Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Nasalis larvatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Nasalis larvatus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=e95d05dbd8f14784b17b47fb3d76ed38&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.2273j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.  the only member of its genus and is the largest colobine monkey. It has a uniquely large nose in males.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) or long-nosed monkey is an arboreal Old World monkey with an unusually large nose, a reddish-brown skin color and a long tail. It is endemic to the southeast Asian island of Borneo and is found mostly in mangrove forests and on the coastal areas of the island.
This species co-exists with the Bornean orangutan. It belongs in the monotypic genus Nasalis.

Nasalis larvatus

Nasalis larvatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Nectarinia prigoginei NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Nectarinia prigoginei ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=e95d05dbd8f14784b17b47fb3d76ed38&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.2273j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The greater double-collared sunbird (Cinnyris afer) (formerly placed in the genus Nectarinia), is a small bird in the sunbird fami

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Nectarinia is a genus of birds in the sunbird family, Nectariniidae. What species belong to it has been highly contentious for many decades. Towards the late 20th century, the dominant trend was to use it to group all "typical" sunbirds. More recently taxonomists have divided the Nectarinia into eight genera which are now considered distinct from Nectarinia: Leptocoma, Anabathmis, Chalcomitra, Cinnyris, Cyanomitra, Dreptes, Anthobaphes, and Drepanorhynchus.

Nectarinia prigoginei

Nectarinia prigoginei NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Nectophrynoides spp. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Nectophrynoides spp. ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=595c177f10c843868a14c3b3486e2fe2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.1696j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. Nectophrynoides is a genus of true toads, family Bufonidae. They are endemic to Eastern Arc forests and wetlands in Tanzania, and all except N. tornieri are threatened. Species of the genus are ovoviviparous: fertilization is internal, and the females give birth to fully developed, small toadlets. Together with the West Africa Nimbaphrynoides and Limnonectes larvaepartus, they are the only frogs/toads in the world that do not lay eggs. The Ethiopian Altiphrynoides, which lay eggs, were also part of Nectophrynoides in the past.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Kihansi spray toad (Nectophrynoides asperginis) is a small toad endemic to Tanzania. The species is live-bearing and insectivorous. The Kihansi spray toad is currently categorized as "Extinct in the wild" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), though the species persists in ex situ, captive breeding populations.

Nectophrynoides spp.

Nectophrynoides spp. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Nemosia rourei NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=595c177f10c843868a14c3b3486e2fe2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.1696j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The cherry-throated tanager (Nemosia rourei) is a medium-sized passerine bird. This critically endangered tanager is an endemic to handful of localities in the Atlantic Forest in Espírito Santo, Brazil, though the possibility that it occurs in adjacent parts of Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro cannot be discounted. It has a striking, essentially black-white-red plumage; a photo is online in the abstract of Bauer et al. 1998. The upper side is ashy grey, with a darker back and a lighter top of the head. A wide black mask extends from the forehead across the eyes, nearly meeting again at the nape; a small white line runs above it, and thus the forehead appears white when seen from the front. The wings and the square-tipped tail are black, with blue iridescence on the primary and secondary wing-coverts, and a striped patch formed by the light grey outer web of the tertiary <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Remiges%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">remiges</a>, with the grey <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Scapular%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">scapulars</a> sometimes dropping over the wings to form a grey shoulder patch. The uppertail coverts are likewise black, quite long, and have white tips that may have a signal function as they are sometimes prominently presented by the birds. The belly is white, and the throat has a patch of cherry red that varies in extent, in some birds reaching onto the breast. The feet and toenails are dull pink, and the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Iris%20(eye)%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">iris</a> is dark yellow.

Nemosia rourei

Nemosia rourei NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Neofelis nebulosa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Neofelis nebulosa ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=1c21cf0a89e84325a61f769c9653e094&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.1907j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Neofelis nebulosa

Neofelis nebulosa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Neoleptoneta microps NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=1c21cf0a89e84325a61f769c9653e094&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.1907j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Neoleptoneta microps

Neoleptoneta microps NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Neoleptoneta myopica NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=595c177f10c843868a14c3b3486e2fe2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.1696j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Tooth Cave spider was first described in 1974 by <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Willis%20J.%20Gertsch%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Willis J. Gertsch</a>, as Leptoneta myopica. At the time it was only known from Tooth Cave in <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Travis%20County%2C%20Texas%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Travis County, Texas</a>, 15 miles northwest of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Austin%2C%20Texas%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Austin</a>. The specific name myopica is from the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Ancient%20Greek%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Greek</a> myopia, "nearsighted". In 1977, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Paolo%20Marcello%20Brignoli%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Paolo Brignoli</a> transferred the species to the genus <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Neoleptoneta%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Neoleptoneta</a>. A 2011 <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Phylogenetics%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">phylogenetic</a> study of Neoleptoneta and other North American genera in the family <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Leptonetidae%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Leptonetidae</a> showed that Neoleptoneta was not <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Monophyly%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">monophyletic</a>. Several new genera were erected, including <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Tayshaneta%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Tayshaneta</a>, to which the Tooth Cave spider was transferred, as Tayshaneta myopica.

Neoleptoneta myopica

Neoleptoneta myopica NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Neomorphus geoffroyi dulcis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=595c177f10c843868a14c3b3486e2fe2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.1696j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world. As other species in the genus Neomorphus, the rufous-vented ground cuckoo is generally highly inconspicuous and infrequently seen. While overall unlikely to be threatened due to its large range, one subspecies, the nominate (from Bahia, Brazil; syn. maximiliani ), may be extinct, and another, dulcis (from Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo, Brazil), is very rare and likely to be threatened. The remaining subspecies are salvini of Central America and northwestern Colombia, aequatorialis of the northwestern Amazon.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Much confusion exists over the exact limits of its distribution in the south-central Amazon, where the very similar scaled ground cuckoo occurs. Consequently, the scaled ground cuckoo has often been considered a subspecies of the rufous-vented ground cuckoo.

Neomorphus geoffroyi dulcis

Neomorphus geoffroyi dulcis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Neonympha mitchellii francisci NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. Neonympha mitchellii is an endangered species of nymphalid butterfly of the eastern United States. Recent discoveries since 1998 of populations in Alabama, Mississippi, and Virginia are being studied for taxonomic classification, and may be grouped with N. m. mitchellii or be described as new subspecies.

ITIS Reports -- Neonympha mitchellii francisci ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=595c177f10c843868a14c3b3486e2fe2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.1696j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Neonympha mitchellii is an endangered species of nymphalid butterfly of the eastern United States. There are two known subspecies:
• N. m. mitchellii, the nominate subspecies, commonly called Mitchell's satyr or Mitchell's marsh satyr, is found in Michigan and Indiana. The species is presumably extirpated from former ranges in Ohio (last seen in the 1950s), New Jersey (last seen in 1988), and Wisconsin.

Neonympha mitchellii francisci

Neonympha mitchellii francisci NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=1c21cf0a89e84325a61f769c9653e094&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.1907j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii

Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Neophema chrysogaster NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Neophema chrysogaster ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=e95d05dbd8f14784b17b47fb3d76ed38&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.2273j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.  Feathers on the crown are bright green with darker green tips. It has a prominent, two-toned blue frontal band, with a lighter blue.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Orange-bellied parrot is a small parrot endemic to southern Australia, and one of only three species of parrot that migrate. It was described by John Latham in 1790. A small parrot around 20 cm long, it exhibits sexual dimorphism. The adult male is distinguished by its bright grass-green upper parts, yellow underparts and orange belly patch. The adult female and juvenile are duller green in colour. All birds have a prominent two-toned blue frontal band and blue outer wing feathers.

Neophema chrysogaster

Neophema chrysogaster NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Neophema pulchella NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=595c177f10c843868a14c3b3486e2fe2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.1696j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The turquoise parrot (Neophema pulchella) is a species of parrot in the genus Neophema native to Eastern Australia, from southeastern Queensland, through New South Wales and into North-Eastern Victoria. It was described by George Shaw in 1792. A small lightly built parrot at around 20 cm (8 in) long and 40 g (1 ⁄2 oz) in weight, it exhibits sexual dimorphism. The male is predominantly green with more yellowish underparts and a bright turquoise blue face. Its wings are predominantly blue with red shoulders. The female is generally duller and paler, with a pale green breast and yellow belly, and lacks the red wing patch. Found in grasslands and open woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus and Callitris trees,

Neophema pulchella

Neophema pulchella NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Neophema splendida NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=1c21cf0a89e84325a61f769c9653e094&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.1907j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Neophema splendida

Neophema splendida NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Neoseps reynoldsi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=595c177f10c843868a14c3b3486e2fe2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.1696j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Florida sand skink is a species of lizard in the family Scincidae, the skinks. It is endemic to Florida in the United States.

Floridasandskink er en <a title="Skinker" href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinker">skink</a> som bare finnes i et begrenset område i det sentrale <a title="Florida" href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida">Florida</a>.

Den lever for det meste nedgravd i løs sand i områder med buskvegetasjon. Lemmer og øyne er tilbakedannet som en tilpasning til et underjordisk liv. Arten er så spesiell at den tidligere ble regnet til den <a class="mw-redirect" title="Monotypisk" href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotypisk">monotypiske</a> slekten Neoseps, men <a title="Genetikk" href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetikk">genetiske</a> undersøkelser viser at den hører til midt i slekten <a title="" href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plestiodon">Plestiodon</a>.

Arten ble vitenskapelig beskrevet av <a class="mw-redirect" title="Norsk-amerikaner" href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norsk-amerikaner">norsk-amerikaneren</a> <a title="Leonhard Hess Stejneger" href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Hess_Stejneger">Leonhard Hess Stejneger</a>.

Neoseps reynoldsi

Neoseps reynoldsi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Neotoma floridana smalli NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=595c177f10c843868a14c3b3486e2fe2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.1696j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The Key Largo woodrat (Neotoma floridana smalli), a subspecies of the eastern woodrat (Neotoma floridana), is a medium-sized rat found on less than 2,000 acres of the northern area of Key Largo, Florida, in the United States. It is currently on the United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species. The rat grows to 260 grams and feeds on fruit, leaves and buds. It has a gray-brown back and white belly, chest, and throat, and a hairy tail. Only 6500 animals were thought to remain in North Key Largo in the late 1980s.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Neotoma floridana smalli

Neotoma floridana smalli NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Neotoma fuscipes riparia NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=595c177f10c843868a14c3b3486e2fe2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.1696j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The dusky-footed woodrat (Neotoma fuscipes) is a species of nocturnal rodent in the family Cricetidae. They are commonly called "packrats" or "trade rats" and build large, domed dens that can reach several feet in height. Coyotes and other predators will attempt to prey on these rodents by laying waste to the dens, but the sheer volume of material is usually dissuasive. Occasionally, dusky-footed woodrats will build satellite dens in trees. Although these animals are religiously solitary, except in the mating season (when they are most vulnerable to predation), dens are frequently found in clusters of up to several dozen, forming rough "communities". The mating system in this species appears to be variable, with promiscuity most generally at high population densities and monogamy at lower densities

Neotoma fuscipes riparia

Neotoma fuscipes riparia NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Neotragus moschatus moschatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=595c177f10c843868a14c3b3486e2fe2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.1696j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Neotragus moschatus is named for its pungent smell originating from preorbital glands that produce a musky secretion (Huffman 2001). It has a slender build and relatively high hindquarters. Dorsally it has a speckled appearance and varies from gray to rich chestnut with a reddish tinge. The Suni is a small antelope. It occurs in dense underbrush from central Kenya to KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. Suni are around 30 to 43 centimetres high at the shoulder and weigh 4.5 to 5.4 kilograms. They are usually reddish brown, darker on their back than their sides and legs. The belly, chin, throat and insides of legs are white. The nostrils are prominent red, and there are black rings around the eyes and above the hooves. Males have horns 8–13 cm long, that are ridged most of their length and curve backwards close to their heads. Females do not have horns. Suni can make weak barking and whistling sounds.

Neotragus moschatus moschatus

Neotragus moschatus moschatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Nerodia clarkii taeniata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. Salt marsh snakes grow to a total length of 15 inches (38 cm) to 30 inches (76 cm), and are highly variable in pattern and coloration. Populations of the Gulf salt marsh snake (N. c. clarkii) from the vicinity of Corpus Christi, Texas, to the Gulf Hammock region of Florida are gray, tan or yellow with four brown to black longitudinal stripes.

ITIS Reports -- Nerodia clarkii taeniata ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=595c177f10c843868a14c3b3486e2fe2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.1696j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. Nerodia clarkii, commonly known as the salt marsh snake, is a species of semiaquatic, nonvenomous, colubrid snake found in the southeastern United States, in the brackish salt marshes along the Gulf of Mexico from Florida to Texas, with a population in northern Cuba.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Nerodia clarkii taeniata

Nerodia clarkii taeniata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

The humble carrot may be more powerful than we realized. Beyond its culinary versatility, this nutrient-rich root vegetable is gaining attention for its potential health benefits. Recent research suggests that carrots could play a significant role in the fight against type 2 diabetes.



The study was conducted by a team of experts from the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Denmark</a> (SDU), Odense University Hospital, and the University of Copenhagen. 



The researchers found that carrots boost the body's regulation of blood sugar levels and have a beneficial influence on gut bacteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-type-2-diabetes">What is type 2 diabetes?</h2>



Type 2 diabetes is a widespread and growing public health concern, impacting millions of people worldwide. 



Characterized by the body’s inability to effectively use insulin, this chronic condition can lead to serious complications including heart disease, kidney damage, nerve issues, and vision loss.



The prevalence of type 2 diabetes has been steadily rising, fueled by factors such as sedentary lifestyles, unhealthy diets, and increasing rates of obesity. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-a-snack-food">More than just a snack food </h2>



According to the World Health Organization, the number of people living with diabetes has nearly quadrupled over the past few decades - highlighting the urgent need for effective prevention, management, and treatment strategies.



Current treatments for type 2 diabetes involve dietary changes and drugs, which can be quite irritating. 



The researchers propose that carrots, which are rich in bioactive compounds, may offer a natural way to complement existing treatments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bioactive-compounds-in-carrots">Bioactive compounds in carrots </h2>



To test their theory, the scientists placed laboratory mice with type 2 diabetes in two groups for a period of 16 weeks.



One group was fed a high fat diet that was supplemented with 10% freeze-dried powder of carrots, while the other group did not receive carrots in their diets.



The team found that mice on the carrot-enriched diet developed better regulation of blood sugar and a healthier gut microbiome.



The experts concluded that it was the bioactive compounds in carrots, such as short-chain fatty acid-promoting agents, which led to these improvements.



"Carrots altered the composition of the gut microbiome - the billions of microorganisms living in the gut that play a crucial role in digestion and health. Mice consuming carrots exhibited a healthier balance of gut bacteria," noted Morten Kobæk Larsen, who coordinated the research project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carrots-and-gut-bacteria">Carrots and gut bacteria</h2>



The mice that were fed carrots had more bacteria that ferment short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which are small molecules produced when bacterial populations ferment dietary fibers.



These molecules are crucial for regulating energy metabolism and blood sugar. They play a crucial role in helping maintain homeostasis of the gut microbiota and reducing inflammation.



"Everything we eat affects the composition of gut bacteria. Consuming carrots shifts the gut bacteria towards a healthier balance, benefiting mice with type 2 diabetes," explained Larsen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-strategies-for-type-2-diabetes">Dietary strategies for type 2 diabetes</h2>



Carrots contain bioactive substances derived from unsaturated fatty acids that enhance cells' ability to absorb sugar, aiding in blood sugar regulation and overall metabolic health. 



Other vegetables such as parsley, celery, and parsnips contain similar compounds.



"We see carrots as a potential component of future dietary strategies for type 2 diabetes. Other vegetables in the carrot family might have similar properties," said Lars Porskjær Christensen, a professor of analytical chemistry and natural product chemistry at SDU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While the research is promising, it has not been directly applied to humans. The experts believe the next step is to conduct human clinical trials.



"Such studies are costly, and we are working to secure external funding to conduct a smaller clinical trial with carrots containing relatively high amounts of bioactive compounds," said Christensen.



The researchers hope that this could pave the way for larger clinical studies to help provide preventative measures against type 2 diabetes.



Of course, preparation does play a part in retaining the health-promoting substances found in carrots.



"Even with prolonged frying or boiling, some bioactive compounds remain. However, raw or lightly cooked carrots seem to be the best option to retain as many beneficial compounds as possible," concluded Christensen.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://ascpt.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cts.70090" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clinical and Translational Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Carrots may help manage diabetes by improving gut health

The humble carrot may be more powerful than we realized....

Picture a charming blueberry farm, where vibrant bushes brim with richly colored fruit and sunlit leaves shimmer in the light. Yet, a change is on the horizon.



Blueberry plants are now under threat, with their vibrant appearance dulled and growth stunted by a powdery white substance. 



The culprit is a fungus called Erysiphe vaccinii, which is responsible for the disease known as powdery mildew.



A recent study from North Carolina State University reveals the alarming global spread of&nbsp;Erysiphe vaccinii in blueberries. 



Powdery mildew reduces yield and increases fungicide reliance. It is currently impacting blueberry production on multiple continents. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-spread-of-fungal-blueberry-disease">Global spread of fungal blueberry disease </h2>



According to the study, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-fungus-found-in-garden-soils-across-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungus</a> has spread globally over the past 12 years, after originating in the eastern United States. 



"We’re watching this global spread happen right now, in real time," said Michael Bradshaw, assistant professor of plant pathology at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NC State</a>.



The fungus responsible for powdery mildew creates a white, powdery layer on the surface of infected plants. 



This coating not only disrupts the plant’s ability to absorb sunlight for photosynthesis but also steals essential nutrients from the plant’s tissues.



As a result, the plant’s growth is stunted, and its overall health declines - making it weaker and less productive.



"There are other closely related powdery mildews that affect plants like wild berries or eucalyptus, but these are genetically different from the ones spreading across the world on blueberries," noted Bradshaw.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-spread-of-powdery-mildew">Tracking the spread of powdery mildew </h2>



The researchers examined 173 samples of infected blueberry leaves to study the spread of powdery mildew disease. These samples included both historic specimens from herbariums (some collected over 150 years ago) and more recent samples from various countries.



Through genetic testing, the team discovered that the strains causing the current outbreaks are entirely new and different from those found in the older specimens. They identified two distinct introductions of the fungus into the global blueberry-growing regions.



One strain spread to China, Mexico, and California and the other strain was found in Morocco, Peru, and Portugal.



Bradshaw suggested that humans likely played a major role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diseases-flourish-in-city-landscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spread of the fungus</a> by transporting infected nursery plants across borders.



“If you’re sending plant material across the world, you’re likely spreading this fungus with it,” he stated. This highlights how the global plant trade can inadvertently introduce harmful pathogens to new regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-the-disease-on-blueberries">Impact of the disease on blueberries</h2>



Powdery mildew has a significant economic impact on the blueberry industry, costing between $47 million and $530 million every year. 



These costs stem primarily from the increased use of fungicides needed to prevent or manage the disease, as well as from potential losses in crop yield.



The study also identifies regions like the U.S. Pacific Northwest as being particularly vulnerable to future outbreaks. This area has environmental conditions that are ideal for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-fungi-diversity-can-be-pulled-out-of-thin-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a> to thrive, such as the right combination of temperature and humidity, yet the fungus has not yet been reported there.



Proactive monitoring and management are urgently needed to prevent the disease from taking hold in such high-risk regions.



Bradshaw noted that agricultural practices could influence disease severity. "Some areas that grow blueberries in tunnels, or enclosed areas, seem to have worse disease outcomes than areas that grow blueberries outdoors without any covering, like in North Carolina," he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-farmers-manage-powdery-mildew">Helping farmers manage powdery mildew </h2>



To help farmers manage powdery mildew more effectively, the researchers developed a public database designed to identify different strains of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungus</a>. Growers can use this tool to input data about the fungus affecting their crops and determine which specific strain is present in their fields. 



This information is crucial because it helps farmers understand the characteristics of the strain they are dealing with, including its level of virulence (how damaging it can be) and whether it is resistant to commonly used fungicides. 



By knowing these details, farmers can make more informed decisions about how to control the disease and protect their crops.



“Understanding the genetics can warn farmers about which strain they have, whether it is resistant to fungicides, and how the disease is spreading,” Bradshaw explained.



This research highlights the urgent need to address powdery mildew’s global spread. By improving monitoring and control strategies, the study offers hope for safeguarding the blueberry industry from this emerging disease.



The research was supported by the National Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF</a>) and <a href="https://novonordiskfonden.dk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Novo Nordisk Foundation</a>.



The findings are published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/nph.20351" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Disease attacking blueberry plants is spreading around the world

Picture a charming blueberry farm, where vibrant bushes brim with...

When we think about the food habits of our prehistoric ancestors, our minds often wander to a time filled with animal hunts, meat-rich meals, and little thought given to plant-based foods.



Collectively, we’ve bought into the narrative that the diet of early humans was primarily carnivorous.



However, new research is causing us to reconsider this long-held belief, revealing that plant-based foods played a far more significant role in our ancestors’ diets than previously thought.



On the fertile banks of the Jordan River, south of northern Israel’s Hula Valley, a profound archaeological discovery was made. It challenges the common conception of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-our-stomach-microbes-reveal-about-ancient-human-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric human diets</a>, painting a distinctly different picture of our ancestors’ eating habits.



The archaeological study suggests that early hominids didn’t just rely on animal protein; they were voracious consumers of a range of plant-based foods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-a-major-energy-source-for-early-humans">Plants: A major energy source for early humans</h2>



The discovery of ancient starch grains was the study's primary focus. These grains, believed to be approximately 780,000 years old, were found on basalt stone tools at an old settlement site near Gesher Benot Ya’akov.



This significant location, positioned on the shores of the historic Hula Lake, is a treasure trove for archaeologists. It offers countless layers of settlements, alongside fossilized animal remains and plant remnants like seeds and fruits.



The findings provide crucial evidence of early humans’ extensive use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-based-food-production-would-have-extremely-positive-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based</a> resources for sustenance.



By analyzing the preserved starch grains, the researchers have identified a broad spectrum of plant species that were processed and consumed by ancient hominids.



The results of the study highlight the adaptability of early humans in utilizing their environment to meet dietary needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-plant-based-foods-in-early-diets">Role of plant-based foods in early diets</h2>



The study essentially debunks the widely accepted notion that the diet of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-diets-early-humans-richer-berries-nuts-plants-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient humans</a> relied on animal protein - a belief often encouraged by the popular "paleo" diet interpretations.



Considering the rarity of plant-based food remains in archaeological sites and the frequency of animal bone findings, this assumption is understandable. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/plant-based-diet_early-humans_discovery_credit-Melamed_Ahituv_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/plant-based-diet_early-humans_discovery_credit-Melamed_Ahituv_1s.webp" alt="Examples of some of the plants recovered from Gesher Benot Ya'akov percussive tools, including both the whole plant, the edible part, and the characteristic starch grains. From left to right: oak, yellow water lily, and common oat (scale is 20 µm). Credit: Dr. Hadar Ahituv and Dr. Yoel Melamed" class="wp-image-1956094"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of some of the plants recovered from Gesher Benot Ya'akov percussive tools, including both the whole plant, the edible part, and the characteristic starch grains. From left to right: oak, yellow water lily, and common oat (scale is 20 µm). Credit: Dr. Hadar Ahituv and Dr. Yoel Melamed</figcaption></figure>



Nevertheless, the presence of starch grains on prehistoric tools offers fresh insights into the crucial role of plant-based foods in ancient diets.



These foods - particularly starchy tubers, nuts, and roots - are carbohydrate powerhouses that are vital to fuel the energy demands of the human brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-connection-to-plant-based-foods">Deep connection to plant-based foods</h2>



Beyond offering an alternative perspective on hominids' dietary habits, the study also highlights their advanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-humans-used-ancient-plant-fiber-technology-to-make-tools-39000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-processing methods</a>. The findings shed light on the adaptability and ingenuity of early humans.



The research was conducted as part of Dr. Hadar Ahituv's doctoral thesis at <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a>’s Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology. 



Dr. Ahituv is now at the Laboratory for Ancient Food Processing Technologies (<a href="https://arch.haifa.ac.il/2013/12/25/laboratory-for-groundstone-research/#:~:text=The%20Laboratory%20for%20Ancient%20Food,associated%20graduate%20and%20undergraduate%20students." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LAFPT</a>) at Haifa University’s Zinman Institute of Archaeology.



The researchers found starch grains on basalt maces and anvils - tools associated with cracking and crushing plant foods.



These tools provided clear evidence of plant processing, demonstrating that early humans prepared a diverse array of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-you-eat-can-literally-change-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based foods</a>. These included acorns, cereals, legumes, and aquatic plants.



"This discovery underscores the significance of plant foods in our ancestors' evolution," noted Dr. Ahituv. 



"We now recognize that early hominids gathered a range of plants year-round and processed them using basalt tools, opening a new chapter in the understanding of early human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-environmental-impacts-of-various-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diets</a> and their deep connection to plant-based foods."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-evolution-and-complex-social-societies">Human evolution and complex social societies</h2>



The ancient artifacts also offer insights into the prehistoric hominids' social and cognitive behaviors.



The systematic tools used for plant processing hint at an elevated level of cooperation and social structure, with these early humans likely operating within larger social groups. 



Their ability to utilize a diverse array of resources from both water and land-based environments showcases an intimate knowledge of their surrounding environment that was similar to the human connection with nature today.



This research builds on revolutionary discoveries, providing valuable insights into the dietary habits of our ancient ancestors, while offering a fresh perspective on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human evolution</a> and the emergence of complex societies.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418661121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Early humans thrived on plant-based diets, not just meat, over 780,000 year ago

When we think about the food habits of our prehistoric...

Hotter, drier North American climates will curtail the growth of a critical fungus used to keep the invasive spongy moth (Lymantria dispar) in check, according to computer models recently devised by scientists.



The research, led by the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> and the <a href="https://www.anl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Argonne National Laboratory</a>, highlights the interconnected nature of climate change impacts by showing how higher temperatures can ripple through ecosystems and alter species interactions in unexpected ways.



Greg Dwyer is a professor of ecology and evolution at UChicago and senior author of the study.&nbsp;



“The vast majority of previous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> studies look at individual organisms, but a small amount of climate change can have a big effect when you compound it across multiple species,” said Dwyer.&nbsp;



“So, computer models are crucial for understanding the effects of climate change on species interactions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spongy-moth-a-destructive-invader">Spongy moth: A destructive invader</h2>



Introduced to North America in 1869, the spongy moth originates from Europe. 



Female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bella-moths-use-toxins-to-deter-predators-and-attract-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moths</a> deposit their eggs on various surfaces - such as branches, stacked firewood, and outdoor furniture - which people can inadvertently transport far beyond the moth’s initial release site in Massachusetts. 



Once hatched, the caterpillars voraciously consume the leaves of hardwood forests, particularly oaks, leading to large-scale defoliation and significant tree mortality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-vs-forest-invaders">Fungi vs. forest invaders</h2>



Relief arrived in 1989, when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-all-fungi-matter-not-just-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungus</a> Entomophaga maimaiga began to spread among spongy moth populations.&nbsp;



While it’s not certain how or when this non-native fungus arrived in North America - whether intentionally introduced for control or accidentally imported - the fungus effectively curbed moth outbreaks for decades.&nbsp;



Another pathogen, the nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV), also helps keep spongy moth numbers down, but it requires large moth populations to spread efficiently. 



The E. maimaiga fungus, in contrast, can develop in small moth populations before major destruction sets in, provided that conditions are cool and moist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-warming-affects-moth-fungus-dynamics">How warming affects moth-fungus dynamics</h2>



As part of their study, Dwyer and his colleagues collaborated with atmospheric scientists Jiali Wang and Rao Kotamarthi from the Argonne National Laboratory to integrate advanced climate modeling into existing spongy moth population models.&nbsp;



By refining large-scale climate data to capture regional differences in temperature and precipitation, the research team could project how changing environments affect the interplay of spongy moths, their predators, and pathogens like E. maimaiga.



The simulations revealed that rising temperatures and drier weather reduce the infection rates of E. maimaiga, resulting in fewer moth deaths. 



As spongy moths become more likely to survive and reproduce, they cause more extensive defoliation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiplication-of-the-spongy-moth">Multiplication of the spongy moth</h2>



“Even small reductions in mortality rate for the moths lead to big increases in defoliation,” Dwyer explained. 



“If they don’t get killed off when they’re at low density one year, then the next year they’ll be back at higher density. You get this multiplication process going on.”



Recent seasonal trends have already hinted at what the future might hold. Below-average rainfall paired with above-average temperatures helped spur significant moth outbreaks, earlier than the researchers expected.&nbsp;



“Our projections were pessimistic, but probably not pessimistic enough. It’s very concerning,” said Dwyer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-domino-effect-of-climate-change">The domino effect of climate change</h2>



The study highlights the importance of treating species interactions as dynamic systems, where even slight changes in temperature or humidity can cascade across multiple organisms.&nbsp;



In this case, the spongy moth, the fungus that infects it, and the overall forest ecosystem are interlinked. As warmer, drier conditions limit E. maimaiga, spongy moth numbers surge, ultimately threatening <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-play-a-vital-role-in-maintaining-forest-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest health</a> and stability.



The spongy moth’s destructive capacity poses a financial burden as well, given the expensive efforts needed to manage infestations and the losses in timber and ecosystem services resulting from tree deaths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-spongy-moth-populations-nbsp">Controlling spongy moth populations&nbsp;</h2>



By drawing attention to the vulnerability of E. maimaiga under climate change, the study suggests that forest managers and policymakers might need alternative or supplemental approaches to control spongy moth populations.&nbsp;



In addition, other species could be affected in similarly indirect ways - a warning that climate change can reshape ecological communities through multiple layers of interaction.



In the future, the team hopes to test its model’s predictions in real-world settings and refine it to factor in additional complexities, such as geographic variations in forest composition and predator species.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-health-of-our-forests-nbsp">Preserving the health of our forests&nbsp;</h2>



By deepening our understanding of how climate change influences species relationships, researchers can help guide effective solutions for preserving forest health and maintaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>.



Overall, the research highlights a broader truth about ecological management in a changing world: when one piece of the puzzle shifts, the entire system can behave in unexpected ways.&nbsp;



As Dwyer put it, “a small amount of climate change can have a big effect when you compound it across multiple species,” and the spongy moth’s changing fate exemplifies that message.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02204-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Nature's defense against the invasive spongy moth is fading

Hotter, drier North American climates will curtail the growth of...

Wild mushrooms, especially those found in local forests, have sparked a lot of curiosity among nutrition enthusiasts. Some of these mushrooms contain amino acids and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-proven-to-be-a-nutritional-treasure-packed-with-antioxidants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antioxidants</a> that support human health.



Researchers have now focused on one specific amino acid, tryptophan, which our bodies use to produce molecules linked to mood and sleep regulation. 



Although we often hear that dairy products and turkey are good sources of this substance, certain wild mushrooms may also be worthy contenders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mushrooms-in-everyday-diet">Mushrooms in everyday diet</h2>



Growing consumer interest in nutrient-rich and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-food-systems-are-gaining-momentum/">sustainable foods</a> has encouraged scientists to look more closely at mushrooms. 



Many regions of the United States enjoy mushroom-based dishes, but consumers in Europe and North Africa have also increased their mushroom consumption.



The quest for these nutritional benefits has led to new methods of extracting and measuring key mushroom components, including amino acids. 



<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alejandro-R-Lopez" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alejandro R. López</a>, a scientist from the <a href="https://www.uca.es/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cádiz</a> in Spain, has carried out several studies to extract and measure tryptophan content and antioxidant activity in wild mushrooms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-tryptophan">Exploring tryptophan</h2>



Tryptophan is crucial because our bodies cannot produce it on their own. It supports the production of <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/serotonin-the-natural-mood-booster" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serotonin</a>, the chemical that influences our mood, and <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/melatonin-what-you-need-to-know#:~:text=Melatonin%20is%20a%20hormone%20that,in%20the%20body%20beyond%20sleep." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melatonin</a>, a substance tied to daily sleep patterns. 



Experts have paid special attention to this amino acid in mushrooms due to its potential to assist with healthy cell function and <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/oxidative-stress" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxidative stress</a>. “The concentrations ranged from 0.042 mg/g to 0.742 mg/g,” claimed López, where he and the team explained their examination of how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/synthetic-psilocybin-less-effective-therapy-than-natural-mushroom-extract/">natural extracts</a> from mushrooms could support the body’s own defenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-approach-that-made-a-difference">The approach that made a difference</h2>



Previous <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8228365/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">efforts</a> to measure tryptophan sometimes involved large volumes of harsh solvents or high heat that could degrade heat-sensitive compounds.&nbsp;



Recently, investigators adopted ultrasound-assisted extraction with a milder temperature (77 °F, 25 °C) and a moderate amount of ethanol. 



This choice used fewer harmful chemicals, made the process faster, and preserved the delicate nature of the bioactive substances. 



They also adjusted factors like the amplitude of the ultrasound probe and the duration of sonication. This method was developed using a statistical design called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/box-behnken-design" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Box-Behnken</a>, which guided the research team in finding the sweet spot for extraction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-mushroom-extracts">Wild mushroom extracts</h2>



A separate part of the project looked at each mushroom’s ability to scavenge <a href="https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/what-are-free-radicals-a-dietitian-explains.h00-159699912.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">free radicals</a>. Two common tests, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8878429/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DPPH</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/abts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ABTS</a>, measured antioxidant capacity in percentages. 



Some mushrooms showed around 17.7%, while others reached up to 71.6%. Meanwhile, a range of 7.2% to 24.9% emerged for the ABTS test. 



Another area of investigation considered how effectively these mushrooms might help slow the activity of <a href="https://pdb101.rcsb.org/motm/54" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acetylcholinesterase</a> (AChE). 



This enzyme is tied to neurological changes in aging conditions. The samples tested offered inhibition percentages between 13.1% and 49.8%. 



Researchers compared their findings with other documented values for similar mushrooms. Some species, especially those in the Lactarius genus, had strong antioxidant readings and moderate to notable <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/acetylcholinesterase-inhibitor" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AChE-inhibitory activity</a>. 



These signs hint that the mushrooms in question may be valuable as dietary options that help maintain normal nervous system activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-health-and-wild-mushrooms">Human health and wild mushrooms</h2>



While these results spark fresh ideas about mushrooms and tryptophan, more steps are necessary. Cell and animal research could add depth to these findings, especially regarding the link between mushroom-derived tryptophan and <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3744903/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging-related conditions</a>.&nbsp;



Another helpful move would be to see if preparation methods, such as cooking or drying, affect tryptophan levels in ways that matter for daily intake.&nbsp;



For the time being, the data supports the notion that certain wild mushrooms may serve as a suitable dietary source of tryptophan, alongside antioxidant compounds. 



They are also appealing for those looking to expand food choices that align with healthy diets. These mushrooms display interesting properties that might benefit individuals curious about options to support cognitive well-being.



The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814624036562" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Chemistry</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wild mushrooms contain substances that improve sleep, mood and cognitive health

Wild mushrooms, especially those found in local forests, have sparked...

Researchers at Montana State University (MSU) have unearthed a remarkable ancient forest preserved under ice on the Beartooth Plateau, providing a rare look into how warming climates could reshape alpine ecosystems.&nbsp;



The study, published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2412162121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, analyzes the remnants of a mature whitebark pine forest that once thrived at an elevation of 10,000 feet during a period of warmer temperatures roughly 6,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-exposed-by-melting-ice">Ancient forest exposed by melting ice</h2>



The forest, which endured for centuries before cooling temperatures forced it to retreat downslope, was sealed under ice approximately 5,500 years ago due to a shift in summer solar radiation and subsequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-cooling-not-warming-caused-a-major-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic cooling</a>.&nbsp;



“This is pretty dramatic evidence of ecosystem change due to temperature warming. It's an amazing story of how dynamic these systems are,” said David McWethy, one of the study’s authors and an associate professor in <a href="https://www.montana.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSU</a>’s Department of Earth Sciences.



Unlike glaciers, ice patches do not flow and instead preserve deposited materials such as pollen, charcoal, and macrofossils in their frozen layers. These conditions allowed the forest to remain intact until recent warming caused the ice to melt, exposing the ancient remnants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-effort-to-decode-climate-history">Collaborative effort to decode climate history</h2>



The idea to explore the Beartooth Plateau for ancient climate clues stemmed from earlier discoveries by Craig Lee, now an assistant professor at MSU. In 2007, Lee uncovered a 10,300-year-old atlatl fragment in the region, suggesting that layers of ice held vast records of cultural and environmental history.



“Most of our best long-term climate records come from Greenland and Antarctica. It's not a small thing to find ice patches that persisted for that long a time period at lower latitudes in the interior continent,” McWethy noted.



Building on this discovery, McWethy, Lee, and Greg Pederson, a paleoclimatologist with the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey</a>, began investigating the ice patches in 2016. By 2018, their team expanded the project to study additional alpine ice patches in the region.&nbsp;



This collaborative effort involved tribes, federal agencies, and multiple universities and focused on reconstructing the area’s long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-temperature-has-changed-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate history</a> and its influence on Indigenous peoples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-the-ancient-alpine-ecosystem">Reconstructing the ancient alpine ecosystem</h2>



To piece together the story of the forest, the team examined multiple elements of this alpine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpine-ecosystems-are-thrown-off-balance-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>. Using ice cores, they analyzed water isotopes and organic material, while Pederson harvested cross-sections of ancient wood for radiocarbon dating. 



The findings confirmed that during a period of moderate and moist climate, tree lines shifted upward, allowing whitebark pine forests to thrive for 500 years.



“The plateau seems to have been the perfect place to allow for ice patches to establish and persist for thousands of years, recording important information on past climate, human activity and environmental change,” Pederson said.



The study suggests that as today’s climate warms, tree lines could rise again, transforming areas of alpine tundra into forest. However, Pederson cautioned that factors such as precipitation, wind, and snowpack would influence the density, distribution, and composition of these potential new forests.&nbsp;



“Growing season temperatures are the primary control on tree line elevation and latitude, but other factors such as moisture, wind, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-driven-climate-change-is-to-blame-for-sharp-snowpack-declines-since-1980/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snowpack</a> and human disturbance may play an important role in dictating forest structure and elevational limits,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-alpine-ecosystems">Implications for alpine ecosystems</h2>



The researchers warn that these changes could have profound impacts on the region’s ecosystem and resources. Rising tree lines might alter high-altitude snowpack, which serves as a critical water source for irrigation and hydroelectric power.&nbsp;



Additionally, if forests encroach on tundra areas, they could increase the risk of wildfires due to changing fuel conditions.



Cathy Whitlock, a climate expert and MSU Regents Professor Emerita, emphasized the broader implications. She noted that reduced snowpack could strain water supplies, while McWethy added that the establishment of forests in tundra areas might fundamentally alter the region’s fire dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-the-past-to-predict-the-future">Learning from the past to predict the future</h2>



The study emphasizes the importance of understanding past ecological changes to prepare for future challenges.&nbsp;



“That’s the reason why studies of past ecological change are more than interesting pieces of science. They have much larger implications for the resources we all depend on,” Pederson said.



As climate change accelerates, the Beartooth Plateau’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient forest</a> serves as both a stark reminder of the Earth’s dynamic ecosystems and a window into the potential future of high-altitude environments.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Frozen forest reveals climate impacts on alpine ecosystems

Researchers at Montana State University (MSU) have unearthed a remarkable...

When we marvel at the wonders of nature - like the sweet aroma of spring roses, the melodies of songbirds, or the brilliant colors of autumn leaves - there's an unsung hero working quietly behind the scenes: the ozone layer.



This thin shield in the stratosphere protects Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation (UVR), safeguarding biodiversity and enabling life as we know it. 



Yet, the formation of this vital layer took over 2 billion years, and recent research reveals why it faced such a prolonged delay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-battle-of-elements-in-earth-s-early-ozone-layer">Battle of elements in Earth's early ozone layer</h2>



A study led by experts at Yale University sheds light on an ancient atmospheric battle between iodine and oxygen.



This competition, the researchers propose, stalled the stabilization of the ozone layer, delaying the emergence and diversification of complex life on Earth.



“The origin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ozone-day-2024-advancing-climate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversification</a> of complex life on Earth remains one of the most profound and enduring questions in natural science,” said Jingjun Liu, the study's lead author. 



The research challenges the long-held belief that evolutionary delays were purely due to time requirements, offering a fresh perspective on the role of atmospheric chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-complex-life-wait">Why did complex life wait?</h2>



Despite cyanobacteria existing for 2.7 billion years, land plants did not appear until 450 million years ago. Similarly, complex life fossils are absent before the Cambrian era. 



Traditionally, scientists attributed these delays to slow evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-threaten-the-recovery-of-the-ozone-layer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>.



“That notion fails to explain how and why complex life originated and diversified,” said Professor Noah Planavsky, senior author of the study.



The research suggests that the true culprit was iodine. Elevated marine iodine concentrations disrupted the formation of a stable ozone layer, allowing intense UV radiation to bombard the Earth’s surface. 



This harsh environment made the planet inhospitable to complex terrestrial life for billions of years.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="s5PVS16IhO-4201105-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-iodine-and-ozone-depletion">Marine iodine and ozone depletion </h2>



Ozone forms through a delicate interplay between atmospheric oxygen and UVR. While oxygen levels eventually rose, the study found that high marine iodide emissions - salts formed by iodine - prevented a protective ozone shield from stabilizing.



These emissions led to ozone destruction akin to the damage caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) during the 20th-century Antarctic ozone hole crisis.



“Iodine-driven catalytic cycles for ozone destruction are kinetically much faster than those involving reactive chlorine,” explained Professor Planavsky.



As a result, even slight increases in marine iodine could have caused significant ozone depletion, exposing the Earth’s surface to harmful UVR for billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-earth-s-history">New perspective on Earth’s history</h2>



Liu and the research team from <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> used geological evidence and ocean-atmosphere models to reconstruct iodine-ozone dynamics. 



The findings reveal that unstable and low ozone levels likely persisted from 2.4 billion to 0.5 billion years ago. Even with high oxygen production, periodic UV radiation surges would have hindered the evolution of land-based life.



This remarkable research reshapes our understanding of Earth’s history, revealing how atmospheric chemistry influenced life’s timeline. As we continue to uncover the mysteries of our planet’s past, we deepen our appreciation for the delicate balance that sustains life today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-earth-s-ozone-layer">Significance of Earth's ozone layer </h2>



The formation of the ozone layer was a long and complex process, taking billions of years to stabilize. It emerged from a "battle" between elements like iodine and oxygen in Earth's early atmosphere. 



This natural shield, located in the stratosphere, plays a critical role in protecting life on Earth by blocking harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decline-in-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-an-encouraging-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultraviolet radiation</a> from the sun.



The ozone layer is not just a scientific marvel; it represents the deep connections between Earth's systems and life itself. Without it, life as we know it - plants, animals, and even the small joys like the scent of flowers, the sound of birdsong, and the colors of changing leaves - would not thrive.



Today, this shield faces threats from human activities, such as pollution and the release of ozone-depleting chemicals. Protecting the ozone layer isn’t just about maintaining the planet’s natural beauty; it’s about safeguarding the very foundation of life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.



Video Credit: Yale University 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth’s ozone layer took more than two billion years to stabilize

When we marvel at the wonders of nature - like...

When a new species enters an ecosystem, it might establish itself successfully or fail to gain a foothold. Researchers at MIT have recently devised a formula to predict these outcomes. The research is based on extensive modeling and laboratory experiments with soil bacteria. 



The findings, which could apply to ecosystems ranging from forests to the human gut microbiome, offer valuable insights into the dynamics of species interactions and potential applications in medicine and environmental science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanics-of-species-invasions">Mechanics of species invasions</h2>



<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> physicists, led by Jeff Gore, a professor of physics, analyzed hundreds of experimental scenarios to determine the factors that influence whether an introduced species succeeds.&nbsp;



The team’s formula, grounded in their research on bacterial communities, could have implications for understanding natural ecosystems, improving probiotics, or enhancing treatments like fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT).



“People eat a lot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/probiotics-help-overweight-dogs-shed-pounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">probiotics</a>, but many of them can never invade our gut microbiome at all, because if you introduce it, it does not necessarily mean that it can grow and colonize and benefit your health,” noted study lead author Jiliang Hu, a PhD student at MIT.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experimenting-with-bacterial-communities">Experimenting with bacterial communities</h2>



The researchers studied over 400 soil bacterial communities, each comprising 12 to 20 species native to soil around MIT. They introduced a new bacterial species into each community and monitored the outcomes over 12 days.&nbsp;



By sequencing bacterial genomes, the team assessed whether the invader had successfully established itself.



To further understand the role of environmental factors, the team varied the nutrient levels in the bacteria’s culture medium. High nutrient levels often led to intense species interactions, such as competition for food or inhibition through mechanisms like pH-mediated cross-toxin effects.



The researchers observed two types of community behavior: stable populations, where species numbers remained constant, and fluctuating populations, where species abundance varied over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-factors-in-successful-species-invasions-nbsp">Key factors in successful species invasions&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that fluctuations in population size were a critical determinant of invasion success. Communities with higher levels of fluctuation were more diverse and more prone to successful invasions.&nbsp;



“The fluctuation is not driven by changes in the environment, but it is internal fluctuation driven by the species interaction,” Hu explained. “And what we found is that the fluctuating communities are more readily invaded and also more diverse than the stable ones.”



In stable communities with less diversity and stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interspecies competition</a>, invaders were less likely to succeed. In fluctuating ecosystems, however, the invader sometimes coexisted with the original species, albeit in smaller numbers. In other cases, the invader outcompeted and replaced certain resident species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-interactions-and-the-survival-fraction-nbsp">Species interactions and the “survival fraction”&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers identified a factor they call the “survival fraction” - the proportion of the original species that remain after an invasion - as a reliable predictor of invasion success.&nbsp;



In natural ecosystems, this survival fraction could be approximated by comparing local diversity (species in a specific area) to regional diversity (species in a broader region).



Another important finding was the influence of the order in which species arrive in an ecosystem.&nbsp;



When species interactions were strong, the likelihood of an invader succeeding decreased if it was introduced later. However, when interactions were weaker, the arrival order had little impact, and communities reached similar equilibrium states regardless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-medicine-and-ecology">Implications for medicine and ecology</h2>



The researchers plan to apply their formula to larger ecosystems and explore its relevance to the human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut microbiome</a>. For example, the formula could help predict the success of probiotics or FMT treatments for infections like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-hospital-infections-have-a-mysterious-trigger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">C. difficile</a>.&nbsp;



“Invasions can be harmful or can be good depending on the context,” Hu noted. “In some cases, like probiotics, or FMT to treat C. difficile infection, we want the healthy species to invade successfully.”



In agriculture, the formula could guide efforts to introduce beneficial microbes into soil to enhance plant growth or protect crops from pathogens.&nbsp;



Similarly, it could inform conservation strategies by predicting how ecosystems might respond to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> or restoration efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Future studies will test whether the local-to-regional diversity ratio can predict invasion success in ecosystems where diversity data is available.&nbsp;



The team also aims to investigate the underlying mechanisms that drive the observed population fluctuations and how these dynamics apply across various ecological contexts.



This study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02618-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>, sheds light on the complex interplay of species interactions, diversity, and environmental factors in shaping the outcomes of biological invasions, with potential applications spanning environmental conservation, agriculture, and human health.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ecosystem attack: Predicting the success of species invasions

When a new species enters an ecosystem, it might establish...

A recent study from Washington State University (WSU) reveals that climate change poses significant challenges to apple orchards in some of the most productive regions of the United States.



The researchers conducted an extensive study that included over four decades of climate data. They analyzed how varying weather conditions influence the critical growth stages of apple trees.



These stages include bud break, flowering, fruit development, maturation, and color development - all of which are crucial for healthy yields and high-quality apples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-apple-growth">Climate change and apple growth</h2>



The study revealed alarming trends, particularly for the three most productive apple-growing counties in the United States:&nbsp;Yakima County in Washington,&nbsp;Kent County in Michigan, and&nbsp;Wayne County in New York. 



Among these,&nbsp;Yakima County - a powerhouse with over 48,800 acres of apple orchards - was found to be the most severely affected.



Yakima County exhibited harmful trends in five out of the six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-added-41-extra-days-of-dangerous-heat-in-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> metrics studied, indicating the region's heightened vulnerability. These metrics include factors like extreme heat, warm nights, reduced cold periods, and shifting frost dates, all of which disrupt the delicate balance needed for apple growth. 



The findings highlight the region’s significant exposure to the negative impacts of climate change, which could challenge its status as a leading apple producer in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-metrics-and-apple-production">Climate metrics and apple production</h2>



Apple production relies on specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate conditions</a> to ensure healthy growth, high yields, and good fruit quality. However, shifts in these conditions pose significant challenges:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-days">Extreme heat days</h3>



When temperatures exceed 93°F, apple trees face stress that can lead to sunburn on the fruit, reducing apple quality and marketability. Prolonged exposure to such heat can also impair tree health and productivity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-nights">Warm nights</h3>



Nighttime temperatures above&nbsp;59°F&nbsp;interfere with apple coloration. Proper color development is essential for market appeal, as it affects both the visual and perceived quality of the fruit.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-days-and-chill-portions">Cold days and chill portions</h3>



Apple trees need a specific number of cold hours (known as&nbsp;chill portions) during dormancy to reset their growth cycle. A reduction in these cold periods can lead to irregular flowering and lower yields.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spring-frost-timing">Spring frost timing</h3>



Changes in the timing of the last spring frost disrupt the blooming process. Late frosts can damage blossoms, leading to fewer fruit or misshapen apples.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-degree-days">Growing degree days</h3>



Warmer overall temperatures accelerate the growth process, potentially causing premature fruit development. This can affect the size, flavor, and storability of apples.



These changing climate conditions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upset the delicate balance</a> required for consistent and high-quality apple production. The western U.S., a major apple-producing region, has experienced the most pronounced negative trends in these metrics. 



This raises concerns not just for regional growers but for the entire U.S. apple industry, as these changes threaten both the quantity and quality of the fruit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compounding-threats-of-climate-change">Compounding threats of climate change </h2>



“We shouldn’t take the delicious apples we love to consume for granted,” said Deepti Singh, <a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a> climate scientist and the study’s corresponding author. 



“Changing climate conditions over multiple parts of the growth cycle pose potentially compounding threats to the production and quality of apples.”



This complexity stems from the perennial nature of apple trees. “What goes on in different seasons can affect long-term health as well as the performance and productivity of the apple tree during that specific season,” explained Lee Kalcsits, a WSU tree physiologist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-apples-from-climate-change">Protecting apples from climate change</h2>



Apple growers in Washington state are implementing adaptive measures to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-we-cut-down-all-oak-trees-isoprene-emissions-air-pollution-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">combat the effects of extreme heat </a>on their crops. 



Techniques like netting, which reduces direct sunlight to prevent sunburn, and evaporative cooling, which uses water misting systems to lower orchard temperatures, are helping protect fruit quality and tree health. 



These adaptations highlight both the resilience of the apple industry and the urgency of addressing climate change challenges. To support growers further, WSU researchers are working on large-scale solutions. 



Led by Lee Kalcsits, a $6.75 million USDA-funded project aims to mitigate the impact of extreme climate events on apple and pear crops. 



This collaborative, multi-institution effort seeks to develop strategies that growers across the nation can use to sustain production in an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-an-amazing-ability-to-adapt-to-new-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increasingly volatile climate</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-the-future">A blueprint for the future</h2>



“Washington is a great place to start to talk about adaptation,” said Kirti Rajagopalan, a WSU biological systems engineer and study co-author. 



If successful, the strategies tested here could serve as a blueprint for apple-growing regions nationwide.



As climate change risks grow, the apple industry’s ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt</a> will be crucial. With ongoing research and innovative solutions, there’s hope that the apples we cherish can continue to thrive in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad90f4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Apple orchards face compounding threats from climate change

A recent study from Washington State University (WSU) reveals that...

The sixth extinction, also known as the Anthropocene extinction, refers to the ongoing, unprecedented loss of species. Unlike previous mass extinction events in Earth's history, which were driven by natural phenomena such as massive volcanic eruptions, the current extinction crisis is largely attributed to human activities.



In a recent study, a team of Irish researchers set out to examine how the public reacts to hearing the news of a species extinction. 



The analysis revealed that while social media users show an initial surge of sympathy, the sentiment fades quickly. This fleeting engagement raises questions about how deeply people connect with conservation issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-reaction-to-species-extinction">Public reaction to species extinction</h2>



The study was led by researchers from the University of Galway, <a href="https://www.ucd.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College Dublin</a>, and <a href="https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maynooth University</a>. The goal was to examine how people react to the extinction of different species.



The researchers focused on eight species, including the famous Lonesome George - the last known Pinta Island tortoise who became a symbol of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



They also studied lesser-known species, such as Captain Cook's bean snail and the Rabbs fringe-limbed treefrog, which have similarly disappeared from the planet.



To gather insights, the team used a method called "culturomics." This approach involves analyzing digital data to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-how-and-when-humans-and-mammals-will-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural trends</a> and public interest. 



By studying online activity, the researchers analyzed over two million <a href="https://www.wikipedia.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wikipedia</a> page visits and more than 100,000 tweets and retweets from 2007 to 2023. 



This data helped them understand how people react online to extinction news, revealing patterns of interest, mourning, and engagement across different platforms.



“In our study, we tracked changes in tweets and Wikipedia page visits before and after the extinction of eight species ranging from Lonesome George to more obscure species such as the bean snail,” explained Dr. Kevin Healy of the <a href="https://www.universityofgalway.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Galway</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spike-in-interest-then-silence">A spike in interest, then silence</h2>



The findings revealed that public interest in extinction news spikes dramatically on social media immediately after a species is declared extinct. 



“Overall, it does look like people care and are saddened by the news of extinction. We see words like 'RIP' and 'lost' commonly appear, and that the location of tweets expands from close to the species range to across the globe after extinction,” noted Dr. Susan Canavan, the study’s lead author.



The researchers found that while social media platforms see a short-lived surge in activity following news of a species' extinction, Wikipedia exhibits a different pattern. Wikipedia page visits remained steady over time, showing sustained interest in learning about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct species</a>.



This suggests that people turn to Wikipedia for deeper, long-term exploration of the topic, whereas social media reactions are often immediate and brief. 



The contrast highlights how different platforms serve distinct purposes: social media captures initial emotional responses and fleeting discussions, while Wikipedia supports extended engagement and information-seeking behavior. 



This difference signifies the varied ways people process and interact with extinction news depending on the platform they use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-awareness">Impact of awareness</h2>



The study highlights the potential power of public engagement in conservation. 



“People’s engagement with conservation issues, such as extinction, does matter, as it can drive funding, or add support for conservation policy and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-cheetah-day-2024-racing-against-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence conversations</a> on controversial topics such as attempting to bring species back from extinction using biotechnology,” Dr. Healy emphasized.



The passing of Lonesome George in 2012 captured worldwide attention. His death symbolized the vulnerability of species and highlighted the urgent need for conservation efforts to protect endangered animals.



Similarly, the extinction of other species, such as the Bramble Cay mosaic-tailed rat - the first mammal believed to have gone extinct due to climate change - and the West African black rhinoceros, sparked global discussions.



These events not only raised awareness about the threats facing wildlife but also ignited conversations on the broader impact of human activities on biodiversity. 



Each extinction served as a poignant reminder of the importance of conservation and the irreversible loss caused by species disappearing forever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mourning-species-extinction-in-the-digital-age">Mourning species extinction in the digital age</h2>



The research reveals a bittersweet reality: while people momentarily mourn extinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, the depth of engagement often doesn't last. 



The rise in global conversations about extinction on platforms like X (formerly Twitter) shows that people care, but the fleeting nature of this concern highlights the challenges conservation efforts face in maintaining momentum.



Ultimately, this study offers valuable insights into how the public connects with conservation issues. It also raises a crucial question: how can we transform brief moments of mourning into lasting action to prevent further losses?



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Public concern over species extinctions fades quickly

The sixth extinction, also known as the Anthropocene extinction, refers...

Plants constantly juggle their energy between growth and defense against harmful bacteria. While the specifics of how they maintain this balance have long been unclear, researchers at Princeton University have discovered that certain soil bacteria play a crucial role in modulating plant immune responses, and allowing them to grow more efficiently.



“This is trying to get at a really big biological question where there are not good answers - about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiomes</a> interface with host immune systems,” said Jonathan Conway, senior author of the study and an assistant professor of chemical and biological engineering at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a>.&nbsp;



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2024.115063" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports</a>, highlights how specific microbes produce enzymes that can suppress plant immune activity, thus enabling healthier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autophagy-what-makes-plant-roots-grow-faster-stronger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">root growth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-immune-responses-with-model-plants">Testing immune responses with model plants</h2>



To investigate the interaction between plants and microbes, the researchers focused on Arabidopsis, a small plant commonly used in scientific studies. They genetically engineered Arabidopsis plants to have heightened immune sensitivity to flagellin, a bacterial protein that triggers immune responses.&nbsp;



This modification caused the plant’s roots to grow shorter, as its energy was diverted to immune defenses rather than root development.



The team introduced 165 bacterial species isolated from soil-grown Arabidopsis to the plants. Remarkably, 68 of these isolates, or about 41%, reduced the stunted root growth by suppressing the plant’s immune response.&nbsp;



One standout species, Dyella japonica, demonstrated exceptional ability in allowing the roots to grow longer by modulating immune activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-role-of-a-key-enzyme">Unveiling the role of a key enzyme</h2>



Further investigation into D. japonica revealed a gene encoding a subtilase enzyme. This enzyme had the potential to degrade the specific part of flagellin responsible for triggering the plant’s immune response.&nbsp;



Using genetic and biochemical tools, the researchers confirmed that the subtilase enzyme effectively broke down the flagellin fragment, thereby reducing the immune response and promoting root growth.



However, purifying the subtilase enzyme presented significant challenges. During a conference, postdoctoral researcher and co-first author Samuel Eastman connected with <a href="https://www.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> chemist Todd Naumann, who suggested purifying the enzyme using yeast cells instead of bacteria.&nbsp;



Within months, Naumann successfully purified the enzyme and sent it to Princeton. “Now we can do chemistry with it, and we can actually look at this in vitro,” Eastman explained. This collaboration allowed the team to conduct more detailed studies of the enzyme’s function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-study-of-plants-and-soil-bacteria">Extensive study of plants and soil bacteria </h2>



The study was a team effort involving contributions from several researchers and students. Screening 165 bacterial isolates and verifying their immune-modulating effects required extensive work.&nbsp;



“We’re able to achieve a level of investigation into this protein that wouldn’t have been possible without that collaboration,” said Eastman.



Students played a significant role in the project, including Princeton graduate Britley Jones, who contributed to screening the bacterial isolates for her senior thesis.&nbsp;



Co-first author Kaeli Ficco, now a Ph.D. student at Cornell University, engineered mutant bacterial strains to confirm the genetic requirement of the subtilase gene for immune suppression.&nbsp;



“I really liked how discovery-based the project was,” Ficco said, reflecting on how the work influenced her research trajectory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-plant-immune-health">Broader implications for plant immune health </h2>



Beyond studying the subtilase enzyme in D. japonica, the researchers identified similar genes in many other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-help-plants-balance-growth-and-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil bacteria</a>. Their assays showed that dozens of bacterial isolates could suppress flagellin-induced immunity in plants. This suggests that this mechanism may be widespread in the plant microbiome.



The team is now exploring why this enzyme may benefit both plants and bacteria. One hypothesis is that degrading pathogenic flagella reduces the ability of harmful bacteria to invade plant roots.&nbsp;



“So, in that way it could be suppressing pathogens as well as the plant immune system,” said Eastman. Alternatively, the enzyme might allow certain bacteria to bypass plant defenses, potentially making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diseases-flourish-in-city-landscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> more vulnerable to disease.



This dual possibility raises questions about applying these findings in agriculture.&nbsp;



“We don’t want to compromise the immune system, but we also want plants to save that immune response for when it matters,” Eastman emphasized.&nbsp;



The ultimate goal is to help plants “keep calm and keep growing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Further studies are needed to understand better how these enzymes can be leveraged in agricultural settings without increasing the plants’ susceptibility to pathogens.&nbsp;



By elucidating the relationship between soil microbes and plant immunity, this research offers promising avenues for optimizing crop growth while maintaining disease resistance.



This work marks a significant step toward uncovering the intricate dynamics between plant hosts and their microbiomes, and sheds light on how these interactions can be harnessed to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-footprint-a-new-frontier-in-sustainable-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable agriculture</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Soil bacteria help plants stay calm and keep growing

Plants constantly juggle their energy between growth and defense against...

Endangered animals