Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=6af7b47b706a421cbff7d45ac370e984&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.971j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.The Cicek Minnow (Acanthorutilus handlirschi) is a species of concern belonging in the species group "fishes" and found in the following area (s): Turkey. This species is also known by the following name (s): Pseudophoxinus handlirschi, Oreoleuciscus handlirschi, Phoxinellus handlirschi. Source: Federal Register, U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service (various authors), series (version undefined) Acquired: 1996 : Notes: Various listings from the Federal Register on the legal status of species : Reference for: Acanthorutilus handlirschi, cicek [English] Source: NODC Taxonomic Code, database (

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.This species is also known by the following name(s): Pseudophoxinus handlirschi, Oreoleuciscus handlirschi, Phoxinellus handlirschi.

Acanthorutilus handlirschi

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Accipiter fasciatus natalis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Accipiter fasciatus natalis ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=84f1e8e9658b4caea7e69e7c7dff2555&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i59j0j69i60l3.1774j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Accipiter fasciatus natalis

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Accipiter francesii pusillus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=b465a6a06aa04b25a2b750c94d1fc9be&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0.591j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Anjouan Island Sparrowhawk, or Ndzuwani Goshawk Accipiter francesii pusillus, an extremely rare, possibly extinct, subspecies of Frances's Sparrowhawk Spot-tailed Goshawk, Accipiter trinotatus Grey Goshawk, Accipiter novaehollandiae. The Anjouan sparrowhawk (Accipiter francesiae pusillus), also known as Anjouan Island sparrowhawk, Ndzuwani goshawk or Joanna Island goshawk is a subspecies of Frances's sparrowhawk (Accipiter francesiae). It is endemic to the Comoros island of Anjouan. It was thought to be extinct until searches in the 1980s and in 2005 confirmed that it is still extant.· North America, the planet's 3rd largest continent, includes (23) countries and dozens of possessions and territories. It contains all Caribbean and Central America countries, Bermuda, Canada, Mexico, the United States of America, as well as Greenland - the world's largest island.

Accipiter francesii pusillus

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Accipiter gentilis laingi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=0e16320dcb6d40748a5d6a1b3d9cc5b8&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.896j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.Accipiter gentilis laingi Wildlife Species Description and Significance The Northern Goshawk laingi subspecies (Accipiter gentilis laingi) is a raven-sized, robust forest-dwelling raptor. Adults are brown-grey to slate-grey on the back, while underparts are pale-grey with fine horizontal grey bars and darker vertical streaking.The Northern Goshawk laingi subspecies (Accipiter gentilis laingi) is a raven-sized, robust forest-dwelling raptor. Adults are brown-grey to slate-grey on the back, while underparts are pale-grey with fine horizontal grey bars and darker vertical streaking. The head has a distinctive whitish line above the eye and a dark-grey to black cap.

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Accipiter gentilis laingi

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Accipiter striatus venator NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=6af7b47b706a421cbff7d45ac370e984&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.971j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk, (Accipiter striatus venator), falcón de sierra or gavilán pecho rufo in Spanish, is an endemic subspecies of the North American sharp-shinned hawk, occurring only in Puerto Rico. Discovered in 1912 and described as a distinct sub-species, it has been placed on the United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species because of its rapidly dwindling population in Puerto Rico. It can be found in the Toro Negro State Forest.Accipiter striatus venator is an endemic subspecies of the North American Sharp-shinned Hawk, occurring only in Puerto Rico. This animal has been placed on the Federal endangered list because of its rapidly dwindling population on the island.

Accipiter striatus venator

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Achatinella spp. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=0e16320dcb6d40748a5d6a1b3d9cc5b8&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.896j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Scientific name: Achatinella spp Hawaiian name: Kāhuli / Pūpū kani oe All 41 species of the genus Achatinella, also known as the O‘ahu tree snails, are federally listed as endangered. O‘ahu tree snails are diverse in patterns, colors, and shapes but all average about 3/4 inch in length.Oʻahu tree snails, genus Achatinella, form a large genus of colorful, tropical, tree-living, air-breathing, land snails, arboreal pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family Achatinellidae. This genus of tree snails is endemic to Hawaii, and all extant species are endangered. They were once abundant and were mentioned extensively in Hawaiian folklore and songs, and their shells were used in lei and other ornaments.

Achatinella spp.

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Acinonyx jubatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is a large cat native to Africa and central Iran. It is the fastest land animal, capable of running at 80 to 128 km/h (50 to 80 mph), and as such has several adaptations for speed, including a light build, long thin legs and a long tail. It typically reaches 67–94 cm (26–37 in) at the shoulder, and the head-and-body length is between 1.1 and 1.5 m (3.6 and 4.9 ft). Adults weigh between 20 and 65 kg (44 and 143 lb). Its head is small, rounded, and has a short snout and black tear-like facial streaks. The coat is typically tawny to creamy white or pale buff and is mostly covered with evenly spaced, solid black spots. Four subspecies are recognised. More gregarious than many other cats, the cheetah has three main social groups—females and their cubs, male "coalitions" and solitary males. While females lead a nomadic life searching for prey in large home ranges

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Acinonyx jubatus

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Acipenser brevirostrum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=cd15138958b44bb2b853b45f848f47f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0.896j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum) is a small and endangered species of North American sturgeon. The earliest remains of the species are from the Late Cretaceous Period, over 70 million years ago. Shortnose sturgeons are long-lived and slow to sexually mature. Most sturgeons are anadromous bottom-feeders, which means they migrate upstream to spawn but spend most of their lives feeding in rivers, deltas and estuaries. The shortnose sturgeon is often mistaken as a juvenile Atlantic sturgeon, because of their small size. Prior to 1973, U.S. commercial fishing records did not differentiate between the two species, both were reported as "common sturgeon", although it is believed based on sizes that the bulk of the catch was Atlantic sturgeon. The shortnose is distinguishable from the Atlantic sturgeon due to its shorter and rounder head.

Acipenser brevirostrum

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Acipenser medirostris NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/faking-death-is-a-good-way-for-animals-to-stay-alive/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports --Acipenser medirostris  ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=0e16320dcb6d40748a5d6a1b3d9cc5b8&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.896j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Sturgeons are among the largest and most ancient of <a title="Actinopterygii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinopterygii">ray finned fishes</a>. They are placed, along with <a title="Paddlefish" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddlefish">paddlefishes</a> and numerous fossil groups, in the infraclass <a title="Chondrostei" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chondrostei">Chondrostei</a>, which also contains the ancestors of all other bony fishes. The sturgeons themselves are not ancestral to modern bony fishes but are a highly specialized and successful offshoot of ancestral <a title="Chondrostei" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chondrostei">chondrosteans</a>, retaining such ancestral features as a <a title="Fish fin" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_fin">heterocerca</a>l tail, fin structure, jaw structure, and spiracle. They have replaced a bony skeleton with one of <a title="Cartilage" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartilage">cartilage</a>, and possess a few large bony plates instead of scales. Sturgeons are highly adapted for preying on bottom animals, which they detect with a row of sensitive <a title="Barbel (anatomy)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbel_(anatomy)">barbels</a> on the underside of their snouts. They protrude their very long and flexible “lips” to suck up food. Sturgeons are confined to temperate waters of the Northern Hemisphere. Of 25 extant species, only two live in California, the green sturgeon and the <a title="White sturgeon" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_sturgeon">white sturgeon</a> (A. transmontanus). (Moyle 2002)

Acipenser medirostris

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Acipenser mikadoi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The Sakhalin sturgeon is a species of fish in the family Acipenseridae. It is found in <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=japan&amp;cvid=b99abe0ea03d49319f23b97aa3ab6c4e&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j0l6.1785j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Japan</a> and Russia.The Sakhalin Sturgeon (Acipenser mikadoi) has 8-12 dorsal scutes, 25-30 lateral scutes, 7-11 ventral scutes, 29-41 dorsal fin rays and 18-28 anal fin rays. Colouration ranges from olive-green to dark green on the back to yellowish green-white on the ventral side with an olive-green stripe on the side between the lateral and ventral scutes.

The Sakhalin sturgeon is considered to be a species that migrates up the river from the sea in order to spawn. During the months of April to May, the Sakhalin sturgeon feeds in the freshwater and then returns to the ocean during the summer

Acipenser mikadoi

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Acipenser naccarii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.The Adriatic sturgeon (Acipenser naccarii) is a species of fish in the family Acipenseridae. It is native to the Adriatic Sea and large rivers which flow in it of Albania, Greece, Italy, and States of former-Yugoslavia. Specimens can be seen in several public aquarium, such the Milan Aquarium, Aquarium Finisterrae, Aquarium of the Po, and Oasis of Sant'Alessio in Lombardy.The Adriatic Sturgeon (Acipenser naccarii) is a thick set fish, growing up to 2 metres but 1.5m is more usual. Weight is 20-25kg. A long lived species, the Adriatic sturgeon has been recorded to reach 50 years of age. Acipenser naccarii has 10-14 dorsal scutes, 32-42 lateral scutes, 8-11 ventral scutes, 36-48 dorsal fin rays and 24-31 anal fin rays. The short snout is wide and rounded at the tip. The colour is grey-brown on the dorsal side

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Acipenser naccarii

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Acipenser oxyrinchus (=oxyrhynchus) desotoi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Acipenser oxyrinchus (=oxyrhynchus) desotoi ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=84f1e8e9658b4caea7e69e7c7dff2555&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i59j0j69i60l3.1774j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe

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Acipenser oxyrinchus (=oxyrhynchus) desotoi

Acipenser oxyrinchus (=oxyrhynchus) desotoi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=2c2e13fdcefb416498254b6003035344&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0l2.1080j0j1&amp;pglt=299&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus) is a member of the family Acipenseridae and along with other sturgeon it is sometimes considered a living fossil. The Atlantic sturgeon is one of two subspecies of A. oxyrinchus, the other being the Gulf sturgeon (A. o. desotoi). The main range of the Atlantic sturgeon is in eastern North America, extending from New Brunswick, Canada, to the eastern coast of Florida, United States. A disjunct population occurs in the Baltic region of Europe. Atlantic sturgeon live in rivers and coastal waters from Canada to Florida. Hatched in the freshwater of rivers, Atlantic sturgeon head out to sea as juveniles, and return to their birthplace to spawn, or lay eggs, when they reach adulthood.

Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus

Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=6af7b47b706a421cbff7d45ac370e984&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.971j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.The Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus) is a member of the family Acipenseridae and along with other sturgeon it is sometimes considered a living fossil. The Atlantic sturgeon is one of two subspecies of A. oxyrinchus, the other being the Gulf sturgeon (A. o. desotoi). The main range of the Atlantic sturgeon is in eastern North America, extending from New Brunswick, Canada, to the eastern coast of Florida, United States. A disjunct population occurs in the Baltic regionof Europe Atlantic sturgeon live in rivers and coastal waters from Canada to Florida. Hatched in the freshwater of rivers, Atlantic sturgeon head out to sea as juveniles, and return to their birthplace to spawn, or lay eggs, when they reach adulthood.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Acipenser oxyrinchus is mostly native to the countries of Canada and the United States, with a smaller population in northern Europe (essentially the Baltic region ). They can be found in temperate and subtropical climates and in marine or freshwater environments

Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=0e16320dcb6d40748a5d6a1b3d9cc5b8&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i60l3j0.896j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.The Atlantic sturgeon is a member of the family Acipenseridae and along with other sturgeon it is sometimes considered a living fossil. The Atlantic sturgeon is one of two subspecies of A. oxyrinchus, the other being the Gulf sturgeon (A. o. desotoi). The main range of the Atlantic sturgeon is in eastern North America, extending from New Brunswick, Canada, to the eastern coast of Florida, United States. A disjunct population occurs in the Baltic regionof Europe

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Acipenser oxyrinchus is mostly native to the countries of Canada and the United States, with a smaller population in northern Europe (essentially the Baltic region ). They can be found in temperate and subtropical climates and in marine or freshwater environments. The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), proposed to designate critical habitat for the Gulf of Maine, New York Bight, and Chesapeake Bay Distinct Population Segments (DPSs) of Atlantic sturgeon ( Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus

Acipenser sinensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The Chinese sturgeon (Acipenser sinensis; Chinese: 中華鱘; pinyin: zhōnghuá xún) is a critically endangered member of the family Acipenseridae in the order Acipenseriformes. Historically, this anadromous fish was found in China, Japan, and the Korean Peninsula, but it has been extirpated from most regions due to habitat loss and overfishing. It is strictly protected by the Chinese government, named a "national treasure" much like its mammalian counterpart, the giant panda. China has several conservation programmes, including reserves specifically aimed at this species and restocking through release of juveniles in the Yangtze River.

Acipenser sinensis

Acipenser sinensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Acipenser sturio NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The European sturgeon (Acipenser sturio), also known as the Atlantic sturgeon or common sturgeon, is a species of sturgeon previously found on most coasts of Europe. It is anadromous and breeds in rivers. It is currently a critically endangered species. Although the name Baltic sturgeon sometimes has been used, it has now been established that sturgeon of the Baltic region are A. oxyrinchus, a species otherwise restricted to the Atlantic coast of North America.Manufactured products are derived from eel, sturgeon (Acipenser sturio), salmon and trout (Salmo spp.), and, in the case of aquaculture species, tilapia (Tilapia spp.), tench (Tinca tinca), carp (Cyprinus spp.), salmon and trout. All of these form part of a sizeable range of widely distributed and economically important species.

Acipenser sturio

Acipenser sturio NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Acrocephalus familiaris kingi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/"> Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=cd15138958b44bb2b853b45f848f47f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0.896j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.Acrocephalus familiaris kingi The Nihoa Millerbird is a tiny land bird that was discovered on the island of Nihoa in 1923. Another subspecies once occurred on Laysan Island, where it went extinct in the early 20th century after the island was devegetated by introduced rabbits.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The millerbird (Acrocephalus familiaris) is a species of Old World warbler in the family Acrocephalidae. It has two subspecies, A. f. kingi and A f. familiaris. The latter, the Laysan millerbird, became extinct sometime between 1916 and 1923. The former, the critically endangered Nihoa millerbird, remains the only race left, inhabiting the small island Nihoa in Hawaiʻi, though it has since been reintroduced to Laysan.

Acrocephalus familiaris kingi

Acrocephalus familiaris kingi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Most people have heard that cannabis can boost mood, but not everyone realizes that it can also bring on nervous feelings and anxiety in certain situations. 



<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/add.14842" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Interest in balancing</a> these effects is soaring, with many folks wondering if specific parts of the cannabis plant might soften the jangled moods tied to its psychoactive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tapping-into-the-pain-relief-potential-of-cannabis-without-the-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">component</a>.



This newly published work comes from <a href="https://profiles.hopkinsmedicine.org/provider/ryan-g-vandrey/2777317" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ryan Vandrey, PhD,</a> professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.



He and his team uncovered fascinating details about an essential oil that appears to dampen the jittery edge often sparked by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medicinal-cannabis-helped-patients-feel-better-for-a-full-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THC</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thc-can-relax-or-cause-anxiety">THC can relax or cause anxiety</h2>



<a href="https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2020-nsduh-annual-national-report" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experts</a> say more people in the United States are giving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-cannabis-users-face-higher-heart-attack-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> a try these days. Some do it for medical reasons, while others do it for casual relaxation.



<a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/psychoactive-substance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Psychoactive compounds</a> affect mood and perception. THC, the main psychoactive part of cannabis, can prompt both calm and stress. 



Determining how it influences our minds is central to figuring out ways to reduce the negative side of the experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-cannabis-linked-mood-anxiety">Reduced cannabis-linked mood anxiety</h2>



The research spotlight is on d-limonene, a terpene in citrus fruits. A terpene is a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38932560/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">naturally occurring oil</a> that can influence taste and scent in plants.



Preclinical results have hinted that d-limonene might help with <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9774566/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxious</a> moods. Many have wondered if it could work in combination with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-reduces-the-unwanted-side-effects-of-thc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THC</a> to curb the uncomfortable restlessness some people feel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-d-limonene-the-basics">Understanding d-limonene - the basics</h2>



D-limonene is a natural compound that gives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citrus-fruits-where-did-they-come-from-and-how-would-we-live-without-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citrus fruits</a> their fresh, zesty smell. Basically, it's what makes oranges smell like oranges. 



It’s found in the peels of lemons, limes, oranges, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruits-and-plants-are-powerful-allies-for-disease-prevention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citrus fruits</a>, and companies often extract it to use in cleaning products, air fresheners, and even food flavorings. 



It’s oily, smells amazing, and happens to be a pretty effective solvent, which makes it great for cutting through grease and grime.



Some research suggests it might have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and even anti-cancer properties, though scientists are still figuring out the full picture. 



It’s also used in some natural insect repellents and eco-friendly products because it's biodegradable and less harsh than many synthetic chemicals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-blends-vs-anxiety-changes">Cannabis blends vs. anxiety changes</h2>



Twenty healthy adults, averaging 26 years old, took part in as many as 10 test visits. 



Each participant inhaled various mixtures that included <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-impacts-working-memory-and-brain-function/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THC</a> alone, d-limonene alone, a combination of both, or a placebo (4).



Researchers measured mood shifts, vital signs, and cognitive changes. They also examined blood and urine to see how THC and d-limonene moved through the body. 



The goal was to see if adding d-limonene could help people stay more at ease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-d-limonene-eased-cannabis-anxiety">D-limonene eased cannabis anxiety</h2>



The new <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871624001881" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> found that d-limonene lowered reports of anxious or paranoid feelings with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-potency-cannabis-use-linked-to-epigenetic-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THC</a>. That was true when used with higher levels of THC.



Ratings of other THC effects, such as changes in thought patterns and overall relaxation, were not altered when d-limonene was introduced. 



The essential oil by itself produced no changes in mood, heart rate, or mental clarity that stood out from the placebo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-cannabis-anxiety">Managing cannabis anxiety</h2>



“Our study demonstrates that d-limonene can modulate the effects of THC in a meaningful way and make THC more tolerable to people using it for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes,” said Vandrey. 



His team believes adding d-limonene may widen the comfort range for folks who rely on THC, especially if they are prone to anxiety.



“This study is a first step in uncovering how we can mitigate risks of THC when used in medicine, and also is targeted at making cannabis safer for the general, non-therapeutic consumer,” said <a href="https://profiles.hopkinsmedicine.org/provider/tory-r-spindle/2777649" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tory Spindle, PhD</a>, associate professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at the Johns Hopkins University <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/som" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Medicine</a>.



He hopes to test other terpenes that may work in tandem with THC.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impact-on-medical-treatments">Potential impact on medical treatments</h2>



THC-containing <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9223837/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicines</a> already help with certain conditions, such as chronic pain or chemotherapy-induced nausea. 



However, high doses can sometimes be challenging for people who are easily rattled by the psychoactive “high.”



More studies will show if d-limonene can consistently cushion those uneasy feelings. The prospect of an essential oil that smoothly partners with THC could change how some medical users approach dosing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thc-d-limonene-and-future-health">THC, d-limonene, and future health</h2>



Scientists plan to explore ways to administer THC and d-limonene together in oral forms. They are also eyeing different dose ranges that may yield the strongest relief.



They believe these steps will add clarity to how cannabis components mesh under real-world conditions. Larger, more diverse participant groups may reveal whether d-limonene works similarly for everyone.



There is still much to learn about how cannabis chemicals interact, especially in relation to anxiety. Though d-limonene appears promising, experts say these findings need to be replicated more widely.



People interested in experimenting with a d-limonene combination should talk to a healthcare provider. Personal tolerance matters, and controlled dosing is best done under professional guidance.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376871624001881?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drug and Alcohol Dependence</a>.



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Common essential oil proven to reduce cannabis-related anxiety and paranoia

Most people have heard that cannabis can boost mood, but...

<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079404" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-spread-of-butterfly-disease-revealed-in-museum-collections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-make-life-and-death-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a>Every spring, gardens and fields fill the air with rich, floral aromas. But it's more than just a pleasant smell; these plant-released scents play a vital role in the lives of butterflies and moths.



A new <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> study reveals how daily changes in plant aromas influence feeding behaviors among winged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/">insects</a> that belong to the group known as Lepidoptera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-scent-and-insect-diets">Plant scent and insect diets</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, unveils the Salient Aroma Hypothesis.



This new idea proposes that the chemical cues plants release - particularly during the daytime - are instrumental in shaping how specialized, or how flexible, a butterfly or moth becomes in its diet



“This idea provides a new perspective on why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-spread-of-butterfly-disease-revealed-in-museum-collections/">butterflies</a> and moths are picky eaters while others are not,” said Po-An Lin, an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/">National Taiwan University</a>. “It also highlights the critical role of plant volatiles, or scents, in shaping insect-plant interactions and evolutionary adaptations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-picky-eaters-and-their-plant-choice">Picky eaters and their plant choice</h2>



Scientists already knew that many Lepidopterans are surprisingly fussy with their dietary choices.



The insects feed only on specific plant groups that cater to the nutritional or chemical needs of their offspring. Others are the polar opposite, feeding on a broad range of vegetation.



The hypothesis explains these extremes by focusing on how butterflies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-defense-against-the-invasive-spongy-moth-is-fading/">moths</a> use their antennae to detect plant scents. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-scent-and-insect-antennae-size">Plant scent and insect antennae size</h2>



Researchers measured insect antennae on 582 specimens from 94 species and linked size to diet and activity patterns. 



Notably, they found that day-active females in particular had noticeably larger antennae than their nocturnal relatives. This adaptation allows them to detect and process the richer daytime scents in the environment.



“The relationship between antennal size and host plant breadth was very strong,” Felton said. “Larger antennal sizes have been associated with a greater number of sensilla, the sensory structures involved in the sense of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/">smell</a>, thereby increasing the surface area for sensory receptors." 



"The enhanced capacity may be a key adaptation for how certain Lepidoptera have evolved to feed on a limited and specific range of plants."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-cues-and-evolution">Chemical cues and evolution</h2>



The scientists confirmed that most vegetation releases a more varied and abundant blend of volatile compounds during the day, in comparison with the night.



This disparity lines up with the greater complexity observed in the olfactory systems of day-active insects. Daytime feeders use abundant daytime chemical cues to find, identify, and eat the plants that best suit their needs.



“This finding demonstrates how the availability of chemical signals influences the evolution of sensory organs in insects,” Felton said. “It provides a fascinating example of how plants have played a direct role in shaping the evolution of the insects that rely on them.”



The study also traced the evolutionary lineages of butterflies and moths in the Lepidoptera family tree. Researchers mapped species’ daily activity and linked it to host plant preferences to reveal feeding behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-specialization-in-the-daylight">Scent specialization in the daylight</h2>



The outcome is a nuanced picture of insect-plant dynamics. Daytime pollinators, like monarch butterflies, use their large antennae to detect specific plant scents, and this guides them toward a narrow range of host plants. 



“Insect herbivores, such as butterflies and moths, must find the right plants to feed on and, in the case of females, to lay their eggs,” said Professor Lin. “This is a crucial decision because caterpillars depend entirely on the selected plant for survival. 



In contrast, unlike humans, who eat a variety of foods to stay healthy, many insect herbivores specialize in just a few plant species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-diets-in-the-nighttime-quiet">Broader diets in the nighttime quiet</h2>



Nocturnal moths like the Polyphemus, encounter fewer distinct plant aromas in the dark. Without rich scent cues to guide them, these insects are less likely to lock in on a single preferred food source. Their evolutionary solution? Broaden their diet to improve their odds of survival.



By revealing how something as subtle as the timing and volume of plant odors can direct dietary choices, this study expands our understanding of ecological networks.



The research highlights the delicate interplay between insect sensory capabilities and plant chemistry, laying the groundwork for future research into how these relationships shape biodiversity across ecosystems.



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 Check us out on EarthSnap, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and&nbsp;<a href="http://earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>. -----

Scents of survival: How plant aromas shape insect diets

Every spring, gardens and fields fill the air with rich,...

Modern science has been sounding alarms about the sixth mass extinction, prompted by both climate shifts and human activities. Experts note that over 10% of China’s vascular plant species already face serious threats to their survival.



One research team decided to look deeper into the ancient past for guidance. They wondered if palynology - the study of fossil and modern spores and pollen - might offer essential insights that more traditional fossil records sometimes miss.



Professor Xiaomin Fang from the <a href="http://english.itpcas.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research</a>, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, is one of the leading scientists behind this effort.



Professor Fang <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468265925000228" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collaborated</a> with several experts to compare ancient pollen patterns with modern biodiversity trends, hoping to understand the best ways to protect plants in a changing climate.



“Plant spores and pollen offer a solution - they are abundant, well-preserved, and can fill gaps left by macrofossils,” explained Professor Fuli Wu, a Cenozoic pollen specialist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pollen-reveals-plant-history">Why pollen reveals plant history</h2>



Scientists become frustrated when partial fossil finds fail to reveal the bigger picture of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-dont-all-plants-grow-everywhere-across-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant evolution</a>. In contrast, pollen grains tend to remain intact in soil layers.



Pollen grains hold indicators of ancient species distributions that might otherwise vanish without a trace. This broader coverage helps to fill in the puzzle of how plant distributions expanded, shrank, or relocated across different landscapes through time.



Pollen grains also reflect environmental conditions. Their presence highlights specific humidity levels, temperature tolerance, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-plants-cant-outrun-climate-change-on-their-own/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> changes. This offers a peek at the long-term responses of plants, and guides efforts to predict future transformations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-biodiversity-and-winter-temperatures">Plant biodiversity and winter temperatures </h2>



The team tested five metrics designed to capture how many pollen types occur in a given region. They cross-checked these metrics with modern data on angiosperms (flowering plants) to see which values aligned best.



“Our results show that the Shannon-Wiener and the Berger-Parker <a href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Gettysburg_College/01%3A_Ecology_for_All/22%3A_Biodiversity/22.02%3A_Diversity_Indices" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">indices</a> most closely matched modern diversity patterns, making them optimal tools for reconstructing past biodiversity," explained Dr. Yuxuan Jiang, the study’s lead author.



"Moreover, we found climate strongly influenced diversity, with coldest-month temperatures being the dominant factor, followed by annual precipitation."



The researchers discovered that these indices were more sensitive to changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant communities</a> than other measures. They compared present-day vegetation maps with pollen data to confirm their findings.



The matches were surprisingly close, hinting that fossil pollen could do more than fill historical gaps - it could predict what might occur when winters become harsher or rain patterns shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-winters-shape-plant-biodiversity">Cold winters shape plant biodiversity </h2>



“Our work highlights the importance of winter temperatures in shaping plant biodiversity. This insight should guide conservation strategies, particularly under climate change,” noted Dr. Wu.



Freezing conditions appear to limit which plants can thrive, especially in places without reliable precipitation and heat. If winter extremes worsen, more plant groups may struggle to survive. 



That possibility has practical meaning for farmers, conservationists, and policy teams who must decide how to guard against escalating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">threats</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-affects-community-strength">Rainfall affects community strength</h2>



Annual rainfall is another major force. Drier regions tend to support fewer plant varieties, and subtle shifts can tip ecosystems from forest to grassland or even desert. Some parts of China already wrestle with intense dryness, and any dip in seasonal rains could speed up <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> loss.



Heavier rainfall, on the other hand, often encourages plant growth and pollinators. That boost can ripple through entire ecosystems, helping soils stay healthy and forests stay lush.



Based on the pollen data, the threshold of 400 mm (16 inches) annual precipitation is a strong line separating more vibrant plant communities from less diverse ones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollen-predicts-future-changes">Pollen predicts future changes</h2>



Pollen grains in sediment layers capture changes over thousands or even millions of years. By analyzing pollens from these layers, researchers can draw parallels between past global warming phases and what may soon unfold here on Earth.



This allows them to test theories about how quickly plants adapt or migrate when temperatures and rainfall patterns become unfavorable.



Many earlier studies relied on scattered leaf or stem fossils, but those did not always cover broad timeframes or extensive geographic zones. Pollen opens a window into overlooked periods and places, revealing critical turning points in the march of plant evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-survival-in-a-changing-climate">Plant survival in a changing climate</h2>



Using the <a href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Gettysburg_College/01%3A_Ecology_for_All/22%3A_Biodiversity/22.02%3A_Diversity_Indices" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shannon-Wiener and Berger-Parker indices</a>, researchers can sift through ancient samples with more confidence. 



Preservation efforts could then target hotspots where unique plant species once flourished but are now at risk. By mapping pollen patterns and comparing them to precipitation and cold snaps, decisions can be grounded in data that reflect real, long-term trends.



Such insight may also inform future reforestation or seed-bank programs. Officials could select species that handle temperature drops and uncertain rainfall in ways proven effective in similar ancient climates. This method, blending past patterns with modern conditions, may offer a survival roadmap.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468265925000228?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Diversity</a>.



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Pollen records reveal winter’s role in plant biodiversity

Modern science has been sounding alarms about the sixth mass...

From playground coughs to forest blights, the young suffer more from disease than adults. This pattern stretches across ecosystems and species. Children in schools catch colds more frequently. Seedlings wilt under fungal attacks while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mature</a> plants stand strong. 



Scientists have long wondered why evolution hasn’t corrected this vulnerability. Shouldn’t early life be better protected, given how deadly infection can be at that stage?



A new study from University of Maryland (<a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UMD</a>) biologists brings some clarity to this age-old puzzle. Their work doesn’t focus on toddlers or baby animals, but on plants. Specifically, they looked at Silene latifolia, or white campion, a common wildflower in Europe and parts of North America. 



This plant is often infected by a fungal disease called anther-smut. It doesn’t kill the host but stops it from reproducing by destroying its pollen-producing parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-costly-defense-in-youth">A costly defense in youth</h2>



The researchers found that young plants face a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-dont-all-plants-grow-everywhere-across-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serious trade-off</a>. Those that resist disease early on do so at a steep cost. Their growth slows down, and their reproductive success later in life drops significantly.



“It’s a mystery why young organisms don’t evolve stronger disease resistance because getting sick early in life can be deadly,” said study co-author Emily Bruns, an assistant professor of biology at UMD. 



“Our findings suggest that a hidden trade-off is involved, stopping them from being able to completely fight off a disease."



To uncover these patterns, the team grew 45 genetically different lines of the white campion under controlled lab conditions. They tracked how each one responded to the anther-smut fungus as seedlings and later in life. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-immunity-drains-energy">Early immunity drains energy</h2>



The results showed that baby plants with stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-plants-cant-outrun-climate-change-on-their-own/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resistance</a> produced far fewer flowers and seeds as adults - even when grown in fields without any disease.



This surprised the researchers. Why should <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-build-their-cell-walls-is-seen-by-scientists-for-the-first-time-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defense</a> in early life cost so much? The answer lies in how plants allocate energy. 



Young plants, like young animals, operate with limited internal resources. What they spend on defense cannot go toward growing roots, leaves, or reproductive tissues later.



“We found that young plants paid a higher ‘cost’ for fighting the disease compared with adult plants,” Bruns said. 



“Trying to fight off the fungus was more difficult and resource-consuming for these baby plants. They only have so much energy to spend. If baby plants spend it on disease defense, they can’t put it toward future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growth</a>.”



This concept is important. Adult plants with high resistance show no such penalty. They’ve already developed their roots and leaves and can afford to spend more on immune defenses. 



Seedlings, on the other hand, gamble with every drop of stored energy. Using it on immunity might leave them alive, but too weak to reproduce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-is-halted-in-young-plants">Evolution is halted in young plants</h2>



To test whether this cost could explain why strong juvenile resistance doesn’t evolve, the researchers created a mathematical model. It revealed that the energy price of resistance is high enough to halt the evolution of stronger defenses in young plants. 



If this cost didn’t exist, plants with better early resistance would outcompete others and wipe out the disease. But because resistance drains future reproductive potential, evolution holds back.



“Some young plants ‘pay the cost’ and survive into adulthood, but they make fewer flowers, meaning they’re less able to reproduce,” Bruns explained. “But most remain susceptible as babies, allowing the disease a toehold.”



Even more surprisingly, the negative effects didn’t appear immediately. Young plants that resisted the disease looked healthy during the first growing season. But when they reached their reproductive peak in the second year, the impact showed. These plants bloomed far less than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-shapes-the-impact">Gender shapes the impact</h2>



The researchers also found a striking difference between male and female plants. Males suffered much higher penalties when they invested in resistance. 



Bruns thinks this might be because male white campion plants produce more flowers than females. Their reproductive success depends on spreading as much pollen as possible, so losing energy to defense hits them harder.



“Male plants produce many more flowers than females to spread their pollen as widely as possible - making the cost of diverting resources to disease resistance especially steep for males,” she said.



This insight points to how evolution can apply pressure differently across sexes. In plants as in animals, reproductive strategy affects how disease shapes the body. The same infection might challenge one sex more than the other, depending on where they spend their biological resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-young-plants-weakness-matters">Why young plants’ weakness matters </h2>



While this research focuses on a wildflower, its implications stretch far. Many species - from humans to fish - show a similar pattern: greater vulnerability in youth. Bruns believes this study offers a new lens for thinking about why that happens.



Because juveniles carry the disease burden for many populations, understanding why they remain vulnerable could help us design better approaches in agriculture, conservation, and health.



“Nature is full of infectious diseases. Understanding the different checks and balances between hosts and pathogens helps us understand how evolution has shaped these relationships over millions of years,” Bruns said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-experiments-and-applications">Future experiments and applications</h2>



The team doesn’t plan to stop with this study. They now want to know if timing matters. What happens if the disease hits just a little later - after seedlings grow their first true leaves and rely less on stored energy? Could resistance become less costly then?



They also plan to explore another angle: the protective effect of adult plants. If resistant adult plants surround seedlings, would that lower the local disease pressure? Could the adults, in effect, guard the next generation by absorbing the fungal threat?



These questions could open new research paths - not just for ecologists, but also for people trying to reduce disease in crops or manage infections in wildlife. 



Evolution has no perfect solutions. But studies like this reveal the complex calculations that every organism, even a wildflower seedling, must make.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2419192122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</a>



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Young plants pay a big price for fighting off disease

From playground coughs to forest blights, the young suffer more...

Today, April 5th, brings with it a gentle, golden celebration - National Dandelion Day. At first glance, the dandelion might seem like just another weed. It pops up uninvited on lawns, fields, and roadsides. But beneath that familiar yellow bloom lies a rich story of endurance, healing, and quiet resilience.



"In our modern society, dandelions are considered a weed. The definition of a weed is a plant that is not valued where it is growing," notes the <a href="https://dandelionproject.org/pages/about-us" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dandelion Project</a>.



"The truth is dandelions have great value, but we've overlooked that in favor of perfectly manicured lawns. Perhaps we need to change our perception and recognize their worth."



This day is not just about admiring a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-as-food-how-ultrasound-makes-it-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flower</a>. It’s about recognizing how something small and often overlooked can travel across the world and take root in every corner. 



Dandelions tell a story of resilience, scattering hope with every seed they send into the wind. Their gentle drift reminds us that true strength is often found in life’s simplest forms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-dandelion-day-a-humble-flower">National Dandelion Day: A humble flower</h2>



Dandelions belong to a vast genus of flowering plants in the Asteraceae family. Originally native to Eurasia, they didn’t stay confined for long. European travelers brought them to North America, where the plant took hold quickly. 



Today, dandelions grow in nearly every part of the world. You’ll find them in grassy fields, between cracks in sidewalks, along rivers, and in mountain meadows. They thrive where other plants struggle.



What sets dandelions apart isn’t just their spread, but how they adapt. They grow fast, survive droughts, and keep returning even when removed. 



With deep taproots and clever seed dispersal, dandelions have mastered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-friendly-gardening-why-flower-diversity-is-so-important/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>. They don’t demand attention - they simply exist and persist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-of-survival">The science of survival</h2>



Dandelions are perennial, herbaceous plants with taproots that go deep into the soil. Their resilience begins underground. Once their yellow petals fall away, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-blooming-92-days-earlier-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flower</a> transforms. 



A spherical seed head forms, light and feathery. Each seed is equipped with a parachute-like structure. The wind does the rest. These seeds can travel across great distances and colonize new areas with ease.



This is nature’s way of giving the dandelion a wide reach. While most flowering plants rely on bees or birds, the dandelion trusts the wind. In doing so, it often ends up in unlikely places where it plants new roots and begins again.



The image of those seeds catching the breeze is both scenic and symbolic. They teach us about freedom, possibility, and quiet determination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rooted-in-history-and-healing">Rooted in history and healing</h2>



Scientists believe that dandelions have been around for 30 million years. Their origin traces back to the Eurasian region. 



Long before modern science acknowledged their value, ancient people knew their worth. Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans used dandelions for their medicinal properties. So did the Chinese, who incorporated them into traditional medicine.



By 900 AD, Persians were already calling the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-tracks-changes-in-seasonal-flower-cycles-and-migration-patterns-from-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> "tarashquq." A century later, the philosopher Ibn Sīnā wrote about dandelions in his medical texts. 



During the 16th century, English herbalists like John Gerard and John Parkinson began documenting its use in healing remedies. Across cultures and centuries, the plant served as food and medicine.



In America, settlers used every part of the plant. The leaves were eaten raw or cooked. The roots brewed into tea. Flowers turned into wine. The dandelion was never wasteful. It gave generously - nutrients, color, and comfort in equal measure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutrition-in-every-leaf-and-petal">Nutrition in every leaf and petal</h2>



Dandelion greens are full of health benefits. Raw leaves offer calcium, potassium, iron, manganese, and an array of vitamins. The flowers can be used to make natural dyes, adding color to fabrics or paper. The roots go deep into the earth and pull up nutrients, making them valuable in both human diets and soil health.



Though often called a weed, the dandelion plays an active role in ecosystems. Its flowers attract pollinators, especially early in spring when few other blossoms bloom. Bees, butterflies, and other insects rely on them. 



The plant can also improve soil structure. When planted carefully, dandelions enrich gardens by supporting other plants.



However, dandelions can grow aggressively. In farmlands or gardens, they may crowd out crops if unmanaged. They don’t ask permission before spreading, and that has earned them a mixed reputation. But their impact depends on how humans choose to interact with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-journey-before-national-dandelion-day">The journey before National Dandelion Day </h2>



The story of the dandelion includes some notable moments. Around 30 million years ago, it began evolving in the wilds of Eurasia. 



By 900 AD, Persians had named it. By 1000 AD, scholars were writing about its healing powers. In the 16th century, it gained a foothold in European medicine.



Its journey didn’t stop there. With every gust of wind, dandelions moved farther, took root deeper, and grew stronger. 



This simple plant carries generations of knowledge within its stems and leaves. It tells a story of migration, medicine, and nature’s quiet intelligence.



Dandelions thrive in a wide range of environments, particularly in temperate zones with moist soil, which offer ideal growing conditions. They are commonly found across the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and Turkey. 



Dandelions are classified as herbs and are valued for their powerful medicinal properties, especially in treating infections and aiding digestion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-meets-the-eye">More than meets the eye</h2>



The word "dandelion" comes from the French dent de lion, meaning “lion’s tooth.” This refers to the jagged shape of its leaves. Some ancient cultures believed dandelions caused bed-wetting when touched. Others believed their roots could open psychic pathways.



Vineland, New Jersey, proudly calls itself the dandelion capital. And in case you were wondering - every part of the dandelion is edible. From root to flower, nothing goes to waste.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-national-dandelion-day">Honoring National Dandelion Day </h2>



Dandelions are among the most widespread wildflowers in the world. They withstand harsh, unforgiving climates on every continent and continue to thrive - earning their place as one of our favorite flowers with a powerful story to tell.



This flower teaches survival. Not through might, but through endurance. Not by force, but by grace.



There’s a quiet awe in witnessing something both beautiful and functional spread swiftly and silently across the world. The dandelion, born from a single seed, perfectly captures this. Its status as one of the most widespread wildflowers reflects the subtle yet powerful reach of nature.



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National Dandelion Day: Celebrating a flower that travels the world

Today, April 5th, brings with it a gentle, golden celebration...

Urbanization is reshaping more than just skylines. As cities expand and natural landscapes give way to concrete and park lawns, the soil beneath our feet is changing too.



The diversity of life underground - especially among bacteria and fungi - is responding to the pressures of urban development in surprising ways.



New research now shows that, while bacterial communities are becoming more alike across cities, fungal communities are holding onto their unique identities.



This new study comes from scientists at <a href="https://en.sjtu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shanghai Jiao Tong University</a>, the University of Helsinki, and other international institutions. 



The researchers studied soil microbial communities in boreal, temperate, and tropical biomes. They looked at sites ranging from undisturbed forests to urban parks of various ages. 



Their findings reveal a striking contrast in how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-engage-in-more-conversations-after-rainfall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a> have responded to urbanization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-bacteria-reshaped-by-urbanization">Soil bacteria reshaped by urbanization </h2>



The researchers found that bacteria in urban soils tend to behave like generalists. They adapt quickly and can thrive in a range of conditions. 



In fact, the similarity between bacterial communities rose from 79% in forests to 85% in younger urban parks. About 90% of urban soil bacteria were generalists.



Fungi, on the other hand, proved to be more resistant to change. Roughly 83% of fungi remained specialists - organisms that stick to very specific environmental conditions.



Their evolutionary pace is slower than that of bacteria and they don't share genes as easily. This keeps them more rooted to particular niches.



“Urbanization is a powerful force reshaping soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-soil-planet-warming-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial communities</a>, yet bacteria and fungi respond in strikingly different ways. Bacteria swiftly adapt to urban conditions, whereas fungi retain their ecological specialization, highlighting the complex interplay between microbial adaptation and ecosystem resilience,” noted Dr. Nan Hui, the study’s corresponding author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-bacteria-and-fungi-different">What makes bacteria and fungi different?</h2>



The contrasting responses of bacteria and fungi to urbanization stem from their fundamental biological differences. 



Bacteria are single-celled organisms with relatively simple structures and rapid reproduction cycles. They readily exchange genetic material through processes like horizontal gene transfer, allowing them to adapt quickly to new or stressful environments.



Fungi, by contrast, are more complex. Many are multicellular, forming extensive underground networks known as mycelia. These structures connect them intimately to their surroundings, making them less mobile and less genetically flexible than bacteria. 



Fungi also tend to evolve more slowly and rely heavily on specific environmental conditions and host relationships.



These inherent traits explain why bacteria can act as generalists in urban soils - adapting and thriving across varied settings - while fungi often remain tied to particular ecological niches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-bacteria-adapt-to-urbanization">Soil bacteria adapt to urbanization </h2>



Despite their different strategies, both bacteria and fungi are essential for the same big job: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-soils-produce-a-symphony-of-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keeping the soil healthy</a>. They break down organic matter and recycle nutrients.



The study shows that even though the fungi and bacteria populations shift differently, their shared functional traits help maintain these vital services in urban soils.



This redundancy in ecological roles means cities aren’t necessarily doomed to poor soil health. The resilience is built in. And that’s good news for city planners and environmental managers looking to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-are-urgently-needed-across-the-global-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban green spaces</a>.



It also suggests that microbial soil communities can adapt to disturbance without losing their core functions. With the right support, urban soils can continue to thrive - even in heavily modified environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-city-soil-resilience">The future of city soil resilience</h2>



Soil microbes are often overlooked in discussions about biodiversity, especially in cities. But this study makes it clear that they play a vital role in sustaining life above the surface. Understanding their behavior under the stress of urbanization is a step toward building more resilient cities.



Future research could explore how certain design choices - like the age of green spaces or the types of plants used - shape these microbial communities.



Microbial studies like this one are essential for designing urban environments that support biodiversity, climate resilience, and long-term sustainability.



The more we learn about what keeps urban soils alive, the better equipped we’ll be to nurture the ecosystems that support us - even in the heart of the city.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666498425000250?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science and Ecotechnology</a>.



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Soil bacteria and fungi respond differently to urbanization

Urbanization is reshaping more than just skylines. As cities expand...

Why do some plant species grow and flourish only in certain places, while their close relatives take root in faraway landscapes? Scientists have wrestled with this mystery for years, hoping to understand how nature sets its limits.



A global investigation of nearly 270,000 seed plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> sheds new light on the environmental and historical factors that decide where vegetation can prosper.



The research was led by an international team that examined climate data, soil conditions, and ancient geologic events spanning millions of years. The break apart of the supercontinent Pangea due to plate tectonics is one significant event which saw a drastic change in plant life. 



The investigation's central findings trace back to work by Dr. Lirong Cai from the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a> and the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), who served as a key figure in this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-grow-in-some-places-only">Plants grow in some places only</h2>



Many scientists argue that biodiversity is shaped by more than just random spread or occasional migration. 



Climate, <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/soil-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil composition</a>, and geographical barriers are thought to play a strong part in keeping certain plant groups confined to specific locations. In turn, the locations become a place for unique plants to thrive.



Researchers have also turned to phylogenetic methods that track family trees over deep timescales. This <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.292.5517.673" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approach</a> helps reveal when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-plants-cant-outrun-climate-change-on-their-own/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant group</a> encountered new conditions or broke past a barrier into another region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-and-soil-affect-plant-growth">Climate and soil affect plant growth</h2>



Temperature and moisture have long been recognized as strong regulators of distribution, influencing growth and survival. 



Some species can endure extreme cold, drought, or humidity better than others. This paves the way for plant growth to flourish or can restrict them to smaller pockets.



Shifts in habitat conditions can push certain lineages to adapt over time. Others may fail to survive these changes, leaving them behind as evidence of how vital the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-stops-the-spread-of-plants">What stops the spread of plants?</h2>



Physical structures such as mountains, deserts, and vast oceans block species from expanding at certain stages. Younger plant lineages often get stranded, while older ones might have had more time to grow and overcome these obstacles.



Older plants are more accustomed to harsh weather and soil conditions. Not only have older plants had more time to grow than younger plants, older plants are familiar with the structures around them.



This familiarity gives older plant species an advantage which allows the plant to continue to grow without becoming trapped due to terrain or physical structures.



“These findings reveal a fundamental process in nature. Given enough time, plants can overcome the barriers of vast distances and geography, but they often remain limited by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a> they encounter,” said Dr. Cai.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-continents-changed-plant-paths">Shifting continents changed plant paths</h2>



Continents <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16701355/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drifted</a> into different positions between 20 and 50 million years ago, opening or closing routes that influenced plant travel.



This rearrangement had moderate impacts on long-term distribution, though it was more pronounced within that window of shifting plates.



Some groups of plants managed to traverse newly connected landmasses, while others remained clustered where they first took root. The lasting effect of those movements is still visible in the distribution <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> seen today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-plants-spread-more">Ancient plants spread more</h2>



Genetic evidence confirms that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02599-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal barriers</a> remain tough to conquer in the short run, even though ancient lineages managed to spread widely over longer intervals. 



Oceanic gaps and hostile climates slow down or halt these botanical journeys. Unfortunately, some plants cannot survive and spread in specific environments.



Because of this, environmental filtering stays a constant factor. Where the temperature or moisture swings too far from a species’ tolerance, the plants refuse to grow or venture there, no matter how long they have existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Ecologists see value in integrating more detailed geological reconstructions with modern species data. Climate fluctuations, like those in the past Ice Ages, also carry <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.292.5517.673" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clues</a> about how quickly species can respond or shift their homes.



A broader understanding may inspire efforts to protect fragile habitats. Some zones remain high-risk for plant extinctions if conditions change faster than species can grow or adapt.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02599-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Why don’t all plants grow everywhere across the world?

Why do some plant species grow and flourish only in...

Newly published research suggests that toxins aren't reserved for creatures like snakes, spiders, or scorpions, which we've traditionally labeled as venomous. A surprising cast of organisms also use comparable tactics.



Growing evidence indicates that many plants, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-fungi-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>, and microorganisms rely on venom-like methods to protect themselves from threats and outmaneuver other organisms. The research challenges assumptions we've held about which living things can deliver a harmful punch and opens new doors for scientific inquiry.



Venomous animals have long fascinated biologists that were seeking to understand their deadly secretions and the traits associated with their use, but have also contributed numerous life-saving therapeutics, said William K. Hayes, professor of biology at Loma Linda University <a href="https://medicine.llu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Medicine</a>.&nbsp;



This perspective casts a wider net over organisms that employ toxic secretions, raising hopes that an even broader range of life forms could offer untapped chemical treasures for medicine and research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venom-goes-beyond-animals">Venom goes beyond animals</h2>



<a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/17/3/99" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have begun to expand the basic definition of venom beyond what is produced by snakes or spiders, since a strictly animal-based perspective overlooks key examples in other branches of life. 



A toxin introduced into the internal tissues of a target through a specialized structure could also describe the stinging hairs on some plants, the penetration mechanisms used by certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-fungal-networks-are-natures-hyper-efficient-architects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>, and even the injection systems of a few bacteria.



One example includes certain <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/Urticaceae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nettle species</a> that can puncture skin upon contact, while other flora form alliances with stinging ants for defense, effectively tapping into ant venom as a shared resource. 



Scientists investigating <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abb8828" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian stinging trees</a>, for instance, have identified peptides that trigger severe and long-lasting discomfort, mirroring what happens when an animal injects toxins through fangs or barbs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-and-viruses-use-venom">Fungi and viruses use venom</h2>



Fungi have also developed toxin-delivery tactics that come into play when they invade living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-fungi-diversity-can-be-pulled-out-of-thin-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hosts</a>, and these strategies often involve sophisticated enzymatic activity that breaches protective barriers. 



Certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/entomopathogenic-fungus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">entomopathogenic species</a>, such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/cordyceps" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cordyceps fungi</a>, infect insects by using specialized structures to pierce the exoskeleton, then introduce <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15792702/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical compounds</a> that cripple the insect’s immune response and ultimately pave the way for the fungus to feed.



Viruses might appear too simple to fit our usual venom concepts, but some can inject their genetic material directly into a cell using a needle-like mechanism that disrupts normal function. 



This approach even underpins emerging <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/795414/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ideas</a> about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0882401024005552" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phage therapy</a> for antibiotic-resistant infections, since bacteriophages can selectively invade harmful bacteria and dismantle them from the inside.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-microbial-strategies">Hidden microbial strategies</h2>



Bacterial warfare often revolves around <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26999395/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialized secretory systems</a> that shoot toxins straight into rival cells, effectively seizing control or neutralizing threats on the microbial battlefield. 



These intricate setups, including type III and type VI secretion systems, function much like an inbuilt syringe, enabling bacteria to sabotage plant or animal tissues while gaining an upper hand in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



Competition among microbes can be fierce, with each species fighting for resources in shared environments, and these hidden battles often hinge on toxin injection that allows one group to dominate a niche.



Some strains even produce <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29405518/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contractile devices</a> that resemble phage tails, launching protein payloads across cell membranes to stop competing organisms in their tracks and often developing self-protective measures to avoid collateral damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venom-from-fungi-plants-and-microbes">Venom from fungi, plants, and microbes</h2>



Medical <a href="https://www.weforum.org/stories/2018/11/venomics-deadly-toxins-life-saving-drugs-mande-holford/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> have long looked to animal venoms for treatments that range from blood pressure medication to pain relief, leveraging the finely tuned molecules that evolved to subdue prey or fend off enemies. These endeavors fuel optimism about searching for new leads among non-animal toxins. 



If plants, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-eating-fungus-beauveria-bassiana-causes-the-immune-system-to-attack-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>, and microbes also contain potent substances shaped by similar evolutionary pressures, then a bigger repository of chemical compounds could emerge for developing therapies against infections, chronic pain, or even cancer.



Adopting a more inclusive perspective on what qualifies as venom might shift the way scientists collaborate across disciplines, bringing together botanists, microbiologists, and pharmacologists in shared discovery that breaks conventional boundaries. 



This approach could spark fresh ideas about the ecological roles of toxins in nature, pave the way for advanced drug development pipelines, and spur new methods for controlling pests or pathogens.



The research reminds us that the line between harmful and helpful can be surprisingly thin when viewed through a different lens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/17/3/99" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Toxins</a>.



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Venom beyond animals: The toxic arsenal of fungi, plants, and microbes

Newly published research suggests that toxins aren't reserved for creatures...

For over 165 years, scientists have puzzled over a strange fossil called&nbsp;Prototaxites. Even its appearance was unusual. It stood up to 8 meters tall, and resembled a towering tree with no leaves.



These curious lifeforms appeared during the late Silurian period, around 400 million years ago. Found among early ferns and horsetails, they lacked branches and looked nothing like modern trees.



In 1859, Canadian geologist John William Dawson thought these fossils were decaying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/palm-tree-fossils-found-in-the-arctic-rewrite-earths-climate-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> trunks. He named them "first conifer," a name that stuck even as confusion deepened. 



The mystery has only grown as modern science has applied new tools, yet the answers remained elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-was-prototaxites-a-fungus">Was Prototaxites a fungus?</h2>



For decades, the idea that Prototaxites was a fungus gained support. 



In 2001, paleontologist Francis Hueber proposed it was a giant terrestrial fungus, based on anatomical features like the presence of tubular structures. 



Later, in 2017, researchers identified what they believed were fruiting bodies in the fossil, linking it to Ascomycota, a modern fungal group.



But there was a problem - these supposed reproductive parts had never been shown to connect with the vegetative body. That raised concerns. 



Could these fragments have belonged to an entirely different organism? Without direct evidence, the fungal identity of Prototaxites remained guesswork.



Despite ongoing debate, the fungus theory persisted. That is, until a team led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a> took a closer look. 



They re-examined Prototaxites taiti, a species preserved in Scotland’s Rhynie chert, which is one of the best <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-oasis-provided-refuge-for-plants-during-earths-worst-extinction-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> deposits from the early Devonian period. Their findings call everything we thought we knew into question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-largest-organism-of-the-devonian-landscape">Largest organism of the Devonian landscape</h2>



The team focused on an exceptionally well-preserved fossil labeled NSC.36. This fossil showed a cross-section of P. taiti and revealed medullary spots - dark, circular features - spread throughout its body.



The sample of rock that was used for analysis was roughly cylindrical, 5.6 cm (2.2 inches) wide and nearly 7 cm (2.8 inches) long, but incomplete. This suggests the original organism was much larger, likely a towering figure in its environment.



At the microscopic level, the researchers discovered three distinct types of tubes running lengthwise through the fossil. 



Type 1 tubes were thin, septate, and branched. Type 2 tubes were wider, with smooth double walls and no internal cross-walls. Type 3 tubes were thickest, and featured ring-like thickenings that do not match any known fungal type. These structures appeared interwoven, forming a dense, interconnected network inside the fossil.



Interestingly, these anatomical features resembled some aspects of fungi - but not enough to confirm a match. The third tube type, with its annular thickenings, doesn’t appear in any known fungal group, which raised immediate doubts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-medullary-spots-with-no-equal">Strange medullary spots with no equal</h2>



Using confocal laser scanning microscopy and 3D imaging, the team examined the medullary spots in detail. These regions contained all three tube types and added even finer ones, some just 1 micron in diameter. The branching patterns inside were complex and lacked the clear order seen in today's fungal systems.



In modern fungi, branching follows a hierarchy - generative hyphae give rise to other types in a predictable pattern. But in P. taiti, the branching had no clear direction or sequence. Tubes connected in all directions, forming a chaotic mesh.



“There are no structures analogous to medullary spots in extant fungi,” the researchers noted.



They also rejected the idea that these spots resembled fruiting bodies of ascomycetes. Even though some scientists once thought the spots hinted at spore production, no organic connection exists between these spots and any supposed reproductive structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prototaxites-lacked-fungal-or-plant-traits">Prototaxites lacked fungal or plant traits</h2>



Next, the team analyzed the fossil’s molecular makeup using FTIR spectroscopy. 



They compared P. taiti with fungi, plants, animals, and bacteria from the same deposit. All these fossils had undergone the same fossilization process, which allowed for reliable side-by-side comparison.



The results were striking. The fossil lacked any trace of chitin or chitosan, which are essential compounds found in fungal cell walls. Even perylene - a chemical marker of ascomycete fungi - was absent in P. taiti, though present in the surrounding substratum.



Instead, P. taiti’s cells contained aromatic and phenolic compounds resembling fossilized lignin. Lignin is found in land plants, but this version differed chemically. It was something entirely distinct - resembling lignin, yet not plant-like.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-confirms-its-isolation">Machine learning confirms its isolation</h2>



To test the molecular data further, the team used machine learning models. These models were trained to distinguish organisms based on their molecular fingerprints. 



The results were clear. The models identified P. taiti as something different from fungi, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, bacteria, or plants - with over 90% accuracy.



"We conclude that the morphology and molecular fingerprint of P. taiti is clearly distinct from that of the fungi and other organisms preserved alongside it in the [Devonian deposit], and we suggest that it is best considered a member of a previously undescribed, entirely extinct group of eukaryotes," the authors note.



With no known taxonomic group sharing its combination of anatomy, chemistry, and lifestyle, Prototaxites stands apart. It was a eukaryote - meaning it had complex cells with nuclei - but that’s where the similarities end.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-a-plant-fungus-or-animal">Not a plant, fungus, or animal</h2>



The researchers tested every possible affiliation. Could it be an alga? No, P. taiti lacked the necessary photosynthetic structures and was chemically dissimilar. Could it be an early land plant? Again, the absence of vascular tissues and other plant traits ruled that out.



How about lichen? Not possible without a photobiont. Oomycetes? The molecular composition didn’t match. Even animals were ruled out. Metazoans do not have tube-like structures with cell walls, and P. taiti clearly did.



In the end, the team’s classification table showed the same result for every group: rejected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prototaxites-evolution-s-lost-experiment">Prototaxites: Evolution’s lost experiment</h2>



Prototaxites might be the last known member of its kind. It formed massive vertical structures from underground networks. It likely absorbed nutrients from decaying matter, much like modern saprotrophs. Yet it was not a fungus, not a plant, and not an animal.



"Based on this investigation we are unable to assign Prototaxites to any extant lineage, reinforcing its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">uniqueness</a>," the authors concluded.



And that may be all we ever know. With no modern descendants and no living relatives, Prototaxites exists only as a fossil - part of a long-vanished branch of life. It reminds us that evolution is full of strange ideas, some of which thrived briefly before disappearing forever.



The ancient world was full of life unlike anything we see today. Prototaxites was one of its boldest experiments - and perhaps, one of its most fascinating failures.



The study is published in the pre-print server <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.03.14.643340v1.full.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a>.



Image Credit: CC BY-SA 4.0



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Giant, mysterious organisms discovered are impossible to categorize

For over 165 years, scientists have puzzled over a strange...

A new study shows that the forces creating mountain ranges can also drive species diversity, illuminating how Earth’s geological processes shape the evolution of life. 



The work marks a breakthrough in understanding why mountainous areas are hotbeds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-diversity-shaped-by-climate-change-for-21000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species diversity</a> and how tectonic activities may have guided the evolutionary paths of certain groups of organisms over millions of years. The study was co-authored by researchers at <a href="https://www.iu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indiana University</a> (IU).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-mountains-and-new-species">Rising mountains and new species</h2>



Long recognized as biological treasure troves, mountain regions often hold surprising numbers of plant and animal species. Yet, it has been difficult to tease out whether high biodiversity naturally accompanies the rugged terrain or if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a>’ geological formation directly promotes new evolutionary processes.



According to this new study, the mere act of mountains rising can create conditions that give birth to new species. Shifting landscapes open up new habitats and geographically isolate populations, encouraging the emergence of new, distinct species - a process known as allopatric speciation.&nbsp;



Among smaller animals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modern-day-plague-rodents-fleas-and-their-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rodents</a>, the team found a strong correlation between how quickly and how high mountains lift up and the degree of species diversification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-with-virtual-worlds">A closer look with virtual worlds</h2>



The research team, which includes Eyal Marder of the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> (a former IU postdoctoral fellow) and Brian Yanites, an associate professor of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at IU, used advanced computer models to simulate how species might evolve in response to rising terrain over very long timescales.



They based their work on “Adascape,” a specialized model that allows for virtual representations of the Earth’s surface and how it changes. Then, they coupled it with programs that populate these landscapes with model species and track how they adapt and migrate as mountains slowly take shape.&nbsp;



The result was a synthetic view of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> might proceed in response to upheavals that can last tens of millions of years.



One of the more compelling revelations from these simulations is that certain mountainous areas can act like “cradles” of new biodiversity. A species of rodent-like mammals in the model, for instance, split into multiple distinct species as soon as the mountains rose and created different environmental niches.&nbsp;



Over time, some of these new species even migrated into adjacent lowlands, matching patterns paleontologists often see in fossil deposits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-to-the-fossil-record">Connecting to the fossil record</h2>



Past geologic intervals have left behind a record of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> booms that, until now, were not well explained. The authors propose that at least some of these booms may correlate with upticks in tectonic activity.&nbsp;



For example, the researchers suggest that a known spike in fossil diversity about 15 million years ago in the western United States might be linked to local mountain building in the Basin and Range region, which shaped both animal evolution and the formation of sedimentary basins.



“This study gives us new insights into how Earth’s physical processes influence the diversity of life,” Marder said. “It also highlights how ongoing geological changes could continue to impact biodiversity in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-role-of-mountains">The hidden role of mountains</h2>



Previous theories had proposed that mountains simply serve as a stage on which evolution plays out. In contrast, this research indicates that landscapes in flux can actively spark or redirect the evolutionary process.&nbsp;



“We often think of landscapes as passive backdrops for evolution, but this study shows that they are active participants in shaping biodiversity,” Yanites said.



Mountain-building pushes populations up or isolates them in valleys, subjecting organisms to different climates, food sources, and environmental pressures.&nbsp;



Over time, these constraints spawn new species. The link between tectonics and evolution grows even stronger when one considers that mountain ridges can capture moisture and alter local climates, further driving organisms to adapt or relocate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Beyond helping explain the past, these findings may also help conservationists decide how and where to protect species. Mountains remain sensitive to climate change; as conditions shift, those living at high elevations may have nowhere left to migrate.&nbsp;



Understanding which areas are most critical for speciation could focus conservation efforts on safeguarding genetic diversity hotspots.



By revealing how rising mountains foster new species, this study may also guide reevaluation of existing protected zones. If certain ridge systems are particularly crucial for generating biodiversity, setting them aside or expanding current reserves might become a priority.&nbsp;



This knowledge could likewise apply to other dynamic environments - like tectonically active rifts or volcanic zones - which might also harbor outsized roles in biological innovation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-uplift-and-species-evolution">Mountain uplift and species evolution</h2>



Moving forward, the authors aim to extend their computer modeling to different regions and sets of organisms, matching simulated results more closely with fossil records and genetic data. This interdisciplinary approach can refine projections about how topography influences evolution today and in the future.



According to the scientists, it’s not just about where species are now but about how a place changed over time, and how that might have sparked speciation or extinctions. This link between landscapes and life is something we’re just beginning to fully appreciate.



By establishing a clear, data-driven link between tectonic uplift and the evolution of new species, the study offers a novel perspective on Earth’s living tapestry - and on the power of the planet’s deep geological machinery to shape life across the ages.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp7290" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.&nbsp;



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How rising mountains give birth to new species

A new study shows that the forces creating mountain ranges...

Fruits and plant extracts have long been valued for their medicinal properties. Scientists are now working to better understand how these natural compounds might help prevent or treat disease, especially in the face of growing antibiotic resistance.



Recent research shows that certain plant extracts and fruit fibers may boost the immune system and even reduce the risk of chronic diseases.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Munich</a> and the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG) are teaming up to explore the power of medicinal plants in treating urinary tract infections (UTIs). 



At a lecture during FAPESP Week Germany at the Free University of Berlin, the team shared that they are building infection models to investigate how plant compounds affect bladder cells and immune response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-medicinal-plants-may-block-infections">Medicinal plants may block infections</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/narrowing-the-search-for-new-medicinal-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medicinal plants</a> contain phytochemicals that may help block infections and support the body’s defenses.



Some of these compounds may reduce inflammation, fever, or pain, but researchers are especially interested in how they might block infections.



“Although their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anti-inflammatory-foods-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anti-inflammatory</a>, antipyretic and analgesic effects are well known, the active compounds of these plants - such as flavonoids, alkaloids and terpenoids - and their mechanisms of action on pathogen cells have yet to be characterized. Some are antibacterial, but many don’t have this effect,” said Ulrich Dobrindt, a professor at the University of Munich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-extracts-and-bladder-cells">Plant extracts and bladder cells</h2>



To dig deeper, the scientists created infection models to observe how these extracts influence gene activity in bladder cells.



The experts are especially focused on plants listed in the German pharmacopoeia that have traditional use in treating urological issues.



Working with scientists at UFMG, the team tested extracts from plants like Solidago gigantea and Equiseti herba. 



They discovered that certain water-based extracts drastically reduced how well Escherichia coli, the main cause of UTIs, could stick to and survive in human bladder cells.



“We observed a drastic reduction in the adhesion and proliferation of this bacterium in bladder cells,” Ulrich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-fibers-and-digestive-health">Fruit fibers and digestive health</h2>



While their German colleagues focused on infection, researchers in Brazil are exploring how fruit fibers may support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-promotes-digestive-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digestive health</a> and prevent disease. 



A team from the University of São Paulo’s School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, working with the Food Research Center (FoRC), is studying special polysaccharides - complex sugars that can’t be digested but may have powerful biological effects.



These sugars, especially pectins, are found in papaya, passion fruit, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citrus-fruits-where-did-they-come-from-and-how-would-we-live-without-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citrus fruits</a>. They are believed to help reduce the risk of chronic diseases. 



But extracting them can be tricky. Fruits like papaya ripen quickly, which changes the structure of the pectins and reduces their health benefits.



“During fruit ripening, enzymes are expressed that modify the structure of the pectins, reducing their beneficial biological effects. Passion fruit and citrus pectins, on the other hand, must be chemically modified in order to present beneficial activities in the intestine,” explained João Paulo Fabi, professor at the University of São Paulo and project coordinator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boosting-the-effectiveness-of-fruits">Boosting the effectiveness of fruits</h2>



To address these challenges, the Brazilian team created new methods to extract and alter pectin from the usually discarded white parts of oranges and passion fruit. 



By reducing their molecular complexity in the lab, the researchers were able to boost the pectins' effectiveness.



This led to one patent for extracting pectin from soft fruits like papaya and chayote. Another patent is being filed for a method to modify pectin from passion fruit leftovers.



“We already have a prototype for extracting and modifying these pectins on a laboratory scale. The idea is to obtain a product, such as a flour rich in modified pectin, that could be consumed as a supplement or food ingredient,” Fabi explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-and-fruits-the-future-of-medicine">Plants and fruits: The future of medicine</h2>



With their modified pectins, the team conducted animal studies in collaboration with other groups. These preclinical trials showed promising links between the altered pectins and improved biological activity in the body.



“These preclinical studies can serve as a basis for the development of clinical trials [with modified pectins] as adjuvants to chemotherapy treatment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-linked-to-younger-colon-cancer-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colon cancer</a> or even as beneficial modulators of the intestinal microbiota,” said Fabi.



Together, these complementary projects from Brazil and Germany highlight the potential of natural substances in improving health - from preventing infections to supporting the gut.



As science continues to explore the benefits of what we eat, it’s becoming clearer that the healing power of plants may be more than just folklore - it might be the future of functional food and medicine.



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Fruits and plants are powerful allies for disease prevention

Fruits and plant extracts have long been valued for their...

Endangered animals

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