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Environmental crises confront us at every turn. One aspect of this crisis that is harder to see but is creating rippling impacts on our planet is microplastics.&nbsp;



Microplastics are deteriorating ecosystems and compromising human health, too. The toxicology report of our beautiful planet is dire. We have ourselves to blame.&nbsp;



Today we'll take a look at <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-may-hold-200-million-tons-of-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microplastics in the environment</a>: what they are, where they come from, and how we use them (even if we don't realize it!). We will also look at the impact these pollutants have on ecosystems and how that will (and does) in turn affect us all.&nbsp;



Plastic is part of our lives - it's everywhere. It allows us to preserve food, skype with far-away friends, or stay cool in the summer heatwaves. Plastic is essential in plenty of situations - medical care and other emergencies. It is also the origin of a vast and culminating human-caused global disaster.&nbsp;



Some perspective: the number of plastics that currently enter landfills and the environment is enough to rebuild the standing Great Wall of China <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b06635" target="_blank" rel="noopener">with a span of 6000 km every 12 months</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-are-microplastics">What Are Microplastics&nbsp;</h2>



This topic and very real crisis can get overwhelming fast - so let's start with some definitions.



According to the US's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA), microplastics are a term that describes fragments or pieces of plastic that are smaller than 5 mm in length.&nbsp;



And plastic? While we're already pretty familiar with using plastic in our everyday lives (and using it to scroll through these words currently, I might add) what actually is it?&nbsp;



Plastic is a conglomeration of things - a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as the main ingredient. Examples of synthetic polymers include nylon, polyethylene, polystyrene, and Teflon.&nbsp;



There are natural polymers too - silk and wool are two examples. But the synthetic polymers take a lot longer to break down. A plastic bottle will need <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b06635" target="_blank" rel="noopener">at least 58 years to decompose</a> while pipes can take up to 1200 years (and more) to begin breaking down. Scientists implore the need for more research on the decomposition of plastic. There's a lot we still don't know.&nbsp;



What we do know is that plastic items break down into smaller and smaller pieces. Microplastics are a result of these larger plastics breaking up. They break down into even smaller forms which scientists have recently been calling nanoplastics.&nbsp;



But microplastics also result from intentional commercial product development too. These plastic particles enter into ecosystems via industrial processes, through clothing, and even through our cosmetic makeup products.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1403954465.jpg" alt="microplastic trash" class="wp-image-1893246"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/dobled">David Pereiras</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-a-quick-note-on-microbeads">A Quick Note On Microbeads&nbsp;</h3>



In the conversation around microplastics, you will also hear the term "microbeads".&nbsp; A little different than the more general microplastics, microbeads are <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste/plastics-and-packaging/plastic-microbeads" target="_blank" rel="noopener">intentionally manufactured plastic particles</a> that are small, round, and do not dissolve in water. Companies add microplastic particles into a wide swath of products for a variety of reasons: as abrasives or exfoliants, a bulking component, or to extend the shelf-life of a product. Some countries, such as the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/apr/19/microplastics-which-beauty-brands-are-safe-to-use" target="_blank" rel="noopener">U.S. and several EU nations</a> have passed bans of microbeads. Most companies are working to phase out this form of plastic use. Many activists argue that simply "phasing out" microbeads is not an adequate measure of accountability. It's hard to argue that point, seeing as these beads will be floating around for the foreseeable future.&nbsp;



The movement to ban microbeads did not begin in the legislative offices, of course. It began at a grassroots level. It illustrates what is possible when scientific study and dedicated citizens collaborate and organize strategically to hold governing bodies to a movement of demands. In turn, governments regulate the unethical practices of corporations. It is a hopeful example of "people power". We will touch on this idea more in-depth later on.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-sources-of-microplastics">Sources Of Microplastics&nbsp;</h2>



So even if you didn't know it before, chances are that you've probably contributed to microplastic pollution. This is because so many of our daily, household products and items contain them. As consumers, we are faced with nearly unlimited options of what is virtually the same products, over and over again. It takes immense privilege for investigation, access to alternatives, and money to opt-out of this reality. Many people do not have the resources to do so.&nbsp;



For instance, personal care products that we use in the shower or sink (in order to clean our bodies and living spaces) wash down our pipes. These products often contain plastics and other additives that eventually flow out via runoff and wastewater into waterways. Once in the water, microplastic will then pollute freshwater, sediment, snow, and join other <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cen-09836-polcon2" target="_blank" rel="noopener">floating ocean plastics</a>. Tiny pieces of microplastics move through all parts of an ecosystem via branches of the food chain. Small beads and shards of plastic are found in the bellies of birds, turtles, fish - innumerable creatures that are linked together.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/shutterstock_1224793852.jpg" alt="microplastic trash" class="wp-image-1893247"/><figcaption><a href="http://shutterstock.7eer.net/c/77643/108110/1305?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.shutterstock.com%2Fimage-photo%2Fmicroplastics-glass-container-1224793852&amp;subId1=1224793852">www.shutterstock.com</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-culpable-sources">Culpable Sources</h3>



According to the Stockholm Environmental Institute, there are <a href="https://www.sei.org/featured/20-companies-responsible-for-most-single-use-plastic-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">just 20 companies</a> responsible for most single-use plastic products. Exxon mobile tops the list. Financial funding of the production of these products comes from <a href="https://www.sei.org/featured/20-companies-responsible-for-most-single-use-plastic-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">less than 2 dozen banks</a>. Often, companies that we use every day (like Burts Bees lip balm, dishwasher pods, tennis balls and glitter....) are owned by larger companies that contribute massive amounts of plastics, and microplastics, into our environments and our bodies.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-a-planet-of-plastic-pollution">A Planet Of Plastic Pollution&nbsp;</h2>



Obvious to us all, plastic pollution is a major concern for our planet. We shudder at photos of islands of plastic debris that float in the ocean and lament the expanding landfills in our own backyards.&nbsp;



And yet, most nation-states on the globe lack the political will to truly combat our society's dependencies on plastic.&nbsp;



Recent studies suggest that the amount of microplastic in the ocean is actually <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/may/22/microplastic-pollution-in-oceans-vastly-underestimated-study" target="_blank" rel="noopener">vastly underestimated</a>. Plastic particles may outnumber zooplankton - an organism that regulates climate and is foundational in marine environments.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-the-effects-of-microplastics">The Effects of Microplastics&nbsp;</h2>



It isn't just zooplankton drowning in plastic. Scientists have found tiny particles in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-particles-detected-in-fresh-falling-snow/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">arctic snow</a> and the deep sea waters. Even in freshwater rivers, birds consume hundreds of particles a day - ingestion via aquatic insects that are a critical food source.&nbsp; Microplastics can <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-travel-by-wind-to-remote-parts-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">even travel on the wind</a>.&nbsp;



For example, a recent study reviewed the impacts of microplastics on biota in various trophic levels. Evidence suggests that <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-018-1999-x" target="_blank" rel="noopener">exposure to microplastics</a> triggers a "wide variety of toxic insults". Swimming in, eating, ingesting microplastics disrupts <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-018-1999-x" target="_blank" rel="noopener">reproductive performance</a>, eating habits, metabolism, and changes liver physiology, to name just a few major concerns. Additionally, there are still plenty of unknowns as to the health effects, though scientists are in agreement on how these plastic particles cause major disruptions throughout an ecosystem. And rapid, man-made disruptions do not bode well for ecosystems. Rather, they compound the dire issues of an already warming planet.



It all culminates into yet another reminder of how intricately woven the planet's food chains are. We are depending on the health and sustainability of interlocking elements. So while marine organisms ingest and move among high levels of microplastics, the same is true in our drinking water. The toxic chemical additives we use in plastics to make <a href="https://uspirg.org/blogs/blog/usp/toxic-chemicals-single-use-plastics-are-harming-human-health#:~:text=Exposure%20to%20BPA%20can%20affect,and%20other%20harmful%20health%20impacts.&amp;text=Many%20of%20the%20most%20common,chemicals%20that%20harm%20human%20health." target="_blank" rel="noopener">them flame-retardant and anti-microbial</a> add harrowing toxicity to our bodies.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-water-is-life">Water Is Life&nbsp;</h2>



As indigenous groups around the world organize to defend their ancestral homelands, "Water Is Life" has been become a rallying cry for activists, in addition to a simple and inherent truth. There is a lot of attention on the ecocidal impacts of pipelines and deforestation - for good reason. But, as you may have guessed, in addition to terrifying and increasing levels of oil and gas use, microplastics continue to accumulate in our water. The ecological dynamics of microplastics are documented in marine ecosystems by environmental science. There is <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ecs2.1556" target="_blank" rel="noopener">much less information</a> on surface water and rivers - the impact is unknown and likely to be substantial.&nbsp;



Toby Gardner, an SEI senior research fellow <a href="https://www.sei.org/featured/20-companies-responsible-for-most-single-use-plastic-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">says that</a> “Change must be possible – there are few issues that attract so much attention as plastic pollution. The fact that we all have tiny plastic particles in our bodies should give us all sufficient pause for thought....Consumer pressure is key, but the real action needs to come from companies, investors, and governments.”



According to a United Nations report <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/03/1088712" target="_blank" rel="noopener">in March 2021</a>, marginalized communities are disproportionately impacted by environmental degradation caused by plastic and microplastic pollution. The report explicitly links necessary actions on behalf of a healthy climate to that of civil rights and human health.&nbsp;



These wide-ranging reports and initiatives are a step in the right direction - but are not enough to change the coming tide of ecological disaster.&nbsp;



So what should we do?



<h2 id="h-organize">Organize&nbsp;</h2>



For those of us (most of us) who do not have sway in the inner workings of large corporations, banks, and government, the need for real action from large, bureaucratic bodies can feel like an impossible thing. And indeed, our economic systems are deeply entrenched in exploitive, ecocidal behavior.&nbsp;



But we can organize.&nbsp;



In particular, <a href="https://www.honorearth.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">indigenous-led efforts</a> can be a guiding compass for those of us who are dedicated to this planet but are separated from our own ancestral connection to land. Research whose land you are living on. Seek out initiatives in your area that are led by indigenous stewards and support their efforts in every way you can.&nbsp;



Voting for local and federal politicians with green reform agendas is important. You can work to divorcing yourself from products and lifestyle habits that are defined by emission-heavy behaviors and plastic waste. Reuse what you can and avoid single-use plastics wherever possible.&nbsp;



But the stats are clear. Individual actions are not enough to move the goliaths of our society.



Understanding the effects of microplastics on our environment is the first step. But take it further than that. Organize with your friends, co-workers, neighbors, and family. Through passionate, consistent, and expanding organizing, we can make seemingly impossible things become real. We can understand the ways in which microplastics came to pollute our planet, hold companies accountable for impacts, and shift our own communities every day, striving for balanced relationships with the organisms of our ecosystems.



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Understanding the Effects of Microplastics On Our Environment

Environmental crises confront us at every turn. One aspect of...

Ecosystem services are the direct and indirect ways that nature benefits human well-being. By definition, an ecosystem is a community of living things interacting with their physical environment. With a healthy balance, these interactions not only sustain life in their own microcosm but also provide vast ecological benefits for the whole planet. In an attempt to specify these values for humans, they became known as ecosystem services. Increasingly, humans have realized that healthy ecosystems and high biodiversity translates to strong economies and advancing cultures.
 
<h2>Categorizing Ecosystem Services</h2>
 
The term “ecosystem services” has been increasingly appearing in the literature over the <a href="http://blogs.ubc.ca/apfnet04/files/2015/08/SUFES_05_Module-II_History-of-Ecosystem-Service-EconomicTheory-and-Practice.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">last 50 years</a>. Finally, in 2006 the United Nations met to formally acknowledge how nature benefits people. With the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, the U.N. defined ecosystem services more deliberately. Furthermore, they created four categories that a service can fall into - supporting, regulating, provisioning, and cultural. 
 
<h3>Supporting</h3>
 
At the foundation of nearly everything are the supporting ecosystem services. As deduced from the name, these processes support all the other services and are critical to a healthy functioning planet. Think of these as the fundamental ecosystem functions that sustain the environment. Supporting services include nutrient cycling, photosynthesis, the water cycle, and soil formation. 
Many of these services are cyclical, balanced, and function on a large scale. Hindrances or interruptions to these cycles can devastate not just an ecosystem, but an entire biome. 
 
[caption id="attachment_1892464" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1892464 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/mushrooms-116973_1920.jpg" alt="Mushrooms" width="1920" height="1280" /> Decomposers provide the critical ecosystem services of processing natural waste and restoring soil health. Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/mushrooms-toadstools-forest-fungi-116973/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">stux</a> on <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
 
<h3>Regulating</h3>
 
Slightly more complex, regulating ecosystem services reflect biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors working synergistically to maintain life as we know it. Examples of regulating services include water purification, flood control, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-plant-an-excellent-pollinator-garden/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">pollination</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fully-stocking-u-s-forests-could-reduce-carbon-emissions-by-20-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">carbon sequestration</a>, climate regulation, and bacteria decomposing waste. 
Where supporting services allow life to exist, regulating services maintain it. These ecosystem services keep natural ecosystems functioning, sustainable, and resilient. They provide us with clean water and air, hold our soil in place, regulate our climate, and keep all the systems running smoothly for our next set of ecosystem services. Even just a simple <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-riparian-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">river ecosystem</a> can create microclimates, prevent erosion, provide critical animal habitats, and reduce pollution.
 
[caption id="attachment_1892466" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1892466" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/vegetables-752153_1920.jpg" alt="Vegetables" width="1920" height="1313" /> Food production is one of the most obvious forms of provisioning ecosystem services. Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/vegetables-basket-vegetable-basket-752153/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">congerdesign</a> on <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
 
<h3>Provisioning</h3>
 
Provisioning ecosystem services include the tangible natural resources that people use from nature. For example, these including fresh water, food production, building materials, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/narrowing-the-search-for-new-medicinal-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">medicines</a>, and fuel. We interact closely with these items every day. Because of their physicality, this category of ecosystem service can most easily be assigned an economic value. 
These services fit neatly into western ideologies and economies. We can put a price on timber, clothing, or fisheries. However, it's important to note that these numbers don’t always reflect the true value of the service. This disconnect leads to issues of overuse and abuse — overharvesting, deforestation, overgrazing, overfishing, etc… These harmful effects can trickle down to regulatory and supporting services as well (i.e. lack of fossil fuel extraction leading to climate change). 
Luckily, just as these tangible services can be more easily priced and used, they can also be more easily regulated. To support healthy land use, advocate for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/public-willing-pay-clean-water/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">political decision-making</a> that pushes for a more accurate and inclusive valuation of provisioning services. Vote for policymakers that advocate for sustainable use of our natural resources.
 
<h3>Cultural</h3>
 
Perhaps the most important of the group, cultural ecosystem services include the non-material benefits that nature contributes to the development of human culture. At the same time, these services acknowledge the unique experience of humanity and our inseparable integration with nature. This awareness of humans' connection with nature leads us to the will and desire to nurture and protect Earth’s ecosystems.  
Among the infinite list of cultural ecosystem services, are the ways ecology impacts the social, intellectual, and spiritual development of humanity. While some of these concepts are rather broad, others are very clear. Nature inspires creative outlets like visual arts, architecture, and music. Similarly, pursuits like outdoor recreation, ecotourism, and wilderness therapy celebrate nature and reflect its cultural import. Though more abstract than provisioning, cultural services focus on the connection between people and our environments.
 
[caption id="attachment_1892465" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1892465" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/whitewater-3402204_1920.jpg" alt="Kayaking" width="1920" height="1271" /> Appreciating nature through outdoor recreation is a type of cultural ecosystem service. Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/whitewater-kayaking-kayak-river-3402204/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Eric Haggart</a> on <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
 
<h2>Understanding Ecosystem Services</h2>
 
Living on earth, our lives are inextricable from the world’s ecosystems. Humans (along with all the other critters that we share this planet with) rely completely on the provision of ecosystem services to survive and thrive. From forests to deserts to wetlands, ecosystems have evolved a delicate balance to support life. Furthermore, as a way of acknowledging this value and supporting the regulation of ecosystem processes, humans have defined these as ecosystem services. This framework can lead to the great outdoors as solely a provider of natural capital. However, it also highlights the ways humans connect to the natural world. By understanding the importance of healthy ecosystems to our own survival, we can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-plans-could-benefit-both-nature-and-people/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">better protect</a> the beautiful world we call home! 
[Featured Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/lake-forest-trees-sunset-5491502/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Alain Audet</a> on <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>]


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The Unnoticed (and Underappreciated) World of Ecosystem Services

Ecosystem services are the direct and indirect ways that nature...

The Endangered Species Act is a foundational environmental law in the US. Known as a federal register of animals on the brink of extinction, it is a law that goes deeper than that. It has supported federal agents, activists, and everyday people in saving endangered species. From iconic Bald Eagles and lesser-known critters like the Island Night Lizard, the act has facilitated these species to temporary recovery. 



Millions of people will flock to natural areas like Yellowstone this summer. The Endangered Species Act is connected to these national park areas and conservation.&nbsp; So it's a good time to take a look at the history of this law.



<h2 id="h-chronological-timeline">Chronological Timeline</h2>



Protecting threatened animals and habitats seems like a no-brainer. However, the endangered species act is actually a relatively recent piece of legislation. It continues to change as time goes on. These policies have been mired in politics and conflicting motives from the very beginning. Understanding history can help you understand what's going on today. In the following section, there is a timeline and brief history of the act:&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/cranes-726456_1920-1024x679.jpg" alt="cranes" class="wp-image-1892187"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/ltollefson810-921628/">ltollefson810</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-1966-the-endangered-species-preservation-act">1966: The Endangered Species Preservation Act</h3>



Firstly, according to the U.S. Fish And Wildlife Service (<a href="https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/esa-history.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">fws.gov</a>), this 1966 act was the first means of listing native animals as at-risk species. The act allowed the federal government to provide "limited protection" to these animals. Agencies could act to reserve critical habitats. The law authorized the Services to acquire land to this end.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-1969-the-endangered-species-conservation-act">1969: The Endangered Species Conservation Act&nbsp;</h3>



Secondly, in 1969, congress amended the Preservation Act. It would now include additional protection for animals at risk of "worldwide extinction". The USFWS explains that the additional protections included prohibiting people from importing or selling certain animal species in the United States. The legislation called for an international meeting to determine conservation plans for endangered animals on a global level.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-1973-cites-or-the-convention-on-international-of-endangered-species">1973: CITES or The Convention On International Of Endangered Species</h3>



Thirdly, in 1973 a conference was held in Washington D.C. 80 different nations signed the convention. The agreement centered on monitoring and restricting the international sale of threatened species.



<h3 id="h-1973-the-endangered-species-act-of-1973-esa">1973: The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)</h3>



Later in the same year as the convention, Congress unanimously passed the Endangered Species Act. President Nixon signed it into law. This was groundbreaking legislation because it defined "endangered" and "threatened" on a federal level. It stretched to include plants and invertebrates as eligible for protection. It prohibited federal agencies from funding or carrying out any action that would threaten or jeopardize listed species or their critical habitats. The act requires that federal agencies conserve endangered species and it also made matching funds available to states for cooperative agreements.&nbsp;



Also, within the ESA, the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/topic/endangered-species-conservation#:~:text=NOAA%20Fisheries%20is%20responsible%20for,the%20ecosystems%20they%20depend%20on." target="_blank" rel="noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a> is responsible for the "protection, conservation, and recovery of endangered and threatened marine and anadromous species".&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-1978-and-beyond-esa-amendments">1978 And Beyond: ESA Amendments</h3>



Congress amended the ESA in 1978. These amendments allowed Federal agencies to take actions that would endanger listed species <a href="https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/esa-1978.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">if cabinet-level committee gave them exemptions</a>. Furthermore, critical habitat had to be listed concurrently with corresponding species and economic factors were to be taken into consideration when deciding on area boundaries.&nbsp;



Later, in 1982, Congress made further amendments, including that the status of species was to be determined independently of economic factors, and speeding up the process of evaluating candidate species.&nbsp;



In 1988 Congress determined that candidate and recovered species must be monitored and would be eligible for emergency listing if there were significant risks. Any recovery plans became <a href="https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/esa-1988.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">open to public comment</a> and mandated reports.&nbsp;



Additionally, in 2004, things changed yet again in conjunction with the National Defence Authorization Act. Congress amended the ESA, exempting the Defence Department from critical habitat designations as long as there was "an integrated natural resources management plan prepared" and accepted by the Secretary of the Department of the Interior.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-polarized-protection">Polarized Protection&nbsp;</h2>



There are conflicting views of the ESA. Not everyone was (or is) on board with the initiative. As a result, the supreme court has seen <a href="https://www.justice.gov/enrd/supreme-court" target="_blank" rel="noopener">an increased amount of litigation</a> around the ESA since the act's inception. Conflicts might include home builders and birdwatchers - like in the case of the National Association Of Home Builders Vs. Defenders Of Wildlife. Sometimes, the argument at play is one of the various definitions of national security. An example of this would be Winter Vs. NRDC: Navy Sonar and Whales.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Our country continues to embody growing political extremism in the face of the climate crisis. The ESA as it currently stands is barely enough to protect animal and plant populations. Let's hope it continues to be a force for the protection of biodiversity and habitat protection for the foreseeable future.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/grizzly-73505_640.jpg" alt="grizzly bear" class="wp-image-1892188"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/brigachtal-17257/">brigachtal</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-future-of-the-endangered-species-act">The Future Of the Endangered Species Act&nbsp;</h2>



While in power, the Trump administration made <a href="https://www.edf.org/ecosystems/maintaining-our-bipartisan-wildlife-history" target="_blank" rel="noopener">numerous attempts to attack</a> the science-based decision-making and conservation tactics of the ESA. Even though this legislation is incredibly popular amongst most Americans, there are <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/senate-blocks-legislation-to-reverse-clean-water-act/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">those still in office today</a> who seek to chip away at it. For example, Rob Bishop of Utah, the former chairman of the House Committee on Natural Resources has often spoken about scrapping the law altogether and "modernizing it". Environmentalists say does not bode well for the species this act was designed to protect.&nbsp;



Bold climate action from congress and the senate are necessary for the protection of biodiversity and natural resources.&nbsp;



Importantly, we can all participate in the endangered species act in small ways that can accumulate into massive changing tides. People-powered initiatives can and do address climate change.&nbsp;



For instance, we all know that ddt is bad and that styrofoam will be around for millions of years after we're dead. Take the next step. Familiarize yourself with the endangered species list and how it relates to your region. Plant certain plants, restore your lawn to native specimen and for the love of compost, stop using synthetic pesticides.&nbsp;



Combat foreign species where you can, and maybe <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/vegetarian-diet-boston/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">forage them for dinner</a> (like in the case of garlic mustard). Vote for local national politicians who <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-clean-air-act-has-saved-as-many-as-1-5-billion-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">demonstrate dedication to green initiatives</a> and value the environmental protection agency.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion&nbsp;</h2>



The danger of extinction is real and looming. Furthermore, our continued existence depends on the health and vitality of the landscapes we call home.&nbsp;



We all define our roles within communities of plants, animals, fungus, and people in different ways. However, in the face of the climate crisis, we have to find ways to move sustainably into the future. Whether you live on an island of the coast of Florida, in the redwoods of California, the crowded metropolises of New York, or the wilderness of Alaska, these conversations, legislations, and correlating activism will impact you.&nbsp;



With the imperiled species recovery of whooping cranes, gray wolves, monarch butterflies, grizzly bear, the American alligator, and so many more, our own species might recover and survive as well. Lastly, it won't be the first time our species has risen to unprecedented circumstances. 



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A Brief History of the "Endangered Species Act"

The Endangered Species Act is a foundational environmental law in...

Frigid temperatures, dense coniferous forests, and cold winters are all common features of the taiga biome. Much of the world’s land is covered by this frozen biome and many fascinating, uncommon animals make their home here. Even though the taiga is such an important ecosystem in the northern hemisphere, not much is said about this forest biome, and many of the animals that live here seem completely mysterious. Here’s some information about what the taiga actually is, where you can find it, and the kinds of plants and animals you can find there.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/nature-3417266_1920-1024x602.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891877"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/cedriklesage-8298732/">CedrikLesage</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-what-is-the-taiga-biome">What Is the Taiga Biome?</h2>



Taiga biomes are the dense, evergreen forests of high latitudes in the northern hemisphere. In Canada and the US, the term "boreal forest" often replaces "taiga"; the two are actually the same biome. Whatever the name, these forests occur in subarctic regions, just below the arctic circle. Because of the massive amount of land the taiga covers, it is considered the world’s largest terrestrial biome. In fact, taiga covers 17 million square kilometers (6.6 million square miles) on three continents! Taiga is also one of the newest ecosystems in the world. Before 12,000 years ago, during the last ice age, all of the world’s land that is now taiga was underneath miles of ice. After the ice retreated, plants began to colonize the new real estate. Now, it is covered in dense forests.



<h2 id="h-taiga-climate">Taiga Climate</h2>



In general, the taiga is characterized by a very cold climate. It is the third coldest biome on earth, after the tundra biome and permanent ice caps. Average temperatures through the year range from -5 to 5 °C (23 to 41 °F), depending on location. But, the temperature range from the summer and winter months is huge. During the summer, a normal temperature would be 18 °C (64 °F). In contrast, a winter day would be closer to -20 °C (-4 °F). Temperatures in the Siberian taiga can easily get down to -50 °C (-58 °F) during the coldest part of the year! These frigid temperatures mean that animals adapted to taiga biomes can survive in subzero temperatures for much of the year.



Precipitation in the taiga is low. On average, precipitation is from 200-750 mm (7.9-29.5 in) per year. Most of the precipitation comes as snow which can stay on the ground for months until summer temperatures cause it to melt. However, in the coldest and northernmost regions, precipitation can persist and create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-permafrost-is-releasing-even-more-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">permafrost</a>. Fog is the other most important type of precipitation in taiga biomes, which helps trees reach their largest sizes, especially in coastal regions.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/night-4685148_1920-1024x682.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891879"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/rauschenberger-4614580/">rauschenberger</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-where-is-the-taiga-biome">Where Is the Taiga Biome?</h2>



You can find the taiga on two gigantic landmasses - North America and Eurasia. The country that has the most taiga is Russia, followed by Canada, and the United States. Taiga in Russia occurs in the vast region of Siberia - one of the most expansive and unpopulated places on earth. In Canada, the taiga occurs north of temperate deciduous forests in the east, and as an extension of evergreen forests in the west. Canada also has the most national parks in taiga biomes. Other countries have taiga, albeit much less, including the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/day-and-night-over-scandinavia/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scandinavian</a> countries of Norway, Finland, and Sweden. Taiga occurs between 50°N and 70°N, and most of it is immediately below the arctic circle.



<h2 id="h-taiga-flora">Taiga Flora</h2>



The taiga is home to many plants that are adapted to cold temperatures and a short growing season. Because North America and Asia used to be connected via the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/bela/learn/historyculture/the-bering-land-bridge-theory.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Bering land bridge</a>, both of these continents share many of the same species. The short growing season and oblique sunlight greatly limit photosynthesis in the taiga. In general, the taiga is dominated by evergreen conifers. The coniferous trees that show up the most are spruce, pine, and larch. Many deciduous trees are present as well, such as birch, alder, willow, and poplar. Despite the presence of these trees, deciduous forests are less common than evergreen forests in the taiga. The diversity and species assemblages change depending on the region. Some have mixed stands containing a few species, while others are dominated by a single species.



One of the most common trees in the taiga occurs in easter Siberia. The Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii) is an incredibly widespread tree, spanning from eastern Siberia, to Mongolia, northeastern China, and North Korea. In the taiga, the Dahurian larch experiences some of the coldest temperatures the taiga has to offer. It’s also a unique conifer in that it’s actually deciduous, dropping its needles in the fall to withstand the cold, dry winter.



In Canada and the US, the taiga is full of evergreen trees like balsam fir (Abies balsamea), black spruce (Picea mariana), tamarack larch (Larix laricina), and hemlock (Tsuga spp.). Groundcover includes various wildflowers and shrubs. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lichens-thrived-after-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lichen</a> is also abundant in the taiga, along with mosses and other bryophytes, and mushrooms like morels.



<h2 id="h-animals-of-the-taiga-biome">Animals Of the Taiga Biome</h2>



Many mysterious creatures make their home in the taiga. Due to the cold temperatures, all of the animals that live in this biome must be adapted to frigid conditions in one way or another. Many of the following animals are pretty common, but some are truly enigmatic inhabitants of the taiga biome.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/tiger-6175826_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891880"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Cle+Na">Cle Na</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-siberian-tigers">Siberian Tigers</h3>



Siberian tigers are one of the most endangered <a href="https://www.wcs.org/our-work/wildlife/big-cats" target="_blank" rel="noopener">big cats</a> in the world. They’re also the world’s largest cat, growing to be a whopping 300 kilos (660 pounds) and 3 meters (10 feet) long. These huge, top predators are incredibly important animals in the taiga. They occur primarily in eastern Siberia, but some make it down to northern China and North Korea. Thanks to the low human population of eastern Siberia, these tigers are well protected from threats in the Russian taiga. Still, humans pose a great threat to these animals through poaching and habitat destruction.



<h3 id="h-crossbills">Crossbills</h3>



In the summer, the taiga is rich in birds. Most, however, vacate the taiga towards the end of summer and migrate somewhere warmer. The crossbill is one of those brave birds that decide to stay in the taiga during summer. They have distinctive, crossed beaks (hence their name) which allow them to pry open cones to eat the enclosed seeds. Their beak grants them the ability to survive in the taiga during the winter months when most other birds would be helpless.



<h3 id="h-boreal-chorus-frogs">Boreal Chorus Frogs</h3>



Not many amphibians live in the taiga thanks to its cold, snowy winter and short summers. The boreal chorus frog is one of them and seems to thrive in this unforgiving biome. This tiny frog species is native to central Canada and makes its home not only in taiga but further north in the tundra, too. They are tiny frogs, measuring at most 4 cm (1.5 inches) in length. In the winter, they hibernate underneath the deep snow. However, in the spring, they emerge from their slumber and begin to breed. A breeding population of boreal chorus frogs erupts in loud, <a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/photosmultimedia/sounds-chorusfrogs.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">prolonged calls</a> that echo through the taiga.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/great-grey-owl-hybrid-3016287_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891881"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/georg_wietschorke-3238642/">Georg_Wietschorke</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-great-gray-owls">Great Gray Owls</h3>



Great gray owls live mainly in the taiga biome of North America, Scandinavia, and Russia. Like all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-owls-greatly-benefit-from-yosemites-fire-management-strategy/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">owls</a>, they are efficient hunters, catching prey silently and effortlessly amongst dense trees. They aren’t the largest owl species, but they are one of the largest birds in the taiga. Their hearing is so sharp, they are able to pinpoint the location of prey even under deep snow.



<h3 id="h-lynx">Lynx</h3>



Lynx are elusive, predatory cats with characteristic pointed ears. There are four species, two of which live in the taiga - the Canada lynx in Canada and Alaska, and the Eurasian lynx in northern Europe and Asia. These mysterious animals hunt small to medium mammals like snowshoe hares and minks, but some are brave enough to even hunt deer.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/animal-1660429_1920-1024x675.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891882"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/danielbrachlow-2171695/">DanielBrachlow</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-wolverines">Wolverines</h3>



Wolverines are part of a group of animals called mustelids, which make up the family Mustelidae. Minks, martens, otters, stoats, and weasels are all different types of mustelids, but the wolverine might just be the most mysterious mustelid. The wolverine is one of the largest species in the family and is renowned for its ferocity and strength. Wolverines mainly scavenge for their food but are capable of hunting live prey. Thanks to their brazen attitude, they can take on prey much larger than themselves, such as deer.



<h3 id="h-martens">Martens</h3>



Another member of the mustelid family, martens are much smaller than their wolverine cousins. Like many members of this family, the American marten is entirely opportunistic, feeding on pretty much whatever it wants whenever it is available. Their diet is highly dependent on the seasons, eating fruit, fish, foliage, insects, and small rodents whenever each food item is most abundant.



<h3 id="h-moose">Moose</h3>



Moose are some of the largest animals in the taiga, even compared to bears and tigers. These truly massive animals live all throughout the taiga - from eastern Canada to Alaska, and across the water from Siberia to Scandinavia. Despite their size, moose are still prey for top predators like tigers and wolves. They are also important herbivores, eating even woody stems of plants during the winter when no fresh, green leaves are present.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/bear-2400929_1920-1024x576.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1891883"/><figcaption><a href="https://pixabay.com/users/lynnea-1528424/">lynnea</a> / Pixabay</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-salmon">Salmon</h3>



<a href="https://pacificwild.org/salmon-a-keystone-species/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Salmon are keystone species</a> in the taiga. These biomes often host countless rivers and streams, which salmon return to in order to spawn. As the salmon make their way upstream, many animals intercept the swimming creatures for a nutritious meal. Even though many salmon won’t make it to their ultimate spawning grounds, hundreds do. After the salmon spawn, they die. Dying salmon make an incredibly important food resource for countless animals such as bears and wolves, and the carcasses of the fish provide nutrients for scavengers like ravens and wolverines. This yearly influx of salmon makes them some of the most important species in the ecology of the taiga.



<h3 id="h-mosquitoes">Mosquitoes</h3>



Mosquitoes are some of the most hated animals on earth - and also the deadliest thanks to the diseases they help spread. In the taiga biome, they are abundant. In Alaska alone, there are more than 30 species of mosquitoes. During the relatively warm summer months, mosquito populations explode. Even though their presence is unwelcome to many mammals like caribou, they are a vital food resource for birds and amphibians like frogs. Their sheer abundance alone gives rise to the argument that mosquitoes, like salmon, are keystone species in the taiga.



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Mysterious Creatures of the Taiga Biome

Frigid temperatures, dense coniferous forests, and cold winters are all...

A,Macro,Head,Shot,Of,A17-year,Cicada.,They,Live,Underground

They have beady red eyes, they make an ominous buzzing sound, and they will emerge in the billions! That might sound like the start to a horror movie, but let’s instead have it be an introduction to the sweet insect celebrity of 2021...the cicada! Though the sentiment “the cicadas are coming” might sound like a warning and the name “Brood X” like something from a dystopian novel, we meet this phenologic event with more of mystic awe than a nervous foreboding. In short, Brood X includes the geographically largest group of periodic cicadas that have been living underground since 2004 and are expected to emerge during the spring of 2021. Here, we’ll share a bit about cicada ecology and answer some common questions about Brood X, so you can be just as excited for them as we are!





<h2 id="h-cicada-ecology">Cicada Ecology</h2>



There are over 3,000 species of cicadas, mostly comprised by the family Cicadidae (with two outlier species are in the family Tettigarctidae). All cicadas, however, are members of the Hemiptera order and are generally known as “true bugs” because of the rostrum mouthparts that allow them to suck sap from plants. Cicadas can be grouped as either annual or periodical. Annual cicadas reproduce and emerge every one to three years, and include the vast majority of Cicadidae members. Periodic cicadas display an amazing behavior of breeding in much longer cycles - after hatching from the eggs the baby cicadas will spend 13 or 17 years underground before emerging as adults.&nbsp;



&nbsp;While cicadas are found worldwide, the phenomenon of periodic cicadas only exists within seven species in the genus Magicicada all found in the eastern United States. With a large (<a href="https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publications/E-47/E-47.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">1.5-2 inches</a>) black body, orange veined wings, and red eyes, these cicadas also look distinct from their other relatives. So while this summer’s community of cicadas will include both annual and periodical species, you’ll be able to tell Brood X apart just by their appearance.



<h3 id="h-what-is-a-cicada-brood">What Is a Cicada Brood?</h3>



With some species emerging every 13 years and some every 17, entomologists needed a way to track the individuals’ life cycles that emerge in a given year. Each of these groups is called a brood and given a unique roman numeral (e.g. Brood I, Brood IV, Brood X). Remember though that there are seven species of cicadas that display this behavior. So these broods of periodical cicadas often include more than one species of cicada. Likewise, each species of cicada can be found in many distinct broods. For example, Brood X <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/periodical-cicada" target="_blank" rel="noopener">includes the species</a> Magicicada septendecim, Magicicada cassini, and Magicicada septendecula.



When one brood emerges, their offspring return for the same cycle of either 13 or 17 years. Brood X cicadas have been laying in wait underground since 2004. That puts our last 13 months quarantining during the pandemic to shame!



<h3 id="h-why-do-cicadas-go-underground-for-so-long">Why Do Cicadas Go Underground for so Long?</h3>



This question poses quite a mystery! With insects normally have such rapid turnover in their lifecycles, it seems quite strange that these few species would evolve to play such a waiting game. To answer it, we just have to consider the evolutionary pressures on an insect similar to this. They aren’t poisonous (in fact, they’re quite nutritious), and they exist in large numbers. The perfect food source!



Their underground trickery seems to be a way to give the slip to their more voracious predators. Without year-to-year consistency, animals that enjoy cicada snacks can’t rely on the periodic insects for prey. And when they do emerge, they do so at such a grandiose scale, that their predators can’t keep up. This is commonly called the <a href="https://cicadas.uconn.edu/stragglers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">predator-satiation hypothesis</a>.



<h3 id="h-cicada-life-cycles">Cicada Life Cycles</h3>



Periodic cicadas have the longest life cycle of any known insect. But though it differs in duration, it’s not a unique process. These bugs go through incomplete metamorphosis with the life stages of egg, nymph, and adult. To give you a better picture of a cicada’s life, let’s take a look at the parents of Brood X, and go back in time to the last time Brood X was around in 2004.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-egg">Egg</h3>



Seventeen years ago, newly emerged cicada adults from Brood X focused on their paramount task for this life stage: breeding. The males struck up their evening chorus to attract a silent female. After mating, the female will carefully split the bark of tender twigs and lay hundreds of eggs, in batches of <a href="https://ag.tennessee.edu/epp/pages/cicadas.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noopener">24-48</a>.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-nymph">Nymph</h3>



One to two months later the eggs hatch and rice-like nymphs drop to the ground. Though tiny, they have strong forelegs that they use to bury themselves between <a href="https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/ENT-58" target="_blank" rel="noopener">one to eight feet</a> in the soil. Just like nymphs of other insect species, this life stage is important for feeding and growing. But periodic cicadas just spend a bit longer as nymphs than the usual six-legged friend. Safely underground, that feed on plant and tree roots for the next 17 years.



<h3 id="h-adult">Adult</h3>



Now let’s return to 2021. After years of snacking and growing, the last instar of the cicada nymph digs its way out of the soil where it molts one final time to reveal the fully winged adult! Brood X emerges en masse to breed again!&nbsp;





<h2 id="h-brood-x-the-class-of-2021">Brood X: The Class of 2021</h2>



This might feel similar to a graduation announcement, and, in a way, it’s exactly that. The Brood X cicadas (also called the Great Eastern Brood) have been growing up for the past 17 years and have finally reached adulthood! And now they can throw their caps (aka shed their exoskeletons) and have the rager of their lives (aka their cacophony of noise the males make). We’re excited to celebrate them, and, to help spread the cheer, we’ve answered some of the most common questions about cicada entomology below.



<h2 id="h-when-will-the-brood-x-cicadas-come-how-long-will-they-stay">When Will The Brood X Cicadas Come &amp; How Long Will They Stay?</h2>



The Brood X cicadas will use soil temperature as a cue to help them know when to dig their way to the surface. When the soil reaches about 64 degrees Fahrenheit, the nymphs will begin to crawl towards the sun. But this level of thermo-tracking is not new to them. They have actually been using freeze and thaw cycles to track each of the past 17 years. Without calendars and push notifications, they need some way to count the days! For their range across the eastern U.S., you can expect them between <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/periodical-cicada" target="_blank" rel="noopener">April and June</a>, depending on latitude.&nbsp;



With the singular goal of reproduction in mind, adult cicadas only live for two to four weeks, just enough for the female to lay eggs. So just as quickly as the cicadas appeared, they will vanish.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-where-will-the-brood-x-cicadas-be">Where Will The Brood X Cicadas Be?</h3>



Geography sets Brood X apart from other groups of 17-year cicadas. In fact, the group has the largest range of any cicada brood! They will appear in parts of 15 states including Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, North Carolina, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, as well as Washington D.C.



<h3 id="h-what-s-all-the-racket">What’s All the Racket?</h3>



Even if you haven’t seen a cicada before, you’ve probably heard their mating calls. The drone of the male cicada can get close to <a href="http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/chapters/chapter_24.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noopener">100 decibels</a> - similar to a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hearing_loss/what_noises_cause_hearing_loss.html#:~:text=Sound%20is%20measured%20in%20decibels,immediate%20harm%20to%20your%20ears." target="_blank" rel="noopener">motorcycle</a>! So there’s no shame if you feel the need to cover your ears. In contrast to other noisy insects that use wings or legs to create sound, cicadas have specific organs totally dedicated to their serenade. Called tymbals, these structures are rib-like features that the cicada buckles together to create vibrations.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-are-cicadas-dangerous">Are Cicadas Dangerous?</h3>



When anything comes out in the billions, it’s natural to feel wary. But there’s nothing about cicadas to be worried about! You might start noticing a few more around, but apart from the ear-splitting evening song they pose no threat to humans. They won’t bite or sting and aren’t poisonous. In fact, full of protein and low in fat, cicadas could make a delicious and nutritious <a href="https://web.extension.illinois.edu/cicadas/edible.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">treat</a>!&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-plants">Plants</h3>



Though many often confuse cicadas with locusts because of their sheer numbers, they <a href="https://growingsmallfarms.ces.ncsu.edu/2013/04/should-farmers-gardeners-worry-about-17-year-cicadas/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">don’t pose nearly as severe a threat</a> to crops. Since they rely on the sap from woody plants, they won’t even touch your herbaceous tomatoes and strawberries. If you have an orchard, you might take a little more caution. Especially if you have younger saplings, consider tossing some netting over them more the couple weeks the cicadas are out in force.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-pets">Pets</h3>



Another common concern surrounds pets. Oftentimes, dogs might find a fun game of chasing and catching cicadas, while some more adventurous canines even decide that a cicada is the dog biscuit of the century and chomp them up. The short answer is this is all fine. Cicadas are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-insects-food-source/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">edible</a> to dogs, just as they are to humans. Though they might get a tummy ache if they eat too many. So try to keep your pup from overindulging, and you should be ok!





<h2 id="h-good-luck-brood-x">Good Luck, Brood X!</h2>



With that, we wish Brood X an amazing year of cicada mania! We hope that their breeding season succeeds, that their songs echo through neighborhoods everywhere, and that their cicada babies hunker down for another nourishing and relaxing 17 years underground. ‘Til 2038, Brood X!



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The Cicadas Are Coming: Brood X

They have beady red eyes, they make an ominous buzzing...

Nematodes - not exactly a word many of us hear often unless we work in a lab or in the garden. But as it turns out, unless you are perusing the internet from the international space station, you’re surrounded by them even as you read these words.



Perhaps you heard a rumor at the flower shop. Maybe you’re in the midst of a biology class in school. It’s possible you’ve seen small cysts in the roots of your soybean bed. Whatever it is that inspired your internet query today, you’ve come to the right place to learn about nematodes. We'll discuss what they are, how they move and interact in the world, and the ways in which nematodes are part of your life - whether you like it or not. Let’s dig in.



<h2 id="h-get-to-know-nematodes">Get To Know Nematodes</h2>



Nematodes, also known as roundworms, or eelworms make up the phylum Nematoda. This phylum is a world-wide phenomenon, found almost everywhere in the world and ranging from mountaintops to freshwater streams and deep valleys, the tropics all the way up to the arctic,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microscopic-organisms-driest-places/">across the deserts</a>, and slurping around in bogs - anywhere where there is a sufficient amount of water to support their various life cycles and preferred habitats. There are an estimated&nbsp;<a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">12,000 species</a>&nbsp;on our planet and they are categorized with insects and other molting creatures in the clade Ecdysozoa. They are “<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">elongate, thread-like, and active animals”</a>&nbsp;that are also commonly found in the stomachs and intestines of birds, fish, and mammals. Most are cylindrical, though some species have females are that are spherical. Nematodes are one of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2754014/">the most abundant&nbsp;</a>invertebrates on Earth.



But for how abundant they are, they can sure are hard to spot. While it is possible to see certain species of nematodes, most are slender and transparent. This makes them incredibly difficult to see with the naked eye.



Derived from the Greek word for thread, these tube-like organisms move like eels where they live. Most species of nematodes are free-living and feed off of fungi, bacterial, and algae microorganisms. They are highly successful parasites. This is because of their <a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">physiological elasticity: o</a>ne species is only found in vinegar. Another specializes in the niche-habitat of <a href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.333.369">beer mats</a>&nbsp;at the local dive bar.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_1905527209.jpg" alt="pink nematode" class="wp-image-1890588"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Hussmann">Hussmann</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-nematode-life-cycle">Nematode Life Cycle</h2>



Often, the life cycle of a nematode is determined by six distinct stages:&nbsp;<a href="https://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/lso/SCOUT/Nematodes.htm">egg, four juvenile stages, and adult</a>. The smallest free-living adult nematode is about 250 mm, but parasitic nematodes can be as smaller than 2 mm. In most species, females and males occur, though reproduction often happens without males and these animals are frequently hermaphroditic. Once an individual produces eggs, their life cycle is complete. Species can produce anywhere from 50 - 500 eggs per female - though some can produce&nbsp;<a href="https://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/lso/SCOUT/Nematodes.htm">up to 1,000</a>.



More specifically, in the example of the soybean cyst nematode, eggs develop within a cyst. According to&nbsp;<a href="https://www.plantpath.iastate.edu/scn/life_cycle">Iowa State University</a>, inside each egg is an unhatched juvenile. A nematode’s body wall is composed of an underlying cell layer&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3282284?seq=1">called a cuticle</a>, and once the juvenile eggs hatch, they can penetrate the cell walls of the soybean root (similar to other soil nematodes). Once in the root, the juvenile develops into an adult male or adult female. The females eventually break back through the root’s surface but remain connected while the adult males leave the root system. The male and female will mate and the female will lay eggs, eventually dying and hardening around the egg sack as a tough cyst.



<h3 id="h-other-life-cycles">Other Life Cycles</h3>



Understanding the life cycles of different invertebrates is interesting. They might help you pass a biology exam, but it’s so much more than that too. Take Caenorhabditis elegans - it is one particularly famous species in the study of nematology in the last 25 years. Nematologists around the world are working to sequence the entire genome of this species. Oddly, it has no obvious economic benefit or parasitic threat to us. Why is that?



It shares&nbsp;<a href="https://cbs.umn.edu/cgc/what-c-elegans">many of the same biological characteristics</a>&nbsp;that are central problems in our own biology. The worm begins as a single cell, undergoes complex development, maintains a nervous system, and exhibits behavior capable of learning. While it has yet to demonstrate consciousness, the parallels of this species with our own life cycle are eerily similar and “provides researchers with an ideal compromise&nbsp;<a href="https://cbs.umn.edu/cgc/what-c-elegans">between complexity and tractability</a>”. In studying and understanding animals as small as nematodes, we can better understand ourselves.



<h2 id="h-parasites-in-humans">Parasites in Humans</h2>



People shudder at the thought of small critters living inside the body. Nematodes abound as parasites in mammals, and that includes Homo sapiens as well. These nematode parasites are documented In texts dated as early as 1550 BC for their plaguing presence in the human body. Another name for these pests is "lesion nematodes."



Some historians have inferred that the “fiery serpent” of the Bible that bedeviled the children of Israel after they crossed the swampy terrain of the Red Sea may have been the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">Guinea Worm</a>&nbsp;Dracunculus medinensis, which can grow over 12 inches in length in your intestines - a terrifying legend from antiquity that is very much real in that part of the world today. You’ve probably heard of hookworm before as it&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8261/">is a nematode parasite that commonly causes diarrhea</a>, malnutrition, and other infective, escalating medical conditions in marginalized communities, especially in areas that don’t have access to a clean water supply.



The largest parasitic nematode we know of is Placentonema gigantissima. It is a marine species documented to be over 8 meters long and living in the placenta of a sperm whale - a terrifying image to behold.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_1820971748.jpg" alt="nematode drawing" class="wp-image-1890589"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/KaterynaKon">Kateryna Kon</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-parasites-in-plants">Parasites in Plants</h2>



Parasitic nematodes (such as&nbsp;Ditylenchus spp.) aren’t only after animals, however. Some species wreak havoc on your garden as well and are major agricultural pathogens or plant parasites. These destructive creatures are much, much smaller - often invisible to our eyes. Generally, if you can see a worm-like crawler in your garden or compost,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">it isn’t actually a nematode</a>. But plant parasitic nematodes (PPN) are&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">ubiquitous in agricultural soils</a>&nbsp;and can cause significant crop damage.



Most species of plant-parasitic nematodes&nbsp;attack by&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">using their needle-like stylets</a>&nbsp;to pierce and kill root cells. Species that use this type of feeding method include lesion (Pratylenchus) nematodes, lance, stunt, and sting nematodes. The species that inspire the fiercest loathing in farmers and the harshest economic impacts include the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita)&nbsp;and the soybean cyst nematode because their feeding style allows them to establish permanent feeding sites and&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">complete their life cycle</a>&nbsp;without killing nearby cells.



A nematode infection, by&nbsp;<a href="http://nemaplex.ucdavis.edu/Taxamnus/G060mnu.htm">Heterodera species</a>&nbsp;and others, in plants will look a lot like inhibited root growth and root function and may resemble environmental stressors such as drought and nutrient-deficient soil. Yields will decline and plant appearance can be yellowing, wilting, and stunted.



Oftentimes, though the nematodes are invisible to our eyes, we can inspect root systems of evidence of cysts and&nbsp;<a href="https://extension.psu.edu/plant-parasitic-nematodes-explained">pale female bulbs</a>&nbsp;that are big enough for us to observe right out of the ground (or pot).



By the time you notice the effects of these parasites upon your plants, it’s probably too late to take action. Nature is as beautiful as it is cruel. Crop rotation techniques can be <a href="https://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/FSA-7550.pdf">an effective</a>&nbsp;means of nematode control (without using nematicides) and a way to mitigate similar sorts of crises that result in crop losses.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_499829854.jpg" alt="root parasite" class="wp-image-1890590"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Jean+Faucett">Jean Faucett</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-benefits-of-nematodes">The Benefits of Nematodes</h2>



But, not all nematodes are scary snake-like parasites slithering in your intestines or invisibly depleting your garden or fields. As one of the most variable groups of animals, there are incredibly helpful species as well. Beneficial nematodes are used intentionally by organic gardeners and farmers to great effect.



So, what’s so good about nematodes and why do organic growers use these small creatures? First of all, it’s important to understand that these tiny creatures play a critical role in the decomposition and recycling of nutrients in various ecosystems. For example, nematode populations are richly abundant in arable soil. There can be over 3 billion nematodes in one acre of land, calculated to a depth of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sasa.gov.uk/seed-ware-potatoes/nematology/what-are-nematodes#:~:text=Being%20slender%20and%20transparent%2C%20they,may%20be%20confused%20with%20nematodes.&amp;text=With%20a%20few%20exceptions%2C%20if,not%20a%20plant%2Dparasitic%20nematode.">20 centimeters</a>, and they are usually most abundant in the upper layers of soil where organic matter, plant roots, and other resources are most abundant.



And those same parasitic tendencies that make certain species of nematodes dangerous to us or to plants? There are other nematodes that go after the insect pests that we want to control organically with the same vigorous energy. Beneficial feeding nematodes will devour up to&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">200 different species of insects</a>, regulating adult bugs and also larvae, juvenile insects in grub stages that can ruin your neat rows of veggies and annual flowers.



Collaborating with beneficial nematodes might save your lawn. And more importantly, when you&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-plant-an-excellent-pollinator-garden/">finally tear up your lawn</a>&nbsp;of Kentucky bluegrass (the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/monocrops-theyre-a-problem-but-farmers-arent-the-ones-who-can-solve-it/2014/05/09/8bfc186e-d6f8-11e3-8a78-8fe50322a72c_story.html">largest mono-crop</a>&nbsp;in North America and a huge detriment to our ecological health) and replace it with native perennials and water-saving landscaping techniques, beneficial nematodes will be a sustainable link in the bio-niche of your home.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/shutterstock_420833719.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1890591"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Jes+Abeita">Jes Abeita</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-how-to-use-nematodes-in-your-garden">How To Use Nematodes in Your Garden</h2>



To use beneficial nematodes in your garden is&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">really a pretty simple process</a>. Start by contacting a nearby organic gardening shop. Beneficial nematodes are popular and chances are, a good garden store will have them in stock during the growing season. Additionally, they are likely to have a whole plethora of other beneficial predators such as ladybugs and praying mantis sacks. If you aren’t able to find them in a store, you can order beneficial nematodes online as well. Most products will have specific directions on the bottle. Usually, you simply add the contents of the package or bottle into a spray bottle or a watering can mixed with water.



Different species of nematodes will prey upon harmful pests with an efficiency that is reminiscent of a good horror film.&nbsp;<a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">Some ambush their prey</a>. Others lure them in. Heterorhabdtis uses a cruising strategy.



<h2 id="h-a-pollinator-friendly-option">A Pollinator-Friendly Option</h2>



Using beneficial nematodes won’t harm you, children, or pets. Chemical pesticides have a variety of horrible side effects on our bodies and the ecosystems we inhabit. These beneficial roundworms are an excellent alternative. Using beneficial nematodes won’t harm you, children, or pets. Plus, <a href="https://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/articles/nemat.html">they won’t harm the friendly pollinators</a>&nbsp;you want to attract to your garden.



These are the sort of techniques we want to continue to cultivate and spread into popular gardening culture. This is especially urgent when you look at the concerning trends around endemic bee species and butterfly migration patterns across continents. Unless you’ve been living under a rock, you know things aren’t looking good for these hard-working and necessary insects that make our world so beautiful and actually account for&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-insect-pollinator-communities-boost-crop-production/">billions of dollars</a>&nbsp;in our economy each year. And if things aren’t looking good for them, they aren’t looking good for us.



Nematodes might feel out of the box to gardeners from older generations with a proclivity for Round-Up. But, these techniques will be part of how we save the birds, the bees, the butterflies - and ourselves - from catastrophe. Digging into regenerative, organic methods of gardening can be an empowering way to connect to where you live, take accountability for your impact on the planet, and combat the climate malaise that seeps into our culture. Try beneficial nematodes in your garden and then tell your friends!



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion</h2>



Like most of life on earth, nematodes are fascinating and nuanced. We’re so quick to categorize our fellow ecosystem inhabitants as “good” or “bad". We conceptualize the natural world into polarized extremes, elements of an ecosystem to be protected or eradicated.



Hopefully, it is obvious that this is simply not the case. In understanding the different phyla and the wild world of creatures that interact in cahoots and also in adversity, we know that the web of life is an intricate dance that we must respect and study. In a deeper understanding of animals like nematodes, we gain insight into our own existence and utilize the benefits of these small thread-like creatures in innovative ways to enrich beauty and deepen our connection to the landscape and sustainable ecology.



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Nematodes

Nematodes - not exactly a word many of us hear...

Pufferfish are one of the most recognizable fish around the globe. I first learned of pufferfish through the popular kid's show, Spongebob. One of the characters is Mrs. Puff, who is a sassy driving instructor. Spongebob is an awful driver and every time he crashes, Mrs. Puff puffs up into that classic, silly-looking pufferfish.
<h2>Pufferfish Are Intriguing Animals</h2>
Since you've landed on this webpage, perhaps you've heard some of the crazy facts about puffers. Obviously, pufferfish puff up to a surprising size when frightened. They do this by sucking tons of water (or air if out of water) into their elastic stomachs. This behavior is to intimidate predators. Since puffers aren't particularly fast fish, they rely on scaring predators rather than swimming away.

In particular, they rely on the incredible potency of the toxin they produce. Puffers kill people around the world every year with their deadly tetrodotoxin. Or perhaps it is more accurate to say that the puffers had no intention of killing a human. Since humans insist on eating these dangerous fish, they invite a deadly risk into their diet.

This fish toxin is amongst the most toxic things known to humankind. It is <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/group/pufferfish/#:~:text=To%20humans%2C%20tetrodotoxin%20is%20deadly,there%20is%20no%20known%20antidote.&amp;text=Amazingly%2C%20the%20meat%20of%20some%20pufferfish%20is%20considered%20a%20delicacy.&amp;text=In%20fact%2C%20many%20such%20deaths%20occur%20annually." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1,200 times more deadly</a> than cyanide. Apparently, the amount of tetrodotoxin in a single puffer is enough to kill 30 fully grown humans. Yikes!

[caption id="attachment_1885720" align="alignnone" width="2560"]<img class="wp-image-1885720 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1752413384-scaled.jpg" alt="saddled pufferfish" width="2560" height="1440" /> A beautiful saddled pufferfish. Who would expect such a pretty fish to be full of such potent toxins![/caption]

Like humans, dolphins aren't completely deterred by the puffer's toxins. In fact, it appears that they suckle on these fish to <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/dolphins-seem-to-use-toxic-pufferfish-to-get-high-180948219/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">get high off of the toxin</a>. After all, medicines and drugs are just poisons at a lower dosage. How did the dolphins first discover that merely sucking on the fish would produce a psychoactive effect when eating the same fish would kill them?

Alright, last fun fact about pufferfish. Some species make <a href="https://reefbuilders.com/2012/09/20/underwater-crop-circles-japan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">stunning, geometric patterns</a> in the sand as nests! These attractive nests are made by males to lure in potential mates. Pufferfish obviously have a good aesthetic taste.
<h2>What Is a Pufferfish?</h2>
'Pufferfish' are a family of fish that is part of the order Tetraodontiformes. This order includes fish that look similar to the puffers, such as porcupine fish and boxfish. It also includes some different looking types, such as sunfish and triggerfish. A difference between pufferfish and porcupine fish is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pufferfish-protective-spikes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">puffers' spines</a> are only visible when they are puffed up, while porcupines fishes spines are always visible.

Tetraodontidae, the puffer family, means 'four teeth.' This refers to the four teeth on the top and the bottom of the puffers' mouths that fuse into plates. These plates are sturdy and strong. The puffers use them to crunch hard marine shells of muscles, clams, and even crabs. Pufferfish can live on a vegetarian diet of algae but prefer meaty crustaceans when available.

There are about<a href="https://www.fishbase.se/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=448#:~:text=FAMILY%20Details%20for%20Tetraodontidae%20%2D%20Puffers&amp;text=Chiefly%20marine.,of%20Atlantic%2C%20Indian%20and%20Pacific." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> 200 species</a> of pufferfish around the world in 39 different genera. This is a relatively diverse family of fish. The smallest puffer is only an <a href="https://www.tfhmagazine.com/articles/freshwater/the-dwarf-puffer-a-pleasant-little-surprise" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">inch long</a>, while the largest is about 3 feet. Most puffers prefer warm, shallow tropical and subtropical ocean waters.

[caption id="attachment_1885722" align="alignnone" width="2560"]<img class="wp-image-1885722 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1239623398-scaled.jpg" alt="Stellate puffer" width="2560" height="1920" /> A large stellate pufferfish at a coral reef.[/caption]
<h2>Do They Live in Freshwater?</h2>
Yes! While puffers live primarily in the ocean, there are species of pufferfish that live in brackish water. There are also 35 species of pufferfish that live exclusively in freshwater habitats. <a href="https://www.aquariadise.com/freshwater-puffer-fish-5-true-freshwater-puffers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">These types of puffers</a> are restricted to the tropics and subtropics, mainly in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Home aquarium enthusiasts enjoy these puffers. It is much easier to keep a freshwater aquarium than a saltwater aquarium, and the tiny pygmy pufferfish is a cute addition to these aquascapes.

Freshwater pufferfish prefer rivers to lakes. They thrive in the Amazon and the winding river complexes that lace Bangladesh and Myanmar.
<h2>Will Pufferfish Live in the Open Ocean?</h2>
Most puffers live close to land. In general, they like coral reefs, brackish water estuaries, and shallower waters. They can fare alright in protected seas, but not the open ocean. For example, pufferfish occupy the <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/y4162e/y4162e70.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">entire Gulf of Mexico</a> but not the open waters of the expansive Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
<h2>How Far North Do Pufferfish Live?</h2>
The Northern Puffer, as its name implies, voyages further north than other species of puffers. It lives along the entire Eastern Seaboard of the U.S. It even reaches all the way up to Newfoundland in Canada! The northern pufferfish lives in protected areas, typically with brackish water.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/studying-chesapeake-bay-watershed/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Chesapeake Bay</a> is prime habitat for them, where they are caught for a small commercial fish market. The northern puffer doesn't produce tetrodotoxin, making it safer for people to prepare and eat the fish.

Other northern-reaching pufferfish <a href="https://www.fishbase.de/summary/Takifugu-rubripes.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">include species</a> that inhabit the East Sea, which is between the Korean Peninsula and Japan.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-unpredictable-2/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">El Niño</a>, the winter weather pattern that causes waters on the Pacific Coast of the U.S. to warm, can change pufferfish distribution as well. The warm waters during an El Niño year can guide pufferfish from Baja California to venture as far north as <a href="https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Pufferfish-possibly-sighted-in-Monterey-Bay-6588734.php#:~:text=She%20clarified%20that%20the%20puffer,the%20two%20fish%20I%20found.%22" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Monterey Bay</a> in Central California. While these individual fish are probably flukes amongst the greater population, perhaps they will migrate towards central California as the oceans warm due to climate change.

[caption id="attachment_1885724" align="alignnone" width="2000"]<img class="wp-image-1885724 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/shutterstock_1122804059.jpg" alt="juvenile puffer" width="2000" height="1333" /> A striking orange puffer all puffed up.[/caption]
<h2>Humans Have Changed Puffer Distribution</h2>
Humans have<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/invasive-species-plants-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> shuffled thousands of species</a> around the world during globalization. Puffers are no exception. A non-native pufferfish has appeared in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. This puffer presents new challenges to countries like Lebanon. The <a href="https://www.discovermagazine.com/environment/toxic-pufferfish-invade-eastern-mediterranean-killing-people-and-irking-fisherman" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">fish has killed at least seven people</a> with its toxin. It also has sharp teeth that can bite through fishing nets, causing problems for fishermen.

This puffer likely swam through the Suez Canal. This canal connects the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean via the small bit of land that connects Egypt to the Middle East.

However, there are about a <a href="https://mbr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41200-019-0170-9" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">dozen species of puffers</a> native to the Mediterranean, a few of which even live in the nearby fresh-water Black Sea.
<h2>How Can I See One of These Fish?</h2>
The easiest way to see a puffer is at an aquarium. In the wild, they are easiest to spot while snorkeling near a coral reef. If you see one out there, try to listen for their hard teeth cracking shellfish! It's quite a loud sound. Be sure to bring a fish guide so you can identify which kind of puffer you see. Since there are 200 species, it can take some effort to identify the right one!

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Where Do Pufferfish Live?

Pufferfish are one of the most recognizable fish around the...

Around the world, water availability is a growing concern. According to the <a href="https://www.unwater.org/water-facts/scarcity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">United Nations</a>, “water use has been growing globally at more than twice the rate of population increase in the last century.” In simpler terms, there are now more people and less water than ever. Today, let’s better understand, what is a water well?
<h2>Water Well Vocabulary</h2>
In our discussions about water wells, we’ll need to understand a few vocabulary words. Let’s take a look at some of the basic terminology.
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Well: Any hole that is drilled, dug, or excavated for access to liquids is defined as a well. We are specifically discussing water wells, but other kinds exist too, like oil wells.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Surface water: This is any water that exists on, rather than under, the ground. Streams, rivers, lakes, and ponds are all examples.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Groundwater: In contrast to surface water, this type of water is underground. Typically, it is trapped between holes and pores in the deep rock and soil.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Aquifer: These are more or less underground “lakes.” Aquifers are areas of highly concentrated groundwater</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Water table: This is a slightly more complex term. The water table refers to the depth below the ground at which the soil or rock is completely saturated with H2O. When the level of the water table is above ground, we see a river, stream, lake, or other body of H2O. Depending on location, the water table can be at many <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-can-i-find-depth-water-table-a-specific-location?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">different depths</a>. The figure below visually explains.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
[caption id="attachment_1885142" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1885142 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/2560px-Water_table.svg_-1024x527.png" alt="water table diagram" width="1024" height="527" /> Image by <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_table.svg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Jojko,sivek</a> via Wikimedia Commons[/caption]
<h2>Who Needs a Well?</h2>
The short answer to this question is simple: whoever needs water. For many Americans, their only necessary supply of H2O comes from their tap. This water is considered <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-does-wastewater-treatment-work/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">municipal water</a> as it is provided by the city. There are a few different kinds of people that may need a well.
<h3>Rural America</h3>
According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), roughly <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/water-resources/science/domestic-private-supply-wells?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">43 million people</a> in America rely on private wells as their source of drinking water. That totals approximately 15% of the US population. Often, these individuals live far enough away from a municipal water supply that running a pipe to the property isn’t feasible. 
<h3>Farmers</h3>
Similar to rural Americans, farmers may need wells even if they also have a municipal water supply. This is due to the volume of H2O that is necessary to water even small numbers of livestock. Cattle generally require about <a href="https://beef.unl.edu/amountwatercowsdrink" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1 gallon of water for every 100 pounds of body mass</a>. The average cow weighs about <a href="https://www.beefmagazine.com/cow-calf/relationship-between-cow-size-production" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1,400 pounds</a>. This means that a farmer that only has 10 cattle will still need about 150 gallons of H2O, per day, just to water the cattle. That’s the equivalent of adding <a href="https://www.epa.gov/watersense/statistics-and-facts#:~:text=Each%20American%20uses%20an%20average,water%2Defficient%20fixtures%20and%20appliances." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">two additional people</a> to your home! This also doesn’t include any other H2O needs that cattle have such as growing feed crops, washing barns, etc. 

[caption id="attachment_1885144" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1885144 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/water-1008977_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="water well" width="1024" height="682" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/water-pump-old-man-hand-well-1008977/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">947051</a> via Pixabay.[/caption]
<h2>How to Dig a Water Well</h2>
Now that we know what a well is and who may need one, let’s dig into how to create a well!
<h3>Site Selection</h3>
First, the decision of where the well should be placed needs to be made. Several things may influence where a well can or should go:
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Other buried objects: <a href="https://call811.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Call before you dig!</a> Most homes have buried electrical wires, gas pipes, and water mains. Digging before you have an expert check your property is reckless and dangerous. After the property is marked, you’ll know what spots the well absolutely cannot go.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Water table depth: As we discussed before, the water table is the level at which the soil is saturated with water. Practically, this is the minimum depth at which a well needs to be dug. A hydrologist can assist in estimating the water table on your property. On small properties, the depth is unlikely to differ by much. On large properties, though, the table could differ by 20 feet or more. A shallower table means less digging.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Intended use: Where the well is located also depends on its purpose. A well for personal drinking use should be located near the home. A well for cattle would logically be located closer to the cattle and possibly farther away from the house.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Digging a Well</h3>
Now that you’ve selected the site for your well, it’s time to dig! Broadly, there are two kinds of digging machines (augers) to choose from.
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Manual (hand) auger: You’ll first have to, obviously, dig a hole. You (ideally) already have an idea of how deep the water table is, so you’ll need to decide which method of digging to utilize. A <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/x5567e/x5567e05.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hand auger</a> is relatively cheap and accessible. Estimations for the amount of time per vertical foot dug, but you can bet somewhere in the realm of 2-5 per hour. Thus, a 30-foot well could very well take two eight-hour days in tough soil.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Mechanical auger: For particularly dense soils or wells deeper than 30 feet, a mechanical auger is going to be necessary. These are giant, truck-mounted machines that do the digging hydraulically. </li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Adding Casing and Pipe</h3>
Now that the hole is dug, it’s time for the actual piping. Wells usually consist of two pipes: a casing pipe and a well pipe. The pipe casing simply drops into the dug hole and helps provide support to the cavity. The well pipe is the actual pumping pipe. The well pipe goes inside of the casing pipe. The casing pipe will extend all the way to the bottom of the hole, and the well pipe will fall a few feet short of the bottom. Both will rise 3-4 feet above the ground.
<h3>Pumping Time</h3>
Industrial wells usually contain large, electric pumps. These are fantastic for pumping large amounts of water. For a smaller well, though, an electric pump will be expensive and unnecessary. Thankfully, <a href="https://www.tractorsupply.com/tsc/product/cast-iron-pitcher-pump" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">pitcher pumps</a> are cheap, easy to use, and reliable. Once the pump is added, water can be reliably produced from a home well. 

[Featured image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/clean-countryside-drink-garden-21479/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">PublicDomainPictures</a> via Pixabay]

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What Is a Water Well?

Around the world, water availability is a growing concern. According...

Rivers attract hydrologists, kayakers, anglers, and artists alike. Somewhere between their consistency and unpredictability, they mesmerize people everywhere. But just as rivers have global influence, intricate and tiny worlds exist within a riparian ecosystem. Riparian ecosystems describe the interface between rivers and the surrounding landscape. Here, we’ll take a closer look at these watery worlds.
<h2>Life by the Water</h2>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="960"]<img src="https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2016/03/05/20/32/aquatic-1238786_960_720.jpg" alt="Riparian vegetation is distinct from more upland plants" width="960" height="640" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/shutterbug75-2077322/">Shutterbug75</a> from Pixabay.[/caption]

Because riparian areas surround rivers and streams, it makes sense that they drastically differ from the upland habitats. Most importantly, the presence of water makes these ecosystems distinct. Along with water other major <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">indicators</a> of riparian areas soil and vegetation.
<ul>
 	<li>Water</li>
</ul>
Riparian habitats occur directly next to bodies of water. These ecosystems are well-grounded along natural streams and rivers. However, they can also develop <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">adjacent to constructed</a> canals and ditches.
<ul>
 	<li>Soil</li>
</ul>
Due to the natural flux of flow and water tables level, the soil is subject to shifting. The layers of sediment vary in texture and their ability to hold moisture.
<ul>
 	<li>Vegetation</li>
</ul>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="960"]<img src="https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2020/07/29/04/25/water-5446873_960_720.jpg" alt="Riparian ecosystems are the interface between land and water." width="960" height="640" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/memorycatcher-168384/">MemoryCatcher</a> from Pixabay[/caption]

The vegetation can often be a key giveaway for riparian areas. Especially in contrast to the upland habitats, riparian ecosystems can look totally different. Imagine willows, rushes, and reeds lining the banks or draping cottonwoods and hemlocks creating shady pools.
<h3>Transitions and Diversity</h3>
Perhaps the most defining characteristic of a riparian ecosystem is that it's always changing. Whether it’s a wetland, riverbank, or floodplain, these are landscapes in flux. Riparian areas specifically refer to the transition between land and water. Transitions, like these, between two different ecosystems, are called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ecotone" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ecotones</a>. 

As a result, riparian ecosystems differ dramatically from one another while also nurturing distinct ecological patches within a single stretch of bank.  In ecology, this type of ecosystem is described by the word heterogeneous. The prefix hetero- means “other” and -geneous meaning “kind.” For example, while flooding is often deemed as a natural disaster, intermittent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flooding-help-river-ecosystems/">flooding</a> can be a cyclical part of what makes a healthy river. These types of disturbance play a key role in keeping the landscape diversified.

Overall, a heterogeneous ecosystem has a landscape dappled in diversity! These distinct habitats support a wealth of plant and animal life and also provide critical ecosystem services.
<h2>Importance of Riparian Ecosystems</h2>
The importance of the water flowing in the rivers and streams may seem clear, so why care about the area beside the water? Just as riparian areas refer to the interface of both the water and land, their importance transcends a single category. Riparian ecosystems make great habitats for animals, but they also have huge economic impacts on society. They <a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2008_jones_g003.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increase property value</a>, foster lucrative recreational industries (fishing), and keep water safe and drinkable.
<h3>What the Rivers Do for You: Ecosystem Services</h3>
Ecosystem services are defined as the benefits humans receive from an ecosystem. These benefits include resources (like food and medicine), but they can also be broader (like nutrient cycling). Riparian habitats are powerhouses when it comes to ecosystem services. Read the examples below to learn how these ecosystems directly support us.
<h4>Create Microclimates</h4>
The plants in riparian ecosystems create weather patterns! Called microclimates, these small adjustments to temperature and humidity can have large scale impacts. For example, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/tsuga-canadensis/">Eastern Hemlock</a> is a common tree found along waterways in the eastern United States. Its thick branches shade the river below. Unfortunately, the invasive wooly adelgid has caused a significant decline in hemlock populations. Without these common shade trees, the waterways are becoming more <a href="https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&amp;httpsredir=1&amp;article=1396&amp;context=master201019" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">acidic</a>, which throws the delicate aquatic life off balance. 
<h4>Prevent Erosion</h4>
The vegetation along riparian areas play key roles in stabilizing the landscape. This is especially important considering the erosive nature of rushing water. Riparian plants really help keep the structure of river banks! An impressive list of riparian plants that support ecosystem health can be found <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_043594.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>.
<h4>Provide Habitat</h4>
Riparian plants and surrounding ecosystems provide habitat for a wide range of aquatic, amphibious, and terrestrial animals. Riparian habitat is especially important for <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=pv0TAAAAYAAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA156&amp;dq=important+riparian+habitat&amp;ots=_2u50JowjE&amp;sig=KSnOomykY_mcd23QsjJ3jr1TXSs#v=onepage&amp;q=important%20riparian%20habitat&amp;f=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">migrating birds</a> that need resource-rich safe havens for stopover sites.
<h4>Reduce Water Pollution</h4>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<img src="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1531208853003-c1ec1b8a81d7?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&amp;ixid=eyJhcHBfaWQiOjEyMDd9&amp;auto=format&amp;fit=crop&amp;w=1000&amp;q=80" alt="Riparian Ecosystem Aerial View" width="1000" height="622" /> Image by <a href="https://unsplash.com/@wynand_uys">Wyland Uys</a> from Unsplash[/caption]

The riparian zone act as buffers between the upland and the water. They act as the t-cells for the river,  keeping the ecosystems healthy. Plants that grow in the river’s buffer zone can filter out between <a href="https://www.pecva.org/our-mission/clean-air-and-water/626-riparian-buffers-the-very-best-protection" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">50-100%</a> of the nutrients and sediments. Including everything from organic waste to pesticides, these ecosystems have a true superpower. That’s our drinking water they’re cleaning!
<h3>Delicate: Riparian Ecosystems at Risk</h3>
Overall, we clearly see how much value riparian ecosystems have for our well-being. That's why it's upsetting to learn the risks that they face throughout the globe.

Firstly, the most common disruption to river health results from the destruction of the banks. To clarify, everything from clearing vegetation to converting the land for agriculture or development, destroying these habitats can completely upset entire watersheds. Often, overgrazing and pollutants compound these developments, making the problem even worse.

Additionally, invasive species can overtake the ecosystems. Changing the whole structure of the plant community, a new species can wipe out the treasured diversity of the riparian ecosystems.

In conclusion, riparian ecosystems bring life and excitement to riversides around the globe. They contribute important habitat for wildlife while also providing key ecosystem services we could not do without. Next time you're out by the river, take a second to appreciate the plants and animals that live on the banks. Maybe bring a pair of binoculars or a plant identification book to get to know the area a bit better!

[Cover image courtesy of <a href="https://unsplash.com/@tsomme?utm_source=unsplash&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_content=creditCopyText" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Thomas Somme</a> on Unsplash]

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What Are Riparian Ecosystems?

Rivers attract hydrologists, kayakers, anglers, and artists alike. Somewhere between...

In 1800, the population of the United States was approximately 5 million people. At that time, the largest city in the US was New York City, but the population <a href="https://www.census.gov/history/www/through_the_decades/fast_facts/1800_fast_facts.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">was only 60,000</a>. Over the course of the next 100 years, America went through the most rapid phase of growth in its history. The population increased more than 25-fold to 76 million. With all these new people came a new problem: what to do with their waste. More and more Americans were gaining access to plumbing, and <a href="http://civil.colorado.edu/~silverst/cven5534/History%20of%20Wastewater%20Treatment%20in%20the%20US.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sewers were commonplace</a> in large cities. All of this sewage needed a place to go, and it needed to be clean. Today, let’s better understand how wastewater treatment works. 
<h2>1. Pretreatment</h2>
Pretreatment is the first step in treating wastewater. Water starts in sinks, toilets, and drains in a given city or area. The water flows through pipes to the treatment facility. Then, it is all funneled into the first treatment mechanism: <a href="https://www3.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/final_sgrit_removal.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a bar screen</a>. A bar screen’s job is to preliminarily filter out any and all large objects. Plastic, trash, and wipes are examples of physical matter that is first removed. 

Following processing via bar screens, the water enters a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/grit-chamber" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">grit chamber</a>. The purpose of this chamber is to remove larger particles of waste, rocks, and dirt. Grit chambers work by spinning the water in a circle, slowly. This allows the large particles to fall out of solution and settle on the bottom.  

[caption id="attachment_1883365" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1883365 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/sewage-plant-2224933_1920.jpg" alt="sewage plant" width="1920" height="1280" /> [Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/5056468-5056468/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">5056468</a> via Pixabay][/caption]
<h2>2. Primary Treatment</h2>
At this point, a large portion of the physical contamination has been removed, so finer techniques are necessary for further purification. The water will enter a container called the “<a href="https://www.yakimawa.gov/services/wastewater-treatment-plant/primary-clarifier/#:~:text=A%20circular%20tank%20in%20which,the%20water%20surface%20as%20scum" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">primary clarifier.</a>” This step is relatively similar to the previous process of using a grit chamber. At its core, the primary clarifier also purifies water by allowing sources to settle out of solution. The main differences are size and time. The primary clarifier is much larger, and the water moves much slower. 

By now, the partially-treated water is referred to as “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-water-treatment-method-is-eco-friendly/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">effluent</a>,” and it contains particles that are no bigger than 10 micrometers. This is pretty small, about 1/10,000 of an inch. The water leaves the primary clarifier over a specialized kind of wall called a "weird wall." Following this, water heads to the next stage: secondary treatment.
<h2>3. Secondary Treatment</h2>
The water, now having entered secondary treatment, will first be pumped into an aeration basin. What happens here may seem counterintuitive. Thousands of small rods blow air into the water (aeration). Next, bacteria enter the equation. The abundance of oxygen allows the bacteria to thrive in the effluent. The bacteria are good for the water, though. They “eat” all of the organic matter in the water in a process known as “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/aerobic-digestion" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">aerobic digestion</a>.” 

[caption id="attachment_1883367" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1883367 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/sewage-plant-4337156_1920.jpg" alt="primary clarification sewage" width="1920" height="1280" /> [Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/kubinger-1679475/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">kubinger</a> via Pixabay][/caption]
<h2>4. Disinfection</h2>
The final step in wastewater treatment is disinfection. By the time the water has gone through the steps of pretreatment, primary treatment, and secondary treatment, the water is already relatively pure. According to the <a href="http://www.mwra.state.ma.us/03sewer/html/sewditp.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Massachusetts Water Resources Authority</a>, “secondary treatment raises the level of pollution removal to over 85%.” While this water could theoretically be drunk, it still needs to be fully sanitized. 

Major wastewater treatment facilities typically use one of three methods to disinfect water. The first, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-does-chlorine-added-t/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">chlorine treatment</a>, kills bacteria by interfering with protein and enzyme synthesis that is required for bacteria to survive. The second, ozone, disrupts the cell walls and membranes of bacteria and viruses, effectively killing them. The third, ultraviolet (UV) treatment, jumbles the DNA of bacteria so they are not able to reproduce and multiply. For smaller wastewater treatment plants, chlorine is <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/documents/disinfection_small.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the most common form of disinfection,</a> largely due to its cost and availability. 

[caption id="attachment_1883368" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="wp-image-1883368 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/sewage-plant-4560229_1920.jpg" alt="wastewater treatment" width="1920" height="1279" /> [Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/wfranz-7477911/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">WFranz</a> via Pixabay][/caption]
<h2>5. Effluent Release</h2>
The now-purified effluent needs to go somewhere. In the United States, clean effluent is generally released into a stream, river, lake, or another water source. When water is scarce, the effluent can be discharged directly to another water treatment plant. This allows for “<a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/13514/chapter/1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">full-cycle water reuse</a>.” Through this process, tap water is moved through the toilet drainage system, processed in the wastewater plant, pumped to a municipal water supply, and then returned to the tap. 

The major barrier to extensive, world-wide full-cycle reuse is public perception. Although recycled wastewater is chemically identical to other water sources, residents may feel this is a “dirty” or “unhygienic” process. As our planet falls deeper into a <a href="https://water.org/our-impact/water-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">water crisis</a> where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-severe-water-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">one-fifth of the world’s population is at the risk of water-shortage</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/california-drought-may-force-state-to-use-recycled-wastewater/">recycling water</a> may become even more important. The US Environmental Protection Agency maintains an <a href="https://geopub.epa.gov/DWWidgetApp/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">interactive database</a> that (if you reside in the US) allows you to understand where your water comes from and any potential sources of pollution. 

Do you know the source of your water? Do you know where your wastewater is deposited?

[Featured image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/jarmoluk-143740/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">jarmoluk</a> via Pixabay]

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How Does Wastewater Treatment Work?

In 1800, the population of the United States was approximately...

Not many people can say first-hand what the bottom of the ocean looks like. Fewer people have been to the deepest part of the ocean than have walked on the surface of the moon. Our maps of the floor of the ocean are far less detailed than those of the surface of the moon. Despite covering 71% of the surface of our planet, and being the likely birthplace of all life, we know surprisingly little about our oceans.

The bottom of the ocean is filled with rare and unique species seen nowhere else. Many of these look otherworldly, and some of the species that live here are still completely unknown to science. However, despite knowing so little, what we have learned, seen, and photographed is incredible.
<h2>Uncharted Territory</h2>
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1877222 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/1280px-Elevation.jpg" alt="A map of the elevation of the earth including the bottom of the ocean." width="1280" height="640" />
The ocean floor is huge and covers <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/planet-ocean/seafloor/just-how-big-ocean" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">360 million square kilometers</a> of the earth’s surface. Though we have detailed topographical maps of the rest of the earth’s surface, this is harder to do for the ocean. The satellite radar techniques used to chart the topography on land don’t work well through water. This leaves us with only low-resolution maps of the ocean floor. Each pixel of these maps represents a 5km by 5km square. This only gives a vague idea of the geology and geography of our oceans. However, more advanced sonar methods provide a 10 fold improvement or greater!
<h3>Mapping the Ocean Floor with Sonar</h3>
The ocean poses particular technical challenges, which is why so little is known. The process of creating high-resolution maps of the ocean floor is time-consuming and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/map-ocean-floor/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">expensive</a>. In order to map the ocean floor, <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/lewis_clark01/background/seafloormapping/seafloormapping.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">specially equipped ships move directly over the area</a>. This process is slow and difficult. Therefore, only <a href="https://dosits.org/people-and-sound/examine-the-earth/map-the-sea-floor/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">10-15% of the ocean floor has been mapped</a> directly with sonar.
<h3>Malaysia Airline MH370</h3>
Interestingly, some of the highest quality broad seafloor maps we have came from <a href="https://geoscience-au.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=038a72439bfa4d28b3dde81cc6ff3214" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the search for the missing airplane, MH370, </a>in March of 2014. The plane was believed to have crashed into the Indian Ocean along the path of the last satellite with which it communicated. In hopes of finding the aircraft, 710,000 square kilometers of the ocean floor were mapped in detail. These maps have 15 times more detail than previous maps of the area. This included maps of regions of the seafloor over 40 million years old. This area is covered with 300 meters of sediment. This would be enough muck to bury the entire Eiffel Tower. This search also revealed details of the Broken Ridge and Diamantina Trench. These features are a result of the tectonic shifts that occurred 40 million years ago.

The type of information collected during this search is very useful to oceanographers and geologists. The floor of the ocean contains many hints to our planets tectonic history. The ocean floor also has significant impacts on weather patterns. Understanding the <a href="https://www.popsci.com/bottom-ocean-looks-like-3d-maps/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">details of the seafloor’s topography</a> could help predict weather patterns. <a href="https://www.udel.edu/udaily/2016/june/redbird-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Researchers at the University of Delaware</a> have developed “fingerprint algorithms” that use high-resolution maps of the ocean floor to analyzed past storms in order to improve predictions.
<h2>The Abyssal Plains</h2>
The ocean contains amazing mountain ranges, volcanoes, incredibly deep trenches, and strange creatures. However, the majority of the ocean floor is far more boring. The <a href="https://www.reference.com/geography/bottom-ocean-look-like-4fc4d2ad9011a1d2" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">abyssal plains</a> cover the majority of the ocean. These vast, flat expanses cover over half of the Earth’s surface. They are mostly filled with featureless sediment stretching for immeasurable distances.

[caption id="attachment_1877224" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1877224 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/1280px-BlackSmoker.jpg" alt="bottom of the ocean" width="1280" height="854" /> This "black smoker" is a hydrothermal vent that supports life in the deep sea.[/caption]

Occasionally, the carcass of a whale or a hydrothermal vent interrupts the vast emptiness of the abyssal plains. In those cases, isolated ecosystems thrive off of the rare pocket of energy. This expanse starts after the continental shelf, where the ocean drops off to an <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oceandepth.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">average depth of 3.7 km</a>.

Enormous trenches and mountain ranges also interrupt the vast abyssal plains. The trenches are the most remote places on the planet. <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-deep-is-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Challenger Deep is the deepest point in the ocean</a>, reaching 10.9 km (6.8 miles) below the surface. This is so deep that if Mt. Everest began at the bottom of the Challenger Deep, its peak would be in complete darkness, still 2 km (1.3 miles) below the ocean surface.

Only three people have ever been to the Challenger Deep, on two separate occasions. In 1960, French oceanographer Jacques Piccard and Navy Lt. Don Walsh descended to the deepest point on earth. In <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jimclash/2017/05/04/what-does-the-deepest-point-on-the-planet-look-like/#587865a45e17" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">an interview with Jim Clash of Forbes</a>, Lt. Don Walsh described the appearance of the Challenger Deep:
<blockquote>“It was yellowish-white and didn't look quite like sediments we had seen before. It's diatomaceous ooze, the skeletons of diatoms. Because calcareous ooze is shells of small critters in the sea, and calcium-based, it dissolves at great depths. So we were left with bottom sediment inert to pressure -- just little balls of glass, if you look at them microscopically. To me, it was like being in a big bowl of milk.”</blockquote>
<h2>Litter in the Depths</h2>
Though the bottom of the ocean sounds like an untouched pristine environment, humans have left their marks here too. <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/planet-ocean/tides-currents/ocean-trash-plaguing-our-sea" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Like the rest of the ocean</a>, <a href="https://www.upworthy.com/a-rover-dived-to-the-bottom-of-the-ocean-15-photos-show-what-it-found-there" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">human trash litters the remote ocean floor</a>. Shopping bags, beer cans, microplastics, and <a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/44552519/Anthropogenic_Litter_and_macrophyte_detr20160408-23751-1gm948l.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">even missiles</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deepest-ocean-dive-garbage/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> are found in these newly explored areas</a>. Without knowing much about these ecosystems, it is hard to know what the impacts of this trash are. Some seem to provide new habitats for some species. However, these <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2015.00003/full" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">may disturb the ecosystem in irreversible ways long before we understand these systems</a>.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-ocean-plastic-threaten-species/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decreasing human trash</a>, particularly plastics, is the most important step we can take to protect these and many other ecosystems.

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What Does the Bottom of the Ocean Look Like?

Not many people can say first-hand what the bottom of...

Vermilion,Waxcap,(hygrocybe,Miniata),Orange,Edible,Mushrooms,Growing,Through,Ground

Mycology has impacted your life, I guarantee it. Whether it was that penicillin you took to get better or those cultivated mushrooms you ate for dinner yesterday, you have mycology to thank. Mycologists are scientists who dedicate their careers to all things fungi.

It may be surprising to hear that mycology is not a booming discipline. Most universities don't offer programs in mycology and this doesn't seem to be changing. Fungal pathogens infect over 1 billion people worldwide. They also destroy one-third of global food production! Why aren't there more mycologists working on this stuff? On the other hand, humans benefit from many species of fungi, including those we eat and use as medicine.

[caption id="attachment_1892126" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892126 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/calocera-viscosa-4511805_1280.jpg" alt="fungi" width="1280" height="862" /> Fungi come in all sorts of unusual shapes and size. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/adege-4994132/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andreas</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/calocera-viscosa-goatee-cockscomb-4511805/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">How Are Mycology, Mycorrhizae, and Mycelia Different?</h3>
Mycology is the study of fungus, which is an entire kingdom of life. Mycology is to fungi as botany is to plants. Most scientists consider mycologists to be a type of microbiologist.
To date, scientists have named over 70,000 fungal species. Researchers believe there are up to 20 times that many fungus species out there. This means there could be about 1.5 million species of fungi on planet Earth. For some context, there are only about <a href="http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/A/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">350,000 named species</a> of flowering plants. The fungi kingdom is massive and we know so little about it!
Mycelia is simply the vegetative part of fungi. It is a branching, often invisible substance that is home to many wonders. If you have ever seen a white, webby substance in wet woodchips or in the soil, that is mycelium. Mycelia can form vast networks of fungus. One such network is thought to be the <a href="https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/606952-largest-living-organism#:~:text=The%20largest%20living%20organism%20is,equivalent%20to%201%2C350%20soccer%20fields." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">largest organism</a> on the planet.
Mushrooms, in contrast, are the fruiting bodies of these mycelial networks. They are the reproductive structures of fungal organisms. If we compare fungus to a peach tree, the mycelia would be the roots, wood, and leaves of the tree. The mushroom would be the flowers and peaches.
Mycorrhizae are the mycelia that grow in a symbiotic relationship with a plant host (more on this later).


[caption id="attachment_1892128" align="alignnone" width="800"]<img class="wp-image-1892128 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/4973009538_0daca97095_c.jpg" alt="mycelia, mycology" width="800" height="600" /> Mycelia growing between pine needles. Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/laurelfan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Laurel Fan</a> via <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/laurelfan/4973009538" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Flickr</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">The Origins of Mycology</h3>
Humans have an older relationship with fungi than with agriculture. By analyzing plaque on ancient human teeth, <a href="https://www.mpg.de/9173780/mushrooms-food-source-stone-age" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">scientists revealed</a> that hunter-gatherers in Europe ate mushrooms as early as 18,000 years ago. Ever since then, our species has found hundreds of uses for this kingdom of life.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, groups like the Mycological Society of America and the British Mycological Society began to organize mycologists into a broader community. More recent groups, such as the North American Mycological Association, International Mycological Association, and <a href="https://mikrobiologie.eurofung.tu-berlin.de/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EUROFUNG</a> have bolstered the mycological community. By publishing ground-breaking research in their <a href="https://imafungus.biomedcentral.com/?gclid=CjwKCAjwqIiFBhAHEiwANg9szp2cRtU_p0VNTsrEAyR62Xe8OSPknv1xzGZth_hsctD-zHX59rcf0BoCpzMQAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">scientific journals</a>, these societies have aided the development of mycology around the world.

<h3 data-marked="true">Trends in Mycology</h3>
Fungi remain understudied across the globe. There are various reasons for this. First, fungus is inherently difficult to study. Most species of fungi are impossible to grow in a lab. In nature, fungi have a short 'fruiting' period where mushrooms are visible. Without mushrooms, it is really hard to find mycelia.
Few universities offer classes or programs that specialize in mycology. Fungi experts were formerly housed within botany departments (which is funny, since fungi are actually <a href="http://tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3" target="_blank" rel="noopener">more closely related to animals</a> than plants). However, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-plant-blindness/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">botany departments are shrinking</a>, they are less interested in supporting their mycologist colleagues. These department-less mycologists have a hard time fending for themselves in university politics.
While the number of amateur mushroom hunters may have increased in the last decade, the number of people studying fungi hasn't. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1749461316300896" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Some mycologists</a> think that the lack of coordination, cooperation, and specialization within their scientific field is to blame for the decreasing funding towards mycology at universities.


[caption id="attachment_1892127" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892127 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/agaric-2638701_1280.jpg" alt="fungi" width="1280" height="853" /> A picture of the underside of a mushroom. Taxonomists often use the 'gills' of a mushroom to identify the species of fungus. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/adege-4994132/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andreas</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/agaric-mushroom-disc-fungus-yellow-2638701/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h2 data-marked="true">What Makes a Fungus?</h2>
All fungi share a handful of common characteristics. In taxonomy, fungi are an entire kingdom of life (although the 'kingdoms' are <a href="https://thebiologynotes.com/three-domain-system/#:~:text=The%20three%2Ddomains%20of%20Carl,%2C%20Fungi%2C%20Plantae%2C%20Animalia.&amp;text=The%20main%20difference%20from%20earlier,splitting%20of%20archaea%20from%20bacteria." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">always in dispute</a>).
At the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9780470015902.a0002320.pub2" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">most basic level</a>, fungi have eukaryotic cells. This means that the cells have a nucleus. This differentiates them from prokaryotic bacteria. Fungi are also multicellular. This separates them from eukaryotic bacteria.
Animals and plants are other groups with eukaryotic cells. Fungi are different from animals because fungi can't move. They also reproduce by spores rather than sexually. Fungi are distinct from plants because fungi can't make their own food via photosynthesis. Instead, they absorb food from their surroundings. This process is called decomposition.
<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/lichens/lichenlh.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lichens</a> are unusual kinds of fungi. They are a symbiotic, obligate relationship between a species of algae and a species of fungi. Where do lichens fit into the tree of life? Beats me.
By far the largest order of fungi is ascomycetes, which contains the vast majority of named fungi species.

<h2 data-marked="true">Areas of Mycology</h2>
From biotechnology to addiction therapy, mycologists cover a wide variety of topics. Fungi touch many aspects of our lives. They are in our daily food, our backyards, and our medicine. Here is a quick overview of some topics mycologists study.


[caption id="attachment_1892130" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892130 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/mushrooms-1603667_1280.jpg" alt="chanterelles, mycology" width="1280" height="853" /> Edible mushrooms can be big business! These chanterelles can cost up to $30 a pound. Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/blende12-201217/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gerhard G.</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/mushrooms-food-mushrooms-mushroom-1603667/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">Edible Fungi</h3>
I'm sure you've eaten lots of mushrooms if you've made it this far into the article. Mushroom cultivation is a <a href="https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/mushroom-market#:~:text=The%20global%20mushroom%20market%20size,market%20over%20the%20forecast%20period." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">booming business</a> as more people turn to plant-based diets. However, outside of a handful of species of fungi, most edible fungi species must be wild-harvested. These species include <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/an-introduction-to-gourmet-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">true delicacies</a>, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-find-chanterelle-mushrooms-and-cook-with-them/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">chanterelles</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/market-mushrooms-truffles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">truffles</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-find-morel-mushrooms-and-avoid-false-morels/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">morels</a>. Mushrooms don't only taste delicious, they are super healthy, too. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-consumption-linked-to-45-percent-lower-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">A recent study</a> determined that daily mushroom consumption is linked to a 45% decrease in cancer! Some emerging health-food trends include the arctic fungus superfood, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-chaga-intro-to-the-alaskan-medicinal-mushroom/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Chaga</a>.

<h3 data-marked="true">Mychorrizae and the Environment</h3>
Fungi perform crucial roles in our environment. Every ecosystem needs decomposers. Decomposers are organisms that break down material. Without decomposers, logs and dead animals would never rot into the Earth. Fungi are essential decomposers in the ecology of many habitats.
Fungi also aid plant growth. With the exception of the pea family, plants can't make their own nitrogen. Nitrogen is an absolutely critical element plants need to grow. Mycorrhizae can convert nitrogen present in our atmosphere to the kind of nitrogen useable by plants. The plants use this nitrogen and in return give the mycorrhizae energy. These symbiotic relationships increase the biodiversity and resiliency of ecosystems on our planet.

<h3 data-marked="true">Medical Mycology</h3>
We should all be thankful for fungi because they are directly responsible for the increase in the human lifespan. The discovery of penicillin in 1928 had profound consequences on the human species. Penicillin works by distracting the enzyme in bacteria that produce cell walls. This distraction results in dead, disease-causing bacteria. Penicillin led to the antibiotic revolution. These drugs were a large part of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5354621/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increasing the human lifespan</a> by nearly 30 years in places such as the U.S.


[caption id="attachment_1892129" align="alignnone" width="800"]<img class="wp-image-1892129 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/35158892481_0f91121e43_c.jpg" alt="fungal disease, mycology" width="800" height="600" /> A fungal disease of bananas causing cigar end-rot. Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/scotnelson/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scot Nelson</a>[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">Pathogenic Fungi</h3>
Fungi are the largest source of plant disease. These fungi cause diseases in many ways. They can enter a plant through leaves, bark, or roots. Some economically devastating fungi can destroy entire harvests of the world's most important crops.
These crops include rice, corn, cereals, bananas, tomato, cotton, and so many more. These fungi are serious business. It's no wonder that many of the employed mycologists focus on plant pathology.

<h3 data-marked="true">Entheogenic (a.k.a. Magic) Mushrooms</h3>
Yes, those kinds of mushrooms. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Psilocybin</a> is a hallucinogenic compound found in certain species of fungi. This group of mushrooms is found all around the world.
The first evidence of human use of these mushrooms dates back 7000-9000 years ago. This evidence is based on trippy prehistoric rock art in northern Africa.
Today there is a research boom in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-may-boost-our-ability-to-learn-and-explore/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">powerful mushrooms</a>.
There is strong, emerging evidence that psilocybin can drastically help people with addiction and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-could-help-millions-who-suffer-from-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">depression</a>. In a few decades, we may see a much broader acceptance of these medicinal mushrooms.

<h2 data-marked="true">Why Aren't There More Mycologists?</h2>
Short answer: I don't know. It really seems like we need more people studying these species. Fungi can be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mycocrete-new-material-made-of-fungi-hopes-to-replace-concrete-in-construction-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">wildly beneficial to humans</a> and also incredibly destructive.
Maybe they are hard to research. Maybe research into fungi just isn't sexy enough for government or private funding. Whatever the case, it seems like an increase in people studying fungal biology would help the human species as a whole.​
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A Beginner's Guide to Mycology

Mycology has impacted your life, I guarantee it. Whether it...

An estuary describes a partially enclosed area where freshwater from rivers or streams mixes with the saltwater of the ocean. Estuaries can also be called bays, lagoons, and sounds, and it includes salt marshes, salt flats, wetlands, and much of the river delta. Because of the unique chemistry of the water and the influence of two vastly different biomes, estuaries are one of the <a href="https://cybercemetery.unt.edu/archive/oilspill/20130309182810/http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_estuaries/lessons/estuaries_tutorial.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">most productive ecosystems</a> in the world, harboring some astonishing diversity of animal life. Like much underwater fauna, some of these animals may be familiar while others seem pretty alien. With that, we’ll take a dive into some of the world’s estuaries and the incredible lives of the creatures that call them home. 
<h2>The Estuarine Ecosystem</h2>
Just a river or marine ecosystem alone is quite multifaceted. When you combine the two, a whole new world erupts. Before we explore a few of the more interesting estuarine animals, we’ll go over some of the key concepts to estuarine life.  
<h3>Salinity Patterns</h3>
At the root of the incredible estuarine ecosystems lies salinity and water movement. How much salt? How little salt? Where is the salt? All these queries are further influenced by the physical nature of the estuary. Saltwater has a much higher density than freshwater, so in general, the water on the surface will be fresher. Additionally, areas closer to the ocean will naturally have higher salinity than the areas closer to the freshwater input. Even the depth of the estuary plays a role. Shallower estuaries have more evenly mixed salinity levels as the tidal range has a greater impact compared to deeper bodies of water which retain more stratified layers of salt and freshwater. 

In general, the salinity levels of an estuary are nearly always in flux and greatly varied. Circulating water changes as the tides flow in and out, creating currents that are either colder and saltier (with the high tide) or warmer and fresher (with low tide). Similarly, precipitation will influence the river flow, adding more or less freshwater to the estuary depending on the season. This variability of conditions translates to the huge diversity of plant and animal life found in estuarine habitats.

[caption id="attachment_1891956" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1891956" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/wild-4035682_1920.jpg" alt="Sandpipers" width="1920" height="1280" /> Estuaries are important habitat for migratory birds, like sandpipers. Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/vinsky2002-1151065/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4035682" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Vinson Tan</a> from <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h3>Estuary Sedimentation</h3>
Another way estuaries change is through sedimentation. A combination of river-borne sediments, shore erosion, and tidal movement, this process can drastically change the nature of an estuary. The sediment <a href="https://userpages.umbc.edu/~miller/geog318/sediment.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">builds up</a> from the mouth and sides of an estuary and slowly moves the river delta out to sea. However, the mix of depositions forms a nutrient-rich substrate that supports all the bottom-dwelling organisms.
<h3>Types of Estuaries</h3>
Depending on a coastline’s geology, estuaries can form in a few different ways. Based on their origins, all of these ecosystems fall into one of four different estuary types, each providing a distinct set of ecosystem services and ecological charm.
<h3>Coastal Plain Estuaries</h3>
Also called “drowned rivers,” coastal plain estuaries form when a rise in sea level causes saltwater to flood an existing river valley. For example, the Chesapeake Bay formed at the end of the last ice age about 10,000 years ago. Glacial melt caused rising sea levels that rushed into the deep canyon carved by the Susquehanna River, leaving behind a brackish merge of river and ocean in an embayment. 
<h3>Tectonic Estuaries</h3>
When a continental and oceanic plate meet at a convergent boundary, one plate slips underneath the other, causing a depression in the earth’s surface and, in many cases, a tectonic estuary. The seawater floods into this newly formed bowl, mixing with the existing watershed. The San Francisco Bay is the largest estuary on North America’s west coast. As the Pacific Plate slowly slips under the North American Plate, the four small bays that collectively make up the San Franciso Bay formed, along with plentiful salt marshes, lagoons, and river delta habitats.
<h3>Bar Built Estuaries</h3>
A bar-built estuary forms when sand bars or barrier islands create bays and lagoons that are fed by rivers and tides. The barriers protect the delicate estuarine ecosystems from the harsh battering from the ocean. Though since they are created by currents and made of sand, they often experience shifts in shape, size, and salinity. The Outer Banks, a series of narrow barrier islands in North Carolina and Virginia, create sandy, bar-built estuaries.
<h3>Fjord Estuaries</h3>
Fjord estuaries form when glaciers carve out long, narrow incisions in the landscape to connect with the ocean. When the glaciers retreat, the seawater floods the deep valley. In most cases, the inflow point for the ocean is quite narrow while the input of freshwater is more abundant. Combined with the depth of the formation, fjords have intense stratification of the water column with the freshwater sitting on top. Puget Sound in Washington state includes a series of fjord estuaries.

[caption id="attachment_1891957" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1891957" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/mangrove-601970_1920.jpg" alt="Mangrove Forest" width="1920" height="1440" /> Mangrove forests provide critical nursery grounds for many species of fish. Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/organizatuempresa-517336/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=601970" target="_blank" rel="noopener">organizatuempresa</a> from <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h2>Estuarine Animals</h2>
As we’ve pointed out, the diversity of conditions in an estuary lends itself to a diversity of habitats. But that variety of abiotic factors isn’t the only feature that makes estuaries such interesting biomes. Calm waters provide a safe haven for all sorts of critters: fish, migrating birds, and a large community of aquatic invertebrates call estuaries home. With plentiful plankton and bacteria, even the microscopic world is popping! The plethora of natural resources 
<h3>Callinectes</h3>
Don’t be scared off by the scientific names! The genus Callinectes includes some very recognizable animals, namely, the cartoon legend Mr. Krabs himself. Called blue crabs, these species have broad, flat carapace, oar-like rear legs to help with swimming, and spines on the sides of their backs. The classic estuarine animals, blue crabs use all parts of the estuary in their life cycles. While they mate upstream in an estuary, the females head seaward to release their eggs in saltier conditions.
<h3>Cultural Importance</h3>
Famous in the Chesapeake Bay, the blue crab has both a fascinating ecology and an important cultural significance. Blue crab populations are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-blue-crabs-size-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">extremely important</a> to the eastern United States, and the states of New Jersey and Maryland in particular.

[caption id="attachment_1891954" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1891954" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/blue-crab-478183_1920.jpg" alt="" width="1920" height="1280" /> Blue crabs are common estuarine animals. Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/glynn424-45104/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=478183" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gretta Blankenship</a> from <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h3>Corophiums</h3>
A truly fascinating group of critters, corophiums are tiny invertebrates commonly called “mud shrimp.” A bit of a misnomer since corophiums aren’t actually shrimp, but instead are members of a diverse suborder of crustaceans called “amphipods.” 
<h3>Ecosystem Impact</h3>
A just a half an inch long, these little ‘scuds’ scurry around the mudflats and play an important role in their management. Mud shrimp eat phytoplankton and bacteria. These microorganisms excrete a sticky layer on top of the mud that helps hold the sediment together. When the mud shrimp population booms, the marine microbes don’t have as big of an impact. Subsequently, more of the sediment washes away. However, when huge populations of migrating sea birds visit, the tables turn. Corophiums happen to be one of sandpipers favorite foods, and migration takes a lot of energy. When the avian populations use estuaries as their stopover habitat, they munch up a significant amount of the mud shrimp. With their predator gone, the communities of plankton and bacteria make a comeback and add stability to sediments. Because of this powerful influence, corophiums is thought of as a<a href="https://invasions.si.edu/nemesis/species_summary/93601" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> keystone species </a>for estuarine habitats. 
<h3>Caprellidaes</h3>
Another family in the group “amphipods,” these funky creatures are more commonly called skeleton shrimp. Their reputation is well deserved! They have extremely slender, pale bodies that help them hide among the fine strands of seagrass. To <a href="https://sites.evergreen.edu/vms-spring/skeleton-shrimp-or-caprellidae/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">move</a>, they extend and curl their bodies to transition between pieces of seaweed. These funky little shrimp are found in large numbers in the Chesapeake Bay and are a staple organism of estuaries
<h3>Fish Nurseries</h3>
Estuaries around the world provide a safe haven for fish nurseries. However, in the tropics and subtropics, you can find a very special ecosystem among the estuaries - mangrove forests. Spunky trees that can grow directly in the brackish water of an estuary create villages for all sorts of creatures. Some (sponges, crabs, snook)  live their entire life spans within the mangrove roots, but most fish species use the forests seasonally. During the rainy season, the marine fish can’t tolerate the decrease in salinity and migrate offshore. However, the dry season brings them into the mangroves for a very valuable reason… fish nurseries. 

A fish nursery (commercially called hatcheries or fisheries)is a habitat where the juveniles of a species spend their early days of life. These habitats have more plentiful resources and are often more secluded. In the mangrove forests on the coast of Florida, Gray snapper (Lutjanus griseus), red drum (Sniaenops ocellatus), and spotted sea trout (Cynoscion nebulosus) use the protected estuarine habitats as their nursery grounds. These species, in particular, are important to both the sport and commercial fishing industry. Keeping the estuaries healthy and protected means the fish assemblages will be healthy.

Fun Fact: Two-thirds of the United States commercial fish and shellfish spend part of their life cycle in an estuary!

[caption id="attachment_1891955" align="alignnone" width="1920"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1891955" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/animals-1822645_1920.jpg" alt="Crocodile" width="1920" height="1148" /> Estuarine crocodiles spend part of their lives in freshwater rivers and part in the salty ocean. Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/sasint-3639875/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=1822645" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Sasin Tipchai</a> from <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h3>Estuarine Crocodiles</h3>
Many reptile species find their niche in estuaries, including alligators, snakes, lizards, and turtles. In fact, the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) use the estuaries as nurseries and spend much of their juvenile life within more protected estuarine zones. However, one reptile really draws the attention as the charismatic predator of the estuaries - the <a href="https://digitalcommons.colby.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1830&amp;context=honorstheses" target="_blank" rel="noopener">estuarine crocodile</a> (Crocodylus porosus). Juveniles grow up in freshwater rivers. As adults, these massive reptiles can be found swimming far out to sea. They are the largest reptiles alive today, with males reaching up to 20 feet long.

Fun Fact: Estuarine crocodiles can go months without eating! If an estuary dries up or the food source depletes, these mega reptiles will just hunker down and wait for brighter pastures.
<h2>A Delicate Ecosystem</h2>
Under the influence of so many fine-tuned variables, these ecosystems strike a delicate balance to support all the incredible animal life. But beyond the fascinating estuarine flora and fauna, these ecosystems provide critical ecosystem services with clear community and economic benefits. Unfortunately, the <a href="https://caseagrant.ucsd.edu/extension-outreach/facts-and-resources/estuaries-connecting-land-to-ocean" target="_blank" rel="noopener">threats</a> of contaminant-filled runoff, pesticides, wetlands filled for development, sea-level rise, and ocean acidification all put estuaries at risk. Luckily, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NAOO) established the National Estuarine Research Reserve which helps protect a <a href="https://www.uwgb.edu/national-estuarine-research-reserves/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">network of 29</a> coastal ecosystems.

Featured Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/bones64-219712/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=3744418" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Robert Jones</a> from <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.

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Interesting "Estuarine Animals:" Callinectes, Corophiums, Caprellidaes, and More

An estuary describes a partially enclosed area where freshwater from...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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