Seychelles" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seychelles">Seychelles</a> islands of <a title="Praslin" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praslin">Praslin</a>, <a title="Mahé, Seychelles" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C3%A9,_Seychelles">Mahé</a>, and <a title="Silhouette Island" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silhouette_Island">Silhouette Island</a>. Due to the clearing of the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Mountainous" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountainous">mountainous</a> <a title="Cloud forest" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_forest">cloud forests</a> and introduced alien animals, like rats, cats, and barn owls the population had dropped so drastically that it was thought to be extinct by 1906. In 1959 it was rediscovered by French naturalist Phillippe Loustau-Lalanne in a mountainous cloud forest at an altitude of 200 meter above sea level on the island of Mahé.

In 1999 the first nest was discovered but there was no breeding success. In 2000 the first <a title="Infrared" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared">infrared</a> photograph was shot of a female with her juvenile. Due to the lack of information about the population this species was long regarded as <a class="mw-redirect" title="Critically endangered" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critically_endangered">critically endangered</a> by the <a class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN">IUCN</a>. Due to the discovery of further populations it was noticed by 2002 that the population was stable at about 318 individuals. Today the range consists of 159 territories which cover an area of 33 km². Thanks to the new knowledge and the conservation efforts on Mahé this species was reclassified as <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered</a> in 2004.

Otus magicus (=insularis) insularis

Otus magicus (=insularis) insularis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Otus rutilus capnodes NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Otus rutilus capnodes ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=13b1d1ef5fa544a5b4a5ebc5ef530df5&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.698j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Otus rutilus capnodes

Otus rutilus capnodes NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Ovis ammon NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-populations-dropped/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in  collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. Ovis ammon is the largest of the world’s sheep, weighing in between 60 and 185 kg. Shoulder height is between 90 and 125 cm. Horns are a prominent feature on these animals. The Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii) is a subspecies of argali sheep, named after Marco Polo. Their habitat is the mountainous regions of Central Asia. Marco Polo sheep are distinguishable mostly by their large size and spiraling horns. Their conservation status is "near threatened" and efforts have been made to protect their numbers and keep them from commercial hunting. It has also been suggested that crossing them with domestic sheep could have agricultural benefits.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=b6fcc359a2584a94a2f8a4c56ba13c15&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.957j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Ovis ammon

Ovis ammon NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Ovis ammon NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Ovis ammon ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=13b1d1ef5fa544a5b4a5ebc5ef530df5&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.698j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Ovis canadensis nelsoni NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=b6fcc359a2584a94a2f8a4c56ba13c15&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.957j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The desert bighorn sheep is a subspecies of bighorn sheep that is native to the deserts of the United States' intermountain west and southwestern regions, as well as northwestern Mexico. The Bureau of Land Management considered the subspecies "sensitive" to extinction.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) is a subspecies of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) that is native to the deserts of the United States' intermountain west and southwestern regions, as well as northwestern Mexico. The trinomial of this species commemorates the American naturalist Edward William Nelson (1855–1934). The characteristics and behavior of the desert bighorn sheep

Ovis canadensis nelsoni

Ovis canadensis nelsoni NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Ovis canadensis sierrae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Ovis canadensis sierrae ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=b6fcc359a2584a94a2f8a4c56ba13c15&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.957j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. Sierra bighorn range in color from white to dark brown, with a white rump and dark tail. There is some seasonal change in coloration due to the shedding of a thicker winter layer. Specialized hooves with adhesive soles provide traction in steep rocky terrain. Female bighorn (ewes) can weigh up to 70 kilograms (155 lb) and have shorter, narrow horns, while male bighorn (rams) can weigh as much as 100 kilograms (220 lb) and have massive, curving horns. The horns of both rams and ewes are composed of a dense layer of keratin covering a core of bone.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis sierrae) is subspecies of bighorn sheep unique to the Sierra Nevada mountains of California. A 2016 genetics study confirmed significant divergence between the three subspecies of North America's bighorn sheep: Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep, Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep and desert bighorn sheep. Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep were listed as a federally endangered subspecies in 2000. As of 2016, over 600 Sierra bighorn remain in the wild.

Ovis canadensis sierrae

Ovis canadensis sierrae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Ovis musimon ophion NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too.

NatureServe Explorer is a product of Ovis musimon ophion NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. To avoid musimon being a senior synonym of arkal, the lectotype of musimon must be de... ITIS defers to Wilson &amp; Reeder (eds., 2005) on the correct name for a species when the choice is between an older name based on a domestic form and a younger name based on a wild form.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=b6fcc359a2584a94a2f8a4c56ba13c15&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.957j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The mouflon is a wild sheep native to the Caspian region from eastern Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan to Iran. It is thought to be the ancestor of all modern domestic sheep breeds. Ovis aries musimon (European mouflon); male, in typical habitat. Hunting estate, Central Spain. The European mouflon is a wild sheep that originates from the Mediterranean islands of Corsica and Sardinia; it is thought to be descended from semidomesticated wild sheep from the Near East. The Cyprus Mouflon is endemic to the Mediterranean island of Cyprus and an example of island dwarfism. (9) Shoulder heights measure on average 15 centimeter less.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Ovis musimon ophion

Ovis musimon ophion NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Ovis vignei vignei NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. The habitats of this form are r elatively gentle slopes at high altitudes of more than 2,500 m, up to 4,000 m asl. and more, characterized b y aridness, severity of climate .

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=b6fcc359a2584a94a2f8a4c56ba13c15&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.957j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The urial, also known as the arkars or shapo, is a subspecies group of the wild sheep Ovis orientalis. Noticeable features are the reddish-brown long fur that fades during winter; males are characterized by a black ruff stretching from the neck to the chest and large horns. It is found in western central Asia. The other subspecies group of O. orientalis is the mouflon. The two groups have often been considered separate species.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Ovis vignei vignei

Ovis vignei vignei NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Oxyloma haydeni kanabensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Oxyloma haydeni kanabensis ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=13b1d1ef5fa544a5b4a5ebc5ef530df5&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.698j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Oxyloma haydeni kanabensis

Oxyloma haydeni kanabensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Ozotoceros bezoarticus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.  It is medium-sized, lightly built cervid. Head and body length is 110 - 140 cm, shoulder height is 70 - 75 cm. The prevailing color of the upper parts and limbs is reddish

ITIS Reports -- Ozotoceros bezoarticus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=b6fcc359a2584a94a2f8a4c56ba13c15&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.957j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Pampas deer is a species of deer that live in the grasslands of South America at low elevations. They are known as venado or gama in Spanish and as veado-campeiro in Portuguese. Their habitat includes water and hills, often with winter drought, and grass that is high enough to cover a standing deer. Many of them live on the Pantanal wetlands, where there are ongoing conservation efforts, and other areas

Ozotoceros bezoarticus

Ozotoceros bezoarticus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Researchers at Montana State University (MSU) have unearthed a remarkable ancient forest preserved under ice on the Beartooth Plateau, providing a rare look into how warming climates could reshape alpine ecosystems.&nbsp;



The study, published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2412162121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, analyzes the remnants of a mature whitebark pine forest that once thrived at an elevation of 10,000 feet during a period of warmer temperatures roughly 6,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-exposed-by-melting-ice">Ancient forest exposed by melting ice</h2>



The forest, which endured for centuries before cooling temperatures forced it to retreat downslope, was sealed under ice approximately 5,500 years ago due to a shift in summer solar radiation and subsequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-cooling-not-warming-caused-a-major-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic cooling</a>.&nbsp;



“This is pretty dramatic evidence of ecosystem change due to temperature warming. It's an amazing story of how dynamic these systems are,” said David McWethy, one of the study’s authors and an associate professor in <a href="https://www.montana.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSU</a>’s Department of Earth Sciences.



Unlike glaciers, ice patches do not flow and instead preserve deposited materials such as pollen, charcoal, and macrofossils in their frozen layers. These conditions allowed the forest to remain intact until recent warming caused the ice to melt, exposing the ancient remnants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-effort-to-decode-climate-history">Collaborative effort to decode climate history</h2>



The idea to explore the Beartooth Plateau for ancient climate clues stemmed from earlier discoveries by Craig Lee, now an assistant professor at MSU. In 2007, Lee uncovered a 10,300-year-old atlatl fragment in the region, suggesting that layers of ice held vast records of cultural and environmental history.



“Most of our best long-term climate records come from Greenland and Antarctica. It's not a small thing to find ice patches that persisted for that long a time period at lower latitudes in the interior continent,” McWethy noted.



Building on this discovery, McWethy, Lee, and Greg Pederson, a paleoclimatologist with the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey</a>, began investigating the ice patches in 2016. By 2018, their team expanded the project to study additional alpine ice patches in the region.&nbsp;



This collaborative effort involved tribes, federal agencies, and multiple universities and focused on reconstructing the area’s long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-temperature-has-changed-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate history</a> and its influence on Indigenous peoples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-the-ancient-alpine-ecosystem">Reconstructing the ancient alpine ecosystem</h2>



To piece together the story of the forest, the team examined multiple elements of this alpine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpine-ecosystems-are-thrown-off-balance-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>. Using ice cores, they analyzed water isotopes and organic material, while Pederson harvested cross-sections of ancient wood for radiocarbon dating. 



The findings confirmed that during a period of moderate and moist climate, tree lines shifted upward, allowing whitebark pine forests to thrive for 500 years.



“The plateau seems to have been the perfect place to allow for ice patches to establish and persist for thousands of years, recording important information on past climate, human activity and environmental change,” Pederson said.



The study suggests that as today’s climate warms, tree lines could rise again, transforming areas of alpine tundra into forest. However, Pederson cautioned that factors such as precipitation, wind, and snowpack would influence the density, distribution, and composition of these potential new forests.&nbsp;



“Growing season temperatures are the primary control on tree line elevation and latitude, but other factors such as moisture, wind, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-driven-climate-change-is-to-blame-for-sharp-snowpack-declines-since-1980/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snowpack</a> and human disturbance may play an important role in dictating forest structure and elevational limits,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-alpine-ecosystems">Implications for alpine ecosystems</h2>



The researchers warn that these changes could have profound impacts on the region’s ecosystem and resources. Rising tree lines might alter high-altitude snowpack, which serves as a critical water source for irrigation and hydroelectric power.&nbsp;



Additionally, if forests encroach on tundra areas, they could increase the risk of wildfires due to changing fuel conditions.



Cathy Whitlock, a climate expert and MSU Regents Professor Emerita, emphasized the broader implications. She noted that reduced snowpack could strain water supplies, while McWethy added that the establishment of forests in tundra areas might fundamentally alter the region’s fire dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-the-past-to-predict-the-future">Learning from the past to predict the future</h2>



The study emphasizes the importance of understanding past ecological changes to prepare for future challenges.&nbsp;



“That’s the reason why studies of past ecological change are more than interesting pieces of science. They have much larger implications for the resources we all depend on,” Pederson said.



As climate change accelerates, the Beartooth Plateau’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient forest</a> serves as both a stark reminder of the Earth’s dynamic ecosystems and a window into the potential future of high-altitude environments.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Frozen forest reveals climate impacts on alpine ecosystems

Researchers at Montana State University (MSU) have unearthed a remarkable...

When we marvel at the wonders of nature - like the sweet aroma of spring roses, the melodies of songbirds, or the brilliant colors of autumn leaves - there's an unsung hero working quietly behind the scenes: the ozone layer.



This thin shield in the stratosphere protects Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation (UVR), safeguarding biodiversity and enabling life as we know it. 



Yet, the formation of this vital layer took over 2 billion years, and recent research reveals why it faced such a prolonged delay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-battle-of-elements-in-earth-s-early-ozone-layer">Battle of elements in Earth's early ozone layer</h2>



A study led by experts at Yale University sheds light on an ancient atmospheric battle between iodine and oxygen.



This competition, the researchers propose, stalled the stabilization of the ozone layer, delaying the emergence and diversification of complex life on Earth.



“The origin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ozone-day-2024-advancing-climate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversification</a> of complex life on Earth remains one of the most profound and enduring questions in natural science,” said Jingjun Liu, the study's lead author. 



The research challenges the long-held belief that evolutionary delays were purely due to time requirements, offering a fresh perspective on the role of atmospheric chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-complex-life-wait">Why did complex life wait?</h2>



Despite cyanobacteria existing for 2.7 billion years, land plants did not appear until 450 million years ago. Similarly, complex life fossils are absent before the Cambrian era. 



Traditionally, scientists attributed these delays to slow evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-threaten-the-recovery-of-the-ozone-layer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>.



“That notion fails to explain how and why complex life originated and diversified,” said Professor Noah Planavsky, senior author of the study.



The research suggests that the true culprit was iodine. Elevated marine iodine concentrations disrupted the formation of a stable ozone layer, allowing intense UV radiation to bombard the Earth’s surface. 



This harsh environment made the planet inhospitable to complex terrestrial life for billions of years.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="s5PVS16IhO-4201105-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-iodine-and-ozone-depletion">Marine iodine and ozone depletion </h2>



Ozone forms through a delicate interplay between atmospheric oxygen and UVR. While oxygen levels eventually rose, the study found that high marine iodide emissions - salts formed by iodine - prevented a protective ozone shield from stabilizing.



These emissions led to ozone destruction akin to the damage caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) during the 20th-century Antarctic ozone hole crisis.



“Iodine-driven catalytic cycles for ozone destruction are kinetically much faster than those involving reactive chlorine,” explained Professor Planavsky.



As a result, even slight increases in marine iodine could have caused significant ozone depletion, exposing the Earth’s surface to harmful UVR for billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-earth-s-history">New perspective on Earth’s history</h2>



Liu and the research team from <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> used geological evidence and ocean-atmosphere models to reconstruct iodine-ozone dynamics. 



The findings reveal that unstable and low ozone levels likely persisted from 2.4 billion to 0.5 billion years ago. Even with high oxygen production, periodic UV radiation surges would have hindered the evolution of land-based life.



This remarkable research reshapes our understanding of Earth’s history, revealing how atmospheric chemistry influenced life’s timeline. As we continue to uncover the mysteries of our planet’s past, we deepen our appreciation for the delicate balance that sustains life today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-earth-s-ozone-layer">Significance of Earth's ozone layer </h2>



The formation of the ozone layer was a long and complex process, taking billions of years to stabilize. It emerged from a "battle" between elements like iodine and oxygen in Earth's early atmosphere. 



This natural shield, located in the stratosphere, plays a critical role in protecting life on Earth by blocking harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decline-in-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-an-encouraging-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultraviolet radiation</a> from the sun.



The ozone layer is not just a scientific marvel; it represents the deep connections between Earth's systems and life itself. Without it, life as we know it - plants, animals, and even the small joys like the scent of flowers, the sound of birdsong, and the colors of changing leaves - would not thrive.



Today, this shield faces threats from human activities, such as pollution and the release of ozone-depleting chemicals. Protecting the ozone layer isn’t just about maintaining the planet’s natural beauty; it’s about safeguarding the very foundation of life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.



Video Credit: Yale University 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth’s ozone layer took more than two billion years to stabilize

When we marvel at the wonders of nature - like...

When a new species enters an ecosystem, it might establish itself successfully or fail to gain a foothold. Researchers at MIT have recently devised a formula to predict these outcomes. The research is based on extensive modeling and laboratory experiments with soil bacteria. 



The findings, which could apply to ecosystems ranging from forests to the human gut microbiome, offer valuable insights into the dynamics of species interactions and potential applications in medicine and environmental science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanics-of-species-invasions">Mechanics of species invasions</h2>



<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> physicists, led by Jeff Gore, a professor of physics, analyzed hundreds of experimental scenarios to determine the factors that influence whether an introduced species succeeds.&nbsp;



The team’s formula, grounded in their research on bacterial communities, could have implications for understanding natural ecosystems, improving probiotics, or enhancing treatments like fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT).



“People eat a lot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/probiotics-help-overweight-dogs-shed-pounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">probiotics</a>, but many of them can never invade our gut microbiome at all, because if you introduce it, it does not necessarily mean that it can grow and colonize and benefit your health,” noted study lead author Jiliang Hu, a PhD student at MIT.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experimenting-with-bacterial-communities">Experimenting with bacterial communities</h2>



The researchers studied over 400 soil bacterial communities, each comprising 12 to 20 species native to soil around MIT. They introduced a new bacterial species into each community and monitored the outcomes over 12 days.&nbsp;



By sequencing bacterial genomes, the team assessed whether the invader had successfully established itself.



To further understand the role of environmental factors, the team varied the nutrient levels in the bacteria’s culture medium. High nutrient levels often led to intense species interactions, such as competition for food or inhibition through mechanisms like pH-mediated cross-toxin effects.



The researchers observed two types of community behavior: stable populations, where species numbers remained constant, and fluctuating populations, where species abundance varied over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-factors-in-successful-species-invasions-nbsp">Key factors in successful species invasions&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that fluctuations in population size were a critical determinant of invasion success. Communities with higher levels of fluctuation were more diverse and more prone to successful invasions.&nbsp;



“The fluctuation is not driven by changes in the environment, but it is internal fluctuation driven by the species interaction,” Hu explained. “And what we found is that the fluctuating communities are more readily invaded and also more diverse than the stable ones.”



In stable communities with less diversity and stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interspecies competition</a>, invaders were less likely to succeed. In fluctuating ecosystems, however, the invader sometimes coexisted with the original species, albeit in smaller numbers. In other cases, the invader outcompeted and replaced certain resident species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-interactions-and-the-survival-fraction-nbsp">Species interactions and the “survival fraction”&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers identified a factor they call the “survival fraction” - the proportion of the original species that remain after an invasion - as a reliable predictor of invasion success.&nbsp;



In natural ecosystems, this survival fraction could be approximated by comparing local diversity (species in a specific area) to regional diversity (species in a broader region).



Another important finding was the influence of the order in which species arrive in an ecosystem.&nbsp;



When species interactions were strong, the likelihood of an invader succeeding decreased if it was introduced later. However, when interactions were weaker, the arrival order had little impact, and communities reached similar equilibrium states regardless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-medicine-and-ecology">Implications for medicine and ecology</h2>



The researchers plan to apply their formula to larger ecosystems and explore its relevance to the human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut microbiome</a>. For example, the formula could help predict the success of probiotics or FMT treatments for infections like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-hospital-infections-have-a-mysterious-trigger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">C. difficile</a>.&nbsp;



“Invasions can be harmful or can be good depending on the context,” Hu noted. “In some cases, like probiotics, or FMT to treat C. difficile infection, we want the healthy species to invade successfully.”



In agriculture, the formula could guide efforts to introduce beneficial microbes into soil to enhance plant growth or protect crops from pathogens.&nbsp;



Similarly, it could inform conservation strategies by predicting how ecosystems might respond to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> or restoration efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Future studies will test whether the local-to-regional diversity ratio can predict invasion success in ecosystems where diversity data is available.&nbsp;



The team also aims to investigate the underlying mechanisms that drive the observed population fluctuations and how these dynamics apply across various ecological contexts.



This study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02618-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>, sheds light on the complex interplay of species interactions, diversity, and environmental factors in shaping the outcomes of biological invasions, with potential applications spanning environmental conservation, agriculture, and human health.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ecosystem attack: Predicting the success of species invasions

When a new species enters an ecosystem, it might establish...

A recent study from Washington State University (WSU) reveals that climate change poses significant challenges to apple orchards in some of the most productive regions of the United States.



The researchers conducted an extensive study that included over four decades of climate data. They analyzed how varying weather conditions influence the critical growth stages of apple trees.



These stages include bud break, flowering, fruit development, maturation, and color development - all of which are crucial for healthy yields and high-quality apples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-apple-growth">Climate change and apple growth</h2>



The study revealed alarming trends, particularly for the three most productive apple-growing counties in the United States:&nbsp;Yakima County in Washington,&nbsp;Kent County in Michigan, and&nbsp;Wayne County in New York. 



Among these,&nbsp;Yakima County - a powerhouse with over 48,800 acres of apple orchards - was found to be the most severely affected.



Yakima County exhibited harmful trends in five out of the six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-added-41-extra-days-of-dangerous-heat-in-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> metrics studied, indicating the region's heightened vulnerability. These metrics include factors like extreme heat, warm nights, reduced cold periods, and shifting frost dates, all of which disrupt the delicate balance needed for apple growth. 



The findings highlight the region’s significant exposure to the negative impacts of climate change, which could challenge its status as a leading apple producer in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-metrics-and-apple-production">Climate metrics and apple production</h2>



Apple production relies on specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate conditions</a> to ensure healthy growth, high yields, and good fruit quality. However, shifts in these conditions pose significant challenges:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-days">Extreme heat days</h3>



When temperatures exceed 93°F, apple trees face stress that can lead to sunburn on the fruit, reducing apple quality and marketability. Prolonged exposure to such heat can also impair tree health and productivity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-nights">Warm nights</h3>



Nighttime temperatures above&nbsp;59°F&nbsp;interfere with apple coloration. Proper color development is essential for market appeal, as it affects both the visual and perceived quality of the fruit.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-days-and-chill-portions">Cold days and chill portions</h3>



Apple trees need a specific number of cold hours (known as&nbsp;chill portions) during dormancy to reset their growth cycle. A reduction in these cold periods can lead to irregular flowering and lower yields.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spring-frost-timing">Spring frost timing</h3>



Changes in the timing of the last spring frost disrupt the blooming process. Late frosts can damage blossoms, leading to fewer fruit or misshapen apples.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-degree-days">Growing degree days</h3>



Warmer overall temperatures accelerate the growth process, potentially causing premature fruit development. This can affect the size, flavor, and storability of apples.



These changing climate conditions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upset the delicate balance</a> required for consistent and high-quality apple production. The western U.S., a major apple-producing region, has experienced the most pronounced negative trends in these metrics. 



This raises concerns not just for regional growers but for the entire U.S. apple industry, as these changes threaten both the quantity and quality of the fruit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compounding-threats-of-climate-change">Compounding threats of climate change </h2>



“We shouldn’t take the delicious apples we love to consume for granted,” said Deepti Singh, <a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a> climate scientist and the study’s corresponding author. 



“Changing climate conditions over multiple parts of the growth cycle pose potentially compounding threats to the production and quality of apples.”



This complexity stems from the perennial nature of apple trees. “What goes on in different seasons can affect long-term health as well as the performance and productivity of the apple tree during that specific season,” explained Lee Kalcsits, a WSU tree physiologist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-apples-from-climate-change">Protecting apples from climate change</h2>



Apple growers in Washington state are implementing adaptive measures to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-we-cut-down-all-oak-trees-isoprene-emissions-air-pollution-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">combat the effects of extreme heat </a>on their crops. 



Techniques like netting, which reduces direct sunlight to prevent sunburn, and evaporative cooling, which uses water misting systems to lower orchard temperatures, are helping protect fruit quality and tree health. 



These adaptations highlight both the resilience of the apple industry and the urgency of addressing climate change challenges. To support growers further, WSU researchers are working on large-scale solutions. 



Led by Lee Kalcsits, a $6.75 million USDA-funded project aims to mitigate the impact of extreme climate events on apple and pear crops. 



This collaborative, multi-institution effort seeks to develop strategies that growers across the nation can use to sustain production in an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-an-amazing-ability-to-adapt-to-new-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increasingly volatile climate</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-the-future">A blueprint for the future</h2>



“Washington is a great place to start to talk about adaptation,” said Kirti Rajagopalan, a WSU biological systems engineer and study co-author. 



If successful, the strategies tested here could serve as a blueprint for apple-growing regions nationwide.



As climate change risks grow, the apple industry’s ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt</a> will be crucial. With ongoing research and innovative solutions, there’s hope that the apples we cherish can continue to thrive in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad90f4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Apple orchards face compounding threats from climate change

A recent study from Washington State University (WSU) reveals that...

The sixth extinction, also known as the Anthropocene extinction, refers to the ongoing, unprecedented loss of species. Unlike previous mass extinction events in Earth's history, which were driven by natural phenomena such as massive volcanic eruptions, the current extinction crisis is largely attributed to human activities.



In a recent study, a team of Irish researchers set out to examine how the public reacts to hearing the news of a species extinction. 



The analysis revealed that while social media users show an initial surge of sympathy, the sentiment fades quickly. This fleeting engagement raises questions about how deeply people connect with conservation issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-reaction-to-species-extinction">Public reaction to species extinction</h2>



The study was led by researchers from the University of Galway, <a href="https://www.ucd.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College Dublin</a>, and <a href="https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maynooth University</a>. The goal was to examine how people react to the extinction of different species.



The researchers focused on eight species, including the famous Lonesome George - the last known Pinta Island tortoise who became a symbol of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



They also studied lesser-known species, such as Captain Cook's bean snail and the Rabbs fringe-limbed treefrog, which have similarly disappeared from the planet.



To gather insights, the team used a method called "culturomics." This approach involves analyzing digital data to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-how-and-when-humans-and-mammals-will-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural trends</a> and public interest. 



By studying online activity, the researchers analyzed over two million <a href="https://www.wikipedia.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wikipedia</a> page visits and more than 100,000 tweets and retweets from 2007 to 2023. 



This data helped them understand how people react online to extinction news, revealing patterns of interest, mourning, and engagement across different platforms.



“In our study, we tracked changes in tweets and Wikipedia page visits before and after the extinction of eight species ranging from Lonesome George to more obscure species such as the bean snail,” explained Dr. Kevin Healy of the <a href="https://www.universityofgalway.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Galway</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spike-in-interest-then-silence">A spike in interest, then silence</h2>



The findings revealed that public interest in extinction news spikes dramatically on social media immediately after a species is declared extinct. 



“Overall, it does look like people care and are saddened by the news of extinction. We see words like 'RIP' and 'lost' commonly appear, and that the location of tweets expands from close to the species range to across the globe after extinction,” noted Dr. Susan Canavan, the study’s lead author.



The researchers found that while social media platforms see a short-lived surge in activity following news of a species' extinction, Wikipedia exhibits a different pattern. Wikipedia page visits remained steady over time, showing sustained interest in learning about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct species</a>.



This suggests that people turn to Wikipedia for deeper, long-term exploration of the topic, whereas social media reactions are often immediate and brief. 



The contrast highlights how different platforms serve distinct purposes: social media captures initial emotional responses and fleeting discussions, while Wikipedia supports extended engagement and information-seeking behavior. 



This difference signifies the varied ways people process and interact with extinction news depending on the platform they use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-awareness">Impact of awareness</h2>



The study highlights the potential power of public engagement in conservation. 



“People’s engagement with conservation issues, such as extinction, does matter, as it can drive funding, or add support for conservation policy and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-cheetah-day-2024-racing-against-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence conversations</a> on controversial topics such as attempting to bring species back from extinction using biotechnology,” Dr. Healy emphasized.



The passing of Lonesome George in 2012 captured worldwide attention. His death symbolized the vulnerability of species and highlighted the urgent need for conservation efforts to protect endangered animals.



Similarly, the extinction of other species, such as the Bramble Cay mosaic-tailed rat - the first mammal believed to have gone extinct due to climate change - and the West African black rhinoceros, sparked global discussions.



These events not only raised awareness about the threats facing wildlife but also ignited conversations on the broader impact of human activities on biodiversity. 



Each extinction served as a poignant reminder of the importance of conservation and the irreversible loss caused by species disappearing forever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mourning-species-extinction-in-the-digital-age">Mourning species extinction in the digital age</h2>



The research reveals a bittersweet reality: while people momentarily mourn extinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, the depth of engagement often doesn't last. 



The rise in global conversations about extinction on platforms like X (formerly Twitter) shows that people care, but the fleeting nature of this concern highlights the challenges conservation efforts face in maintaining momentum.



Ultimately, this study offers valuable insights into how the public connects with conservation issues. It also raises a crucial question: how can we transform brief moments of mourning into lasting action to prevent further losses?



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Public concern over species extinctions fades quickly

The sixth extinction, also known as the Anthropocene extinction, refers...

Plants constantly juggle their energy between growth and defense against harmful bacteria. While the specifics of how they maintain this balance have long been unclear, researchers at Princeton University have discovered that certain soil bacteria play a crucial role in modulating plant immune responses, and allowing them to grow more efficiently.



“This is trying to get at a really big biological question where there are not good answers - about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiomes</a> interface with host immune systems,” said Jonathan Conway, senior author of the study and an assistant professor of chemical and biological engineering at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a>.&nbsp;



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2024.115063" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports</a>, highlights how specific microbes produce enzymes that can suppress plant immune activity, thus enabling healthier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autophagy-what-makes-plant-roots-grow-faster-stronger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">root growth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-immune-responses-with-model-plants">Testing immune responses with model plants</h2>



To investigate the interaction between plants and microbes, the researchers focused on Arabidopsis, a small plant commonly used in scientific studies. They genetically engineered Arabidopsis plants to have heightened immune sensitivity to flagellin, a bacterial protein that triggers immune responses.&nbsp;



This modification caused the plant’s roots to grow shorter, as its energy was diverted to immune defenses rather than root development.



The team introduced 165 bacterial species isolated from soil-grown Arabidopsis to the plants. Remarkably, 68 of these isolates, or about 41%, reduced the stunted root growth by suppressing the plant’s immune response.&nbsp;



One standout species, Dyella japonica, demonstrated exceptional ability in allowing the roots to grow longer by modulating immune activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-role-of-a-key-enzyme">Unveiling the role of a key enzyme</h2>



Further investigation into D. japonica revealed a gene encoding a subtilase enzyme. This enzyme had the potential to degrade the specific part of flagellin responsible for triggering the plant’s immune response.&nbsp;



Using genetic and biochemical tools, the researchers confirmed that the subtilase enzyme effectively broke down the flagellin fragment, thereby reducing the immune response and promoting root growth.



However, purifying the subtilase enzyme presented significant challenges. During a conference, postdoctoral researcher and co-first author Samuel Eastman connected with <a href="https://www.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> chemist Todd Naumann, who suggested purifying the enzyme using yeast cells instead of bacteria.&nbsp;



Within months, Naumann successfully purified the enzyme and sent it to Princeton. “Now we can do chemistry with it, and we can actually look at this in vitro,” Eastman explained. This collaboration allowed the team to conduct more detailed studies of the enzyme’s function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-study-of-plants-and-soil-bacteria">Extensive study of plants and soil bacteria </h2>



The study was a team effort involving contributions from several researchers and students. Screening 165 bacterial isolates and verifying their immune-modulating effects required extensive work.&nbsp;



“We’re able to achieve a level of investigation into this protein that wouldn’t have been possible without that collaboration,” said Eastman.



Students played a significant role in the project, including Princeton graduate Britley Jones, who contributed to screening the bacterial isolates for her senior thesis.&nbsp;



Co-first author Kaeli Ficco, now a Ph.D. student at Cornell University, engineered mutant bacterial strains to confirm the genetic requirement of the subtilase gene for immune suppression.&nbsp;



“I really liked how discovery-based the project was,” Ficco said, reflecting on how the work influenced her research trajectory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-plant-immune-health">Broader implications for plant immune health </h2>



Beyond studying the subtilase enzyme in D. japonica, the researchers identified similar genes in many other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-help-plants-balance-growth-and-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil bacteria</a>. Their assays showed that dozens of bacterial isolates could suppress flagellin-induced immunity in plants. This suggests that this mechanism may be widespread in the plant microbiome.



The team is now exploring why this enzyme may benefit both plants and bacteria. One hypothesis is that degrading pathogenic flagella reduces the ability of harmful bacteria to invade plant roots.&nbsp;



“So, in that way it could be suppressing pathogens as well as the plant immune system,” said Eastman. Alternatively, the enzyme might allow certain bacteria to bypass plant defenses, potentially making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diseases-flourish-in-city-landscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> more vulnerable to disease.



This dual possibility raises questions about applying these findings in agriculture.&nbsp;



“We don’t want to compromise the immune system, but we also want plants to save that immune response for when it matters,” Eastman emphasized.&nbsp;



The ultimate goal is to help plants “keep calm and keep growing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Further studies are needed to understand better how these enzymes can be leveraged in agricultural settings without increasing the plants’ susceptibility to pathogens.&nbsp;



By elucidating the relationship between soil microbes and plant immunity, this research offers promising avenues for optimizing crop growth while maintaining disease resistance.



This work marks a significant step toward uncovering the intricate dynamics between plant hosts and their microbiomes, and sheds light on how these interactions can be harnessed to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-footprint-a-new-frontier-in-sustainable-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable agriculture</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Soil bacteria help plants stay calm and keep growing

Plants constantly juggle their energy between growth and defense against...

From climate change to soil degradation, agriculture faces mounting challenges. A new study published in the journal Agriculture, Ecosystems &amp; Environment&nbsp;shines a spotlight on a promising solution: using cover crops as “living mulch.”



The research, led by scientists from the Institute of Applied Ecology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Shenyang, reveals how intercropping maize with cover crops can rejuvenate soil health and nutrient cycling.



Dr. Li Zhang and her team conducted a remarkable experiment in Changtu County, northeastern China. The researchers examined how legumes, grasses, and mixtures of both as cover crops influenced soil properties, microbial communities, and nutrient availability.



The findings could reshape sustainable farming practices globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-cover-crops">What are cover crops?</h2>



Cover crops are plants grown alongside or after the main crop to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-soil-day-2024-protecting-our-planets-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance soil health</a>. Unlike traditional practices where soil is left bare post-harvest, cover crops prevent erosion, enrich soil fertility, and promote the recycling of plant nutrients. 



“Soil degradation, caused by unsustainable farming practices, threatens food security. Cover crops offer a way to restore degraded farmland without compromising productivity,” Dr. Zhang explained.



The concept of “living mulch” involves growing cover crops between rows of maize throughout the crop’s lifecycle. This approach differs from relying solely on decomposing residues, and represents a proactive method to tackle soil degradation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-potential-of-cover-crops">Testing the potential of cover crops</h2>



The researchers implemented a field study with three treatments.



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Legume cover crops: These crops are known for their nitrogen-fixing ability, legumes add valuable nutrients to the soil.</li>



<li>Grass cover crops: Grasses contribute to carbon retention and enhance soil structure.</li>



<li>Mixed cover crops: This treatment involves combining legumes and grasses to leverage their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complementary benefits</a>.</li>
</ol>



Over the course of the experiment, the team assessed soil nutrient levels, microbial activity, and overall ecosystem health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-soil-potential">Unlocking soil potential</h2>



Each type of cover crop offered unique advantages:



Legumes increased dissolved organic carbon and available nitrogen in the soil. These changes altered microbial community dynamics, reducing microbial carbon limitations and boosting carbon cycling. Microbes could access essential nutrients more efficiently, thus enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-soil-esoil-boosts-crop-production-by-50-in-just-15-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overall soil health</a>.



Grasses maintained soil carbon and nitrogen levels while promoting microbial biomass growth. They also supported bacterial diversity, an essential factor for robust nutrient cycling.



Mixed crops of legumes and grasses were the most effective treatment. The combination improved carbon and nitrogen levels, balanced soil nutrients, and amplified microbial functions. Temporal shifts in microbial activity highlighted the dynamic benefits of this approach.



“The mixed cover crop system demonstrated remarkable potential to enhance microbial activity and maintain soil nutrient balance. This makes it an ideal solution for maize intercropping,” noted Dr. Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-soil-degradation">Addressing soil degradation</h2>



Soil degradation is a pressing issue, especially in black <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-soils-release-more-carbon-than-plants-can-replace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil</a> regions like northeastern China. These areas, crucial for food production, face declining fertility and erosion. The innovative use of cover crops as living mulch offers a scalable, sustainable solution.



By improving soil organic matter, balancing nutrients, and promoting microbial diversity, these plants reduce reliance on synthetic fertilizers.



This not only benefits the environment but also supports farmers by lowering input costs and enhancing long-term productivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-agriculture">Implications for global agriculture</h2>



The insights from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> are relevant well beyond the borders of northeastern China.



Globally, agricultural systems face challenges, like nutrient depletion, biodiversity loss, and climate-related pressures. Adopting plant-based systems could transform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-makes-flowers-more-attractive-to-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming practices</a>, and make agriculture more resilient and sustainable.



“Our research provides a roadmap for integrating cover crops into farming systems worldwide. It’s a win-win for farmers and the environment,” said Dr. Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-the-solution-with-cover-crops">Scaling the solution with cover crops</h2>



Despite the promising results, challenges remain. Farmers may need support to adopt cover crop practices, including education, resources, and policy incentives. 



Scaling these methods requires collaboration between researchers, policymakers, and agricultural stakeholders.



Future research will likely focus on optimizing plant mixtures for different regions and farming systems. Additionally, understanding the long-term economic benefits for farmers will be critical for widespread adoption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-growing-opportunity">A growing opportunity</h2>



The use of cover crops as living mulch offers a practical and sustainable way to address the problem of soil degradation. By enriching soil health, enhancing microbial activity, and supporting nutrient cycling, these systems pave the way for a more resilient agricultural future.



As Dr. Zhang’s research highlights, innovation in farming doesn’t always require high-tech solutions. Sometimes, the answer lies in the plants themselves - rooted in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smart-soil-can-absorb-water-from-the-air-and-feed-itself/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil</a> and ready to transform how we grow our food.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167880924004924?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agriculture, Ecosystems &amp; Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mixed cover crops may be the future of sustainable farming

From climate change to soil degradation, agriculture faces mounting challenges....

Plant leaves may seem unassuming, but beneath their glossy surfaces lies a surprising discovery: they are coated with a diverse array of RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecules. 



This finding has the potential to reshape our understanding of plant biology and the interactions between plants and the environment.



The study was led by Lucía Borniego and Meenu Singla-Rastogi, postdoctoral fellows at Indiana University Bloomington, alongside Roger Innes, a professor of biology. 



The research offers a fresh perspective on the complex relationships between plants and microbes.



“What excites us most about this discovery is that it indicates plants may control their microbiomes, in part, by regulating gene expression in microbes using cross-kingdom RNA interference, also known as RNAi,” said Innes. 



But what does this mean, and why is it significant?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-discovery-plant-rnas-on-leaf-surfaces">Revolutionary discovery: Plant RNAs on leaf surfaces</h2>



RNA, a fragile molecule, typically degrades quickly outside a cell unless protected. However, this study reveals that plants secrete viable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-recovered-from-an-extinct-species-tasmanian-tiger-for-first-time-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA</a> onto their leaf surfaces, where it remains surprisingly stable. 



This discovery suggests that plant-derived RNA could directly influence microbial communities on leaf surfaces by engaging in cross-kingdom RNAi - a process whereby RNA from one organism affects gene expression in another.



Cross-kingdom RNAi is not new in biology. Scientists have known that organisms can exchange RNA to regulate genes. What’s remarkable here is the idea that plants may use this mechanism to interact with microbes that are colonizing their surfaces.



“Only recently has it been shown that RNAs produced by one organism can be taken up by another organism and then base pair with RNAs in the recipient organism,” Innes explained. RNA interference appears to occur in just about all living organisms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-rna-and-polysaccharides-in-plants">Role of RNA and polysaccharides in plants</h2>



The research team found abundant RNAs on the leaf surfaces of&nbsp;Arabidopsis thaliana, a model plant widely used in scientific studies. 



These RNAs were stable, likely because they formed condensates with polysaccharides, such as pectin. 



As a component of the plant cell wall, pectin appears to play a protective role, ensuring that RNA molecules can persist outside plant cells.



The implications are profound. Stable RNA on leaf surfaces means that microbes colonizing these areas are exposed to plant RNA. This exposure could influence microbial gene expression, potentially determining which microbial species can thrive on leaf surfaces.



This ability to “curate” microbial communities could impact plant health, disease resistance, and overall growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter-the-bigger-picture">Why does this matter? The bigger picture</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond plants. 



“The manipulation of microbial communities by environmental RNA is likely taking place in our own guts as well, with RNA being secreted by our intestinal epithelial cells,” noted Innes.



This means that understanding plant-microbe interactions could shed light on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-cells-communicate-with-each-other-through-rna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">similar processes in humans</a> and other animals.



The connection doesn’t end there. Think about the salad you had for lunch. The RNA on the surface of those leafy greens could interact with your gut microbiome, influencing its composition and, potentially, your health. 



While this hypothesis requires further research, it opens up fascinating possibilities about how our diets could impact our microbial ecosystems directly .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-applications-in-agriculture-and-medicine">Potential applications in agriculture and medicine</h2>



This discovery isn’t just a scientific curiosity; it could have real-world applications. If plants can use RNA to influence microbial communities, farmers might one day harness this ability to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop health</a>. 



For example, plants could be genetically engineered to secrete specific RNAs that discourage harmful microbes or promote beneficial ones.



In medicine, understanding how RNA influences microbial ecosystems could lead to new therapies. Imagine using RNA-based treatments to modulate the gut microbiome in patients with digestive disorders or metabolic diseases. 



While these applications are speculative, the groundwork laid by this study provides a roadmap for possible future exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-further-research-on-plant-rna">Call for further research on plant RNA</h2>



While this study provides valuable insights, it also raises new questions. 



How do specific RNAs influence microbial gene expression? Are there particular microbes that are more susceptible to RNA interference? And what environmental factors affect RNA stability on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-make-life-and-death-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant surfaces</a>?



Additionally, the potential interaction between plant RNAs and the human microbiome deserves closer examination. Could consuming RNA-coated plants have measurable effects on human health? 



Future research will need to address these questions to unlock the full potential of these findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-nature-s-complexity">A window into nature’s complexity</h2>



This discovery reminds us of nature’s intricate complexity. From the stability of RNA on plant surfaces to its potential to shape microbial communities, the study offers a glimpse into the complexity of hidden genetic mechanisms.



The research also highlights the interconnectedness of life on Earth - how plants, microbes, and even humans are linked by molecular interactions that transcend species boundaries.



“It is quite possible that RNA on leaf surfaces, like salad, could influence our own gut microbiomes,” said Innes.



This idea challenges us to rethink our relationship with plants, not just as sources of food or oxygen, but as active participants in a dynamic, interconnected biosphere.



The research was a collaborative effort. In addition to the <a href="https://bloomington.iu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indiana University</a> team, contributors included Patricia Baldrich and Blake C. Meyers from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Davis</a>, and Madison McGregor from the <a href="https://www.danforthcenter.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Donald Danforth Plant Science Center</a>.



The interdisciplinary nature of this research makes it even more noteworthy. By combining biology, chemistry, and molecular genetics, the team uncovered a layer of plant-microbe interaction that had remained hidden until now.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409090121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Plants may control their own microbiomes

Plant leaves may seem unassuming, but beneath their glossy surfaces...

Ever wondered if the flavor of your coffee could taste even better? A simple dash of water might hold the secret to a richer, smoother cup. 



New research reveals that adding moisture to coffee beans before grinding can significantly improve brewing flavor while preventing the mess and waste often caused by static electricity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-flavor-and-electrons">Coffee flavor and electrons</h2>



Grinding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-reduces-the-risk-of-certain-cancers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a> beans produces friction as the particles collide, rub together, and break apart. This process causes the ground coffee to develop a charge, which then produces static electricity.



The charged coffee particles stick together, forming clumps that can clog grinders. These clumps make it difficult to achieve a consistent grind, leading to uneven brewing and less flavorful coffee.



Scientists have investigated the impact of this static buildup on the brewing process. Their research revealed a simple yet effective solution: adding water to the beans before grinding. 



This moisture reduces static electricity, prevents clumping, and ensures smoother grinding, which ultimately improves the quality and flavor of the brewed coffee.



"Moisture, whether it's residual moisture inside the roasted coffee or external moisture added during grinding, is what dictates the amount of charge that is formed during grinding," explained Christopher Hendon, a materials chemist at the <a href="https://www.uoregon.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oregon</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-static-electricity-the-basics">Understanding static electricity -- the basics</h2>



Static electricity is what happens when there's an imbalance of tiny electric charges on the surface of an object. 



Everything around us is made up of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/x-ray-single-atom-captured-by-scientists-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiny particles called atoms</a>, and inside these atoms, there are even smaller particles called electrons. Electrons carry a negative charge, and they can move from one object to another.



For example, when you rub a balloon on your hair, some electrons from your hair move to the balloon, making the balloon negatively charged and your hair positively charged. This is why the balloon can stick to your hair or make your hair stand up - opposite charges attract!



We experience <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-of-static-electricity-has-finally-been-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">static electricity</a> a lot in everyday life. You might have felt it when you touch a metal doorknob and get a little shock, or when your clothes stick together after they come out of the dryer.



These shocks happen when the extra charges suddenly move from one thing to another, often through your body, which feels like a quick zap. 



Static electricity is more common in dry air because moisture in the air helps stop the buildup of charges. That’s why it tends to happen more in the winter when the air is dry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-better-coffee-brewing">Science of better coffee brewing</h2>



Hendon and Joshua Méndez Harper, a former volcanologist from the University of Oregon, investigated how moisture affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-coffee-is-missing-these-five-brain-boosting-spices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a> grinding. 



The researchers examined coffee beans from various origins, with different roasting levels and moisture contents. 



They measured key factors such as the static electricity generated during grinding, the size of the resulting particles, and the flavor profiles of the brewed coffee.



The study revealed that darker, drier coffee roasts are more susceptible to static electricity than lighter, moister beans. 



The increased brittleness of darker roasts leads to greater friction during grinding, which causes clumping and uneven grounds.



By adding a small amount of water to the beans before grinding, the researchers showed that static electricity could be reduced. 



This simple adjustment produced a smoother grind and improved consistency, enhancing the quality of the coffee.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-espresso-with-water">Stronger espresso with water</h2>



Harper and his team compared espresso brewed with beans ground with and without added moisture. 



They discovered that a light spritz of water not only reduced clumping but also improved the extraction process. The moist grounds allowed water to flow more evenly, and pulled more flavor from the coffee.



Hendon recommends adding about 20 microliters of water per gram of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robusta-coffee-could-save-our-morning-brew-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a>, which equals roughly half a milliliter for a single shot of espresso. 



This minor adjustment not only enhances the uniformity of the grind but also ensures a stronger and tastier cup of coffee, making it a simple yet effective technique for coffee enthusiasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-geophysics">Lessons from geophysics</h2>



The research also connects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-aging-drinking-coffee-can-add-years-to-your-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a> science with earth science. 



"There's a lot more to know about how coffee breaks, how it flows as particles, and how it interacts with water," said Harper. 



By studying coffee, scientists hope to gain insights into broader geophysical phenomena like landslides, volcanic eruptions, and soil water flow.



These parallels highlight how everyday activities like brewing coffee can inspire scientific breakthroughs in seemingly unrelated fields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spritz-your-beans-before-grinding">Spritz your beans before grinding </h2>



For coffee enthusiasts, the study provides an easy and practical tip: spritz your beans before grinding. By preventing clumping, the grinding process becomes smoother and more consistent, which leads to evenly sized grounds.



This consistency enhances the brewing process, allowing water to flow more uniformly through the coffee. 



The result is a richer and more flavorful espresso, making this method an easy way to elevate your coffee experience without requiring additional tools or complex techniques.



"A few simple squirts of water have solved the problems of clumping, channeling, and poor extractions while aiding in the pursuit of attaining the tastiest espresso," Hendon states.



So, the next time you prepare your morning brew, try adding a little water to your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-coffee-good-for-you-it-may-depend-on-your-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beans</a>. It’s a simple step with a big payoff - and who knows, your kitchen experiment might just inspire the next scientific breakthrough.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/matter/fulltext/S2590-2385(23)00568-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matter</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Coffee flavor can be greatly improved with this simple trick

Ever wondered if the flavor of your coffee could taste...

Volcanoes hold incredible power, but similar to plants and their root systems, most volcanic activity that occurs before an eruption happens beneath the surface.



Traditional monitoring tools focus on measuring seismic activity and collecting gas samples, yet these methods can miss subtle warning signs hidden in rugged landscapes. 



Researchers have been searching for additional ways to detect signs of unrest before eruptions happen, especially for volcanoes that are far from inhabited areas. They are now turning to plant life for clues and signs that a volcano is close to erupting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-dioxide-plants-and-volcanoes">Carbon dioxide, plants, and volcanoes</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Volcanic gases, like carbon dioxide</a>, are often released as magma pushes upward. Detecting them can be tricky because the same gases also appear in everyday life.



Certain remote volcanoes lack permanent sensors or easy access, which leads scientists to test creative approaches that might reveal small changes long before other instruments notice them.



One project was led by Robert Bogue from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> in Montreal, Canada, who worked with colleagues to measure patterns in vegetation health near hydrothermal areas in the Yellowstone Caldera. 



The results reveal how plants respond to changes in the ground beneath them, which may point to rising magma and a heightened risk of volcanic activity or the imminent eruption of a volcano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-and-volcanoes-as-allies">Plants and volcanoes as allies</h2>



Plants adjust how they grow when their surroundings shift. This adjustment includes changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> and patterns in leaf structure.



Variations in carbon dioxide, sulfur, and soil temperature can affect how trees flourish, and these factors often emerge in volcanic settings. 



Scientists reason that such signals might appear in plant tissues months or years before major events occur.



In the field, it can be hard to see small changes in vegetation by eye alone. Forests are vast, and weather can alter growth in ways unrelated to volcanoes. 



That is why satellite imaging has become popular. It can scan large areas and detect subtle hints of stress or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-learning-can-help-track-changes-in-forest-cover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusual greening</a> that might not stand out on the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beneath-the-canopy">Looking beneath the canopy</h2>



One helpful technique is the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (<a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/MeasuringVegetation/measuring_vegetation_2.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NDVI</a>). This calculation captures how vigorously plants are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/details-photosynthesis-water-viewed-atomic-level-cryo-microscope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesizing</a> by measuring chlorophyll levels.



Scores range from negative numbers up to 1, with higher numbers pointing to healthy leaves. By comparing these values in different spots over time, researchers can see if there are trends that may connect to shifts in the subsurface environment.



Studies in volcanic regions suggest that small bursts of carbon dioxide and heated fluids can initially fertilize local plants. But higher concentrations of harmful gases or very hot soil can stress and even kill them. 



Tracking these ups and downs over multiple years can reveal a story of underground changes that unfold gradually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tern-lake-as-a-proving-ground">Tern Lake as a proving ground</h2>



In Wyoming, the Tern Lake thermal area sits in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-music-will-yellowstones-seismic-activity-produce/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone Caldera</a>. From 1984 to 2022, archived Landsat images showed that tree health in this hydrothermal zone improved for about 16 years. 



Scientists believe the initial benefit may have come from extra nutrients reaching the soil. Then around the early 2000s, the satellite record captured a shift, with tree health dipping and many lodgepole pines dying near the center of activity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/plants_predict-volcanic-eruptions_satellite-photos_credit-McGill-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/plants_predict-volcanic-eruptions_satellite-photos_credit-McGill-University_1s.webp" alt="Images of the study area in 1994 compared to 2022, with the significant loss of trees in the epicenter of the hydrothermal area. Landsat images (c, d) highlight the decline in plant health in the central area with lighter color shading corresponding to lower Normalized Difference Vegetation Index values. Credit: Bogue et al. McGill University" class="wp-image-1955545"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Images of the study area in 1994 compared to 2022, with the significant loss of trees in the epicenter of the hydrothermal area. Landsat images (c, d) highlight the decline in plant health in the central area with lighter color shading corresponding to lower Normalized Difference Vegetation Index values. Credit: Bogue et al. McGill University</figcaption></figure>



Infrared data suggested that soil temperatures in parts of the site exceeded 122°F, and that poisonous gases and acidic fluids were breaking down <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant tissues</a>.



Over time, the zone of stress spread outward, and a bare patch of dead trees became more visible. This persistent change confirmed that a deeper process was heating the ground and altering the chemistry that plants depend on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-from-plants-that-a-volcano-is-waking-up">Signs from plants that a volcano is waking up</h2>



The research team linked these findings to pathways of hydrothermal fluids moving toward the surface. In some areas, mineral buildup may have clogged old routes, forcing new channels to open. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquake-activity-will-increase-due-to-glacial-retreat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earthquake data</a> supported this interpretation. Small tremors can indicate that magma or hot fluids are seeking different escape routes.



Collectively, these events point to activity that might have begun well before on-the-ground surveys took note.



Observations also suggest that this expansion reached a limit. Some recent field checks found signs of new seedlings taking hold in once-barren terrain. 



This could mean the local system is calming, at least for the moment. Changes in vegetation and plant life can serve as a reminder that volcanoes and their processes are not always linear. Conditions can shift as gases and fluids come and go.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



These discoveries illustrate how forests can serve as eyes on a hidden world. Researchers have often relied on thermal cameras and gas detectors to evaluate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic hazards</a>, but those instruments have limitations.



In some places, there is no easy way to install or maintain them. Harsh weather, dense canopies, and rough slopes can hamper efforts to collect reliable data.



Satellite imagery provides wide coverage without the need for a permanent presence in challenging locations. 



Vegetation-based monitoring is not a standalone method, but it can offer valuable hints for scientists. If the data show unusual patterns of greening or die-off, teams can schedule closer inspection or deploy instruments before any major event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanoes-plants-and-a-safer-tomorrow">Volcanoes, plants, and a safer tomorrow</h2>



Every volcano is unique. Some are surrounded by thick forests, while others sit in deserts or at high elevations. 



Where conditions support enough plant life, scientists can try vegetation indexes to look for shifts that might signal building magma. 



In other areas, this strategy may be less useful or confounded by drought, wildfires, or different species that react in unexpected ways.



The hope is to combine these plant observations with other signals. Minor quakes, ground swelling, and changes in gas composition all help create a clearer picture of what lies beneath the surface. 



Scientists continue to refine these approaches. As they gather more information, they can figure out how to focus resources on volcanoes that pose the greatest risk.



The story at Tern Lake shows that forests can act as an early warning system, revealing shifts that might mean an eruption is more likely. By studying these patterns, experts might someday issue alerts sooner than ever before.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023GC010938" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Plants and trees are able to predict volcano eruptions

Volcanoes hold incredible power, but similar to plants and their...

Many of the foods we enjoy, such as apples, almonds, and pumpkin spices, rely on pollinators like bees and butterflies. These organisms play a critical role in producing one-third of our food supply and significantly impact the quality, flavor, and market value of crops.



A recent study&nbsp;by researchers from the University of Göttingen sheds light on this underexplored yet critical aspect of agriculture.



Pollinators influence crop quality through their movement across plantations and the variety of plants they visit. However, current strategies tend to focus heavily on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-wars-plants-compete-for-space-on-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supporting pollinators</a> while neglecting the importance of plant quality.



The researchers argue that understanding species-specific pollinator behavior and strategic crop variety distribution can significantly enhance fruit quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollination-s-impact-on-global-agriculture">Pollination’s impact on global agriculture</h2>



Animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a> plays a vital role in global agriculture, contributing to two-thirds of the world's most important crops. 



These crops - such as fruits, nuts, and pulses - rely on pollinators like bees and are valued at hundreds of billions of US dollars annually. Beyond supporting food production, animal pollination ensures the supply of essential nutrients.



For instance, pollinator-dependent crops provide over 90% of the dietary vitamin C we consume, along with substantial levels of carotenoids and antioxidants, which are crucial for human health.



Pollinators, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2024-bee-engaged-with-youth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>, directly enhance the nutritional and commercial value of crops. In the case of rapeseed, bees increase its polyunsaturated fatty acid and total oil content, making the crop healthier and more valuable. 



Similarly, they improve avocado production by boosting the oil content and increasing the fruit's weight, leading to better quality and higher market value. This highlights the indispensable role of animal pollination not just in crop yields but also in enhancing food quality and nutritional benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinators-and-fruit-quality">Pollinators and fruit quality</h2>



The research highlights that not all pollinators or crops are the same when it comes to improving fruit quality. The type of pollinator species, the variety of the crop, and the quality of the pollen they transfer all play crucial roles in determining the final quality of the fruit.



If there are changes in how pollinators behave or in the arrangement of plants within a field, cross-pollination between different plant varieties might not happen effectively. This can lead to reduced fruit quality or failed pollination altogether.



Therefore, it is not just about having enough pollinators present, but also ensuring the right types of pollinators <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plants-generate-heat-to-attract-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interact with crops</a> in the right ways and at the right times. 



The spatial movement of pollinators and how they engage with different plant varieties in the field are key factors in producing high-quality crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-need-for-quality-oriented-research">The need for quality-oriented research</h2>



The study was conducted by Professor Teja Tscharntke, Dr. Carolina Ocampo-Ariza, and Dr. Wiebke Kämper from the Functional Agrobiodiversity and Agroecology Group at the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a>.



“The results of our review show that future research should not only focus on the quantity but also more on the quality of the crops. After all, a better nutrient composition benefits the health of consumers,” noted the researchers.



They advocate for the following: promoting cross-pollination by considering crop variety and pollen quality; comparing the quality of self-pollinated and cross-pollinated varieties; and designing cultivated areas and landscapes to maximize pollinator mobility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-crop-improvement-with-pollinators">Sustainable crop improvement with pollinators</h2>



By applying these recommendations, agriculture can achieve more than just higher yields - crops can be produced with superior nutritional value. This calls for a detailed understanding of how pollinator behavior, crop variety, and pollen quality interact to influence fruit quality.



An effective strategy ensures that pollinators are not only present but also appropriately paired with the right crop varieties. This targeted approach boosts nutrient content, enhances sensory appeal, and raises the commercial value of crops.



Such practices directly benefit farmers through better harvests and profits, while consumers gain access to healthier, more nutritious food.



Additionally, this approach supports <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-twist-in-the-evolution-of-plant-pollinator-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable agriculture</a> by promoting biodiversity and optimizing pollinator movement. It promotes a balanced system where the needs of the environment, farmers, and consumers are met, contributing to long-term agricultural success.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/fulltext/S1360-1385(24)00272-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Plant Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How pollinators boost the nutritional value of crops

Many of the foods we enjoy, such as apples, almonds,...

Endangered animals