<span style="font-weight: 400;"> Bacteria, of many strange shapes and sizes, are everywhere. In every habitat - desert, forest, ocean, grassland, and even in the Arctic, bacteria are an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-travel-thousands-miles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">inescapable part of life</a>. </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">No matter how many detox diets you do, or how often you clean the kitchen, bacteria will still be all around you and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-microbiomics/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">inside of your body</a>. And this isn’t a bad thing! Most bacteria live in the lining your digestive system, helping to keep things running smoothly. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Bacteria can benefit humans, like turning milk into yogurt, but they can also cause deadly conditions like pneumonia. Needless to say, the human relationship with bacteria is complicated and fascinating.</span>

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<h2><strong>What Are Bacteria?</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Here are a few more details for those of us that haven’t sat in a science classroom for a while: bacteria are single-celled microbes. Their cell structure is less complicated than multicellular organisms, and t</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">heir genetic information is contained in a single loop of DNA. By contrast, humans have about </span><a href="https://phys.org/news/2014-12-scientists-human-loop-ome-revealing-genetic.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">10,000 loops of DNA</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Sometimes a bacterium also includes an extra circle of genetic material called a plasmid. This plasmid gives certain bacterium an advantage over other bacteria and can make them resistant to certain antibiotics, for example. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Because they have a </span><a href="https://microbiologyinfo.com/different-size-shape-and-arrangement-of-bacterial-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">rigid cell wall</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, they maintain distinct and definite shapes - some stranger than others. These shapes can exist as single cells, pairs, clusters, and chains. They vary greatly and are an ongoing area of scientific study and discovery.</span>

So let's take a look at some of the strange shapes of bacteria...

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873181 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/bacteria-808751_960_720.jpg" alt="coccus" width="960" height="678" />
<h2><strong>Coccus</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">One of the </span><a href="https://microbiologyinfo.com/different-size-shape-and-arrangement-of-bacterial-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">three basic shapes</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, coccus are round cells. Occasionally they are slightly flat due to their proximity to other cells.</span>

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873182 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/koli-bacteria-123081_960_720.jpg" alt="koli bacteria" width="960" height="694" />
<h2><strong>Bacilli </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Bacilli is another of the three basic shapes. It is rod-shaped or cylindrical.</span>

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[caption id="attachment_1873183" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1873183 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/microbe-bacteria-parasite-elongated-shape-spirochetes-spirilla-worms-3d-animation_hmxpegmhl_thumbnail-full09-1024x540.png" alt="spirilla" width="1024" height="540" /> Still shot from "Microbe, bacteria, parasite, elongated shape, spirochetes, spirilla, worms"[/caption]
<h2><strong>Spirilla </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The final basic shape is spirilla. Spirilla curve like a ripe banana. Other cells can look more like a spiraling corkscrew. Some are rigid, others are flexible.</span>

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<img class="wp-image-1873188 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/4-filamentous-bacteria-nocardia-farcinica-wiki.jpg" alt="Filamentous" width="700" height="490" />
<h2><strong>Filamentous </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Filamentous form long, stretching filaments that can connect. A network of these filaments is known as </span><a href="https://microbiologyinfo.com/different-size-shape-and-arrangement-of-bacterial-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">“mycelium”</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.</span>

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[caption id="attachment_1873185" align="alignnone" width="341"]<img class="wp-image-1873185 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Rectangular-Bacteria.jpg" alt="rectangular bacteria " width="341" height="266" /> Photo by <a href="https://microbiologyinfo.com/different-size-shape-and-arrangement-of-bacterial-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Microbiology Info</a>[/caption]
<h2><strong>Rectangular </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">You guessed it - these bacteria are box-like in shape.</span>

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873189 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Star-Shaped-Stella-vacuolata.jpg" alt="star shaped bacteria" width="700" height="242" />
<h2><strong>Star-shaped </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Ongoing scientific research continues to illuminate how certain bacteria are related. Star-shaped bacteria found along the Atlantic ocean floor and the Baltic sea are </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1371058" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">still a mystery.</span></a>

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[caption id="attachment_1873186" align="alignnone" width="259"]<img class="wp-image-1873186 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/download.jpg" alt="appendaged bacteria " width="259" height="195" /> Photo by <a href="https://www.bioexplorer.net/bacteria-shapes.html/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bioexplorer.net</a>[/caption]
<h2><strong>Appendaged </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Still maintaining rigid wall cells, appendaged or budding bacteria have strange shapes and may </span><a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-13187-9_29" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">reproduce differently than other shapes.</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Scientists continue to investigate more.</span>

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873190 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Trichome-Thiotrix-nivea-flickr.jpg" alt="Trichome " width="700" height="603" />
<h2><strong>Trichome-forming</strong></h2>
Trichomes are a chain of <a href="https://www.bioexplorer.net/bacteria-shapes.html/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">vegetative cells.</a> A protective structure can enclose them, like a sword in a sheath.

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[caption id="attachment_1873187" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1873187 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/F2.large-1-1024x819.jpg" alt="pleomorphic bacteria" width="1024" height="819" /> Image by the <a href="https://jcm.asm.org/content/40/12/4771" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Journal of Clinical Microbiology</a>[/caption]
<h2><strong>Pleomorphic </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Unlike all the others listed above, pleomorphic bacteria do not have a characteristic or standard shape. Their shapes can change or appear in a variety of ways.</span>

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<span style="font-weight: 400;">What experiences in your life have changed your perspective on bacteria? Did you know about the strange shapes of bacteria and does that change how you feel about it? Let us know in the comments!  </span>

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&nbsp;

The Strange Shapes of Bacteria

 Bacteria, of many strange shapes and sizes, are everywhere. In...

Getting a stomach “bug” (usually a bacteria or virus) from food is a horrible ordeal. Unfortunately, this is an experience that most people share. <a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/consumers/what-you-need-know-about-foodborne-illnesses" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">According to the FDA</a>, 1 in 6 Americans will experience foodborne illness each year. Though food poisoning is generally mild and can be treated at home, some cases are more severe. Children, the elderly and those with compromised immune systems are at a higher risk of severe infections. However, some foodborne pathogens are life-threatening, even to healthy individuals.

Symptoms of <a href="https://www.foodsafety.gov/poisoning/causes/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">food poisoning</a> generally include nausea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea. The best protection against food poisoning is proper food handling practices. To avoid food contamination, make sure to wash your hands before handling foods and avoid leaving food at room temperature. Pregnant women, young children, the elderly and other people with <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/symptoms.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">weakened immune systems</a> should be extra careful.

Food poisoning can take many different forms and come from many places. The term “food poisoning” is not entirely accurate. In most cases of foodborne illness, the culprit is a bacteria or virus. Though the toxins they produce cause many symptoms, the root cause of the illness is usually an infection. There are many different bacteria and viruses that can cause food poisoning. Mold, parasites, pesticides and natural toxins <a href="https://www.poison.org/articles/2013-apr/food-poisoning" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">can also cause food poisoning</a>. They vary in severity, symptoms, sources and how long they take to hit.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873016 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1Staphylococcus_aureus_50000x_USDA_ARS_EMU.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="800" />

<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>
<h2>Common Types of Food Poisoning</h2>
Take a look at this chart for a summary of some common forms of food poisoning:

&nbsp;
<table>
<tbody>
<tr style="background-color: #e0e0e0;">
<th style="border: 1px solid black;">Contaminant</th>
<th style="border: 1px solid black;">Symptoms</th>
<th style="border: 1px solid black;">Sources</th>
<th style="border: 1px solid black;">Prevention</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;"><i>Campylobacter jejuni</i></td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Diarrhea, stomach cramps, fever, vomiting. Blood in diarrhea.

Onset: 2-5 days

Duration: 2-10 days</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Raw and undercooked poultry, “raw” milk, contaminated water.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Cook poultry to an internal temperature of 165°F. Do not consume “raw” milk products.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;"><i>Bacillus cereus</i></td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Abdominal cramps, watery diarrhea, nausea.

Onset: 10-16 hours

Duration: 24-48 hours</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Meats, stews, rice products, starchy foods, and sauces.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Cook meat thoroughly. Do not store perishable foods at room temperature.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;"><i>Salmonella</i></td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting.

Onset: 12-72 hours

Duration: 4-7 days</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Undercooked meat, poultry, and eggs, “raw” milk, and produce.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Cook meat thoroughly. Do not eat raw or undercooked eggs. Do not consume “raw” milk products. Wash produce thoroughly.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;"><i>Staphylococcus aureus</i></td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Nausea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Onset: .5-6 hours

Duration: 1-3 days</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Milk and cheeses. Present on skin.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">The toxins from <i>Staph aureus</i> are not destroyed by heat. Food must be kept above 140°F or below 40°F to prevent growth.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;"><i>Clostridium botulinum (Botulism)</i></td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Botulism is a rare but serious form of food poisoning. Symptoms include vomiting, diarrhea, blurred/double vision, difficulty swallowing, and weakness. Botulism can be deadly and requires medical attention.

Onset: 12-72 hours

Duration: Varies</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Improperly canned foods.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Avoid eating home canned foods. If you do eat home canned foods, make sure they are properly sealed and sterilized. Do not eat food from damaged cans.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;"><i>Escheria coli</i></td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Severe diarrhea, abdominal cramps and vomiting. E. Coli can cause kidney failure.

Onset: 2-8 days

Duration: 5-7 days</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Uncooked beef, “raw” milk, and juice, contaminated produce or water.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Cook meat thoroughly. Only drink pasteurized milk and juice. Wash produce thoroughly before eating.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;"><i>Hepatitis A</i></td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Diarrhea, dark urine, jaundice, fever, headache, nausea, abdominal pain.

Onset: 2-6 weeks

Duration: 8 weeks</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Produce, including berries. Shellfish from contaminated water.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Wash produce thoroughly. Cook meat and seafood thoroughly. Reheat cooked foods before eating.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;"><i>Listeria </i><i>monocytogenes</i></td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Fever, muscle aches, nausea, and diarrhea. Can cause stillbirth in pregnant women. Listeria can spread to the nervous system, causing headaches, confusion, and loss of balance.

Onset: 1-4 weeks

Duration: Variable</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Pre-made deli foods and soft cheeses. Hot dogs, dried or fermented sausages, deli salads.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Cook meat thoroughly. Wash your hands before and after handling raw meat and eggs. Only consume pasteurized dairy products. Do not eat prepared deli salads.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;"><i>Cyclospora</i></td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Diarrhea, loss of appetite, sudden weight loss, fatigue, nausea, stomach cramps.

Onset: 1-14 days

Duration: weeks to months</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Produce</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Wash produce thoroughly before eating.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
&nbsp;

Though food poisoning is generally mild, some forms are more dangerous. Diseases like botulism and listeria can be life-threatening. There are a few key strategies for avoiding food poisoning. Using proper food handling techniques and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avoid-food-poisoning-precautions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">checking restaurants health inspection scores</a> can help decrease your risk. Storing and carrying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grocery-bags-food-poisoning/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">meat separate from produce</a> is another way to avoid food poisoning. Read use by dates on perishable foods and <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/tell-food-thrown-away/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">throw out old food</a>.

&nbsp;

Curious to learn more? Read about the relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-global-warming-clearly-liked-to-waterborne-food-poisoning/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">climate change and foodborne illnesses</a>.

&nbsp;

Most Common Types of Food Poisoning

Getting a stomach “bug” (usually a bacteria or virus) from...

<span style="font-weight: 400;"> The taiga is a harsh place for animals to call home. Winter temperatures can fall to -50 degrees Fahrenheit and some parts of the taiga are frost-free for </span><a href="https://www.sundogs.sk.ca/Boreal_Climate_and_Energy.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">only 38 days</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Many species have evolved unique strategies to survive in this harsh environment, but before we learn about the coolest taiga animals let’s learn about the taiga. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The taiga and the boreal refer to the same biome - just in different locations. The boreal refers to the areas just south of the Arctic circle in most of Canada and the Nordic countries. The taiga refers to the same latitude - but in Russia. All parts of the taiga have long winters, short, wet summers, and an abundance of coniferous trees like pines, spruces, and larches. <strong>The boreal forest is also the largest land biome on earth, encompassing about </strong></span><strong><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/taiga" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">17% of the earth’s surface area</a></strong><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>.</strong> This massive piece of land is home to thousands of species, let’s take a look at some of the coolest.</span>

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<h2><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1873114" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/feature-3977915_1280-776x1024.jpg" alt="eurasian lynx" width="776" height="1024" /></h2>
<h2><b>Lynx</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/eurasian-lynx-lynx-lynx/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Eurasian Lynx</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> (</span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Lynx lynx</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">) is a solitary, nocturnal feline species native to the taiga of northern Europe and Asia. They are the largest of the four </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Lynx</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> species, standing near a meter at the shoulder and weighing over 30 kilograms. Like most cats, they prefer to live alone and have even been found at elevations </span><a href="http://www.lynxuk.org/lynx.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">over 5,000 meters</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">! Their territories are quite large - sometimes boasting 400 square kilometers. </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">L. lynx </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">preys upon small mammals that also are native to the taiga - like rabbits, hare, squirrels, and rodents. Occasionally, they may attempt to hunt large prey - like deer - but they may compete for this prey with other predators.</span>

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<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1873115" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/mink-934581_1280-1024x942.jpg" alt="european mink" width="1024" height="942" />
<h2><b>Mink</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The European mink (</span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Mustela lutreola</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">) is a small, darkly colored carnivorous mammal. </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">M. lutreola </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">is a semiaquatic species, so they not only live in the southern portion of the taiga but also rarely make their dens more than 10 meters away from the water’s edge. They feed primarily on small animals like voles and fish. Unfortunately, the European mink is also listed as critically endangered by the </span><a href="https://www.iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">International Union for Conservation of Nature</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Researchers believe this is primarily due to habitat loss, disease, and </span><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23735563?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">competition with other mink species.</span></a>

Photo by <a href="https://pestpush.com/">Jared Belson</a>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1873116" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/reindeer-1323000_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="reindeer" width="1024" height="682" />
<h2><b>Reindeer</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Reindeer (</span><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/reindeer-rangifer-tarandus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Rangifer tarandus</span></i></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">) are large deer closely related to moose and elk. They are found almost anywhere where boreal forests exist. During the harsh winter months, </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">R. tarandus </span></i><a href="http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/dec2000.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">mainly eat lichen</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> - the only large mammalian species which can do so. One of the unique aspects of this cool taiga animal's behavior is the size of their herds. The </span><a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-38297464" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Taimyr herd</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> in Russia is the largest in the world - in 2000 the herd was estimated to be 1 million strong. </span><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/278435?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Many peoples</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> across boreal forests around the globe rely on these herds for food, shelter, and trade.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1873117" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/wolf-690102_1280-1024x648.jpg" alt="grey wolf" width="1024" height="648" />
<h2><b>Grey Wolves</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">A portion of the 38 subspecies of grey wolf (</span><a href="https://www.earth.com/endangered-species/canis-lupus-3/#" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Canis lupus</span></i></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">) is native to the taiga. </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">C. lupus</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> is the largest of the canine species and is usually the apex, or dominant, species wherever it exists. Grey wolves are known for hunting in packs of roughly 10, mostly for large prey like deer, cow, and moose. When prey pickings are slim - as they often are in the taiga - the grey wolf is often forced to consume much smaller prey like squirrels and rabbits. </span>

<i><span style="font-weight: 400;">L. lupus</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> is also typically monogamous - meaning individuals mate for life. After the death of a mate, the surviving wolf is usually quick to find a new partner. There is even significant evidence to support the notion that the death of a packmate </span><a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137378" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">stresses the members</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of the wolf pack.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1873113" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/boreal-owl-1160758_1280-1024x818.jpg" alt="boreal owl" width="1024" height="818" /></h2>
<h2><b>Song Birds</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">All in all, there are roughly </span><a href="https://www.borealbirds.org/what-is-boreal-bird" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">325 different bird species</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> that call boreal forests home, and they are some of the coolest taiga animals. According to the </span><a href="https://www.borealbirds.org/what-is-boreal-bird" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Boreal Songbird Initiative</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, a boreal bird is defined as one that ‘breeds in, migrates through, or otherwise relies on North America's boreal forest region during its life cycle.” The sheer amount of birds that rely on the boreal forest is staggering. Each year it is estimated that 1-3 billion birds return to the northern forests to breed. Some of these birds come from relatively close locations - the lower 48 states. But some of these birds will come all the way from South America!</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><b>Taiga Animals in Danger</b></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">All told, the taiga and boreal are home to a rich and diverse range of species. Wolves, bear, birds, insects, reindeer - they all depend on this harsh biome for food and shelter. But, these animals only thrive if the forest still exists. Timber harvesting is on the rise in many parts of the world, and Canada now clear cuts </span><a href="https://www.nrdc.org/experts/anthony-swift/boreal-clearcutting-undermines-canadas-climate-leadership" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">roughly one million acres</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of forest every year. This is an area equivalent to the size of Ohio. Consider supporting </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/take-action-save-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">organizations</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> that help save preserve boreal forests around the world!</span>

&nbsp;

5 Coolest Taiga Animals

The taiga is a harsh place for animals to call...

<div id="article-content">
<div class="article-text">

We know less about the deepest parts of the ocean than we do about the surface of the moon. Fewer people have been to the deep sea than to the moon. The deepest parts of the ocean can be hard to fathom. In fact, the “deep sea” begins at 1000 <b>fathoms </b>deep (about 1900 meters or 1.2 miles!). Though the depth of the ocean varies by location, it has an <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oceandepth.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">average depth of 3.7 km</a> (2.3 miles) deep. At this depth, little to no light penetrates. The deepest parts of the ocean are many times deeper than this. <a href="https://xkcd.com/1040/large/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">XKCD has created a great visualization</a> that gives an idea of just how insanely deep the ocean is.

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<h2><strong>The Oceans Zones</strong></h2>
We divide the ocean into different zones based on depth. The entire column of the ocean is called the Pelagic Zone. Scientists describe these zones by the level of light that reaches them. Sunlight quickly drops off below the surface. Since ancient times, it was believed the lack of light meant a lack of life. Study on these zones in the last two centuries have shown this to be <a href="http://oceanscape.aquarium.org/explore/general_articles/life-without-light" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">false</a>.
<ol>
 	<li><b>Epipelagic (sunlight):</b> Surface - 200 m (660ft)</li>
 	<li><b>Mesopelagic (twilight):</b> 200 m (660 ft) - 1,000 m (3,300 ft)</li>
 	<li><strong>Bathypelagic (midnight):</strong> 1,000 m (3,300 ft) - 4,000m (13,000 ft)</li>
 	<li><strong>Abyssopelagic (lower midnight):</strong> 4,000 m (13,000 ft) - ocean floor</li>
 	<li><strong>Hadopelagic (hadal zone):</strong> Deep sea trenches below 6,000 m (20,000 ft)</li>
</ol>
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<h2><strong>Tectonic Plates Create Deep Trenches</strong></h2>
These extreme depths exist in trenches formed by the collision of the Earth’s tectonic plates. This is the same geologic process responsible for the tallest mountains. The mountain ranges below the surface are as big as the Himalayas. <strong>The trenches are even deeper.</strong>

We usually can’t feel the gradual movement of these plates. However, pressure builds along these fault lines. Eventually, this pressure is released as powerful earthquakes. Earthquakes at deepsea trenches can cause enormous and destructive tsunamis. They are the <a href="https://geology.com/records/deepest-part-of-the-ocean.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">most powerful earthquakes in the world.</a>

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<h2><strong>The Mariana Trench</strong></h2>
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[caption id="attachment_1872771" align="alignnone" width="800"]<img class="wp-image-1872771 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/800px-Cross_section_of_mariana_trench.svg_.png" alt="Cross section of the mariana trench." width="800" height="425" /> Credit: Hussong, Fryer (1981), US government supplied image, redrawn into SVG by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cross_section_of_mariana_trench.svg" rel="noopener">Vanessa Ezekowitz</a>[/caption]

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<strong>The deepest part of the ocean is located in the Mariana Trench.</strong> This gash in the seabed exists in the Western Pacific Ocean. It extends for nearly 2,600 km (1,600 miles).

The deepest known point is about 320 km (200 miles) from the island of Guam. Named Challenger Deep, this point is over 10.9 km (6.83 miles) below the surface. In comparison, Mount Everest reaches 8.8 km (5.5 miles) above sea level. <strong>If Everest started at the base of Challenger Deep, its peak would still be completely dark, sitting 2 km (1.3 miles) from the surface.</strong>

We do not know if the Challenger Deep is the deepest point in the ocean or even the Mariana Trench. Scientists measure these locations using advanced sonar techniques. Measurements of similar depths have been made in other locations in the Mariana trench.

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<h2><strong>Water Enters the Earth’s Mantle</strong></h2>
A study by Washington University and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution aims to<a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/03/120322142201.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> find points even deeper</a>. This study is using devices called hydrophones and seismometers to map cracks and crevices in the sea floor. These structures are essential to the water cycle. Water is pulled into the Earth’s core, reacting with magma to form rock. Eventually, this water may return to the Earth’s atmosphere through volcanoes. In order to map these channels, this study will measure structures that are as deep as 10 km (6 miles.)

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<h2><strong>Human Exploration</strong></h2>
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[caption id="attachment_1872772" align="alignnone" width="716"]<img class="wp-image-1872772 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Bathyscaphe_Trieste.jpg" alt="Image of the Bathyscaphe Trieste, the first submersible to reach the Challenger Deep" width="716" height="583" /> Image of the Bathyscaphe Trieste, the first submersible to reach the Challenger Deep.[/caption]

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The sea floor is an extremely hostile environment. <strong>The pressure in the Challenger Deep is equal to <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/cruise-log-post/life-under-pressure-100-elephants-on-your-head/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">100 elephants standing on your head</a>.</strong> This pressure is so high that no proteins function correctly. Scuba divers are officially limited to 100 m (328 ft) below the surface for safety. Herbert Nitsch holds the title of deepest free dive, <a href="https://www.thedailyresearch.com/how-deep-is-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">reaching 253.2 m</a> (831 ft) below the surface. This depth is extremely dangerous to humans and can cause decompression syndrome (also known as the bends.)

Going below the epipelagic zone requires submersible vehicles. Manned submersibles have reached the Challenger Deep only twice. In 1960 Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh completed the first mission. The second mission was in 2012 by <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/03/120325-james-cameron-mariana-trench-challenger-deep-deepest-science-sub/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Canadian director James Cameron</a>. This was the first solo dive to the Mariana trench.

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<h2><strong>Life Finds a Way</strong></h2>
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[caption id="attachment_1872773" align="alignnone" width="640"]<img class="wp-image-1872773 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/640px-Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg" alt="Image showing giant tubeworms living at a hydrothermal vent." width="640" height="360" /> Giant tubeworms living at a hydrothermal vent.[/caption]

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Most exploration at this depth is done by remote probes and autonomous submersibles. The discoveries made by these vessels are amazing. Contrary to long-held belief, life exists throughout the ocean, even at its deepest points.

Because of the lack of light, the deep ocean was believed to be devoid of life. All other known ecosystems rely on plants (and other photosynthesizers) to collect energy from the sun. Many deep-sea organisms indirectly rely on sunlight. Dead plants and animal from the surface float down to these depths.

This was first confirmed in the 1870s by the HMS Challenger. This ship collected animals from the hadal zone. The deepest recorded fish sighting was over 8 km (5 miles) deep. Somehow, life continues to the deepest parts of the ocean floor.

Researchers have found other organisms near hydrothermal vents. These organisms need no energy from the sun. Instead, they get energy from the Earth’s core. They feed on hydrogen sulfide, a compound that is extremely toxic to most life. Bacteria at these vents use a process called chemosynthesis to produce energy. These communities challenge our understanding of life. The existence of these species opens the possibility for life on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-planet-primitive-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">planets and moons</a> previously thought to be entirely inhospitable.

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<h2><strong>Pollution Has No Limits</strong></h2>
Even at these depths, human activity is apparent. Plastics, glass and metal waste is common on the ocean floor. The effects of these pollutants are unknown. Many of the species at these depths are entirely unknown. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-health-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">plastic pollution accelerates</a> we risk destroying many species before we have the chance to even know they exist.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-damage-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Deep-sea mining for oil and minerals</a> poses another huge threat to these ecosystems. These communities may be similar to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complex-organisms-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">conditions in which life first arose</a> and can provide invaluable insight into life itself. Protecting these unique and rare ecosystems is essential.

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How Deep Is the Ocean?

We know less about the deepest parts of the ocean...

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<p data-offset-key="df0qg-0-0">The tell-tale signs and symptoms of the scariest flesh-eating bacteria were first described over 2000 years ago, but only recently in medical history have scientists been able to characterize thee diseases they cause and identify the bacteria responsible.</p>

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<p data-offset-key="3tj5k-0-0">Physicians now refer to the vast majority of flesh-eating bacterial infection cases as “<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/groupastrep/diseases-public/necrotizing-fasciitis.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">necrotizing fasciitis</a>.”‘Necrotizing’ refers to the death of tissue, while ‘fasciitis’ refers to inflammation of the fascia - a tissue layer that is under the skin.</p>
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<h2 data-offset-key="3tj5k-0-0">Flesh-Eating Bacteria Case Study</h2>
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<p data-offset-key="a207c-0-0">In July of 2016, a Florida man learned of the horrors of flesh-eating bacteria. As reported in the <a href="https://www.orlandosentinel.com/opinion/guest-commentary/os-op-flesh-eating-bacteria-survive-bob-morris-20190517-3dboqefws5hlxcvhwxiikgesry-story.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Orlando Sentinal</a>, Bob Morris and his wife had intended to go out for a quiet evening paddleboard on the Caloosahatchee River, a few miles east of Sanibel Island. A submerged oyster bed sent Bob flying off his board, and when he crawled back on he realized he had gashed his left knee open.</p>
<p data-offset-key="a207c-0-0">Bob and his wife rushed home and they knew the drill: “wash the cut, force it to bleed, flush with hydrogen peroxide, apply antiseptic. Repeat, repeat, repeat.” But by the next morning, his leg was only looking worse: swollen, red, and very painful. After rushing to the hospital, Bob received morphine and added to an amputation watch. After a week of testing, physicians were finally able to diagnose Bob: necrotizing fasciitis caused by the bacteria <em><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-waters-will-lead-to-pathogenic-bacteria-crossing-the-seas/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">vibrio vulnificus</a>.</em></p>
<p data-offset-key="a207c-0-0">Bob survived (with all his limbs), but the disease can be deadly. In Florida in<a href="http://www.floridahealth.gov/diseases-and-conditions/vibrio-infections/vibrio-vulnificus/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> 2015 alone</a>, 45 people contracted <em>V. vulnificus</em> and 14 of those cases proved to be fatal.</p>

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<img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/bacteria-811861_1280-978x1024.jpg" alt="Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteria" width="978" height="1024" />

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<h2 data-offset-key="212br-0-0">Flesh-Eating Microbes</h2>
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<p data-offset-key="51p5d-0-0"><em>V. vulnificus</em> is just one of many bacteria that can lead to flesh-eating diseases. Many others exist and live in unique environments. Here are a few examples:</p>

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<ul>
 	<li data-offset-key="25eeh-0-0"><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cows-antibiotic-resistant-superbugs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Staphylococcus aureus</a>: this bacteria is often found on the skin without causing any problems. It is only when<em> S. aureusenters</em> the body that it typically causes disease.</li>
 	<li data-offset-key="25eeh-0-0"><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antimicrobial-resistance-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Klebsiella pneumoniae</a>: <em>K. pneumoniae</em> is a common bacteria that causes hospital-acquired urinary tract infections as well as pneumonia. The first case of necrotizing fasciitis caused by the bacteria<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4307707/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> was discovered in 2015</a>.</li>
 	<li data-offset-key="25eeh-0-0"><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6094465/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Prevotella buccae</a>: <em>P. buccae</em> is typically found in the mouth and the gut. While they rarely cause necrotizing fasciitis alone, they can contribute to particularly resistant infection when coupled with other bacteria.</li>
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<h2 data-offset-key="59thv-0-0">Who Is At Risk?</h2>
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<p data-offset-key="e4sus-0-0">Usually, flesh-eating bacteria are classified by how many species of bacteria are to blame. Type 1 infections are ‘polymicrobial’ (many bacteria), and Type 2 are 'monomicrobial' (one bacteria).</p>
<p data-offset-key="e4sus-0-0">Individuals will often contract Type 1 vs. Type 2 infections for different reasons. People who have <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/immunocompromised" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">weakened immune systems</a> are most at risk. These patients already have other diseases that are stressing their body’s ability to fight off infection. Individuals with diabetes mellitus or chronic renal failure are particularly at risk of contraction. Type 2 infections usually result from some minor trauma that allows the bacteria entry into the body. In Bob’s case, this was likely caused by the cut on his knee and the presence of the flesh-eating <em>V. vulnificus</em> in the water.</p>
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<h2 data-offset-key="7va4c-0-0" data-editor="42oll" data-block="true">Signs and Symptoms</h2>
<p data-offset-key="cmr25-0-0">One of the scarier parts of necrotizing fasciitis is that the <strong>symptoms are often hard to recognize or are even misleading.</strong> According to the<a href="https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/necrotizing-fasciitis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> National Organization for Rare Disorders</a>, the symptoms will often present as if the patient has the flu. These symptoms will often include ‘high fever, sore throat, stomach ache, nausea, diarrhea, chills, and general body aches.’ One of the signs that separates the flu from flesh-eating diseases is the presence of an ‘erythema’ - a redding of the skin due to dilated blood vessels - that is painful to the touch. This erythema can also grow in size rapidly, often times up to <strong>1 inch per hour.</strong></p>
<p data-offset-key="cmr25-0-0">As the bacteria spread under the skin, the initial symptoms will continue to worsen. A high fever often persists and pain levels increase well above what the initial injury would normally feel like. Additionally, the skin may start to turn a deep purple color with black splotches. At this point, left untreated, the patient's chances of surviving are extremely low.</p>

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<h2>Treatment</h2>
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<p data-offset-key="9a3j9-0-0" data-editor="42oll" data-block="true">The first step in treating flesh-eating bacteria is getting a patient to the hospital. No at-home remedies exist to treat such a fast-moving infection. Upon arrival and diagnosis, surgery is typically the first procedure. This involves a surgeon removing all of the dead and dying tissue - regardless of where it is. Sometimes, this may lead to amputations of affected limbs.</p>
<p data-offset-key="9a3j9-0-0" data-editor="42oll" data-block="true">Next, doctors will treat a patient with a powerful cocktail of antibiotics. Depending on which strain of flesh-eating bacteria is causing the infection, this cocktail will differ. There is currently no standard length of antibiotic treatment, thus doctors typically administer antibiotics until the patient shows no further signs of infection.</p>

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Scariest Flesh-Eating Bacteria

The tell-tale signs and symptoms of the scariest flesh-eating bacteria...

Space exploration is entering a new era of innovation and change. Space has transformed since Sputnik 1 sent its first message back to earth. The Space Race was fueled by the tensions of the Cold War. It was funded by the US and the USSR, both racing for technological and military supremacy. At the time, only global superpowers had the resources to even imagine a space program.

Today, new technologies, new uses of space, and decreasing costs have made space flight far more accessible. <strong>Private space companies now launch satellites, resupply the International Space Station, and even offer spaceflights to private citizens.</strong> 72 countries now have space agencies, including China, Japan, and India. The three biggest space agencies are NASA in the US, Roscosmos in Russia, and the ESA in Europe.

Of these three agencies, the Russian <a href="https://bgr.com/2019/03/07/crew-dragon-russia-reaction-spacex/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Roscosmos is the only agency launching astronauts into space</a>. NASA’s Space Shuttle program ended in 2011. Astronauts from other agencies rely on Roscosmos for transportation to and from the ISS. Private companies have won contracts from NASA to provide crew service to the ISS. State-run agencies are relying increasingly on private companies for technology and support.

The number of private companies in space has grown in the last two decades. However, large companies have been involved in space flight for many decades. These include many big aerospace companies such as Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman. These companies have extensive experience and resources.

In contrast, newer space startups are creating innovative technologies and developing new industries in space. These include 3 companies that aim to allow private citizens to visit space. Each of these companies is backed by a visionary billionaire. <strong>These private companies hope to push innovation forward to expand humans' reach into the stars.</strong>

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872499 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/spacex-693229_1280-1024x576.jpg" alt="Rendering of SpaceX Dragon Capsule in orbit above the earth." width="1024" height="576" />
<h2><strong>SpaceX</strong></h2>
SpaceX is arguably the most well-known private space company. The company has created a ton of hype since it was founded in 2002 by billionaire entrepreneur Elon Musk.

Elon Musk launched SpaceX with the <a href="https://www.spacex.com/about" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">goal of enabling the colonization</a> of Mars. Though this sounds like a far fetched goal, the company has made some impressive progress. Elon Musk believes the company could get people to Mars as soon as 2024!

Before reaching Mars, SpaceX is planning to test its system with a lunar orbit. Japanese billionaire Yukazu Maezawa plans to take six to eight artists on this trip. This mission would serve as more than just a test of SpaceX’s rockets. Mr. Maezawa hopes this trip will lead to the creation of art that will help unify Earth.

SpaceX is the first commercial company to <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-dragon-cargo-spacecraft-liftoff/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">deliver cargo to the ISS</a>. They have also secured a contract with NASA to carry humans to the ISS.

SpaceX has already had great success with their Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets. The Falcon 9 first successfully reentered the atmosphere and landed vertically in 2015. The Falcon Heavy first launched in February 2018. It carried Elon Musk’s Tesla Roadster as a test payload.

SpaceX is now working on a new rocket, called the Big Falcon Rocket or Starship. This is planned to be the largest rocket ever built. This rocket will be capable of launching manned missions to Mars.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872500 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1280px-Blue_Origin_BE-4_rocket_engine_sn_103_April_2018_-_LCH4_inlet_side_view_minus_nozzle1-1024x768.jpg" alt="blue origin private space company" width="1024" height="768" />
<h2><strong>Blue Origin</strong></h2>
<a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Blue Origin</a> has not sought public attention in the same way as SpaceX. Founded by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos in 2000, Blue Origin aims to provide access to space to private individuals. The company’s motto is “<i>Gradatim Ferociter,”</i> meaning “step by step, ferociously” in Latin.

Blue Origin has also developed a reusable rocket similar to SpaceX, called the New Shepard. They have launched this rocket successfully multiple times, reusing much of the rocket between launches.

Blue Origin has a focus on space tourism services, rather than military or science applications. Founder Jeff Bezos believes that providing entertainment through space travel is the best way to further technology. Therefore, the goals of Blue Origin include lowering the cost of space travel and improving safety.

Blue Origin announced an orbital rocket called the New Glenn in 2016. This rocket will also be reusable like the preceding New Shepard rocket. The company has signed on a number of customers to use their rocket to launch satellites.

Blue Origin has also created the BE-4 rocket engine. They plan to sell this engine to various other rocket manufacturers.

Blue Origins most recent announcement was a lunar lander. We know very little about this project, fitting the secretive nature of Blue Origin. It is called <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/09/jeff-bezos-unveils-blue-moon-lunar-lander.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Blue Moon</a> and has been in development for over 3 years. This project aligns with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-station-nasa-plans/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">NASA’s goal of landing a new mission to the moon in this decade</a>.

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[caption id="attachment_1872501" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1872501 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Virgin_Galactic_SpaceShipTwo__Unity__rollout_19Feb2016_FAITH_hangar_Mojave_California-1024x547.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="547" /> Photo Credit to <a href="https://twitter.com/ronrosano/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ron Rosano</a> |<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> CC</a>[/caption]
<h2><strong>Virgin Galactic</strong></h2>
Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic, founded in 2004, is an extension of the Virgin brand into the space tourism industry. The goal of this venture is to fly private citizens into space. The original aim was for a maiden voyage as early as 2009. Various setbacks have kept this from happening.

In 2014, Virgin Galactic tested their spacecraft with disastrous results. The <a href="https://www.alphr.com/space/1003058/private-space-travel-spacex-blue-origin-virgin-galactic" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ship crashed</a>, killing the pilot. This has led to concerns about safety.

In 2018, Virgin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virgin-galactic-passenger/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">successfully launched SpaceShipTwo</a>, the successor to SpaceShipOne. This was a manned flight that reached nearly 56 miles above the surface of Earth. It marks the first flight by Virgin Galactic to carry a passenger, though this passenger was their chief astronaut instructor. This could be the long-awaited sign that Virgin Galactic will start flying passengers soon.

This is great news for the <a href="https://www.alphr.com/space/1003058/private-space-travel-spacex-blue-origin-virgin-galactic" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">680 customers who have already paid the $200,000 deposit</a>.

Virgin Galactic aims to dominate the commercial space travel market.

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Private space travel has been a dream since The Jetsons. Recent innovations and a new competitive atmosphere are moving this dream towards reality. The future of space travel feels within reach. This decade could be a very exciting time for space travel.

&nbsp;

Top 3 Biggest Private Space Companies

Space exploration is entering a new era of innovation and...

Though we rarely think about them, we rely on satellites for much of our daily lives. They enable global communication, GPS and weather reports. Satellites also help <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/nasa-satellite-measures-deforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">measure environmental destruction</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/new-weather-satellite-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">track weather</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-track-sea-level/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sea levels</a>, and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/map-living-conditions-global-poverty/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">global economics</a>. These satellites face a huge problem - the exponentially growing amount of space junk sharing Low Earth Orbit (LEO).

Satellites don’t last forever. Eventually, they stop working. However, when this happens they do not magically disappear or fall back to earth. These objects remain in their orbit, moving at incredible speeds.

In 1978, NASA astrophysicist <a href="http://iaass.space-safety.org/awards/jerome-lederer-space-safety-pioneer-award/space-safety-pioneer-award-hall-of-fame/kessler-biography/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Donald J. Kessler</a> made a startling prediction. The growing debris in LEO would eventually reach a tipping point. When this happened, it would start a chain reaction of collisions. Each collision creating more debris, leading to more collisions. <strong>This domino effect is called the Kessler Syndrome.</strong>

If we reach this point, the consequences will be disastrous. The resulting debris field would destroy essential satellites. Pieces of space junk would shred the International Space Station to bits. The cascading debris would make LEO too cluttered for new satellites. This would fundamentally change the way humans use space. Many modern conveniences we take for granted would disappear.

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872177 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/space-junk-11644_640.jpg" alt="A map of spacejunk orbiting earth." width="640" height="512" />

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<h2><strong>What Makes Space Junk So Dangerous?</strong></h2>
Compared to the amount of overall waste produced by humanity, space junk may seem pretty minor. It is <a href="http://stuffin.space/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">floating in the void of space</a>. It seems too far away to hurt any of us. Out of sight, out of mind.

The reality is that this “trash” is more like thousands of missiles. <strong>In orbit, space debris generally moves at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news/debris_faq.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">7-8 kilometers per second</a>, over 25,000 kilometers per hour </strong>(15,000 miles per hour.) Collisions are even faster due to the speed of the satellite. At these speeds, a 10-centimeter object would have the force of <a href="https://bigthink.com/paul-ratner/how-the-kessler-syndrome-can-end-all-space-exploration-and-destroy-modern-life" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><b>7 kilograms of TNT</b></a>.

These collisions are still rare, but the amount of space junk is growing. Currently, there are <a href="http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/usspc-fs/space.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">8,000 orbiting objects being tracked by the Space Surveillance Network</a>. This is far less than the estimated 22,000 objects larger than 4 inches in orbit. When smaller objects are considered, that number goes into the tens of millions. Each collision has the potential to multiply these objects.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872178 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/international-space-station-67774_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="The view of earth from the international space station with an astronaut looking out the window." width="1024" height="680" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Do Collisions With Active Satellites Actually Happen?</strong></h2>
There are around 1,000 working satellites in LEO. A number of different countries and private companies own these satellites. Most of these are able to avoid collisions using thrusters. When they detect a threatening object, they make evasive maneuvers. However, with the number of satellites and objects in space, this is not always possible.

In <a href="http://www.spacesafetymagazine.com/space-debris/kessler-syndrome/iridium-33-cosmos-2251-years-later-learned-then/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">2009 the private satellite Iridium 33 collided with the derelict Russian Cosmos 2251</a>. This event revealed the real risks of orbital debris. The collision underscored the realities of the Kessler Syndrome. This led to increased international cooperation to combat the threat.

The largest object in LEO is the international space station (ISS.) This space station houses astronauts continually. A large collision with the ISS would be disastrous. Essential components of the ISS can withstand pieces of space junk up to 1cm. However, about once a year the ISS has to maneuver to avoid a larger collision.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>How to Prevent the Kessler Syndrome</strong></h2>
<h3><strong>Make Less Trash</strong></h3>
The most important step to prevent the Kessler Syndrome is to create less junk. This means being careful about what we send into space. <a href="https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/universe/what-is-kessler-syndrome-definition-example-effects-solution.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Limitations on the number of satellites</a> launched is an obvious step. In addition, organizations must design satellites must with this threat in mind. This means ensuring that they can be safely disposed of when they die. In the US, satellites must reenter the Earth’s atmosphere (where they burn up) or be launched to the “graveyard orbit” well outside of LEO. The UN also has a set of debris mitigation guidelines.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872179 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/dark-2024127_1280-1024x643.png" alt="A meteor of piece of space junk burining up in earth's atmosphere" width="1024" height="643" />

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Cleanup Efforts</strong></h3>
Even if all new satellites were safely disposed of, collisions could still happen. The daisy chain of the Kessler Syndrome could turn operational satellites into hundreds of new pieces of junk.

Currently, there is no method to remove existing space junk. Some objects will naturally enter the atmosphere in a matter of years. However, those further out will likely <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news/debris_faq.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">stay in orbit for centuries</a>.

Research is ongoing into possible cleanup techniques. A “<a href="http://www.spacedaily.com/news/debris-00a.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">laser broom</a>” is one proposed solutions. This would use lasers to push debris toward reentry. International treaties, cost, and complexity have prevented any significant effort to remove debris.

&nbsp;

The Kessler Syndrome is a very real threat. Pollution is a problem that follows humans everywhere we go, even in space. We can only hope that action to mitigate the dangers of pollution in space will happen quickly enough to prevent disaster.

&nbsp;

What is the Kessler Syndrome?

Though we rarely think about them, we rely on satellites...

First of all, what is hibernation?

Some animals give a whole new meaning to “sleeping in.” Hibernation is a behavior in many animals that allows them to enter an extended sleep-like state during the winter.

Though hibernation seems a lot like sleep, it is actually a unique state. During sleep, our bodies still function normally. Our heart rate drops and metabolism slows, these changes are minor.

Hibernation, on the other hand, is when animals enter a state called torpor for an extended period of time. Torpor is far more extreme than sleep. In torpor, <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/10/animals-hibernation-science-nature-biology-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">metabolism drops below 5% of the normal level</a>. Most physiological functions grind to a halt or slow to a fraction of normal. Heart rates go below 10% of their normal level. Some animals take only one breath a minute. This state is so extreme, they may appear to be dead.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Why Hibernate?</strong></h2>
Hibernation occurs during the winter when resources are scarce and conditions extreme. Animals hibernate in order to conserve limited resources. By dropping their metabolism, many animals go for months at a time without needing food. Instead, they rely on the energy stored in their body fat.

This might sound pretty nice. You pack on calories, eating your fill and getting fat in the fall. Then you go to take a long nap through the winter, during which all that fat magically disappears. You wake up to springs flowers, plenty of food, and the prospect of a huge feast when it starts getting cold again.

However, hibernation requires careful preparation. In order to survive for extended periods with no food, animals need to focus on eating in the months before hibernation. It is also essential that they find a safe and warm place to hibernate.

I addition to saving on calories, hibernation can provide protection from predators. Though it might seem odd that sleeping provides protection, it actually makes sense. Hibernating animals are hidden, perfectly still and don’t sweat. Animals are <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/278/1723/3355.short" target="_blank" rel="noopener">five times less likely to die</a> while hibernating.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Which Animals Hibernate?</strong></h2>
There are many different species throughout the animal kingdom that hibernate. Below are some of the most well-known or impressive hibernators.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872066 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/black-bear-1611349_1920-1024x729.jpg" alt="Black bear behind ferns looking at the camera" width="1024" height="729" />
<h3>Black Bears <i>(</i><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/american-black-bear-ursus-americanus/"><i>Ursus americanus</i></a><i>)</i></h3>
Bears are certainly the most well-known hibernators. However, out of 9 species of bears, only 4 of them hibernate. These are the American Black Bear, Asiatic Black Bear, Brown Bear, and Polar Bear. Though hibernation is associated with them, Bears hibernation is not complete. Their body temperature does not drop to the temperature outside. They can also <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/10/animals-hibernation-science-nature-biology-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">wake up during hibernation</a>. Females wake up to have their cubs during hibernation.

Human activity can influence bear hibernation. A recent study showed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-food-bears-hibernate-age-faster/">eating human food makes bears hibernate for less time</a>. This can decrease the bear's lifespan and survival rate.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872067" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1872067 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2048px-Common_Poorwill-1024x683.jpg" alt="Common poorwill on a hand with a black background" width="1024" height="683" /> Photo credit to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Connorlong90" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Connor Long</a>[/caption]
<h3>Common Poorwill <i>(Phalaenoptilus nuttallii)</i></h3>
The common poorwill is quite unique. It is the <a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/11-animals-hibernate-arent-bears" target="_blank" rel="noopener">only bird that is known to hibernate</a>! Most birds deal with the extremes of winter by migrating south. The poorwill has evolved hibernation to avoid this arduous journey. The Hopi people have known about the poorwill’s hibernation for a long time, naming it “the sleeping one.” Poorwills generally hibernate from October to March.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872068 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/painted-turtle-565974_1920-1024x685.jpg" alt="Close up of a painted turtles head" width="1024" height="685" />
<h3>Painted Turtles (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/painted-turtle-chrysemys-picta/">Chrysemys picta</a>)</h3>
Turtles are reptiles and therefore are cold-blooded. This means they need external sources of heat in order to keep their body temperature and metabolism high enough to move. When temperatures get low, they are no longer able to forage. There are hundreds of species of turtles ranging across most of the earth, both on land and in the water. Each species deals with this problem differently.

The painted turtle survives the winter by hibernating. They remain below the ice of their ponds for months. They will often burrow into the mud at the bottom of lakes, using it to insulate themselves from the cold. Though these turtles need oxygen to survive, they are able to absorb dissolved oxygen through their skin. Even in the absence of oxygen, these turtles can live for over 100 days in water that is only 3°C. They do this by reducing their metabolism by as much as 99%. The cold water makes these feats possible. The low temperatures act like a fridge to slow down damage and growth in this state.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1872069" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1872069 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1024px-Fat-tailed_Dwarf_Lemur_Kirindy_Madagascar-1024x768.jpg" alt="A fat-tailed dwarf lemur on a branch at night" width="1024" height="768" /> Photo credit to <a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/42244964@N03" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Frank Vassen</a>[/caption]
<h3>Fat-Tailed Dwarf Lemurs (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/western-fat-tailed-dwarf-lemur-cheirogaleus-medius/"><i>Cheirogaleus medius</i>)</a></h3>
The fat-tailed dwarf lemur is <a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/11-animals-hibernate-arent-bears" target="_blank" rel="noopener">another lonely hibernator</a>. They are one of only three primates that are known to hibernate. All of these species are lemurs, which live only on Madagascar.

The fat-tail lemur is tiny, weighing an average of 160 grams (less than half a pound!) Their fat-tail is more than just cute. It is an essential part of hibernation. They store much of the energy they need for hibernation as fat in their tail!

They can hibernate for as long as 7 months! These lemurs do take breaks from this extended hibernation. They will become active for periods of six to 12 days during these extended hibernations.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872070 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/garter-snake-3546237_1920-1024x686.jpg" alt="A garter snake on a rock with lichen" width="1024" height="686" />
<h3>Garter Snakes (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/common-garter-snake-thamnophis-sirtalis/"><i>Thamnophis sirtalis</i></a>)</h3>
Snakes hibernation is called brumation, or wintering. As cold-blooded animals, they need to find a way to avoid the frost. The garter snake (and other species) form groups that hibernate together to protect each other from the cold.<strong> These groups are called “hibernacles” and <a href="https://animalsake.com/animals-that-hibernate" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sometimes have hundreds of snakes</a> twisted together.</strong> A mountain of slithering snakes is quite a sight! Stumbling upon a hibernacle could be quite the shock if you aren’t a fan of snakes.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872071 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/bee-535247_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="A bumble bee on a white flower" width="1024" height="680" />
<h3>Bumblebees (<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/small-garden-bumblebee-bombus-hortorum/"><em>Bombus spp.</em></a>)</h3>
Bumblebees hibernate in a way consistent with their eusocial nature. The majority of the colony dies off in the winter. The queen survives, eating the nectar collected by her workers. When the spring comes, she starts a new colony.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872072 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1024px-Lithobates_sylvaticus_wood_frog-1024x768.jpg" alt="A close up photo of a wood frog" width="1024" height="768" />
<h3>Wood Frogs (<i><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/wood-frog-lithobates-sylvaticus/">Lithobates sylvaticus</a>)</i></h3>
These tiny amphibians give a new meaning to the phrase “chilled to the bone.”<strong> They are literally <a href="https://www.kidactivities.net/animals-that-hibernate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">frozen and thawed every winter</a>!</strong> Unlike other hibernators, they don’t spend too much time trying to find a warm hole. Instead, they bury themselves in some leaves and let the cold make them into cute little ice cubes. When they thaw out in the spring they happily hop back out of their hiding places, good as new!

&nbsp;

Hibernation is a common adaptation to deal with the difficulties of winter. There animals from nearly every part of the animal kingdom that hibernate. It can even be argued that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-hibernate-underground/">plants hibernate</a>! Hibernation is also a fascinating phenomenon that may help us learn more about human metabolism.

&nbsp;

Which Are the Animals That Hibernate?

First of all, what is hibernation? Some animals give a...

It may come as a surprise to learn that <strong>most of the cells in your body are not your own.</strong> Scientists estimate bacteria may outnumber human cells by as much as 10 to 1! Admittedly, this estimate is on the higher side. However, it is generally agreed that there are at least as many non-human cells as human cells in the average person.

This may sound like a terrifying invasion, but don’t fear. These “foreign” cells are your microbiome. They are an essential part of the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3450280/pdf/12088_2010_Article_34.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">human “superorganism.”</a>

Since the advent of "germ theory," we’ve seen bacteria as evil. They're invaders, hiding out on doorknobs and cellphones. Bacteria is just waiting for you to forget to wash your hands. Then it can infect you and everyone you come in contact with. This view of bacteria isn’t entirely accurate. Though some bacteria can be harmful (and you should definitely keep washing your hands), most are benign and some are helpful!

The microbiome is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humansrelationship-microbes-inside/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the community of organisms living inside you</a> (<a href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">or their collective genes</a>.) These include bacteria, fungi, archaea, and even viruses! The term microbiome can also refer to the communities of microbes in environmental samples. In this article, we will be focusing on the <strong>human microbiome</strong>.

Scientists are just beginning to research the role of the microbiome in health. The importance of the microbiome to human health has become apparent.

The human microbiome is often associated with gut bacteria. But, the microbiome is not restricted to the digestive tract. Microbes live throughout the human body, and helpful microbes are found in many organs.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>What Makes a Microbe Good?</strong></h2>
Everyone's microbiome has many different types of microbes. This microbial community plays an essential role in digestion and our immune systems. The amount of help provided by bacteria can vary. Some <a href="https://www.gutmicrobiotaforhealth.com/en/glossary/commensal-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">species are mutualistic</a>, providing and receiving benefits to their host. Others are commensal, simply living inside our guts without harming or benefiting us.

<strong>Microbes play an essential role in digestion.</strong> They assist in digesting foods that humans have trouble processing. Probiotics supplements and foods offer a way to boost your gut microbiota. These good bacteria include many species of <i>Lactobacillus </i>and <i>Bifidobacterium</i>.

The microbes in the urinary tract and eyelids keep foreign bacteria at bay. By establishing a community, they make it harder for bad microbes to invade.

Bacteria are by far the most common and most discussed microbe in our bodies. However, the microbiome is far more complex. It also includes fungi, viruses, and archaea. These organisms provide a diverse environment that can respond to changing conditions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Where Do These Microbes Come From?</strong></h2>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871718 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/yogurt-1442034_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="Yogurt with oats and strawberries sitting on a table with a plate of strawberries in the corner." width="1024" height="683" />

&nbsp;

We know the microbiome is an essential part of a healthy human. But where do all these microbes from? It turns out that our first exposure to these microbes happens as early as birth. We are exposed to microbes in the birth canal. The microbial community continues to develop through infancy. Breast milk can also deliver microbes. Though our microbiome is not inherited in the traditional sense it is still <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">passed from mother to child</a>.

The microbiome continues to develop and change throughout life. Diet has a huge influence on how the microbiome grows. It can also introduce new bacteria to the microbiome. Many probiotic or cultured foods contain good bacteria and yeast. Yogurt, kombucha, and kimchi are just a few examples of sources of good digestive bacteria.

<strong>Environment, location, diet, and health can all influence exposure to good and bad microbes.</strong>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Where Is Our Microbiome?</strong></h2>
The microbiome occupies a large number of different organs. The microbes present are different in each. Though they share many functions, each community is unique. Research is ongoing to better understand the microbiome's role. Imbalances in the microbiome can have far-reaching effects. The microbes can influence many parts of the body.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Skin</h3>
</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3535073/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The skin</a> is a diverse habitat for a wide range of organisms. These include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and even small mites. These organisms are primarily harmless, while others provide essential services. They protect against invasion by pathogens, train the immune system, and even assist in killing pathogens.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Eye (conjunctiva)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The ocular microbiome is less well-known but can provide essential services. The <a href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/anatomy/microbiome-of-eye" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the eye</a> occurs on the conjunctiva, the clear tissue covering the whites of your eye. The eye has fewer microbes than the skin, around 1/100th the number. Healthy eyes usually have only 4 genera of bacteria. The ocular microbiome may be important in many conditions. These include chronic dry eyes and blepharitis.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Gut</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The gut is host to the most diverse and active microbiome. Microbes in the gut are essential for digestion. There is evidence that the gut microbiome may play a role in a wide array of different diseases. This article will focus on the gut microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Urinary Tract (UT)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
In the past, scientists believed the urinary tract was sterile. Any microbes in the UT were assumed to be a UTI. New evidence has shown that a healthy urinary tract has certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405456916301596" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbial communities</a>. Changes in this community have been linked to diseases. These include incontinence, cysts, STIs, pain, and even cancers! Research is being done on how to protect and repair this community. Diet, probiotics, and prebiotics may help regulate the urinary microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Vagina</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The <a href="http://vmc.vcu.edu/about" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the vagina</a> is essential to vaginal health. These communities are complex and change over time. Hormonal and environmental changes have a large influence on this community. In general, the beneficial bacteria that exist in the vagina produce lactic acid. This acid lowers the pH, protecting against pathogens and infections. This protection is essential to prevent STIs, yeast infections, UTIs and bacterial vaginosis.

The vaginal microbiome is also involved in birth. Miscarriages and infertility are associated with an imbalanced microbiome. The vaginal microbiome also exposes newborns to microbes. This process provides many of the microbes that will become the child's microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Mouth</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The mouth leads directly to our largest microbiome, the gut. With this in mind, it makes sense that the mouth would also host a <a href="https://askthedentist.com/oral-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">complex microbiome</a>. The oral microbiome has around 700 species of organisms. Many diseases are associated with imbalances in the oral microbiome. These include cavities, gingivitis, and other conditions. Brushing and flossing are key to maintaining a balanced oral microbiome. Avoiding antibacterial mouthwash may also help.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Lungs</h3>
</li>
</ul>
Like the UT, the lungs were historically believed to be sterile. Genetic sequencing has revealed that this is not the case. Though the lungs have fewer total microbes than the gut, they are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3440512/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">extremely diverse</a>. However, lung microbes are still poorly understood. The lung microbiome may play a role in lung diseases. Research into the microbial community associated with pneumonia, cystic fibrosis, HIV, tobacco use, and other diseases may reveal important treatment options.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Why Does the Microbiome Matter?</strong></h2>
&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Digestion</strong></h3>
The microbiome is most prevalent in the gut. Here, bacteria play essential roles in digestion. They are crucial to digesting foods that humans naturally cannot. Bacteria digest a group of sugars called FODMAPs. This stands for <b>F</b>ermentable <b>O</b>ligo-, <b>D</b>i, <b>M</b>ono-saccharides, <b>A</b>nd <b>P</b>olyols. FODMAPs include well-known culprits of digestive issues such as lactose. FODMAPs may also play a role in the rise of reported non-celiac gluten intolerance. Many of these sugars are difficult or impossible for people to digest on their own.

An abnormal gut microbiome is associated with various gastrointestinal disease. <a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:mixTdAaa9JcJ:https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news/microbiomics_its_growing_significance_in_the_world_of_medicines_testing+&amp;cd=1&amp;hl=en&amp;ct=clnk&amp;gl=us" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Irritable bowel syndrome </a>is one example. In this condition, disrupted gut bacteria interfere with normal bile acid metabolism. Other medical issues including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-fungi-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">obesity</a> and diabetes are linked to an irregular microbiome. An improved understanding of the role of the microbiome in disease will improve treatment options.

&nbsp;
<h3><strong>Immune function</strong></h3>
The microbiome also plays an <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-03-gut-bacteria-essential-healthy-immune.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">essential role in immune health</a>. <strong>The microbiome is a training ground for your immune system.</strong> Exposure to these bacteria helps your immune cells build a response to pathogens. It also teaches the body that some microbes are not dangerous. This is important to prevent unnecessary inflammatory responses. Without the microbiome, every new food or environment would cause an unnecessary waste of energy.

Experiments on mice have shown that a lack of microbes creates an immature immune system. Adding bacterial flora quickly causes the immune system to improve.

A diverse microbiome provides the best benefits to health and immune function. It is essential that your microbiome remains balanced. Measuring and understanding the variation in gut microbes may help treat immune diseases like Crohn’s. Techniques to characterize the gut microbiome will continue to improve. This will enable individually targeted treatments to rebalance the gut microbiome.

&nbsp;
<h3>Relationship to the Brain</h3>
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871719 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/brain-512758_1280-1024x736.png" alt="A drawing on a human brain." width="1024" height="736" />

&nbsp;

The phrase “trust your gut” may have more truth to it than you ever knew. <a href="https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/the-simplified-guide-to-the-gut-brain-axis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The gut-brain axis</a> is the connection between the central nervous system (CNS) and the enteric nervous system (ENS). The role of the gut microbiome in influencing these systems is being investigated.

The CNS and ENS are independent but connected by the vagus nerve. This connects the gut directly to the hypothalamus and limbic system. These parts of the brain regulate emotion. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trust-your-instincts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The limbic system and the gut</a> send signals back and forth. This relationship may be important in psychiatric disorders. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-health-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Depression</a>, anxiety, and even schizophrenia are linked to the microbiome.

Microbes can create neurotransmitters. These compounds are what our neurons use to communicate. These end up circulating in the blood. As a result, they affect day to day experience. In addition, bacteria play a role in modifying metabolism. As a result, levels of important precursors to neurotransmitters such as serotonin are changed.

The relationship between the gut and the brain is not well understood. However, it is clear that your microbiome has the potential to influence your emotions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>How Do We Study the Microbiome?</strong></h2>
&nbsp;
<h3>Culturing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871716 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Agar_plate_with_colonies.jpg" alt="Petri dish with microbes growing on it. Microbes are yellow on a black background. The dish is labeled &quot;Falcon&quot;" width="600" height="450" />

&nbsp;

The simplest way to look at a microbiome is to try and grow it in the lab. They place samples from the gut or another organ on nutrient-rich media. After that, the samples sit at body temperature until the microbes begin to grow. Finally, they grow each species on its own. Therefore, culturing microbes allows them to isolate individual species. Finally, they characterize species by appearance and chemistry.

However, culturing faces major hurdles. It is not possible to culture all the organisms present in the gut. Some need specific conditions only found in the gut. Reproducing these in the lab can be extremely difficult. Others need oxygen and will die immediately when removed from the body. Some species may be completely impossible to grow in the lab.

In addition, identifying microbes is difficult. For example, many species have similar appearances.

Even when culturing techniques succeed, they can be misleading. The species that grow may not represent the actual expression of genes and proteins. This is because they may behave differently outside of the body. Therefore, understanding the functional microbiome requires genetic techniques.

&nbsp;
<h3>Sequencing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871717 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/dna-163466_1280-1024x576.jpg" alt="An artistic rendering of the double helix of DNA. 3 Blue strands of DNA on a black background." width="1024" height="576" />

&nbsp;

To get an accurate impression of the microbiome, you need genetic techniques. Sequencing helps determine the species present as well as the microbiomes gene expression. Both of these are important in understanding how the microbiome relates to health. Sequencing all the RNA and DNA in a sample gives a better picture of the function of the microbiome.

There are many techniques to sequence the genome. As technology improves detailed sequencing is more available. In the future, it may even be practical to use sequencing to diagnose patients.

&nbsp;
<h3>rRNA Sequencing</h3>
rRNA is a special type of RNA that helps create protein. This RNA sequence changes very little because it is so important. It also occurs in all cells. This makes it a great way to identify species.

rRNA sequencing lets researchers determine the diversity of species in the microbiome. It can also help determine which species are most common. This information is essential to help characterize the gut microbe community.

It is not always easy to identify the sequenced species. The meaning of “species” becomes a lot less clear with bacteria. These organisms readily share genes. They also reproduce so quickly that they evolve in real-time.

This makes it difficult to classify species. Instead, researchers group genomes by their similarity. Preset cutoffs define the groups. They call these cutoffs operational taxonomic units (or OTUs).

&nbsp;
<h3>Shotgun Sequencing</h3>
The alternative to rRNA sequencing is metagenomic, or “shotgun” sequencing. This technique involves sequencing tons of small pieces of DNA. Computers can reconstruct the genome. First, they find overlapping sequences. With enough overlapping sequences, you can reconstruct the whole genome.

This strategy has the potential to reveal the full genomes of microbes. Knowing this could provide better detail of the diversity of the microbiome.

&nbsp;

Genetic techniques and technologies continue to improve. These improvements will help researchers understand the microbiome. This research could pave the way towards <strong>microbiome diagnosis, which might provide early warning signs of diseases like IBS, diabetes, and obesity.</strong>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>The Microbiome Provides New Insight</h2>
The role of the microbiome in health is complex. These communities are ecosystems with complex relationships. Each microbe interacts with their hosts (you and me) and each other. This complex network of interactions can have important impacts on health and disease. An improved understanding of these systems will help us to diagnose, prevent, and treat human disease. As advances in genetic sequencing continue to open the door to a better understanding of the microbiome, ongoing research into the human microbiome holds great potential.

&nbsp;

What Is Microbiomics?

It may come as a surprise to learn that most...

One of the unique creatures Charles Darwin encountered on the Galápagos Islands was the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/galapagos-marine-iguana-amblyrhynchus-cristatus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">marine iguana</a>. He was shocked by their appearance, describing them as the “most disgusting, clumsy lizards” and “hideous-looking.” Yikes...

The marine iguana has a scaly loose skin with a squished looking face and long claws. Marine iguanas are primarily black. The average adult male is 1.3 meters (4.25 ft) while the female is 0.6 meters (2 ft). Different subspecies vary in color and size.

Despite their less-than-beautiful appearance, the marine iguana is a unique species. It is the only species of reptile that forages in the sea. <strong>This makes it the only known marine reptile.</strong> Scientists believe that this species evolved from land iguanas <a href="https://oceana.org/marine-life/sea-turtles-reptiles/marine-iguana" target="_blank" rel="noopener">around 4.5 million years ago</a>.

This species occurs only on the Galápagos Islands. Like many Galápagos species, distinct subspecies live on different islands. These subspecies each have unique coloration. Their small geographic range puts them <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/1086/3222951" target="_blank" rel="noopener">at risk of extinction</a>.

The marine iguana has never had any natural predators. Because of this, they are extremely docile. This makes them very popular with tourists.

The iguanas generally live in large colonies. They will pile onto each other on cold nights to conserve body heat. They generally stay near the coast, though they are great climbers and are often seen on top of cliffs.

&nbsp;
<h2>Marine Iguana Foraging</h2>
The marine iguana gets its name because it forages for food at sea! This is unique in the reptile kingdom.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871288" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871288 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-883488_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="This marine iguana is swimming underwater headed up." width="1024" height="768" /> The marine iguana can dive as deep as 30 meters![/caption]

&nbsp;
<h2>Diving Deep is Delicious</h2>
The male iguanas can <a href="https://theplanetd.com/marine-iguanas-feeding-underwater-amazing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dive up to 30 meters</a> (100 ft) deep to forage. Stronger iguanas swim out into the tides, anchoring themselves on rocks. The younger iguanas and smaller females stay closer to shore.

Only about 5% of the iguanas dive for food. These are large, strong males. They dive in order to avoid competition in shallow water. <strong>Adult iguanas can dive for up to an hour.</strong> This is an impressive feat for a land animal, especially a reptile.

Diving deep in the cold ocean water is difficult for a cold-blooded reptile. The marine iguana must lower its heart rate and metabolism when diving. This allows their body temperature to <a href="https://marinebio.org/species/marine-iguanas/amblyrhynchus-cristatus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">drop by 10 degrees Celsius</a> while underwater. Even with these changes, the conditions are extreme. In order to prepare for these extreme conditions, the iguanas must bask in the sun, preparing for their dive. Though it may look like these lizards just relax in the sun all day, basking is essential for the lizards to live. This absorbed heat keeps them from being immobilized in the cold water.

&nbsp;
<h2>Eating Algae</h2>
&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871286" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871286 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-883486_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="A marine iguana underwater near the ocean floor eating algae off of a rock." width="1024" height="768" /> This marine iguana has found some delicious algae.[/caption]

&nbsp;

The marine iguanas feed on algae. These marine algae grow on rocks near the shore. There have been <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">nine species of algae</a> identified as iguana food. The iguanas prefer inter and subtidal algae. There are <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-do-marine-iguanas-primarily-feed-on" target="_blank" rel="noopener">4-5 species of red algae</a> that they prefer to eat. Other species are added to the diet when the good stuff isn’t available.

Though they are mostly marine foragers, the marine iguana can eat other food sources. They have been seen eating grasshoppers, crustaceans and <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sea lion afterbirth</a>! When times are really dire, the marine iguana resorts to <a href="https://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/galsite/research/projects/metcalfe/marineiguanas.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">eating feces</a>. They will eat the droppings of other iguanas as well as that of sea lions and red crabs.

&nbsp;
<h2>El Niño</h2>
Though the marine iguana is isolated on the Galápagos, global weather patterns affect them. The El Niño Southern Oscillation Event (or ENSO) decreases algae on the Galápagos islands. The increased rainfall and surface temperature decreases the algal growth. During these events, the iguanas will shrink by up to 20%. <strong>It is believed that the <a href="https://www.quora.com/What-do-marine-iguanas-primarily-feed-on" target="_blank" rel="noopener">lizard's bones may actually shrink</a> by up to 10%!</strong> These changes are quickly reversed when food becomes available again.

&nbsp;
<h2>Too Much Salt</h2>
The unusual eating habits of the marine iguana require some specialized adaptations. Diving in the sea comes with unique hazards. The amount of salt in seawater causes a risk of dehydration. In order to combat this, they <a href="http://online.sfsu.edu/bholzman/courses/Fall99Projects/miguana.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">evolved salt glands</a>. These glands take excess salt and force it out of the lizard's nostrils. All this salt sneezing gives them a white crown.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871287" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871287 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/marine-iguana-1826683_1920-1024x685.png" alt="Two marine iguanas with their eyes closed" width="1024" height="685" /> These marine iguanas are enjoying the sun.[/caption]

&nbsp;

The marine iguana is a uniquely interesting reptile. Its diet of algae is entirely unique for a reptile. This species is threatened with extinction due to its tiny range and specialized diet. Though they have survived ENSO events in the past, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/el-nino-is-strengthening/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">these are becoming more frequent</a> and intense. Climate change is causing extreme weather years to become more common. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galapagos-iguanas-struggling-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">threatens the marine iguana's </a>food source. Consecutive low-food years could be disastrous.

In addition, their small range poses a threat. Localized events could wipe out the entire species. Though they are protected, as are the Galápagos Islands, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-galapagos-islands/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">pollution in the ocean can’t be controlled</a>. A nearby oil spill could greatly harm this species.

&nbsp;

What do Marine Iguanas Eat?

One of the unique creatures Charles Darwin encountered on the...

The above-ground world only reveals a small part of the diversity of our planet. The soil can provide protection from predators, rain and sun.

The cold-blooded (ectothermic) reptiles are particularly well-suited to an underground lifestyle. Below ground temperatures change less than on the surface. Burrowing underground can help them regulate their body temperature, an essential task for reptiles.

Living underground comes with a unique set of challenges. Lack of light renders vision useless. Traveling underground makes legs far less useful. Tough soils require thick, specially shaped heads. Burrowing animals develop unique adaptations to succeed in this environment.

Some burrowing reptiles look far more like worms or moles than normal lizards. The similarity between these species is a great example of convergent evolution. <strong>When confronted with a similar environment, evolution finds a similar solution.</strong> Let’s take a looks at some of the most interesting underground reptiles.

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871076" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871076 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Bipes_biporus-1024x683.jpg" alt="A mole lizard, macro photo of a mole lizards head and legs on a rock." width="1024" height="683" /> Mexican Mole Lizard - <em>Bipes biporus</em> - Photo courtesy of <a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/28867468@N08" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Marlin Harms</a>[/caption]
<h2>Mole Lizards</h2>
The mole lizards look like someone stitched the upper half of a mole onto a worms body. Unlike other underground lizards, they retain their front legs. The mole lizard is an unusual and interesting species.

The mole lizards appearance is bizarre. Rings cover their bodies, much like an earthworm. However, unlike an earthworm, the mole lizards rings are rows of scales. Their two front legs are quite small, but pack a punch. They have large clawed toes, much like a mole. The claws help mole lizards dig through sand and soil.

<a href="https://owlcation.com/stem/Weird-and-Interesting-Reptiles-Mole-and-Worm-Lizards" target="_blank" rel="noopener">There are 4 species of mole lizards</a> currently known. They are in the genus <i>Bipes, </i>in the family <i>Bipedidae</i>, which contains no other groups. This group split from other living animals around 55 million years ago. All four of these species occur only in Mexico.

These cute underground creatures <a href="https://www.wired.com/2014/12/absurd-creature-of-the-week-mexican-mole-lizard/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">have an unsavory reputation</a>. Some believe that mole lizards will enter humans while they use the bathroom. Next, they will shred your organs from the inside! Thankfully, this horrifying myth is entirely untrue. The mole lizard is a predator, but its prey has to be small enough and soft enough to fit in its small jaw. They generally eat ants, earthworms and small insects.

The mole lizard is not well studied. Their below-ground lifestyle makes them challenging to find. Their skin lacks the pigment melanin, which protects us from the sun. Because of this, they rarely come to the surface. They only come above ground at night or after heavy rain. Despite their cryptic nature, the genus is <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/63724/12710708" target="_blank" rel="noopener">not considered to be at-risk of extinction</a>.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>The Madagascar Blind Snake</h2>
The Madagascar blind snake is a rare and unique reptile. This species is endemic to a small area of Northern Madagascar. Because it spends most of its time underground, it is rarely seen. In fact, there were no verified <a href="http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Reptiles-And-Amphibian-Of-Madagascar/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sightings of this species for over a century</a>!

At first glance, the Madagascar blind snake might be mistaken for a large earthworm. With pink skin and minuscule size, the <a href="http://www.edgeofexistence.org/species/madagascar-blind-snake/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">resemblance is uncanny</a>.

The Madagascar blind snake differs from its earthworm doppelgangers in one key way. It is a vicious predator! These tiny snakes prey on ants, termites, and other insects.

This snake is the only species in the genus <i>Xenotyplops </i>and the family <i>Xenotyphlopidae. </i>This group split from all other life 65 million years ago! This unique evolutionary history makes the Madagascar blind snake an important species to protect.

This species is still believed to be alive, but it is at great risk of extinction. Its small range and unique behavior present a risk to the survival of this species. Logging, charcoal production, and cattle grazing threaten this snake's already small habitat.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1871077" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1871077 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/slow-worm-755710_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="A worm lizard crawling over the sand." width="1024" height="682" /> Worm lizard[/caption]
<h2>Worm Lizards</h2>
The worm lizard is another strange underground reptile. Though they lack limbs, much like snakes, they are actually an unrelated group. Though they have some superficial similarities, <a href="https://allyouneedisbiology.wordpress.com/2015/07/06/apodus-lizards/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">legless lizards and snakes have some key differences</a>. Snakes don’t have moveable eyes or visible ear holes. Additionally, snakes use their ventral scales to move while worm lizards rely on the texture of the surface they are moving on. Legless lizards are also capable of shedding their tails.

These odd species look like an odd mashup of a snake and an earthworm. They move through the soils by burrowing with their hardened skulls. Most worm lizards are nearly blind. They don’t have much use for eyesight underground. Instead, worm lizards rely primarily on sensing chemicals. They pick up traces of chemicals on their tongues which they transfer to the vomeronasal organs in their head. This chemical sense is used to find prey and mates.

The worm lizards are in a class of reptiles called the amphisbaenians. There are 6 different families in this group. They are <a href="https://owlcation.com/stem/Weird-and-Interesting-Reptiles-Mole-and-Worm-Lizards" target="_blank" rel="noopener">distributed throughout the world</a>. They are most common in Africa and South America, and the Iberian Peninsula.

There are around 180 species of worm lizard. Detailed research has been done on very few of them. Those that have are not considered endangered. The population status of the remaining species is still unknown.

&nbsp;
<h2>There are many more</h2>
These three examples are far from an exhaustive list of underground reptiles. There are many other species that live entirely, or partially underground. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-hide-caves/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Even crocodiles </a>spend a significant amount of their time below the surface. Many snakes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rubber-boa-snakes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">take advantage of premade burrows</a> for protection.

&nbsp;

Top 3 Coolest Underground Reptiles

The above-ground world only reveals a small part of the...

Digital,Illustration,Of,The,Earth's,Magnetosphere,Deflecting,Solar,Wind,And

Earth's Magnetic Field: Origin, Structure, and Impact on Humanity

Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Urban farming is a growing movement around the world. Grandmothers, children, teachers, and punks alike can be found babying a pepper plant or picking off rosemary leaves for dinner. Plants and food <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-outdoors-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">connect us deeply</a> to our homes and our communities. But when it comes to urban farming, where should you get started?</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872961 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/greenhouse-1246536_960_720.jpg" alt="urban farming" width="960" height="540" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Volunteer and Learn from People in Your Region </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">If you don’t have any previous experience with farming, that’s okay! Everyone has to start somewhere. For many people living in a city landscape, exposure to farming practices and gardening techniques just isn’t a part of their experiences in life. The best place to start is a quick walk around your neighborhood. There are often <a href="http://gardenclub.org/projects/community-gardens.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">community gardens</a> and urban farms already hard at work. Chances are, the people running these spaces could use an extra pair of hands. Don’t waste time, ask how you can help and get your hands dirty. Farming and cultivating practices have been passed down for thousands of years and now you can be part of that lineage. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Perhaps a walk around your neighborhood doesn’t glean any results. Fear not! Try a quick google search of the city you live in relating to urban farms. You might be surprised at what comes up. There are so many hidden pockets and corners within a city’s limit. You can call organizations to get involved or email them for more information. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Something to keep in mind is that it is important to understand the landscape where you live. While working on a vineyard in California will most likely be an awesome experience, it might not be the most helpful to <a href="https://www.scotsman.com/news-2-15012/gardens-10-steps-to-growing-your-own-tomatoes-1-3429023" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">grow tomatoes in Scotland.</a> Wherever you are, seek out experienced locals with knowledge about the climate, the soil, and the native plants. This will save you from making avoidable mistakes and also lessen your environmental impact. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">If you do find yourself far away from home, you can still dive into farming practices and learn how other people in other landscapes are able to cultivate urban farms. This will enrich your understanding of the planet and all the different ways to grow food in a cityscape. Explore online platforms like <a href="https://wwoof.net/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">WWOOF</a> and <a href="https://www.helpx.net/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">HelpX</a> to seek out urban farms, nurseries, or garden projects all over the world.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872962 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/greenhouse-3247181_960_720.jpg" alt="urban farming" width="960" height="719" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Find an Area to Cultivate</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">So you’ve volunteered around town, traveled a bit, or read a bunch of books and are dreaming of how to start your own urban farming adventure. That’s so exciting! But where to plant? </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">This will probably be the most important decision you make. Chose wrong and your farm won’t last for long. Do you have access to a massive backyard that gets great sunlight? If so, what are you waiting for? For most of us though, that isn’t an option. Alternatives for city slickers include community gardens,and south-facing porches, balconies, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-grow-hanging-plants-at-home/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">windows</a>. Whatever your space, do research on what certain plants need and make decisions based on what type of space you have available. It is also important to research city ordinances and neighborhood committee codes. Some places have strict rules about chickens and other animals in particular. It would be a major bummer to invest in 6 chickens and a coop, only to receive a fine and an eviction notice. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Alternatively, many city kids and urban dwellers resort to what is known as “guerilla gardening.” While I’m not encouraging illegal activity, I’m not </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">not</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> saying you should let unused space go to waste. If you’re feeling rebellious, you can try planting seeds in a quiet corner of a park, a city boulevard, or an abandoned lot. This type of urban farming has to be fluid and flexible, as these spaces are unpredictable. However, there are examples of neighbors turning <a href="http://urbanhomestead.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">an entire boulevard</a> into an edible garden all while operating beneath the radar of city officials. It’s awesome. I’m not saying you should necessarily do this. I’m saying some people already have and it’s an interesting idea…..</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872963 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/philippe-leone-667206-unsplash-1024x684.jpg" alt="urban gardening" width="1024" height="684" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Create a Budget </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The initial costs of seeds, soil, and building raised beds, irrigation systems, and trellises can rack up really fast. Determine what it is you want to accomplish realistically and then sit down to budget out your costs. This can be really helpful to do in advance of the planting season and can be an important step in clarifying your goals for your urban farm.</span>

Something else to consider is that if the area you plan to cultivate happens to be located near or on the property of a school, church or hospital, often these institutions have grant funding available. This will vary greatly depending on the part of the world where you live. Ask other urban farmers in the area about opportunities in your area and ask church and school administrators if they have these sorts of foundations to work with. People get really excited about farms and gardens and might be willing to help fund the effort.

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Make a Schedule </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Whether you have visions of leafy bean poles or are trying to start a cut-flower farm, timing is everything and schedules can go a long way. Know when the average last and first frost dates are or when the rainy season will begin. Have a plan for watering. You can plan your growing season so that there’s always something in bloom. This will make the farm or garden more engaging for everyone involved and it will also help to spread out the joy and labor of harvest time.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Do the Work </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">There are no two ways about it - farming is hard. There are choices you can make to streamline certain aspects of farming, but in the end, it is an intensive labor of love that will require you to show up and work hard. That being said, it just wouldn’t be the same if it was easy, right? Plus, there is undeniable power in getting your hands in the dirt.</span>

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Be Creative </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Urban farming requires constant creativity and problem-solving. In many cities, cultivating farm and homestead practices in urban spaces is seen as a radical act. By engaging with these practices, you’ll be pushing back against modern norms and expectations. Spaces that weren’t necessarily set aside for farming can still be used for that purpose, and with a little creativity, you can transform an empty lot into a garden of Eden.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872965 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/farsai-chaikulngamdee-317437-unsplash-1024x683.jpg" alt="strawberries" width="1024" height="683" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Celebrate the Fruits of Your Labor</strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Because farming is so much work, be sure to celebrate what it is you are able to accomplish. This can be hard when there’s so much to do (and there’s always more to do on the farm, city or not). Still, what better way to relish in the work than to pause and enjoy that cherry tomato, or bake that <a href="https://www.epicurious.com/recipes/food/views/lattice-topped-strawberry-rhubarb-pie-4459" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">rhubarb pie</a> for your mom. The circle of cultivation can be so beautifully simple - don’t miss it.</span>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1872964 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/joshua-lanzarini-727349-unsplash-1024x683.jpg" alt="bean seeds" width="1024" height="683" />

&nbsp;
<h2><strong>Stay Curious and Keep Learning </strong></h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">No matter how expert you become in urban farming, gardening, and homesteading, there will always be more to learn - and how exciting is that? Take notes as you go about the process your first year, remember your choices and learn from them. Continue reading and consulting with master gardeners and urban farmers in your area. Listen to podcasts. Seek out the advice of mentors and maybe even start teaching new gardeners and farmers yourself. The plants will always have more to teach us.</span>

&nbsp;

How To Get Started Urban Farming

Urban farming is a growing movement around the world. Grandmothers,...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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<p>Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how  Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.</p>



<p>According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. </p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.</p>



<p>“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”</p>



<p>The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.</p>



<p>The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.</p>



<p>“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.</p>



<p>"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.</p>



<p>"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."</p>



<p>"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."</p>



<p>According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.</p>



<p>"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.</p>



<p>"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."</p>



<p>"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."</p>



<p>According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.</p>



<p>The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. </p>



<p>The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.</p>



<p>The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.</p>



<p>"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."</p>



<p>"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;</p>



<p>Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.</p>



<p>"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."</p>



<p>Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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