Skinks make great pets for people who enjoy a low-key, low-maintenance reptile. Once an adult skink is settled in a nice reptile tank, it only requires feeding once or twice a week, changing the water, and monthly cleaning of the terrarium. Owning a skink requires an initial investment in the terrarium, heat lamp, habitat structures, and the pet itself. Once you have supplied these up-front costs, skinks are cheap pets that take little time out of your life.



<h2 id="h-what-are-skinks">What Are Skinks?</h2>



Skinks are one of the most diverse and widely spread families of reptiles in the world. There are <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/skink" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">over 1,200 species</a> of skinks living in tropical, desert, temperate, and arctic climates. Typically, skinks have small legs and a minimal neck and are active during the day. They are <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-3-coolest-underground-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">burrowing lizards</a> that enjoy being able to dig. Skinks are mostly insectivores, but many species eat fruits and vegetables as part of their diets. The <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/creatura-blog/2018/11/the-solomon-islands-skink-is-an-absolute-unit/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Solomon Island Skink</a> is the largest skink in the world, reaching nearly three feet long.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone size-full wp-image-1887235"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_113941807.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1887235"/><figcaption>[Clearly, this is a blue-tongued skink.] <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/ladyfoto">ladyphoto</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



The skinks people typically keep as pets are blue-tongued skinks, which come from Indonesia and Australia. Some people also keep Berber skinks, which are native to northern Africa. People like to keep these skins because they are docile creatures that do well in terrariums. These species of skinks live <a href="https://www.thesprucepets.com/pet-blue-tongued-skinks-1236897#:~:text=They%20are%20docile%2C%20quiet%2C%20gentle,their%20time%20on%20the%20ground." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">about 15 years</a>, making them long-lived, low-maintenance pets.



<h2 id="h-setting-up-the-skink-tank">Setting Up the Skink Tank</h2>



If you are thinking of getting a skink as a low-maintenance pet, note that you will have to invest some time and money to get the skink settled into your house. Skinks require a handful of objects to live happily and healthfully.



<h3 id="h-a-skink-terrarium">A Skink Terrarium</h3>



First, a skink needs a relatively large terrarium (sometimes called a tank). A 55-gallon tank is the smallest recommended size for a skink, as they like big tanks compared to other lizards. This sized tank would be about eight cubic feet of space, which is about the footprint of a small desk. If you can, get a larger tank! Skinks are active animals. Your skink will have more places to explore and ponder life in a bigger terrarium. Terrariums that open from the front rather than the top are easier to maintain.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1887236 size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1421683055.jpg" alt="skink" class="wp-image-1887236"/><figcaption>[A pet skink burrows in its substrate.] <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/scink">Scink</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-bedding-and-substrate">Bedding and Substrate</h3>



As mentioned above, skinks are burrowing creatures. This means they need a deep layer of substrate to bury into. This substrate should be no less than six inches deep. <a href="https://www.thebiodude.com/blogs/reptile-and-amphibian-caresheets-with-cited-veterinary-and-herpetology-sources/blue-tongue-skink-care-guide" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Various substrates</a> can be used.



<h3 id="h-habitat-structures-caves-logs-sun-rocks">Habitat Structures: Caves, Logs, Sun Rocks</h3>



Do you ever feel like hiding from the world in your room? Skinks are the same way! They need spaces to decompress and feel safe. Reptile companies sell plenty of structures for lizards to hide out in. In addition to hiding places, sinks enjoy rocks to sun on and fun-shaped objects to explore and crawl around on.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone size-full wp-image-1887237"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1873658005.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1887237"/><figcaption>[A skink hangs out in its bamboo cave.] <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/nirut-luechayutthasin">Rut_Luecha</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-lizard-heat-lamp">The Lizard Heat Lamp</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-amphibians-cold-blooded/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cold-blooded creatures</a> can only regulate their body temperatures by absorbing heat from their surroundings. In the wild, skinks bask in the sun to gain the energy needed to hunt and move. Houses are too cold for the blue-tongued skinks kept as pets because they prefer temperatures of 90 F. A heat lamp is the best way to warm up your skink's terrarium. Put the heat lamp on one side of the terrarium. This placement makes a hot side and a cold side, which gives the skink options in order to thermoregulate.



<h3 id="h-where-do-i-get-this-stuff">Where Do I Get This Stuff?</h3>



A specialty reptile store will be the best place to buy the required items necessary for starting your skink terrarium. This is especially true if the skink is your first reptile pet. The expert staff at reptile-exclusive stores will know the appropriate tank size, heat lamp power, and type of vitamins to feed to your specific skink. Additionally, these stores will have all the materials you need, making the start-up process quick!



If you are on a budget and looking for second-hand items, there are plenty of terrariums and pet items on websites like NextDoor and Craigslist. Fortunately, once you have the terrarium set up, you are most of the way to caring for your new low-maintenance pet.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1413231470.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1887238"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/dwi-putra-stock">dwi putra stock</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-feeding-skinks">Feeding Skinks</h2>



Once your skink terrarium is set up, you will need to begin regular care of your new pet. Young skinks require feeding more often than adult skinks. Skinks younger than three months should <a href="https://reptifiles.com/blue-tongue-skink-care/blue-tongue-skink-food/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">be fed daily</a>. Three to eight-month-old skins should be fed about 3 times per week. For the next 14 years of their lives, skinks only need feeding one to two times per week, making them low-maintenance pets.



In addition to feeding more often, younger skinks require a higher ration of insects in their food than older skinks. Young skinks should eat about 70% insects and 30% vegetables, whereas adult skinks should eat even portions of both.



Some owners swear by <a href="https://reptifiles.com/blue-tongue-skink-care/blue-tongue-skink-food/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">cat food and dog food</a>, while others prefer to use live crickets and mealworms. While using live insects is more thrilling for your skink, cat and dog food are certainly a more low-maintenance pet alternative. Skinks like leafy greens and other soft vegetables. While skinks will eat a wide variety of fruits, owners should only feed them fruit as a special treat.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone size-full wp-image-1887239"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/shutterstock_1607384131.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1887239"/><figcaption>[A young boy enjoys looking at a reptile in a large terrarium.] <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/galitskaya">Elizaveta Galitckaia</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-low-maintenance-pets-do-require-some-cleaning">Low-Maintenance Pets Do Require Some Cleaning</h2>



The biggest regular maintenance of any low-maintenance reptile is cleaning the terrarium. Every day or so you should change the water, pick out any uneaten food, and pick up any feces. Skinks tend to get their water bowls quite dirty, so some may require their water to be changed daily.



More comprehensive cleaning is required each month. To perform a deep clean you will need to remove everything from the tank, then <a href="https://www.petcoach.co/article/habitats-cleaning-and-disinfecting-reptile-cages/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">clean and disinfect each surface</a>. Pay special attention to the corners where grime can build up. If the substrate looks dirty, replace it. Cleaning the skink tank shouldn't take more than an hour or two a month, which is part of the reason these reptiles are great low-maintenance pets.



<h2 id="h-what-are-other-low-maintenance-pets">What Are Other Low-Maintenance Pets?</h2>



Other small lizards, certain birds, and guinea pigs are <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/low-maintenance-pets/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">excellent alternatives</a> to skinks as low-maintenance pets. When considered a pet, be sure to think about expenses, your long-term plans, your space, your interest, and your schedule. When all these factors line up and point you towards a skink, it's probably time you got yourself this lovely reptilian companion.



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Blue-Tongued Skinks: Low Maintenance Pets

Skinks make great pets for people who enjoy a low-key,...

When one thinks of an insect, they usually don’t picture a six-legged animal diving and swimming through water. Yet, the giant water bug has certainly made a name for itself doing so. The huge insect is an aquatic killing machine, as it swims through the water hunting small prey like fish, snails, and other insects. It goes by many names, including toe-biters, electric light bugs, and fish killers. Their many names and odd appearance leads to some confusion about what the critters actually are. Water bugs are often mistaken for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cockroaches-survive-anything/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">cockroaches</a> and other types of insects, so let’s clear up what exactly a water bug is, how to recognize one, and why they’re so cool!



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/water-strider-691039_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="water bug" class="wp-image-1886869"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/a_different_perspective-2135817/">A_Different_Perspective</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-is-a-water-bug-an-insect-what-kind">Is a Water Bug an Insect? What Kind?</h2>



Remember that insects are animals with a hard outer shell called an exoskeleton, six legs, and three body segments. Water bugs fit the insect bill in every way, so yes, they’re insects! Let’s go a little bit deeper, though. What kind of insect is a water bug?



Insects are in their own class of animals called Insecta, which contains many different orders. When we talk about types of insects, we usually refer to the taxonomic rank of order without even realizing it. Some of the most common insect orders are beetles (order Coleoptera), butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), and flies (Diptera). Water bugs are in the <a href="https://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?search=Hemiptera" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">order Hemiptera</a>. These are called the “true bugs”, a funny name considering how colloquial the word “bug” is.



Water bugs, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-a-stink-bug-and-why-do-they-stink/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">stink bugs</a>, aphids, and cicadas, are all in the order Hemiptera. The order gets its name from having half (Hemi-) wings (ptera), because their forewings are only half membraneous, with the other half being hardened into a protective shield. Giant water bugs are in their own family called Belostomatidae.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/water-bug-1292227_1920-1024x575.jpg" alt="water bug" class="wp-image-1886870"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/brett_hondow-49958/">Brett_Hondow</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-what-does-a-water-bug-look-like">What Does a Water Bug Look Like?</h2>



Giant water bugs are quite easy to recognize. First of all, they’re huge. They are usually at least two centimeters long (1 inch) but can be much, much larger. The largest species can reach lengths of up to 12 centimeters (4.5 inches), easily the length of a human hand! Aside from being really, really ridiculously big, giant water bugs can be recognized by a big “V” shaped pattern on their back.



<h2 id="h-where-do-water-bugs-live">Where Do Water Bugs Live?</h2>



Water bugs can be found all over the world. One of the more familiar species is Lethocerus americanus which is common in Southern Canada and the United States.



Giant water bugs live in aquatic and semi-aquatic environments. You can find them in freshwater ecosystems of all kinds, including ponds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/salt-marsh/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">marshes</a>, the banks of rivers and streams, and more. They typically like to hang out right underneath the surface of the water where they hide amongst vegetation or loose rock in order to escape predation when they aren’t hunting.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/wasserlaufer-5372086-1024x632.jpg" alt="water strider" class="wp-image-1886871"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/siebeckdotcom-13589689/">siebeckdotcom</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-water-bug-behavior">Water Bug Behavior</h2>



Water bugs are famous mainly because of their hunting abilities. They have specialized limbs that allow them to be swim and hunt in the water with ease. For example, their hind legs are basically giant paddles. They are large and flat, and water bugs use these appendages to propel themselves through the water. They also have huge <a href="https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/glossary/terms/raptorial" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">raptorial forelegs</a> that snag and hold onto their prey, much like a praying mantis. These front appendages are what make water bugs such excellent hunters, as they are capable of catching prey much larger than themselves.



Once a water bug is holding its meal, it inserts a long, piercing mouthpart into its victim. First, saliva with digestive enzymes is injected into the prey. Then, the water bug sucks out the nutritious juices with its straw-like mouth. It's a rather gruesome end for the prey, but an effective method of eating for the water bug.



Despite their aquatic abilities, giant water bugs can’t actually <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-do-amphibians-breathe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">breathe underwater</a>. Instead, they take up air at the surface like a snorkel and hold their breath as they dive. They can also create an air bubble underneath their wings, which they slowly use up while they’re underwater. It’s important to note that, unlike most animals, insects breathe through tiny holes in their abdomen. Other arthropods like spiders are able to do this as well, making them some of the first-ever scuba divers in the natural world!



Giant water bugs are also good parents, which is an unusual trait among insects. The male water bug cares for the eggs, often carrying them on his back before they hatch.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/water-2808949_1920-1024x576.jpg" alt="water striders" class="wp-image-1886873"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/ddzphoto-5605533/">ddzphoto</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-should-i-be-afraid-of-water-bugs">Should I Be Afraid of Water Bugs?</h2>



The short answer is: No! Water bugs are vital parts of a healthy ecosystem and are mostly harmless to humans. However, they are known to bite humans, and this behavior is what gives them the name "toe-biters". Unfortunately, their bite can be quite painful. Luckily, it’s not all that common to be bitten by these bugs, and they only bite to defend themselves if they are handled or messed with. They prefer to escape the situation first, using a bite only as a last resort.



<h2 id="h-in-conclusion">In Conclusion</h2>



Giant water bugs are nothing to be afraid of unless you are a small insect or fish living underwater. If you’re a human, they are fascinating and charismatic insects that deserve more recognition. The large insects have a super interesting natural history and are a vital part of aquatic ecosystems. Now you know what they are, where to find them, and how they live!



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What Is a Giant Water Bug?

When one thinks of an insect, they usually don’t picture...

That humans have made it to space is a profound, impressive feat that has impacts on our daily lives. We wouldn't be able to see our location on our phones or do anything involving GPS without the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-many-satellites-in-space-do-we-know-about/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">satellites</a> scientists have sent to space. We wouldn't have pictures of Earth from high above or any rocks from the moon. All these accomplishments were possible through science and rockets themselves. While the first rockets appeared as fireworks in China hundreds of years ago, most people think of space ships when they hear the word 'rocket' in the 21st century.



<h2 id="h-rockets-versus-airplanes">Rockets Versus Airplanes</h2>



On the surface, rockets may seem similar to planes. Both fly, both use fuel, and both are intended to move goods around. While their functions may be similar, the mechanisms powering these two flying machines are different. Exploring how planes and rockets are different is a good way to learn what a rocket is.



<h3 id="h-rockets-don-t-have-wings">Rockets Don't Have Wings</h3>



First of all, planes have wings and rockets don't. Wings create lift, which is a force that pushes the plane up in the air against gravity. Air flows over the top of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/do-flying-squirrels-exist-not-exactly/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">airfoil</a> faster than underneath the bottom and through some magic of physics, this differential in airspeed creates the force of lift.



But wings are a type of airfoil.&nbsp;The existence of air is why they work. Wings are unnecessary for rockets for a few reasons. First, rockets go straight up through the Earth's atmosphere. Wings produce drag rather than lift if the object is moving straight up. Second, there is no air in space! Therefore, the airfoil wings wouldn't do anything for a rocket in space. Moreover, since rockets must be lightweight, these wings would add unnecessary mass.



Perhaps you're thinking of the space shuttle. Yes, the space shuttle had wings, but these wings were essential for the space shuttle landing back on the Earth. Most of the rocket parts we send to space have don't come back home.



<h3 id="h-rocket-engines-contain-oxygen">Rocket Engines Contain Oxygen</h3>



The biggest difference between rockets and airplanes is how the fuel interacts with oxygen. Both of them rely on thrust from fuel. Thrust is the result of controlled explosions of fuel and oxygen in the engine. These explosions create pressure, which propels the plane or rocket forward.



An easy way to experience thrust yourself is to turn the hose on full blast. Pay attention to how the hose kicks back once the water starts coming out. That force is an example of thrust.



Since our atmosphere is full of oxygen, airplanes can combine atmospheric oxygen with fuel to combust jet fuel and, therefore, create thrust. As with the airfoil mentioned above, the absence of oxygen in space makes the combustion of fuel more difficult.



Instead of using atmospheric oxygen, rockets <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZLXpPeUkhQ" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">carry their own tanks</a> of oxygen, which are separate from the fuel. The engine of a rocket combines the oxygen and fuel in the rocket to combust and create thrust. By using on-board oxygen, these machines can create thrust in space.



<h2 id="h-parts-of-a-rocket">Parts of a Rocket</h2>



A rocket consists of four main systems; structure, propulsion, payload, and guidance. These four systems work together to guide a the vessel into space.



<h3 id="h-the-rocket-structural-system">The Rocket Structural System</h3>



You can think of the structural system of a rocket as the body. This system holds the payload, guidance, and propulsion systems in place as the rocket does its mission. Similarly, the structural system of a car is the metal frame on which the engine, seats, computer systems, and wheels sit. Unlike a car, the structural system of a rocket is engineered for minimum weight. A more <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition30/tryanny.html#:~:text=Rockets%20at%2085%25%20propellant%20and,constant%20engineering%20to%20keep%20flying." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">appropriate analogy</a> would be a soda can, where the can is the structural system and the soda is the propulsion system. A soda can is 94% soda and 6% can, which is very comparable to a rocket.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone size-large wp-image-1886835"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/rocket-1245696_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="rocket launch" class="wp-image-1886835"/><figcaption>A rocket launches into space. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/chetannigam94432">Contributor2</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-rocket-propulsion">Rocket Propulsion</h3>



The propulsion system takes up the vast majority of the space in rockets. This is because rockets require massive amounts of fuel and oxygen to produce thrust, which sends the rocket off into space. In the picture of the space shuttle above, the orange cylinder and the two white cylinders are all the propulsion system. In other rockets, the propulsion system takes up even more space. A car, in contrast, is about 4% fuel by weight when the gas tank is full. A rocket, on the other hand, is over <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition30/tryanny.html#:~:text=Rockets%20at%2085%25%20propellant%20and,constant%20engineering%20to%20keep%20flying." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">85% fuel by weight</a>!



<h3 id="h-rocket-guidance">Rocket Guidance</h3>



Without a guidance system, rockets wouldn't end up in their desired destinations. Fireworks are examples of rockets without guidance systems. Imagine trying to hit a target thousands (or millions) of miles away with a hand-held firework. That sounds impossible, right? The guidance system on rockets makes adjustments to the flight path ensuring that the rocket reaches its desired destination. The guidance system involves lots of gadgets and computers.



<h3 id="h-rocket-payload">Rocket Payload</h3>



The payload is the whole point of the rocket. This system consists of the functional objects people aim to get into space. Some examples of the payload include astronauts, the space shuttle, satellites, <a href="https://www.inc.com/don-reisinger/elon-musk-sent-his-tesla-roadster-into-space-two-years-ago-heres-where-it-is-now.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Elon Musk's Tesla</a>, supplies for the International Space Station, space probes, or Mars rovers. Physics demands that the payload be small compared to the propulsion system. A <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition30/tryanny.html#:~:text=Rockets%20at%2085%25%20propellant%20and,constant%20engineering%20to%20keep%20flying." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">NASA scientist</a> says "Real payload fractions from real rockets are rather disappointing. The Saturn V payload to Earth orbit was about 4% of its total mass at liftoff. The Space Shuttle was only about 1%."



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone size-large wp-image-1886836"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/sputnik-986-1024x839.jpg" alt="sputnik rocket satellite" class="wp-image-1886836"/><figcaption>A Sputnik replica. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/zaitcev-evgenii">Zenobillis</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-famous-rocket-launches">Famous Rocket Launches</h2>



Below is a shortlist of some of the famous launches in humanity's exploration of space. While hundreds of launches are famous for various reasons, I've focused on just a few that were major milestones in rocketry.



<h3 id="h-sputnik-1">Sputnik 1</h3>



Sputnik 1 was the first man-made satellite to make it into space. The world, and even the Soviets, were surprised by Sputnik's success. This Soviet success worried Americans, who wanted to show the world their dominance. Sputnik-1 created the Space Race and instigated the most intensive period of space exploration to date. &nbsp;



<h4 id="h-launching-date">Launching Date</h4>



October 4, 1957



<h4 id="h-country">Country</h4>



The Soviet Union.



<h3 id="h-pioneer-1">Pioneer 1</h3>



Just a year after Sputnik-1 reached space, NASA had its first rocket launch. Pioneer 1 sent a small probe into space, which ultimately failed. However, Pioneer 1 marked NASA's importance on the international stage of space exploration. &nbsp;



<h4 id="h-launching-date-1">Launching Date</h4>



October 11, 1958



<h4 id="h-launching-country">Launching Country</h4>



The United States.



<h3 id="h-vostok-1">Vostok-1</h3>



Yuri Gagarin made history aboard Vostok-1 as the first human in outer space. The entire flight was under two hours long. &nbsp;



<h4 id="h-launching-date-2">Launching Date</h4>



April 12, 1961



<h4 id="h-launching-country-1">Launching Country</h4>



The Soviet Union.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone size-large wp-image-1886837"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/moon-landing-60543_1280-1018x1024.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1886837"/><figcaption>Apollo 11 on the Moon. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/ebic">Castleski</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-apollo-11">Apollo 11</h3>



Even though the Soviet Union beat the United States on the first satellite and the first human in space, NASA ultimately won the Space Race by getting the first human on the moon. Apollo 11 brought Niel Armstrong to the moon where he said "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." &nbsp;



<h4 id="h-launching-date-3">Launching Date</h4>



July 16, 1969



<h4 id="h-launching-country-2">Launching Country</h4>



The United States.



<h3 id="h-space-shuttle-columbia">Space Shuttle Columbia</h3>



The Space Shuttle Columbia was the first reusable spaceship. The Columbia survived 27 separate rocket launches between 1981 and 2003. These two dozen trips into space provided humanity with valuable scientific discoveries. Tragically, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated upon re-entry to Earth on February 1st, 2003, killing all seven pilots on board. &nbsp;



<h4 id="h-launching-date-4">Launching Date</h4>



Columbia's first launch was on April 12, 1981.



<h4 id="h-launching-country-3">Launching Country</h4>



The United States.



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone wp-image-1886838 size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/challenger-62908_1920-1024x829.jpg" alt="rocket explosion" class="wp-image-1886838"/><figcaption>The smoke from the explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/everett">Everett Collection</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-space-shuttle-challenger">Space Shuttle Challenger</h3>



The failed launch of the Challenger is perhaps the most famous rocket launch of all time. Just seconds into its flight, the entire rocket blew up in the sky, killing seven crew members and leaving the world stunned. The Challenger flew nine successful missions before exploding, where it carried parts of the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Space_Shuttle/Spacelab" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">European Spacelab</a> into space. Fun fact: There were only six space shuttles in total! &nbsp;



<h4 id="h-launching-date-5">Launching Date</h4>



Jan 28, 1986



<h4 id="h-launching-country-4">Launching Country</h4>



The United States.



<h3 id="h-mars-pathfinder">Mars Pathfinder</h3>



The Mars Pathfinder rocket launched the first Mars rover into space. This robot sent back over 16,000 photos of Mars along with a chemical analysis of Martian soil. &nbsp;



<h4 id="h-launching-date-6">Launching Date</h4>



December 4 1996



<h4 id="h-launching-country-5">Launching Country</h4>



The United States, Europe, Russia



<figure class="wp-block-image alignnone size-large wp-image-1886839"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/space-walk-991_1280-1024x678.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1886839"/><figcaption>Astronauts on a spacewalk on the International Space Station. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/creativeforce">Creative Force Studio</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-expedition-1">Expedition 1</h3>



Expedition 1 send the first group of people to live on International Space Station. They lived at the space station for 136 days. Ever since they set foot inside the station in the year 2000, there have been humans on the ISS. &nbsp;



<h4 id="h-launching-date-7">Launching Date</h4>



November 2nd, 2000



<h4 id="h-launching-country-6">Launching Country</h4>



The United States



<h2 id="h-the-future-of-rocketry">The Future of Rocketry</h2>



To reach further into space, humans must create a type of power that is more efficient than the combustion that is currently used in rockets. Successful implementation of nuclear fusion and fission would be immense breakthroughs that would propel spacecraft beyond our solar system. NASA also plans to build a <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/space-exploration-progress-impact-forecast/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">staging area in space</a> to launch deep space missions.



In the meantime, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-3-biggest-private-space-companies/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">private companies</a> plan to begin space tourism for those who can afford the tickets.



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What Is a Rocket? + Most Famous Launches

That humans have made it to space is a profound,...

Lizards, snakes, and turtles have been kept as pets by humans for thousands of years. What do they all have in common? They’re reptiles! This group of organisms has been distributed on planet earth for over 300 million years. Their evolution has produced a stunning array of diversity spread across many ecosystems. Today, let’s take a look at one of the most interesting members of this class and answer the question: are chameleons reptiles?



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1626244132.jpg" alt="are chameleons reptiles" class="wp-image-1886167"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/bundid-vc">shutter_o</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-what-is-a-reptile">What Is a Reptile?</h2>



Before we can understand why chameleons are reptiles, we have to understand what a reptile is. Reptiles are a biological classification of organisms belonging to the class reptilia. This group of organisms evolved <a href="https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/earlyprimates/time_scale_of_earth_1.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">roughly 350 million years ago</a>. They evolved slightly after amphibians (416 million years ago). Reptiles and amphibians ruled planet earth, unchecked, for roughly 200 million years until mammals evolved around 146 million years ago. Let’s take a closer look at some of the defining characteristics that all reptiles possess.



<h3 id="h-skin">Skin</h3>



It’s not the skin of reptiles that make them unique, but rather, it’s what covers their skin. All reptiles have scales, bony plates, or a <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">combination of both</a>. In some cases, these scales are rather small. Take <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/snake-scales#:~:text=Snake%20scales%20originate%20from%20the,larger%20scales%20cover%20the%20ventrum." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">snakes</a>, for example. Their bodies are covered in hundreds or thousands of small, hard scales. From a distance, this can simply appear to be skin. On the other end of the spectrum, crocodiles have large, hard plates covering their bodies. In both instances, these evolved for protection.



<h3 id="h-thermoregulation">Thermoregulation</h3>



Reptiles are ectothermic, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-amphibians-cold-blooded/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">like amphibians</a>. This firstly means that they do not produce their own heat. Secondly, they do not maintain a constant body temperature. This is why reptiles, like lizards and snakes, sun themselves: to warm up their internal body temperature. Reptiles are (somewhat) unique in the animal kingdom in that also do not possess much of any external temperature regulation, either. They lack fur or feathers to keep them warm in colder temperatures, and they lack sweat glands to cool them off in warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



Only <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/01/160116-animals-mating-sex-birth-sharks-snakes-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">two reptiles</a> - boas and pythons - give birth to live young. Every other reptile simply lays eggs into a nest and then leaves the eventual young to fend for themselves. Interestingly, the temperature at which eggs mature is a <a href="https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/temperature-dependent-sex-determination-reptiles#:~:text=Temperature%2Ddependent%20sex%20determination%20(TSD,and%20some%20lizards%20exhibit%20TSD." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">determining factor in the sex of reptile offspring</a>. This is largely due to the hormone <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241188/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">aromatase</a>. Essentially, temperature fluctuations affect the levels of aromatase in developing reptiles. This in turn affects levels of sex-determining hormones.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1794075022.jpg" alt="are chameleons reptiles" class="wp-image-1886168"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/kuritoafsheen">Kurit afshen</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-what-is-a-chameleon">What Is a Chameleon?</h2>



Now that we understand what reptiles are generally, what exactly is a chameleon? In terms of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-classify-life-taxonomy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">taxonomy</a>, chameleons fall into the family chamaeleonidae. There are over 200 described species spread across several different genera.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-morphology">Morphology</h3>



One of the most distinct parts of a chameleon's morphology is their color-changing ability, but we’ll get to that later. Relatively speaking, the range of different sizes present in these reptiles&nbsp;is rather large. One of the smallest chameleons, B. micra, grows to about one inch in length. On the other hand, F. oustaleti chameleons can grow to over two feet in length.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-distribution">Distribution</h3>



Generally speaking, chameleons are native to Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar. Some species are native to many other regions in the world including India, the Middle East, and Southern Europe.&nbsp;



Chameleons are also found in other, non-native locations. Jackson chameleons&nbsp;have been introduced in Hawaii and are considered an <a href="https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/info/invasive-species-profiles/jacksons-chameleon/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">invasive species</a>. In Florida, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/06/chameleons-ranching-florida-invasives-pets/#:~:text=At%20least%20three%20species%20of,any%20protected%20status%20in%20Florida." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a very similar problem</a> occurs.



Most species of chameleon are considered <a href="https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/primate/glossary.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">arboreal</a> - they live in trees. Usually, they are found on the trunks and lower branches of trees in tropical and mountain forests. The <a href="https://web.stanford.edu/~siegelr/animalz/chameleon.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Namaqua chameleon</a> breaks this rule. It is entirely ground-dwelling and lives in the deserts of western Africa.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-behavior">Behavior</h3>



Chameleons lay their eggs in shallow holes they dig into the ground. Depending on the species, chameleons will lay anywhere from 10-200 eggs. The gestation period varies just as widely, as well: 4-12 months. Most chameleon species are insectivorous: they only eat bugs. Interestingly, larger species. such as veiled chameleons, also <a href="http://hear.its.hawaii.edu/misc/mauinews/pdfs/20070513_veiledchameleon.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">include birds</a> in their regular diet. In the wild, chameleons generally live 2-3 years. In captivity, they can live almost 4 times as long, <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/site/accounts/information/Calumma_parsonii.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sometimes up to 14 years</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_777835606.jpg" alt="chameleon camouflage" class="wp-image-1886170"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/joeztudio">JoeZ</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-camouflage">Camouflage</h3>



The behavior that chameleons are famous for - changing color - has long been a topic of study among ecologists. The purpose of the color-changing ability is two-fold. First, it <a href="https://askdruniverse.wsu.edu/2016/01/25/how-do-chameleons-change-color/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">allows chameleons to thermoregulate</a>. When they need to absorb more heat, and therefore light, they can turn darker colors. When they need to cool off, they can change to a lighter color. Secondly, this behavior is used for signaling. For example, male chameleons can turn specific colors to signal aggression. Female chameleons can use the ability to signal their willingness to mate.



The physiology of this behavior comes down to sacs of pigment deep in the chameleon’s skin. <a href="https://www.wired.com/2014/04/how-do-chameleons-change-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">According to Dr. Mary Bates</a>, a Ph.D. ecologist, the phenomenon is regulated by specialized cells. The outermost layer of the skin is transparent. “Beneath this are several more layers of skin that contain specialized cells called chromatophores.” These are pigment filled sacs, and they are normally not exposed. But, this changes when a chameleon experiences a change in temperature or mood. “Its nervous system tells specific chromatophores to expand or contract.” It is this expansion and contraction that cause the stunning array of colors we observe.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-endangered">Endangered</h2>



Chameleons <a href="https://news.vcu.edu/article/Habitat_loss_and_fragmentation_reduce_chameleon_population_in#:~:text=In%20the%20past%2050%20years,by%20Virginia%20Commonwealth%20University%20biologists." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">are an endangered family</a>. For the most part, this is due to habit loss. Over the last 50 years, in Tanzania, 60% of the chameleon habitat has been lost. This is largely due to the expansion of human habitat. This problem isn't specific to chameleons, either. Globally, reptile numbers are in decline. This is in large part due to global climate change. Lizards are unable to regulate their own body temperature. As such, they rely on very specific temperature gradients in their environment. Thus, <a href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1604824113" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">even small changes can be deadly</a>.



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Are Chameleons Reptiles? Yes, Here's Why

Lizards, snakes, and turtles have been kept as pets by...

Pufferfish are one of the most recognizable fish around the globe. I first learned of pufferfish through the popular kid's show, Spongebob. One of the characters is Mrs. Puff, who is a sassy driving instructor. Spongebob is an awful driver and every time he crashes, Mrs. Puff puffs up into that classic, silly-looking pufferfish.
<h2>Pufferfish Are Intriguing Animals</h2>
Since you've landed on this webpage, perhaps you've heard some of the crazy facts about puffers. Obviously, pufferfish puff up to a surprising size when frightened. They do this by sucking tons of water (or air if out of water) into their elastic stomachs. This behavior is to intimidate predators. Since puffers aren't particularly fast fish, they rely on scaring predators rather than swimming away.

In particular, they rely on the incredible potency of the toxin they produce. Puffers kill people around the world every year with their deadly tetrodotoxin. Or perhaps it is more accurate to say that the puffers had no intention of killing a human. Since humans insist on eating these dangerous fish, they invite a deadly risk into their diet.

This fish toxin is amongst the most toxic things known to humankind. It is <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/group/pufferfish/#:~:text=To%20humans%2C%20tetrodotoxin%20is%20deadly,there%20is%20no%20known%20antidote.&amp;text=Amazingly%2C%20the%20meat%20of%20some%20pufferfish%20is%20considered%20a%20delicacy.&amp;text=In%20fact%2C%20many%20such%20deaths%20occur%20annually." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1,200 times more deadly</a> than cyanide. Apparently, the amount of tetrodotoxin in a single puffer is enough to kill 30 fully grown humans. Yikes!

[caption id="attachment_1885720" align="alignnone" width="2560"]<img class="wp-image-1885720 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1752413384-scaled.jpg" alt="saddled pufferfish" width="2560" height="1440" /> A beautiful saddled pufferfish. Who would expect such a pretty fish to be full of such potent toxins![/caption]

Like humans, dolphins aren't completely deterred by the puffer's toxins. In fact, it appears that they suckle on these fish to <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/dolphins-seem-to-use-toxic-pufferfish-to-get-high-180948219/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">get high off of the toxin</a>. After all, medicines and drugs are just poisons at a lower dosage. How did the dolphins first discover that merely sucking on the fish would produce a psychoactive effect when eating the same fish would kill them?

Alright, last fun fact about pufferfish. Some species make <a href="https://reefbuilders.com/2012/09/20/underwater-crop-circles-japan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">stunning, geometric patterns</a> in the sand as nests! These attractive nests are made by males to lure in potential mates. Pufferfish obviously have a good aesthetic taste.
<h2>What Is a Pufferfish?</h2>
'Pufferfish' are a family of fish that is part of the order Tetraodontiformes. This order includes fish that look similar to the puffers, such as porcupine fish and boxfish. It also includes some different looking types, such as sunfish and triggerfish. A difference between pufferfish and porcupine fish is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pufferfish-protective-spikes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">puffers' spines</a> are only visible when they are puffed up, while porcupines fishes spines are always visible.

Tetraodontidae, the puffer family, means 'four teeth.' This refers to the four teeth on the top and the bottom of the puffers' mouths that fuse into plates. These plates are sturdy and strong. The puffers use them to crunch hard marine shells of muscles, clams, and even crabs. Pufferfish can live on a vegetarian diet of algae but prefer meaty crustaceans when available.

There are about<a href="https://www.fishbase.se/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=448#:~:text=FAMILY%20Details%20for%20Tetraodontidae%20%2D%20Puffers&amp;text=Chiefly%20marine.,of%20Atlantic%2C%20Indian%20and%20Pacific." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> 200 species</a> of pufferfish around the world in 39 different genera. This is a relatively diverse family of fish. The smallest puffer is only an <a href="https://www.tfhmagazine.com/articles/freshwater/the-dwarf-puffer-a-pleasant-little-surprise" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">inch long</a>, while the largest is about 3 feet. Most puffers prefer warm, shallow tropical and subtropical ocean waters.

[caption id="attachment_1885722" align="alignnone" width="2560"]<img class="wp-image-1885722 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1239623398-scaled.jpg" alt="Stellate puffer" width="2560" height="1920" /> A large stellate pufferfish at a coral reef.[/caption]
<h2>Do They Live in Freshwater?</h2>
Yes! While puffers live primarily in the ocean, there are species of pufferfish that live in brackish water. There are also 35 species of pufferfish that live exclusively in freshwater habitats. <a href="https://www.aquariadise.com/freshwater-puffer-fish-5-true-freshwater-puffers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">These types of puffers</a> are restricted to the tropics and subtropics, mainly in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Home aquarium enthusiasts enjoy these puffers. It is much easier to keep a freshwater aquarium than a saltwater aquarium, and the tiny pygmy pufferfish is a cute addition to these aquascapes.

Freshwater pufferfish prefer rivers to lakes. They thrive in the Amazon and the winding river complexes that lace Bangladesh and Myanmar.
<h2>Will Pufferfish Live in the Open Ocean?</h2>
Most puffers live close to land. In general, they like coral reefs, brackish water estuaries, and shallower waters. They can fare alright in protected seas, but not the open ocean. For example, pufferfish occupy the <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/y4162e/y4162e70.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">entire Gulf of Mexico</a> but not the open waters of the expansive Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
<h2>How Far North Do Pufferfish Live?</h2>
The Northern Puffer, as its name implies, voyages further north than other species of puffers. It lives along the entire Eastern Seaboard of the U.S. It even reaches all the way up to Newfoundland in Canada! The northern pufferfish lives in protected areas, typically with brackish water.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/studying-chesapeake-bay-watershed/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Chesapeake Bay</a> is prime habitat for them, where they are caught for a small commercial fish market. The northern puffer doesn't produce tetrodotoxin, making it safer for people to prepare and eat the fish.

Other northern-reaching pufferfish <a href="https://www.fishbase.de/summary/Takifugu-rubripes.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">include species</a> that inhabit the East Sea, which is between the Korean Peninsula and Japan.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-unpredictable-2/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">El Niño</a>, the winter weather pattern that causes waters on the Pacific Coast of the U.S. to warm, can change pufferfish distribution as well. The warm waters during an El Niño year can guide pufferfish from Baja California to venture as far north as <a href="https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Pufferfish-possibly-sighted-in-Monterey-Bay-6588734.php#:~:text=She%20clarified%20that%20the%20puffer,the%20two%20fish%20I%20found.%22" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Monterey Bay</a> in Central California. While these individual fish are probably flukes amongst the greater population, perhaps they will migrate towards central California as the oceans warm due to climate change.

[caption id="attachment_1885724" align="alignnone" width="2000"]<img class="wp-image-1885724 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1122804059.jpg" alt="juvenile puffer" width="2000" height="1333" /> A striking orange puffer all puffed up.[/caption]
<h2>Humans Have Changed Puffer Distribution</h2>
Humans have<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/invasive-species-plants-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> shuffled thousands of species</a> around the world during globalization. Puffers are no exception. A non-native pufferfish has appeared in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. This puffer presents new challenges to countries like Lebanon. The <a href="https://www.discovermagazine.com/environment/toxic-pufferfish-invade-eastern-mediterranean-killing-people-and-irking-fisherman" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">fish has killed at least seven people</a> with its toxin. It also has sharp teeth that can bite through fishing nets, causing problems for fishermen.

This puffer likely swam through the Suez Canal. This canal connects the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean via the small bit of land that connects Egypt to the Middle East.

However, there are about a <a href="https://mbr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41200-019-0170-9" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">dozen species of puffers</a> native to the Mediterranean, a few of which even live in the nearby fresh-water Black Sea.
<h2>How Can I See One of These Fish?</h2>
The easiest way to see a puffer is at an aquarium. In the wild, they are easiest to spot while snorkeling near a coral reef. If you see one out there, try to listen for their hard teeth cracking shellfish! It's quite a loud sound. Be sure to bring a fish guide so you can identify which kind of puffer you see. Since there are 200 species, it can take some effort to identify the right one!

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Where Do Pufferfish Live?

Pufferfish are one of the most recognizable fish around the...

Around the world, water availability is a growing concern. According to the <a href="https://www.unwater.org/water-facts/scarcity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">United Nations</a>, “water use has been growing globally at more than twice the rate of population increase in the last century.” In simpler terms, there are now more people and less water than ever. Today, let’s better understand, what is a water well?
<h2>Water Well Vocabulary</h2>
In our discussions about water wells, we’ll need to understand a few vocabulary words. Let’s take a look at some of the basic terminology.
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Well: Any hole that is drilled, dug, or excavated for access to liquids is defined as a well. We are specifically discussing water wells, but other kinds exist too, like oil wells.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Surface water: This is any water that exists on, rather than under, the ground. Streams, rivers, lakes, and ponds are all examples.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Groundwater: In contrast to surface water, this type of water is underground. Typically, it is trapped between holes and pores in the deep rock and soil.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Aquifer: These are more or less underground “lakes.” Aquifers are areas of highly concentrated groundwater</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Water table: This is a slightly more complex term. The water table refers to the depth below the ground at which the soil or rock is completely saturated with H2O. When the level of the water table is above ground, we see a river, stream, lake, or other body of H2O. Depending on location, the water table can be at many <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-can-i-find-depth-water-table-a-specific-location?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">different depths</a>. The figure below visually explains.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
[caption id="attachment_1885142" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1885142 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/2560px-Water_table.svg_-1024x527.png" alt="water table diagram" width="1024" height="527" /> Image by <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_table.svg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Jojko,sivek</a> via Wikimedia Commons[/caption]
<h2>Who Needs a Well?</h2>
The short answer to this question is simple: whoever needs water. For many Americans, their only necessary supply of H2O comes from their tap. This water is considered <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-does-wastewater-treatment-work/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">municipal water</a> as it is provided by the city. There are a few different kinds of people that may need a well.
<h3>Rural America</h3>
According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), roughly <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/water-resources/science/domestic-private-supply-wells?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">43 million people</a> in America rely on private wells as their source of drinking water. That totals approximately 15% of the US population. Often, these individuals live far enough away from a municipal water supply that running a pipe to the property isn’t feasible. 
<h3>Farmers</h3>
Similar to rural Americans, farmers may need wells even if they also have a municipal water supply. This is due to the volume of H2O that is necessary to water even small numbers of livestock. Cattle generally require about <a href="https://beef.unl.edu/amountwatercowsdrink" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1 gallon of water for every 100 pounds of body mass</a>. The average cow weighs about <a href="https://www.beefmagazine.com/cow-calf/relationship-between-cow-size-production" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1,400 pounds</a>. This means that a farmer that only has 10 cattle will still need about 150 gallons of H2O, per day, just to water the cattle. That’s the equivalent of adding <a href="https://www.epa.gov/watersense/statistics-and-facts#:~:text=Each%20American%20uses%20an%20average,water%2Defficient%20fixtures%20and%20appliances." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">two additional people</a> to your home! This also doesn’t include any other H2O needs that cattle have such as growing feed crops, washing barns, etc. 

[caption id="attachment_1885144" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1885144 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/water-1008977_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="water well" width="1024" height="682" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/water-pump-old-man-hand-well-1008977/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">947051</a> via Pixabay.[/caption]
<h2>How to Dig a Water Well</h2>
Now that we know what a well is and who may need one, let’s dig into how to create a well!
<h3>Site Selection</h3>
First, the decision of where the well should be placed needs to be made. Several things may influence where a well can or should go:
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Other buried objects: <a href="https://call811.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Call before you dig!</a> Most homes have buried electrical wires, gas pipes, and water mains. Digging before you have an expert check your property is reckless and dangerous. After the property is marked, you’ll know what spots the well absolutely cannot go.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Water table depth: As we discussed before, the water table is the level at which the soil is saturated with water. Practically, this is the minimum depth at which a well needs to be dug. A hydrologist can assist in estimating the water table on your property. On small properties, the depth is unlikely to differ by much. On large properties, though, the table could differ by 20 feet or more. A shallower table means less digging.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Intended use: Where the well is located also depends on its purpose. A well for personal drinking use should be located near the home. A well for cattle would logically be located closer to the cattle and possibly farther away from the house.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Digging a Well</h3>
Now that you’ve selected the site for your well, it’s time to dig! Broadly, there are two kinds of digging machines (augers) to choose from.
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Manual (hand) auger: You’ll first have to, obviously, dig a hole. You (ideally) already have an idea of how deep the water table is, so you’ll need to decide which method of digging to utilize. A <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/x5567e/x5567e05.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hand auger</a> is relatively cheap and accessible. Estimations for the amount of time per vertical foot dug, but you can bet somewhere in the realm of 2-5 per hour. Thus, a 30-foot well could very well take two eight-hour days in tough soil.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Mechanical auger: For particularly dense soils or wells deeper than 30 feet, a mechanical auger is going to be necessary. These are giant, truck-mounted machines that do the digging hydraulically. </li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Adding Casing and Pipe</h3>
Now that the hole is dug, it’s time for the actual piping. Wells usually consist of two pipes: a casing pipe and a well pipe. The pipe casing simply drops into the dug hole and helps provide support to the cavity. The well pipe is the actual pumping pipe. The well pipe goes inside of the casing pipe. The casing pipe will extend all the way to the bottom of the hole, and the well pipe will fall a few feet short of the bottom. Both will rise 3-4 feet above the ground.
<h3>Pumping Time</h3>
Industrial wells usually contain large, electric pumps. These are fantastic for pumping large amounts of water. For a smaller well, though, an electric pump will be expensive and unnecessary. Thankfully, <a href="https://www.tractorsupply.com/tsc/product/cast-iron-pitcher-pump" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">pitcher pumps</a> are cheap, easy to use, and reliable. Once the pump is added, water can be reliably produced from a home well. 

[Featured image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/clean-countryside-drink-garden-21479/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">PublicDomainPictures</a> via Pixabay]

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What Is a Water Well?

Around the world, water availability is a growing concern. According...

Roadrunners are the most famous bird in the southwest! Whether you picture their characteristic long tails speeding through the desert or imagine the clever cartoon, roadrunners are an easy bird to imagine. But what has given them such a popular reputation? Do they share their habitat with coyotes? Do they actually run on roads? Can they really kill rattlesnakes? Read along, and we’ll answer these questions and more!
<h2>How to Identify a Roadrunner</h2>
Despite their portrayal along with Wile E. Coyote, roadrunners are not actually blue. So what do they look like? There are a few key parts of identifying birds. We’ll go over each one, so you won’t miss a roadrunner when it crosses your path.
<ul>
 	<li>Size - Both males and females of the greater roadrunner are about <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Greater_Roadrunner/maps-range" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">20 inches long.</a> For perspective, this is about the size of a mailbox. This iconic bird’s cousin, the lesser roadrunner, is smaller overall.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
 	<li>Shape - Lucky for us, roadrunners have a very distinctive shape. Long legs, a long neck, and a long tail give these birds a distinctive silhouette.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
 	<li>Color Pattern - Mostly tan with streaks of dark brown and black, roadrunners are quite camouflaged. But they do have a sprinkle of flair. With a striking black mohawk and a colorful patch of bare skin behind each eye, it’s almost like they’re wearing racing stripes. The lesser roadrunner is <a href="http://animalia.bio/lesser-roadrunner" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">less streaky</a> overall. </li>
</ul>
<ul>
 	<li>Behavior - If you see a bird sprinting through the desert, it’s most likely a roadrunner. They prefer ground-travel to flight, so you don’t need to be scanning the skies for these funky fowl.</li>
</ul>
[caption id="attachment_1884784" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1884784" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/greater-roadrunner-854405_1920.jpg" alt="Roadrunner" width="1920" height="1495" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/skeeze-272447/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=1603225" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">skeeze</a> on <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>[/caption]
<h2>
Where Roadrunners Live</h2>
<h3>
Range</h3>
This is one thing that folklore and cartoons got right! The greater roadrunners live across the southwest and Mexico. On the other hand, the lesser roadrunner occupies a more southern range, including southern Mexico and some parts of Central America. The imagery of saguaro cacti and red rock mesas is pretty spot on! With a warming climate, roadrunners are <a href="https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/greroa/cur/introduction" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">expanding their range</a> to the northeast.

Fun Fact: The Roadrunner is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-7-most-interesting-state-birds/">state bird</a> of New Mexico.
<h3>Habitat</h3>
Within their range, roadrunner habitat includes areas that are semi-arid and relatively open. To clarify, this means they prefer desert landscapes with plenty of room to run. They are often found in scrubby areas. Common plants to find in these habitats include <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/larrea-tridentata/">creosote</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/prosopis-articulata/">mesquite</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/tamarix-dioica/">tamarisk</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/you-should-be-excited-about-grassland-plants/">grasslands</a>. Less commonly, you will find them in farmlands or on the edges of suburbia.

It is true that roadrunners share their habitat with coyotes. But unlike the cartoon, the birds aren’t trying to foil the coyote’s plans. In fact, coyotes can run upwards of <a href="http://www.speedofanimals.com/animals/coyote" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">40mph</a>, out-racing their feathered opponents every time. What’s more, coyotes, along with hawks and raccoons, will hunt roadrunners. So don’t expect any funny antics between the two species when you visit the southwest.
<h2>Etymology</h2>
The rumors are true! Roadrunners get their name because they are often seen rocketing through the scrubland. Long legs whirring and their long tail streaming out behind. In fact, the roadrunner can reach speeds up to <a href="https://www.texas-wildlife.org/images/uploads/Critter_Connections_April_2018.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">20 mph</a>! 

These speedy birds are in the cuckoo family. The roadrunners genus is Geococcyx, which translates to earth-cuckoo. True to this name, they spend most of their time on the ground. Only occasionally will you see a roadrunner perched on a fence post or tree branch.

[caption id="attachment_1884783" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1884783 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/roadrunner-1253218_1920.jpg" alt="Roadrunner with prey" width="1920" height="1292" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/skeeze-272447/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=1603225" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">skeeze</a> on <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>[/caption]
<h2>
Rattlesnake? What’s for Dinner?</h2>
“Roadrunners eat rattlesnakes!” That’s a sentence you might have heard over the past few years. But do these speedy birds really have the heroic battles with rattlesnakes that have become legend?

It's true, roadrunners can eat venomous animals. This interesting meal preference includes <a href="https://www.texas-wildlife.org/images/uploads/Critter_Connections_April_2018.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">venomous snakes and even scorpions</a>. Think of it as one of their superpowers! Remember, venomous means it’s a creature that injects a toxin with a bite or sting. In fact, roadrunners have been known to kill and eat rattlesnakes. Normally, a pair of birds will make the attack, with one acting as the distraction while the other sneaks up from behind.

However, this behavior is not as common as purported in popular culture. While it happens on occasion, roadrunners prefer smaller, less energy-intensive food for most of their meals. In fact, roadrunners are omnivorous, eating seeds, fruit, insects, other animals, and even carrion (dead animals). 

To hunt their prey, roadrunners use their speed! They sneak up behind smaller critters and then sprint to ambush them. Without talons like raptors, these birds use their beaks to kill prey. They sometimes even smash prey against the ground or a rock.

[caption id="attachment_1884785" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1884785 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/roadrunner-1364365_1920.jpg" alt="roadrunner" width="1920" height="1279" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/skeeze-272447/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=1603225" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">skeeze</a> on <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>[/caption]
<h2>
Roadrunner Mythology</h2>
Roadrunners are clearly a symbol of the American southwest. Furthermore, they have always played an important role in Native American and Mexican mythology. For the Hopi and Ancestral Puebloan, they are thought of as medicine birds that have the ability to ward off evil spirits.
<h3>An Unusual Footprint</h3>
Roadrunners have an interesting foot structure. With two toes in the front and two in the back, they have zygodactyl feet. Because of this, they leave X-shaped footprints. If you find roadrunner tracks, you can’t tell which way the bird was running! <a href="http://www.native-languages.org/legends-roadrunner.htm#:~:text=The%20Hopi%20and%20other%20Pueblo,could%20protect%20against%20evil%20spirits.&amp;text=In%20some%20Mexican%20tribes%2C%20the,to%20boost%20stamina%20and%20strength." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Native Americans</a> thought of this as a means to escape and avoid evil spirits. Naturally, the X shape began to signify the powerful nature of the bird and has been found in the rock art of many Southwest peoples. Additionally, the Ancestral Puebloans used roadrunner feathers to decorate cradles to give babies spiritual protection. 

In Mexico, many tribes considered the roadrunner sacred and would never kill them. For others, eating the meat of the roadrunner would increase strength and boost immunity.

Overall, roadrunners make an impressive bird. Their distinct character has made them an important species throughout cultures and histories. Keep your eyes peeled next time you venture to the southwest!

[Featured Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/skeeze-272447/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=1603225" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">skeeze</a> on <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>]

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Roadrunners: Where They Live, Etymology, & More

Roadrunners are the most famous bird in the southwest! Whether...

The vastness of the ocean is hard to fathom. Over 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by the sea - <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">312,000,000 cubic miles of water</a>. As humans, we’ve come a long way from the days where we stood upon the shoreline and determined that our world was flat, but how much of the ocean have we discovered since then? And what mysteries of the deep continue to stump us to this day?

We have explored less than 5% of Earth’s oceans. The discoveries we have made are vast, enchanting, and, often, alarming. And still, we’ve barely dipped beneath the surface. 

[caption id="attachment_1885309" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1885309 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/sea-3025268_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="ocean surface" width="1024" height="682" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/quangpraha-7201644/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Quang Nguyen vinh</a> from Pixabay[/caption]
<h2>Waves of Discovery</h2>
On average, the ocean is about 2 miles deep. In a particular area southwest of Guam, the Pacific ocean is closer to 7 miles deep - the deepest part of the ocean. 

Scientists estimate that there are over<a href="https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/nature/habitats/ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> one million animals</a> in the ocean - 95% of which are invertebrates, such as shrimp and squid. These creatures are important links in the web of various ecosystems and also in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-from-ancient-rainforests-can-be-identified-in-fossil-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">theory of evolution</a>. These connections not only inform our understanding of the ocean but of ourselves and how we came to exist as we do today. 

The majority of life on our planet<a href="https://www.trafalgar.com/real-word/10-unbelievable-facts-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> is aquatic</a>. As you may have heard, the largest mammal on Earth, the blue whale, swims and migrates through various parts of these waters. Acoustic biologists have made exciting realizations about humpback whales in the past few decades - coming to understand that these giant sea-dwellers have traditions of songs. Their melodies and cadences reflect whale family structure and migration patterns. 

The most common vertebrate in the ocean? <a href="https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/nature/habitats/ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">A bristlemouth fish</a>, which has needle-like fangs and glows in the dark. 

Plantlife is a critical aspect of these ecosystems as well. For example, algae in the ocean produce about <a href="https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/nature/habitats/ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">half of the oxygen</a> us land mammals breathe. Oceans regulate the earth’s temperature, they determine our weather patterns, and make life on land possible. Through scientific observation, we now understand that even if you live in the Sahara Desert or the cornfields of Nebraska, your life is dramatically affected by the ocean.

[caption id="attachment_1885310" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1885310 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/iceberg-404966_1280-1024x701.jpg" alt="iceberg in the ocean" width="1024" height="701" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/358611-358611/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">358611</a> from Pixabay[/caption]
<h2>What We Still Don’t Know</h2>
So what don’t we know about the ocean? It’s a funny question to ask since the ocean's mystery is inherently difficult to quantify or describe. Scientists and other ocean activists and enthusiasts have made plenty of discoveries that lead to more questions, though. 

For example, there is a portion of the ocean (<a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ecosystems/deep-sea/what-we-dont-know-about-deep-sea" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">103 million square miles</a> of it) that is perpetually dark. We refer to this as the “deep sea” or “inner space” of the ocean. We’ve pieced together that the hefty currents in the deep sea are like “<a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ecosystems/deep-sea/what-we-dont-know-about-deep-sea" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">an engine that controls our climate</a>” though we still don’t understand the nuances of how this engine functions. As glaciers and polar ice melt accelerate due to climate change, we know that an excess of cold water is funneling into this inner space of the ocean. But how will that impact our planet? We still aren’t sure - but will definitely find out, one way or another. 

But it isn’t only the deep sea that confounds us. Over 80% of the ocean remains <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/exploration.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">unmapped, unobserved, and unexplored</a>. Most parts of the ocean are extremely difficult to get to, and it’s incredibly expensive to do so. Scientists often rely on sonar, which can generate maps of the seafloor but leaves many questions unanswered. 

“Our biggest threat to the ocean is our ignorance of it,” says Margaret Leinen, one of the world’s foremost marine scientists and director of the <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Scripps Institute of Oceanography</a>. Many scientists, activists, and world leaders share this sentiment. Global initiatives by the U.N. are underway in response. The hope is that the next decade will include a collective rally of humanity to invest in understanding the oceans and the ever-shifting portrait of climate change. With this sort of push, we might unlock possible solutions to save ourselves and this beautiful blue planet.

[caption id="attachment_1885311" align="alignnone" width="640"]<img class="wp-image-1885311 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/under-the-sea-401520_640.jpg" alt="ocean floor" width="640" height="480" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/designnprint-266274/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Design n Print</a> from Pixabay[/caption]
<h2>Warming Waters</h2>
You’d truly need to be living under a rock to have somehow missed that our oceans - and therefore humanity - is in danger due to the climate crisis. 

The unsustainable practices of global capitalism and the fossil fuel industry have caught up to us and our oceans are warming. This is a really big deal and we must address it immediately. With a crisis this large, it can feel paralyzing. But as we know, thanks to many ocean scientists, we do not have time for inaction. There are <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">so many places</a> where you can learn more about how to get involved, how to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tourism-light-pollution-sea-turtle/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">make personal decisions</a> in regard to the ocean, and most importantly, how and where to vote for politicians who prioritize green initiatives and renewable options for our societies. Ocean and climate justice are intricately linked to racial justice and gender equity. We have as much to discover about ourselves and the future we will build as we do about the deep mysteries of the ocean. 

[Featured image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/stocksnap-894430/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=698521" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">StockSnap</a> from Pixabay]

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How Much Of The Ocean Have We Discovered?

The vastness of the ocean is hard to fathom. Over...

Beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) are known for the stark white color and interest in human activity. These easily-identifiable whales fall into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-dolphins-sharks-and-whales-mammals/">infraorder</a>, Cetacea. This grouping also includes dolphins, killer whales, and blue whales. Today, let’s better understand: what is a beluga whale?

[caption id="attachment_1883914" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1883914 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/beluga-whale-170101_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="beluga whale" width="1024" height="768" /> [Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/arttower-5337/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ArtTower</a> via Pixabay][/caption]
<h2>Morphology</h2>
Beluga whales are one of the most <a href="https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/species-guide/beluga-whale/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">common whales found in captivity</a>. This is largely due to their easily identifiable and distinct morphology. Several characteristics separate belugas from other whales.
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Length: Beluga whales are <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/b/beluga-whale/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">one of the smallest species of whales</a>. The males, which are bigger, generally range from 3-6 meters (10-20 feet). The females are about 25% smaller, ranging from 3-4 meters (10-13 feet).</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Mass: While belugas may be one of the smallest whales, that doesn’t mean that they’re light! Males clock in at 1,000 to 1,600 kg (2,200 to 3,530 lb) and females from 700 to 1,200 kg (1,500 and 2,650 lb). This is as much as <a href="https://owners.honda.com/vehicles/information/2020/Accord-Sedan/specs" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a Honda Accord</a>! </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Color: The color of beluga whales is arguably their most distinctive feature. At birth, most D. leucas are greyish-white or greyish-blue. As they age, the pigment in their skin fades until they are entirely white. This white coloration is an adaptation to living amongst icebergs and snow. This helps to hide beluga whales from predators like <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mother-polar-bear-cubs/">polar bears</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uk-killer-whales-extinct/">killer whales</a>.</li>
</ul>
[caption id="attachment_1883916" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="size-large wp-image-1883916" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/b-1024x449.png" alt="beluga whale" width="1024" height="449" /> [Image by Greg Hume (Greg5030) / <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CC BY-SA</a>][/caption]
<h2>Habitat</h2>
Beluga whales are well-suited for the cold waters of the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans. They live off the northern coasts of Canada, Greenland, and Russia. 
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Location: Belugas generally live in cold arctic and sub-arctic waters. During the summer months, they remain <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/beluga-whale#:~:text=Beluga%20whales%20live%20in%20the,enough%20to%20cover%20their%20bodies." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">between 76°N and 80°N</a>. The furthest south that the whales inhabit is thought to be the <a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/profiles-profils/belugaStLa-eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">St. Lawrence River in Canada</a>. Surface temperatures in this part of their habitat typically reach 75°F. This is warm compared to the daily highs of about 32°F in the North Pole. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Depth: Belugas preferentially choose different depths of water depending on the season. In the warm summer months, the whales will rest in coastal waters that are often barely deep enough to cover their bodies. In the winter months, they will transition to areas with deeper water, around 800 meters (2,500 feet).</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Migration: Most beluga whales migrate, and some will migrate <a href="https://www.zmescience.com/ecology/animals-ecology/whales-family-ties-06042018/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">over 6,000 km</a> (3,700 miles). During the fall, the coastal regions in which they prefer to live become blocked with ice. As a result, the whales will migrate into deeper waters along the edges of sea ice. </li>
</ul>
[caption id="attachment_1883917" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1883917 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Baluga_Whales-1024x572.jpg" alt="beluga" width="1024" height="572" /> [Image by Diliff / <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CC BY-SA</a>][/caption]
<h2>Behavior</h2>
Like many other whales, extensive research exists concerning their <a href="https://www.georgiaaquarium.org/beluga-whale-research/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">behaviors and trends</a>.
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Social structure: Beluga whales are extremely social animals. They typically live in groups called pods that vary in size from two or three to 25. Three types of pods generally make up their social structures. Nurseries include females and calves (young whales). Bachelor groups are made up of males. Mixed groups can contain males, females, and young. Belugas do not typically stay with a single pod for long periods of time. From radio-tracking data, scientists know that the whales will sometimes spend time in several pods over the span of a week.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Diet: Beluga whales are like the dogs of the sea. They will eat <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/resource/peer-reviewed-research/diet-beluga-whales-alaska-stomach-contents-march-november" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">almost anything</a> that they can catch. Because of this, their diet depends largely on where they are located. Off the coast of Alaska, <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/resource/peer-reviewed-research/diet-beluga-whales-alaska-stomach-contents-march-november" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">researchers sampled belugas</a> from different “stocks” and discovered a wide variety of stomach contents. Stocks are groups that tend to stay together in the same coastal areas. For the Beaufort Sea stock, the predominant fish in their system was Arctic Cod (21% of whales had this fish in their system). In the Cook Inlet, belugas tend to prefer Pacific Salmon (81%). “Isopods, bivalves, amphipods, and echiurids” were also commonly found. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Reproduction and Lifespan: Like most whales, belugas have very long lifespans relative to many terrestrial animals. While there is <a href="https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/species-guide/beluga-whale/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">some disagreement</a> about the max lifespan, researchers generally estimate their lifespan to be 30-35 years. Most belugas will reach sexual maturity around 7-10 years of age. Female whales will give birth to a calf roughly once every three years.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Conservation</h2>
The worldwide population of beluga whales is <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/beluga-whale" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">roughly 150,000</a>. The whales are considered to be of status “<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/6335/50352346" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">least concern</a>” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/600-species-threat-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Red List</a>. While this is encouraging, several problems threaten the continued healthy status of beluga whales.
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Hunting: Beluga whales have been hunted for sustenance for thousands of years. They are excellent prey due to their large pod size and predictable migration patterns. Recently, there has been a downturn in the number of whales killed per year, but the number still is likely <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/beluga" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">over 1,000</a>. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Pollution: Oil, gas, and wastewater discharge are just a few of the most common contaminants that tend to collect in the oceans. While these may exist in relatively low concentrations, they tend to become more concentrated in animals higher up the food chain (such as belugas) in a process known as <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zq4wjxs/revision/5" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">biomagnification</a>. As a result, the whales can accumulate dangerous amounts of toxins in their blubber, which can threaten their reproductive and immune systems. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Food limitations: In part due to global climate change, there are fewer fish in the ocean for consumption - both for <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/28/climate/fish-climate-change.html#:~:text=Fish%20populations%20are%20declining%20as,to%20new%20research%20published%20Thursday.&amp;text=Scientists%20have%20warned%20that%20global,food%20supplies%20in%20coming%20decades." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">our own consumption and that of whales</a>. This means that, in the future, belugas may face more severe challenges in locating enough nourishment.
</li>
</ul>
Featured image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/nikkikeldsen-15189798/">nikkikeldsen</a> via Pixabay

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What Is a Beluga Whale?

Beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) are known for the stark white...

Imagine this: it’s a Saturday afternoon, and you’re enjoying yourself in the park. You decide to have a seat in the grass under a tree. The sun is shining, there’s a nice breeze, and everything is perfect. The next day, you have a slight itch around your ankles. Then you notice it around your waistband. Suddenly, you’re digging your fingernails into your skin like there’s no tomorrow. Oh no, you have chiggers! If you’ve ever been unfortunate enough to experience these buggers, you're already familiar with the horribly itchy bites they deliver.



But what even is a chigger and where do they live? Why was I chosen as their target? Am I going to experience this misery for the rest of my life? These are some questions you may ask yourself during a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.medicinenet.com/bug_bite_treatment/views.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">post-exposure scratching session</a>. To help answer these questions, and to put a face to the name 'chiggers,' we’ve written a quick biography about the animal itself. We’ll also discuss where they live so you can try your best to avoid them in the future!



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/shutterstock_1617052924-1024x724.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899045"/></figure>







<h2 id="h-what-is-a-chigger">What Is a Chigger?</h2>



We’ll mention a few taxonomic ranks in this description of chiggers, so if you want a quick taxonomy lesson before we continue,&nbsp;<a href="https://basicbiology.net/biology-101/taxonomy" target="_blank" rel="noopener">click here</a>. Biologically speaking, they are a type of arthropod in the phylum Arthropoda. Other arthropods include crabs, millipedes, beetles, and many other critters with a hard outer shell. Within the group of Arthropoda, chiggers fall into the class Arachnida, also known as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arachnids-spiders-scorpions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the arachnids</a>. Arachnids have 8 legs and include spiders, ticks, mites, and other creepy-crawlies that are the subject of many phobias. Chiggers are, in fact, a type of mite (they're sometimes called harvest mites). They reside in the family Trombiculidae, but since that name is rather hard to remember, we’ll stick with their common name for the rest of the article.



So, to review:&nbsp;chiggers are a type of mite and are closely related to spiders and ticks.&nbsp;There are many species of mite that we call chiggers - over 3,000 species! Although, only about 15 of these red bugs cause horrible itching in humans.



Perhaps the worst thing about chiggers is that they are nearly microscopic. Even at their largest, it's incredibly hard to see them with the naked eye. Usually, they will just look like a tiny red dot moving about on a surface. This makes spotting them almost impossible, so it’s best to just understand what type of habitat they like to live in to avoid contact altogether.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/shutterstock_1317752612-1024x678.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899047"/></figure>



<h2 id="h-where-does-a-chigger-live">Where Does a Chigger Live?</h2>



To have any chance of avoiding chigger bites, you need to know where they live. If you were hoping you reside in a place without chiggers, tough luck. They live&nbsp;<a href="https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-cosmopolitan-species.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">all over the world</a>. They can be found on 6 continents in nearly every&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-system-developed-or-monitoring-the-worlds-biomes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">biome</a>. Luckily for many of you, they are most prevalent in tropical regions and warmer parts of temperate regions. Cold temperate and arctic regions are still home to some species of chiggers, but their bites are quite uncommon.



Although their distribution is incredibly wide (including most of North America), chiggers won’t live in every type of habitat. They mostly like to reside in wet, overgrown areas like pastures and grasslands, and among the leaf litter on the forest floor. But they can still be found in more manicured grassy areas like lawns and in parks. Throughout their entire life cycle – at least when they are not biting humans – they rarely venture more than a foot off the ground. You won’t ever find them in the vegetation of shrubs or trees. Still, that leaves a lot of room for chiggers to roam.



In temperate regions, chiggers are most abundant in the early summer after temperatures start to rise. Of course, your exposure is also influenced by chance. You may be lucky enough to lay down in wet grass and find no chiggers, or unlucky enough to get them while walking across a dry lawn in late summer.



<h2 id="h-what-makes-a-chigger-bite">What Makes a Chigger Bite?</h2>



Now let’s talk about why they bite. Like many other arthropods, chiggers have four distinct phases in life: egg, larva, nymph, and adult. Only the larval form of chiggers bite. This means that the egg, nymph, and adult form are completely harmless to humans! But let’s not cut them too much slack yet, we still have to discuss why, and how they bite.



After a larva hatches from an egg, it waits. When a prospective host (human, deer, dog, etc.) brushes by the chigger, the larva latches on and begins to find some skin to feed on. For some reason, they seem to prefer spots on the body that are close to clothing, like the waistband or socks. Here’s where the graphic stuff comes in - reader beware!



The larva then pierces the surface of the skin and deposits&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-digestive-plant-enzymes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">digestive enzymes</a>. The digested soup of skin cells is then slurped up by the larva, and this can go on for two or three whole days. Once the larva has its fill, it detaches from the body and falls back down to the ground, where it continues its life cycle. After detachment, the skin becomes red and itchy.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/shutterstock_1675849252-1024x681.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899046"/></figure>



<h2 id="h-how-can-i-avoid-chiggers">How Can I Avoid Chiggers?</h2>



If that last paragraph made you squirm, you may be wondering how best to avoid the horror of chigger bites. If it didn’t, you may still want to follow this advice to save yourself from days of itchiness.



The best thing to do is to avoid exposure altogether.&nbsp;Now that we know chiggers like to live in moist grassy areas, you may want to think twice before taking a nap directly on the grass after a warm summer rain. Instead, bring a blanket. Long pants and a long-sleeved shirt can help to keep the intense itching at bay.



Insect repellant&nbsp;(especially those with DEET) is also a tried and true method to avoid chiggers. Before you walk through some tall grass or hike through the forest, spray some bug repellent just around your ankles and on your shoes. This will prevent them from latching onto your feet and crawling up your legs to find a suitable biting spot.



Antihistamines&nbsp;are a great tool if you find yourself already bit. Other over-the-counter remedies like calamine lotion or hydrocortisone, permethrin, or benadryl can also help to soothe the welts and blisters that can form.



Hopefully, this article didn’t discourage you from enjoying the park on a beautiful late summer day. Enjoy your outdoor adventures, but do watch out for the chiggers!



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Ouch! What Is a Chigger and Where Do They Live?

Imagine this: it’s a Saturday afternoon, and you’re enjoying yourself...

Rivers attract hydrologists, kayakers, anglers, and artists alike. Somewhere between their consistency and unpredictability, they mesmerize people everywhere. But just as rivers have global influence, intricate and tiny worlds exist within a riparian ecosystem. Riparian ecosystems describe the interface between rivers and the surrounding landscape. Here, we’ll take a closer look at these watery worlds.
<h2>Life by the Water</h2>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="960"]<img src="https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2016/03/05/20/32/aquatic-1238786_960_720.jpg" alt="Riparian vegetation is distinct from more upland plants" width="960" height="640" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/shutterbug75-2077322/">Shutterbug75</a> from Pixabay.[/caption]

Because riparian areas surround rivers and streams, it makes sense that they drastically differ from the upland habitats. Most importantly, the presence of water makes these ecosystems distinct. Along with water other major <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">indicators</a> of riparian areas soil and vegetation.
<ul>
 	<li>Water</li>
</ul>
Riparian habitats occur directly next to bodies of water. These ecosystems are well-grounded along natural streams and rivers. However, they can also develop <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">adjacent to constructed</a> canals and ditches.
<ul>
 	<li>Soil</li>
</ul>
Due to the natural flux of flow and water tables level, the soil is subject to shifting. The layers of sediment vary in texture and their ability to hold moisture.
<ul>
 	<li>Vegetation</li>
</ul>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="960"]<img src="https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2020/07/29/04/25/water-5446873_960_720.jpg" alt="Riparian ecosystems are the interface between land and water." width="960" height="640" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/memorycatcher-168384/">MemoryCatcher</a> from Pixabay[/caption]

The vegetation can often be a key giveaway for riparian areas. Especially in contrast to the upland habitats, riparian ecosystems can look totally different. Imagine willows, rushes, and reeds lining the banks or draping cottonwoods and hemlocks creating shady pools.
<h3>Transitions and Diversity</h3>
Perhaps the most defining characteristic of a riparian ecosystem is that it's always changing. Whether it’s a wetland, riverbank, or floodplain, these are landscapes in flux. Riparian areas specifically refer to the transition between land and water. Transitions, like these, between two different ecosystems, are called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ecotone" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ecotones</a>. 

As a result, riparian ecosystems differ dramatically from one another while also nurturing distinct ecological patches within a single stretch of bank.  In ecology, this type of ecosystem is described by the word heterogeneous. The prefix hetero- means “other” and -geneous meaning “kind.” For example, while flooding is often deemed as a natural disaster, intermittent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flooding-help-river-ecosystems/">flooding</a> can be a cyclical part of what makes a healthy river. These types of disturbance play a key role in keeping the landscape diversified.

Overall, a heterogeneous ecosystem has a landscape dappled in diversity! These distinct habitats support a wealth of plant and animal life and also provide critical ecosystem services.
<h2>Importance of Riparian Ecosystems</h2>
The importance of the water flowing in the rivers and streams may seem clear, so why care about the area beside the water? Just as riparian areas refer to the interface of both the water and land, their importance transcends a single category. Riparian ecosystems make great habitats for animals, but they also have huge economic impacts on society. They <a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2008_jones_g003.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increase property value</a>, foster lucrative recreational industries (fishing), and keep water safe and drinkable.
<h3>What the Rivers Do for You: Ecosystem Services</h3>
Ecosystem services are defined as the benefits humans receive from an ecosystem. These benefits include resources (like food and medicine), but they can also be broader (like nutrient cycling). Riparian habitats are powerhouses when it comes to ecosystem services. Read the examples below to learn how these ecosystems directly support us.
<h4>Create Microclimates</h4>
The plants in riparian ecosystems create weather patterns! Called microclimates, these small adjustments to temperature and humidity can have large scale impacts. For example, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/tsuga-canadensis/">Eastern Hemlock</a> is a common tree found along waterways in the eastern United States. Its thick branches shade the river below. Unfortunately, the invasive wooly adelgid has caused a significant decline in hemlock populations. Without these common shade trees, the waterways are becoming more <a href="https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&amp;httpsredir=1&amp;article=1396&amp;context=master201019" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">acidic</a>, which throws the delicate aquatic life off balance. 
<h4>Prevent Erosion</h4>
The vegetation along riparian areas play key roles in stabilizing the landscape. This is especially important considering the erosive nature of rushing water. Riparian plants really help keep the structure of river banks! An impressive list of riparian plants that support ecosystem health can be found <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_043594.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>.
<h4>Provide Habitat</h4>
Riparian plants and surrounding ecosystems provide habitat for a wide range of aquatic, amphibious, and terrestrial animals. Riparian habitat is especially important for <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=pv0TAAAAYAAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA156&amp;dq=important+riparian+habitat&amp;ots=_2u50JowjE&amp;sig=KSnOomykY_mcd23QsjJ3jr1TXSs#v=onepage&amp;q=important%20riparian%20habitat&amp;f=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">migrating birds</a> that need resource-rich safe havens for stopover sites.
<h4>Reduce Water Pollution</h4>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<img src="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1531208853003-c1ec1b8a81d7?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&amp;ixid=eyJhcHBfaWQiOjEyMDd9&amp;auto=format&amp;fit=crop&amp;w=1000&amp;q=80" alt="Riparian Ecosystem Aerial View" width="1000" height="622" /> Image by <a href="https://unsplash.com/@wynand_uys">Wyland Uys</a> from Unsplash[/caption]

The riparian zone act as buffers between the upland and the water. They act as the t-cells for the river,  keeping the ecosystems healthy. Plants that grow in the river’s buffer zone can filter out between <a href="https://www.pecva.org/our-mission/clean-air-and-water/626-riparian-buffers-the-very-best-protection" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">50-100%</a> of the nutrients and sediments. Including everything from organic waste to pesticides, these ecosystems have a true superpower. That’s our drinking water they’re cleaning!
<h3>Delicate: Riparian Ecosystems at Risk</h3>
Overall, we clearly see how much value riparian ecosystems have for our well-being. That's why it's upsetting to learn the risks that they face throughout the globe.

Firstly, the most common disruption to river health results from the destruction of the banks. To clarify, everything from clearing vegetation to converting the land for agriculture or development, destroying these habitats can completely upset entire watersheds. Often, overgrazing and pollutants compound these developments, making the problem even worse.

Additionally, invasive species can overtake the ecosystems. Changing the whole structure of the plant community, a new species can wipe out the treasured diversity of the riparian ecosystems.

In conclusion, riparian ecosystems bring life and excitement to riversides around the globe. They contribute important habitat for wildlife while also providing key ecosystem services we could not do without. Next time you're out by the river, take a second to appreciate the plants and animals that live on the banks. Maybe bring a pair of binoculars or a plant identification book to get to know the area a bit better!

[Cover image courtesy of <a href="https://unsplash.com/@tsomme?utm_source=unsplash&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_content=creditCopyText" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Thomas Somme</a> on Unsplash]

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What Are Riparian Ecosystems?

Rivers attract hydrologists, kayakers, anglers, and artists alike. Somewhere between...

Digital,Illustration,Of,The,Earth's,Magnetosphere,Deflecting,Solar,Wind,And

Earth's Magnetic Field: Origin, Structure, and Impact on Humanity

Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is...

Surface water is just how it sounds: water that has collected on the surface of the ground. As simple as it is, surface water has massive, sweeping impacts on how and where we live our lives. Also known as “blue water," surface water forms into landscape features such as <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/surface-water/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">rivers, wetlands, lakes, and reservoirs</a>. Our cultures and movements are determined by this water - even if we don’t stop to think about it.&nbsp;



Surface water is mostly produced by <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/surface-water/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">precipitation, snow, and runoff from nearby areas</a>. And while surface water is all around, its levels and presence fluctuate in ways you can observe in nearby creeks, streams, or waterholes. Changes in levels of this water occur often. This rise or fall based on precipitation, evaporation, or water moving and transitioning into groundwater.&nbsp;



So why is surface water important? The EPA estimates that <a href="https://www.epa.gov/report-environment/fresh-surface-water" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">68% of the water</a> we use is surface water. Surface water is what we as individuals and as a society depend upon to survive.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-types-of-surface-water">Types of Surface Water</h3>



Scientists separate surface water into three distinct groups. These groups can be helpful to know when distinguishing how surface water is used as well as the political implications of those uses on people.&nbsp;



Permanent, or sometimes called perennial, surface water is <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/10-wettest-places-on-earth-cropp-river-new-zealand/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">present year-round</a>. Swamps, lakes, rivers are examples of permanent groundwater. These bodies of water are persistent and in the case of drought, are <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/surface-water/#:~:text=Perennial%2C%20or%20permanent%2C%20surface%20water,%2C%20lagoons%2C%20and%20water%20holes." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">replenished by groundwater</a>.&nbsp;



Semi-permanent surface water, also called ephemeral surface water, includes features such as creeks, streams, waterholes, and lagoons. These bodies of water only exist for part of the year.



Man-made surface water includes dams, reservoirs, and artificial swamps. Man-made surface water can be intended for aesthetic purposes but is also an appealing energy source. Hydropower is a form of renewable energy that uses surface water, forcing it to produce energy that we can harness and sell.&nbsp;



Below are 10 famous examples of surface water on earth. These bodies of water shift with the seasons, many are changing due to climate change, and throughout the ages, humans have interacted, depended, and enjoyed these incredible examples of surface water on earth:&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/mississippi-112000_1280-1024x631.jpg" alt="mississippi bridge" class="wp-image-1886823"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/tank_bmb">Bryan Busovicki</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-mississippi-river">Mississippi River</h3>



A river that has profoundly shaped both the American geography and psyche, the Mississippi River begins in Minnesota and ends in Louisianna at the Gulf of Mexico. There are 29 locks and dams on this vast, snaking body.&nbsp;



Many people are lobbying for increased investment in hydroelectric power. Currently, the Enbridge pipeline project has raised serious environmental concerns and a movement has formed in opposition to this development, led by indigenous caretakers such as Honor The Earth.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/lake-superior-4047501_1280-1024x678.jpg" alt="great lake superior" class="wp-image-1886824"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/csbonawitz-10920947/">csbonawitz</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-great-lakes">The Great Lakes</h3>



The great lakes of North America are an expansive example of surface water. They contain 21% of Earth’s freshwater. Formed by retreated glaciers, these lakes have been and continue to be a major hub for trade, migration, and transport. The SS Edmund Fitzgerald, a freighter ship, sank to the bottom of Lake Superior in 1975. It remains on the bed of the lake today. To learn more, check out <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PH0K6ojmGZA&amp;ab_channel=GordonLightfoot-Topic" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Gordon Lightfoot’s classic hit</a> that chronicles the story.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-lake-volta">Lake Volta</h3>



Lake Volta is the world’s largest reservoir. It provides a <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120304011055/http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/bmag/sbsm0711/feature-harvest.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">significant amount of energy to Ghana</a>, and that energy is also exported to neighboring countries.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/nile-495098_1280-1024x768.jpg" alt="nile river" class="wp-image-1886825"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/khgraf-519830/">KHGraf</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-nile-river">The Nile River</h3>



Flowing from south to north, the Nile river floods and recedes for over 6,000 kilometers. Silt deposits along the Nile enrich the soil, which is <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/nile-river/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">rich in nutrients</a>. Ancient Egyptians developed irrigation systems around the behavior of this body of water water and built societies of tower importance and influence upon the banks.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/iguazu-falls-455610_1920-1024x575.jpg" alt="iguazu falls" class="wp-image-1886826"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/willian_hludke-457258/">willian_hludke</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-iguazu-falls">Iguazu Falls</h3>



Iguazu Falls cascade between the borders of Brazil and Argentina. There are over <a href="https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/iguazu-falls-bucket-list/index.html#:~:text=Straddling%20the%20border%20of%20Argentina,piling%20up%20awards%20and%20accolades." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">275 individual cascades</a>. It’s a place where there is so much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-foundation-impacts-movement-of-waterfalls/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">water spray</a>, that rainbows bend into full circles as tourists flock to experience the magnificence.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-blue-lagoon">Blue Lagoon</h3>



Speaking of tourism, the famous Blue Lagoon of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/trees-in-iceland-or-lack-thereof/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Iceland</a> is a popular stop for visitors from all over the world - especially since it lies between the airport and the nation’s capital Reykjavik. What the tourists don’t always realize is that the Blue Lagoon is a man-made pool and is supplied by water that has been <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/icelands-energy-lessons-85937" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">used at a nearby geothermal power station</a>.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/regensburg-3023439_1920-1024x348.jpg" alt="danube river" class="wp-image-1886827"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/felixmittermeier-4397258/">FelixMittermeier</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-danube-river">Danube River</h3>



The Danube River is Europe’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Danube-River" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">second-largest river</a>. The Roman Empire used it as a frontier during their reign. Axis and Allied forces of WWII regarded it as a dividing line. Originating in Germany, the river flows through 10 countries before draining into the Black Sea. The river exhibits massive flooding <a href="https://www.danube-cycle-path.com/danube-flooding.html#:~:text=These%20floodings%20occur%20every%20ten,any%20time%20throughout%20the%20season." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">every 10 - 50 years</a>, which has been historically devastating.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/mangroves-1225627_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="mangroves" class="wp-image-1886828"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/sarangib-37542/">sarangib</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-sundarbans-mangrove-forest">Sundarbans Mangrove Forest</h3>



Sundarbans is one of the largest forests in the world and located in Bangladesh. This area is renowned for its ecological diversity, which includes <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">260 bird species</a>, the Bengal tiger, and the Indian Python.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-antarctic-rivers">Antarctic Rivers</h3>



While people may think of blocks of (melting) ice in the polar and antarctic regions, there is plenty of surface water there too. The <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/49/12/985/247391" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Onyx River is a meltwater stream</a> that flows for a couple of months during the Antarctic summer. There aren’t fish in this stream.&nbsp; But, there are prolific algae blooms.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-a-body-of-water-near-you">A Body Of Water Near You</h3>



Unless you are reading this from an extraterrestrial location, there is surface water near you. Knowing the habits history of surface water in your neighborhood can be an empowering area of research and, some would argue, an essential aspect of being an informed citizen. Without access to clean water, communities and ecosystems suffer immensely. The river near your house directly impacts the lives of so many. Who is using that riverway? What governing body determines how it can be used? Are we using that water for hydropower? Are there large pollutants nearby? What organizations and individuals are fighting to protect it? How can I become involved?



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

10 Examples Of Surface Water On Earth

Surface water is just how it sounds: water that has...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...