It may come as a surprise to learn that most of the cells in your body are not your own. Scientists estimate bacteria may outnumber human cells by as much as 10 to 1! Admittedly, this estimate is on the higher side. However, it is generally agreed that there are at least as many non-human cells as human cells in the average person.

This may sound like a terrifying invasion, but don’t fear. These “foreign” cells are your microbiome. They are an essential part of the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3450280/pdf/12088_2010_Article_34.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">human “superorganism.”</a>

Since the advent of "germ theory," we’ve seen bacteria as evil. They're invaders, hiding out on doorknobs and cellphones. Bacteria is just waiting for you to forget to wash your hands. Then it can infect you and everyone you come in contact with. This view of bacteria isn’t entirely accurate. Though some bacteria can be harmful (and you should definitely keep washing your hands), most are benign and some are helpful!

The microbiome is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humansrelationship-microbes-inside/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the community of organisms living inside you</a> (<a href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">or their collective genes</a>.) These include bacteria, fungi, archaea, and even viruses! The term microbiome can also refer to the communities of microbes in environmental samples. In this article, we will be focusing on the human microbiome.

Scientists are just beginning to research the role of the microbiome in health. The importance of the microbiome to human health has become apparent.

The human microbiome is often associated with gut bacteria. But, the microbiome is not restricted to the digestive tract. Microbes live throughout the human body, and helpful microbes are found in many organs.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>What Makes a Microbe Good?</h2>
Everyone's microbiome has many different types of microbes. This microbial community plays an essential role in digestion and our immune systems. The amount of help provided by bacteria can vary. Some <a href="https://www.gutmicrobiotaforhealth.com/en/glossary/commensal-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">species are mutualistic</a>, providing and receiving benefits to their host. Others are commensal, simply living inside our guts without harming or benefiting us.

Microbes play an essential role in digestion. They assist in digesting foods that humans have trouble processing. Probiotics supplements and foods offer a way to boost your gut microbiota. These good bacteria include many species of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium.

The microbes in the urinary tract and eyelids keep foreign bacteria at bay. By establishing a community, they make it harder for bad microbes to invade.

Bacteria are by far the most common and most discussed microbe in our bodies. However, the microbiome is far more complex. It also includes fungi, viruses, and archaea. These organisms provide a diverse environment that can respond to changing conditions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Where Do These Microbes Come From?</h2>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871718 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/yogurt-1442034_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="Yogurt with oats and strawberries sitting on a table with a plate of strawberries in the corner." width="1024" height="683" />

&nbsp;

We know the microbiome is an essential part of a healthy human. But where do all these microbes from? It turns out that our first exposure to these microbes happens as early as birth. We are exposed to microbes in the birth canal. The microbial community continues to develop through infancy. Breast milk can also deliver microbes. Though our microbiome is not inherited in the traditional sense it is still <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">passed from mother to child</a>.

The microbiome continues to develop and change throughout life. Diet has a huge influence on how the microbiome grows. It can also introduce new bacteria to the microbiome. Many probiotic or cultured foods contain good bacteria and yeast. Yogurt, kombucha, and kimchi are just a few examples of sources of good digestive bacteria.

Environment, location, diet, and health can all influence exposure to good and bad microbes.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Where Is Our Microbiome?</h2>
The microbiome occupies a large number of different organs. The microbes present are different in each. Though they share many functions, each community is unique. Research is ongoing to better understand the microbiome's role. Imbalances in the microbiome can have far-reaching effects. The microbes can influence many parts of the body.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Skin</h3>
</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3535073/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The skin</a> is a diverse habitat for a wide range of organisms. These include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and even small mites. These organisms are primarily harmless, while others provide essential services. They protect against invasion by pathogens, train the immune system, and even assist in killing pathogens.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Eye (conjunctiva)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The ocular microbiome is less well-known but can provide essential services. The <a href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/anatomy/microbiome-of-eye" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the eye</a> occurs on the conjunctiva, the clear tissue covering the whites of your eye. The eye has fewer microbes than the skin, around 1/100th the number. Healthy eyes usually have only 4 genera of bacteria. The ocular microbiome may be important in many conditions. These include chronic dry eyes and blepharitis.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Gut</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The gut is host to the most diverse and active microbiome. Microbes in the gut are essential for digestion. There is evidence that the gut microbiome may play a role in a wide array of different diseases. This article will focus on the gut microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Urinary Tract (UT)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
In the past, scientists believed the urinary tract was sterile. Any microbes in the UT were assumed to be a UTI. New evidence has shown that a healthy urinary tract has certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405456916301596" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbial communities</a>. Changes in this community have been linked to diseases. These include incontinence, cysts, STIs, pain, and even cancers! Research is being done on how to protect and repair this community. Diet, probiotics, and prebiotics may help regulate the urinary microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Vagina</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The <a href="http://vmc.vcu.edu/about" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the vagina</a> is essential to vaginal health. These communities are complex and change over time. Hormonal and environmental changes have a large influence on this community. In general, the beneficial bacteria that exist in the vagina produce lactic acid. This acid lowers the pH, protecting against pathogens and infections. This protection is essential to prevent STIs, yeast infections, UTIs and bacterial vaginosis.

The vaginal microbiome is also involved in birth. Miscarriages and infertility are associated with an imbalanced microbiome. The vaginal microbiome also exposes newborns to microbes. This process provides many of the microbes that will become the child's microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Mouth</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The mouth leads directly to our largest microbiome, the gut. With this in mind, it makes sense that the mouth would also host a <a href="https://askthedentist.com/oral-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">complex microbiome</a>. The oral microbiome has around 700 species of organisms. Many diseases are associated with imbalances in the oral microbiome. These include cavities, gingivitis, and other conditions. Brushing and flossing are key to maintaining a balanced oral microbiome. Avoiding antibacterial mouthwash may also help.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Lungs</h3>
</li>
</ul>
Like the UT, the lungs were historically believed to be sterile. Genetic sequencing has revealed that this is not the case. Though the lungs have fewer total microbes than the gut, they are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3440512/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">extremely diverse</a>. However, lung microbes are still poorly understood. The lung microbiome may play a role in lung diseases. Research into the microbial community associated with pneumonia, cystic fibrosis, HIV, tobacco use, and other diseases may reveal important treatment options.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Does the Microbiome Matter?</h2>
&nbsp;
<h3>Digestion</h3>
The microbiome is most prevalent in the gut. Here, bacteria play essential roles in digestion. They are crucial to digesting foods that humans naturally cannot. Bacteria digest a group of sugars called FODMAPs. This stands for Fermentable Oligo-, Di, Mono-saccharides, And Polyols. FODMAPs include well-known culprits of digestive issues such as lactose. FODMAPs may also play a role in the rise of reported non-celiac gluten intolerance. Many of these sugars are difficult or impossible for people to digest on their own.

An abnormal gut microbiome is associated with various gastrointestinal disease. <a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:mixTdAaa9JcJ:https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news/microbiomics_its_growing_significance_in_the_world_of_medicines_testing+&amp;cd=1&amp;hl=en&amp;ct=clnk&amp;gl=us" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Irritable bowel syndrome </a>is one example. In this condition, disrupted gut bacteria interfere with normal bile acid metabolism. Other medical issues including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-fungi-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">obesity</a> and diabetes are linked to an irregular microbiome. An improved understanding of the role of the microbiome in disease will improve treatment options.

&nbsp;
<h3>Immune function</h3>
The microbiome also plays an <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-03-gut-bacteria-essential-healthy-immune.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">essential role in immune health</a>. The microbiome is a training ground for your immune system. Exposure to these bacteria helps your immune cells build a response to pathogens. It also teaches the body that some microbes are not dangerous. This is important to prevent unnecessary inflammatory responses. Without the microbiome, every new food or environment would cause an unnecessary waste of energy.

Experiments on mice have shown that a lack of microbes creates an immature immune system. Adding bacterial flora quickly causes the immune system to improve.

A diverse microbiome provides the best benefits to health and immune function. It is essential that your microbiome remains balanced. Measuring and understanding the variation in gut microbes may help treat immune diseases like Crohn’s. Techniques to characterize the gut microbiome will continue to improve. This will enable individually targeted treatments to rebalance the gut microbiome.

&nbsp;
<h3>Relationship to the Brain</h3>
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871719 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/brain-512758_1280-1024x736.png" alt="A drawing on a human brain." width="1024" height="736" />

&nbsp;

The phrase “trust your gut” may have more truth to it than you ever knew. <a href="https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/the-simplified-guide-to-the-gut-brain-axis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The gut-brain axis</a> is the connection between the central nervous system (CNS) and the enteric nervous system (ENS). The role of the gut microbiome in influencing these systems is being investigated.

The CNS and ENS are independent but connected by the vagus nerve. This connects the gut directly to the hypothalamus and limbic system. These parts of the brain regulate emotion. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trust-your-instincts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The limbic system and the gut</a> send signals back and forth. This relationship may be important in psychiatric disorders. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-health-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Depression</a>, anxiety, and even schizophrenia are linked to the microbiome.

Microbes can create neurotransmitters. These compounds are what our neurons use to communicate. These end up circulating in the blood. As a result, they affect day to day experience. In addition, bacteria play a role in modifying metabolism. As a result, levels of important precursors to neurotransmitters such as serotonin are changed.

The relationship between the gut and the brain is not well understood. However, it is clear that your microbiome has the potential to influence your emotions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>How Do We Study the Microbiome?</h2>
&nbsp;
<h3>Culturing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871716 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Agar_plate_with_colonies.jpg" alt="Petri dish with microbes growing on it. Microbes are yellow on a black background. The dish is labeled &quot;Falcon&quot;" width="600" height="450" />

&nbsp;

The simplest way to look at a microbiome is to try and grow it in the lab. They place samples from the gut or another organ on nutrient-rich media. After that, the samples sit at body temperature until the microbes begin to grow. Finally, they grow each species on its own. Therefore, culturing microbes allows them to isolate individual species. Finally, they characterize species by appearance and chemistry.

However, culturing faces major hurdles. It is not possible to culture all the organisms present in the gut. Some need specific conditions only found in the gut. Reproducing these in the lab can be extremely difficult. Others need oxygen and will die immediately when removed from the body. Some species may be completely impossible to grow in the lab.

In addition, identifying microbes is difficult. For example, many species have similar appearances.

Even when culturing techniques succeed, they can be misleading. The species that grow may not represent the actual expression of genes and proteins. This is because they may behave differently outside of the body. Therefore, understanding the functional microbiome requires genetic techniques.

&nbsp;
<h3>Sequencing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871717 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/dna-163466_1280-1024x576.jpg" alt="An artistic rendering of the double helix of DNA. 3 Blue strands of DNA on a black background." width="1024" height="576" />

&nbsp;

To get an accurate impression of the microbiome, you need genetic techniques. Sequencing helps determine the species present as well as the microbiomes gene expression. Both of these are important in understanding how the microbiome relates to health. Sequencing all the RNA and DNA in a sample gives a better picture of the function of the microbiome.

There are many techniques to sequence the genome. As technology improves detailed sequencing is more available. In the future, it may even be practical to use sequencing to diagnose patients.

&nbsp;
<h3>rRNA Sequencing</h3>
rRNA is a special type of RNA that helps create protein. This RNA sequence changes very little because it is so important. It also occurs in all cells. This makes it a great way to identify species.

rRNA sequencing lets researchers determine the diversity of species in the microbiome. It can also help determine which species are most common. This information is essential to help characterize the gut microbe community.

It is not always easy to identify the sequenced species. The meaning of “species” becomes a lot less clear with bacteria. These organisms readily share genes. They also reproduce so quickly that they evolve in real-time.

This makes it difficult to classify species. Instead, researchers group genomes by their similarity. Preset cutoffs define the groups. They call these cutoffs operational taxonomic units (or OTUs).

&nbsp;
<h3>Shotgun Sequencing</h3>
The alternative to rRNA sequencing is metagenomic, or “shotgun” sequencing. This technique involves sequencing tons of small pieces of DNA. Computers can reconstruct the genome. First, they find overlapping sequences. With enough overlapping sequences, you can reconstruct the whole genome.

This strategy has the potential to reveal the full genomes of microbes. Knowing this could provide better detail of the diversity of the microbiome.

&nbsp;

Genetic techniques and technologies continue to improve. These improvements will help researchers understand the microbiome. This research could pave the way towards microbiome diagnosis, which might provide early warning signs of diseases like IBS, diabetes, and obesity.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>The Microbiome Provides New Insight</h2>
The role of the microbiome in health is complex. These communities are ecosystems with complex relationships. Each microbe interacts with their hosts (you and me) and each other. This complex network of interactions can have important impacts on health and disease. An improved understanding of these systems will help us to diagnose, prevent, and treat human disease. As advances in genetic sequencing continue to open the door to a better understanding of the microbiome, ongoing research into the human microbiome holds great potential.

&nbsp;

What Is Microbiomics?

It may come as a surprise to learn that most...

You may think your dog is the smartest animal to have graced the earth. However, the competition might surprise you. 

The questions of which animals are smart is far from simple. Measuring the intelligence of animals is difficult. However, many species show obvious signs of complex thought. Crows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-fashion-hooks-wood/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">build simple tools</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planning-skills-animals-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">make plans</a>. Your dog has an uncanny ability <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-understand-humans-better/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">to know when you’re feeling down</a>. Obviously, many animals are smart. 

Intelligence in animals is difficult to define. Any test may favor a species that needs that skill in the wild. If you measure whether a crow or a dolphin is better at building a nest, your results won’t mean much.

Some traits such as memory and problem solving are often used. Solving a maze or learning a behavior indicates that an animal can remember, and apply experience. Learning is a key aspect of intelligence.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870313 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/squid-225423_1920-1024x768.jpg" alt="Cephalopod facing the camera on a background of seaweed" width="1024" height="768" />
<h2>Our foot-headed friends (cephalopods)</h2>
Octopuses, squids, and cuttlefish are part of a larger group called the cephalopods. Their name comes from Greek words for head and foot. This describes their odd appearance. 

This taxon is very different from humans in many ways. First of all, cephalopods bleed blue. Cephalopods lack the red, iron-containing hemoglobin of humans. Instead, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cephalopod blood uses blue copper</a> to carry oxygen.

Most (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-argonaut/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">though not all</a>) have soft, boneless bodies, enabling them to squeeze through tiny spaces.

These sea creatures may seem strange, but we have something big in common. Cephalopod brains are large and well developed like mammals.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870314 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/blue-ringed-octopus-2414408_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="A blue ringed octopus with an orange body and blue circles" width="1024" height="683" />
<h2>An entirely new take on the brain</h2>
Cephalopod brains are unique. They have relatively large brains for their body size. This is a common sign of intelligence in animals. However, this is where the similarities end. Cephalopod brains are very different from the brains of mammals.

&nbsp;
<h2>A different path to intelligence</h2>
The invertebrates split from vertebrates' evolutionary line over <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">600 million years ago</a>. This was long before life was as widespread as it is today. 

Most invertebrates do not have complex brains. This means that octopuses developed brains independently from mammals. The result is as close to an alien brain as you will find on earth. 

The structure of an octopus brain is very unusual. Most of the octopuses 500 million neurons are in its arms! This allows them to not only feel, but to taste and smell with their tentacles.

No other invertebrates have brains as complex as cephalopods. Cephalopods are predators that have to hunt for their food. Scientists believe that their <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/just-how-smart-is-an-octopus/2017/01/06/a2f1ed22-acd0-11e6-8b45-f8e493f06fcd_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.07b17cced3e0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">need to hunt and hide </a>led them to develop complex brains.

Most intelligent animals have <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/30/science/animal-intelligence-octopus-cephalopods.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">strong social bonds and live long lives</a>. Octopuses, on the other hand, live only months or years. Scientists believed they were solitary animals. However, a recent study showed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-social-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">octopuses are more social than we thought</a>. These differences show just how different octopuses are. Their intelligence is something special.

&nbsp;
<h2>How octopuses teach us about human brains</h2>
Octopuses' big brains are paired with big neurons. The large cells of their nervous system can be seen without magnification. This has made them a popular tool for studying nerves. 

Though they evolved separately from human brains, the basic structure is the same. Studying <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/so-you-think-youre-smarter-cephalopod" target="_blank" rel="noopener">octopus neurons has provided insight </a>into the workings of the human brain.

&nbsp;
<h2>Some of the smartest things octopuses have done</h2>
The way octopuses behave reveals their intellect. Octopuses are often mischevious. Here are a few examples of octopus behavior.

Octopuses...
<ul>
 	<li>... turn out the lights. Octopuses in captivity have learned to use jets of water to short circuit lights they find annoying.</li>
 	<li>...steal fish from neighboring tanks. Octopuses in aquariums have learned to sneak out of their tanks to eat fish in neighboring tanks.</li>
 	<li>...use tools to solve problems. There are many examples of <a href="https://www.upworthy.com/octopus-intelligence-here-are-13-of-the-most-frighteningly-smart-things-they-can-do" target="_blank" rel="noopener">octopuses using tools</a>. Some will steal the tentacles of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/portuguese-man-o-war-physalia-physalis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Portuguese man o war</a> jellyfish and use them as a weapon! There are even examples of them carrying coconut shells with them as a disguise. </li>
 	<li>...display complicated camouflage. Octopuses can copy complicated textures. They also will <a href="https://www.upworthy.com/octopus-intelligence-here-are-13-of-the-most-frighteningly-smart-things-they-can-do" target="_blank" rel="noopener">imitate large predators </a>to scare off anyone hunting them. Their camouflage is so good, it is being <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-skin-camouflage-material/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">used to inspire new technology.</a></li>
 	<li>...recognize individual people.</li>
 	<li>...enjoy playing with toys.</li>
 	<li>...can <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mind-of-an-octopus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">solve mazes and open jars</a>.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

It is impossible to know how an octopus sees the world. The question of animal intelligence is complicated by the different needs and skills of animals. What we do know, is that octopuses are good problem solvers. They are clearly intelligent. What intelligence means for an octopus is unclear.

Cephalopods provide a new take on the brain. This unique part of evolution provides valuable diversity, and it is important that we protect these unique animals. Human behavior such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-farming-overfishing/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">overfishing </a>and pollution threaten many octopuses. So next time you see an octopus, remember that they might be wondering about your intelligence too! 

&nbsp;

Are Octopuses Smart?

You may think your dog is the smartest animal to...

If you’ve ever tried to chase frogs, you’ve probably noticed that they can breathe on air and seemingly don’t need to resurface for air if they’re underwater. But is that really true? How do amphibians breathe - and can they breathe underwater?

Let’s start out with the basics of amphibian biology, then dig into how their bodies support their unusual lifestyles.

&nbsp;
<h2>What is an amphibian?</h2>
The term “amphibian” actually describes a class of animals. They’re in the same domain (Animalia) and phylum (Chordata, meaning they have a backbone) as you and me, but that’s about where the taxonomic similarities end.

The Class Amphibia includes three extant orders (which are groups of families, which are in turn groups of genera, which are groups of species):

&nbsp;
<ul>
 	<li>Anura. This order includes all of our modern frogs and toads. Frogs and toads are short-bodied, tailless, carnivorous, four-legged, and “cold-blooded.” Frogs and toads are most numerous in tropical parts of the world.</li>
 	<li>Urodela. This order includes all of the world’s salamanders and newts. Salamanders and newts have long bodies, short noses, and short limbs that project out at right angles from their bodies. They’re most common in the northern hemisphere.</li>
 	<li>Apoda. This class includes the caecilians. Whereas you probably can picture a frog and a newt, you’ve probably never seen a caecilian. These blind, limbless amphibians look a lot like giant earthworms. These bizarre creatures live in the undergrowth and detritus of tropical forests.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

There are probably about 7,000 species of amphibians currently alive. 85-90% of these species are frogs. That number is, sadly, dropping quickly because amphibians are so vulnerable to pollution. Because amphibians breathe partially through their skin (and their eggs don’t have shells), they are very susceptible to pollutants. Amphibians are often considered an “indicator” group, as they often drop in numbers before other species start to struggle to survive.

Amphibians require water to reproduce because, unlike reptiles and birds, their eggs lack an impervious shell. Some species of amphibians have adaptations that allow them to lay their eggs elsewhere, but the vast majority of amphibians require freshwater for their eggs. Amphibians are hatched into a larval stage that is quite different from their adult form. They must go through metamorphosis to reach adulthood.

Adult amphibians need to keep their skin moist even when they’re on land, so they’re limited to moist environments. Likewise, amphibians generally don’t survive in saltwater. A few species can live in brackish water, but otherwise, amphibians are creatures of fresh water.

Because amphibians are cold-blooded (ectothermic), their metabolic rates are low and they don’t need to eat much. Many amphibian species have ears that can detect vibrations in the air or water, helping them find prey and avoid being eaten. 

Many amphibians have mucous glands on their skin - some of which are poisonous. This special skin is our main topic for the day because amphibians can also breathe through their skin. Let’s talk about the lungs and skin of amphibians and how they work together.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870255 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/axolotl-38317_640.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="480" />

&nbsp;
<h2>What type of respiratory system do amphibians have?</h2>
Most adult amphibians can breathe both through cutaneous respiration (through their skin) and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/buccal-pumping" target="_blank" rel="noopener">buccal pumping</a> - though some also retain gills as adults. Amphibians have primitive lungs compared to reptiles, birds, or mammals. This means that they deal with slow diffusion of oxygen through their blood.

Buccal pumping works by having the amphibian draw in air through its nostrils. The animal then closes its nostrils and pushes air through the lungs by contracting their throat (not using a diaphragm). 

Amphibians like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/titicaca-water-frog-telmatobius-culeus/#.XJlOLVNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Titicaca water frog</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/hellbender-cryptobranchus-alleganiensis/#.XJlOXlNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hellbender salamander</a> that live in cold, fast-moving streams may be able to breathe through mainly cutaneous respiration. Cutaneous respiration allows the animal to absorb water through their skin directly into their bloodstream. Wrinkles in the skin help some species absorb more oxygen because they simply have more skin to use.

Famously, the lungless salamanders have neither lungs nor gills - they just breathe through their skin!

Some aquatic salamanders (and all tadpoles) have gills and can breathe underwater thanks to them. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/axolotl-ambystoma-mexicanum/#.XJlMQVNKjfY" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mexican axolotl</a>, for example, never loses its gills.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870256 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/tadpole-2243032_640.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="480" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Can all amphibians breathe underwater?</h2>
As larvae (tadpoles), all species of amphibian can breathe underwater. As they go through metamorphosis, though, some species of amphibian lose their ability to breathe entirely underwater. 

Breathing underwater isn’t easy for many species of amphibians, so they might need to surface for air if they’re working hard (escaping a predator, for example) whereas they can meet their oxygen needs underwater if they’re at rest. Many frogs and toads can even breathe through thick mud during hibernation.

Some species of terrestrial amphibian cannot breathe underwater, though they can hold their breath for hours as needed.

&nbsp;

How Do Amphibians Breathe?

If you’ve ever tried to chase frogs, you’ve probably noticed...

Jasmine has been cultivated and prized by humans for millennia. The showy plant is famous for its beautiful white flowers and rich fragrance. Many people have heard of the flower, or maybe even have a friend named Jasmine. But, not many people know of the importance of this simple looking white bloom. We’ll go over some facts about jasmine and why this plant has so much significance in many different cultures.

Jasmine is a genus of plants we call Jasminum. There are actually well over 200 species of the plant, and they come in a variety of shapes, colors, and sizes. You can find them all over tropical and subtropical regions of Europe, Asia, and Oceania. But, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/species-diversity-greater-tropics-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">highest diversity</a> of jasmine is in southern and southeast Asia.

Although there is only one species of jasmine native to Europe, many different species now grow naturally in Meditteranean countries. Likewise, horticulturists and home gardeners alike cultivate the flowers throughout the Americas. It seems like everyone wants to fill their gardens with the delicate, scented flowers. What makes this plant so great?

&nbsp;
<h2>Fragrance</h2>
The main reason jasmine is so famous is its <a href="https://www.quora.com/Which-is-the-best-jasmine-perfume" target="_blank" rel="noopener">strong fragrance</a>. People adore the flower for its strong, sweet smell. Countless cultures worldwide include it in aromatic products like candles, perfumes, soaps, and lotions. You can even infuse your own products at home with the lovely scent of the white bloom.

Some types of jasmines are grown commercially, strictly for use in cosmetics and aromatherapy. Because it’s such a highly sought after scent, jasmine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/essential-oils-mosquito-repellent/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">essential oil</a> is one of the most expensive commodities in fragrance-based industries!

One common gardening practice is to plant jasmine close to windows, to allow the scented air to drift into your home during the day. It’s basically like having a natural air freshener right outside your house.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869299 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/jasminebuds.jpg" alt="jasmine buds tea" width="1000" height="594" />
<h2>Jasmine Tea</h2>
In many countries, <a href="https://www.organicfacts.net/health-benefits/beverage/health-benefits-of-jasmine-tea.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">jasmine tea</a> is a popular drink. Tea makers start with a base of green or white tea. The flower buds of Arabian jasmine, Jasminum sambac, are steeped in the tea inside a special machine for up to six hours to flavor the beverage. Sometimes, brewers repeat this process multiple times to get the most flavor from the plant.

It’s important to note that the flowers and leaves of jasmine are not edible, so you shouldn’t simply brew the plant directly in water to make tea.

With that said, jasmine tea is a popular beverage in China, India, and many countries in the Middle East.

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1869298 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/jasminebasket.jpg" alt="jasmine flowers basket" width="1000" height="750" /></h3>
<h2>Culture</h2>
People in the Middle East and Asia hold jasmine to such high regard that they consistently feature the flowers in traditional ceremonies. Even the origin of the scientific name Jasminum has significance. The name comes from the Persian word “yasamin” which means “gift from God.” Only one of the most beautiful flowers could boast a name like that.

In many countries, jasmines evoke love and peace, so it often takes part in wedding ceremonies. It also symbolizes modesty; although jasmine flowers are small and simple, they produce a strong, delectable fragrance.

In 1993, Arabian jasmine was declared the national flower of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/100-new-species-beetle/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Indonesia</a>. Although this decision was made relatively recently, the plant had been sacred in Indonesian culture since ancient times. Indonesian wedding ceremonies have traditionally used the flower buds in garlands and headdresses.

Like in Indonesia, jasmines are used in wedding ceremonies in Pakistan. The bride and groom wear garlands made of white jasmines and red roses to symbolize love and harmony. In Thailand, jasmine is a common symbol of motherhood. The Syrian city of Damascus is also called the <a href="http://peacockplume.fr/food-travel/damascus-city-jasmine" target="_blank" rel="noopener">City of Jasmine</a> and uses the flower as its symbol.

As you can see, people all over the world revere jasmine, and for very similar reasons.

&nbsp;
<h2>Cultivation</h2>
Because of its international popularity, jasmines have been cultivated for generations. While most types of the plant can only survive in tropical climates, there are a few cultivated varieties more suited for temperate regions.

So, if you’re dying to have one of the sweetest smelling flowers in your garden at home, there’s bound to be a type of jasmine that’s right for you!

&nbsp;

What's So Great About the Jasmine Flower?

Jasmine has been cultivated and prized by humans for millennia....

Any animal that thrives in the harsh desert environment is pretty hardcore. Though we think of endless sand and blazing sunlight, some of the world’s harshest deserts are actually cold and windy. The main characteristic of a desert is that it’s very, very dry.

But what about desert animals? What allows these hardcore animals to succeed?

&nbsp;
<h2>Special Adaptations of Desert Animals</h2>
Most desert animals employ at least a few tricks to help them succeed in these extreme environments. Common special adaptations of desert animals include:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Large ears to help disperse heat.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Smaller organs that require less oxygen and therefore lead to less evaporation during breathing.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Behavioral adaptations, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/why-are-some-animals-nocturnal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">becoming nocturnal</a>.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Light colors that reflect rather than absorb the heat from the sun.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Burrowing helps animals escape the heat of the day.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Fat stores for emergency food and water storage.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Reducing (or eliminating) water wasted in urination, sweat, and tears. One species of gazelle (the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/dorcas-gazelle-gazella-dorcas/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dorcas Gazelle</a>) actually excretes solid uric acid instead of liquid urine!</li>
</ul>
All desert animals have some special adaptations that help them succeed in this difficult environment. Most desert animals have adaptations that specifically help them reduce water loss. 

Here are some of the most hardcore animals that live in the desert.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869152 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/wilderness-1806943_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="gazelle" width="1024" height="682" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Hardcore Desert Animals</h2>
&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/desert-lark-ammomanes-deserti/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">1. Desert Larks</a></h2>
These little birds don’t look like much, but they’re extremely tough. They enter burrows to cool themselves off with sand. The females often only lay one egg per year, to help reduce spent energy on chick-raising. Most surprisingly, though, these birds are able to allow their body temperature to soar to 45 degrees Celsius, much hotter than most other birds!

The Desert Lark is found in the deserts between Morocco and India. It largely eats seeds and insects.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_sand_gazelle" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2. Arabian Sand Gazelles</a></h2>
These gazelles have taken their desert adaptations to the extreme. Breathing is a great way to lose water. If you can reduce how much you exhale, you’ll reduce water loss. These gazelles shrink their hearts, livers, and stomachs during times of drought. This way, they need less oxygen and are able to lower respiratory rate. These gazelles are also unusual because they store fat in their brains, helping them get through lean times.

Arabian Sand Gazelles are native to the Arabian and Syrian Deserts. They’re quite endangered.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandgrouse" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">3. Sandgrouse</a></h2>
Male sandgrouses sure make dedicated parents! These birds have special belly feathers that are well-suited to soak up water. The males will fly up to 50 miles in a single day to soak their feathers, then carry water back to their mate and chicks. 

There are 16 different species of sandgrouse, which can be found primarily in central Asia.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869153 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/thorny-dragon-387217_640.jpg" alt="thorny devil hardcore desert animal" width="640" height="480" />
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/thorny-devil-moloch-horridus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">4. Thorny Devils</a></h2>
These little lizards are armed to the teeth - they’re covered in thick spines. The gaps between these thick spines actually help draw water in from the air, directing it with capillary action towards the eyes and mouth. 

These lizards are tough, surviving on nothing but ants in the brutal Australian Outback.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/dorcas-gazelle-gazella-dorcas/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">5. Dorcas Gazelle</a></h2>
As we mentioned earlier, the Dorcas Gazelle has some pretty hardcore desert adaptations. These little gazelles don’t actually urinate. Rather than wasting water with liquid urine, their excretory systems have modified enough that they produce solid white pellets of uric acid, rather than giving up on water. As far as we know, this species is actually capable of living its whole life without drinking!

The Dorcas Gazelle can be found in the deserts of northern Africa. They are classified as endangered.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869154 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/pigeons-3268990_640.jpg" alt="pigeon most adaptable animal on earth" width="640" height="440" />

&nbsp;
<h2>What are the most adaptable animals?</h2>
While the above desert animals are specialists, there are other hardcore animals - the generalists. Sure, it’s tough to survive on the Himalayan Steppes or in Death Valley. But it’s also an incredible feat to survive and thrive around the world in a variety of different environments.

Adaptability isn’t about being a specialist - it’s about being able to make do. You’re probably already familiar with the world’s most adaptable animals because they’re the animals we see most around the world. We’ll focus this list on animals with spines, rather than the many insects and microbes that are also exceptionally tough.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/black-rat-rattus-rattus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Rats</a></h2>
It’s hard to out-survive a rat. These critters are the ultimate survivalists, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-infested-worlds-islands/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">invading the world’s islands</a> and succeeding in incredibly tough conditions. Rats are incredibly adaptable, making them potential<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/invasive-species-plants-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> invasive species</a> as well.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/common-pigeon-columba-livia/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pigeons</a></h2>
The common pigeon is truly tough. These birds survive well in cities, farmland, and rocky outcroppings. They do well everywhere from the equator to the nearctic and palearctic. As an introduced species, pigeons are incredibly adaptable.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-climates-homo-sapiens-thrive/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Humans</a></h2>
That’s right - humans are probably the most adaptable beings on the planet. Sure, we need to use technology to survive. But we have that technology thanks to our incredibly adaptive brain (and opposable thumbs). Even before we had down jackets and air conditioning, humans could be found from the Amazon to the Himalaya, the Sahara to Patagonia.

&nbsp;

5 Hardcore Animals that Live in the Desert

Any animal that thrives in the harsh desert environment is...

When we’re first learning about evolution, we always hear about it the same way - survival of the fittest. But there’s also another pressure on the evolution of a species: sexual selection. So what happens when sexual selection and environmental pressure aren’t compatible?

Generally, most classroom examples focus on times when sexual selection and environmental pressure can dovetail into the same explanation. For example, female birds prefer to mate with brightly colored males because healthy feathers mean the male’s diet is good, which means he’s got good genes, which means his genes will help her offspring survive. Simple enough, right?

But, especially when we’re looking at birds, things quickly start to get more complicated. What about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/indian-peafowl-pavo-cristatus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">peacock’s</a> tail? Surely all that tail isn’t really necessary to signal environmental fitness, right? While the vibrant colors of a peacock <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peacock-feathers-evade-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">aren’t actually that obvious</a> to its dichromat predators, the tail still seems like an awful lot of energetic effort.
<h2>The Club-Winged Manakin and Decadence</h2>
For an even murkier example, let’s look at the club-winged manakin. I first heard about this bird thanks to an excellent Radiolab episode called <a href="https://www.wnycstudios.org/story/beauty-puzzle" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Beauty Puzzle</a>, which got me thinking about this topic.

The male club-winged manakin courts the female by whacking his wings together at an astonishing 107 times per second. Apparently, the females like the sound and will mate with males who can do it well. The problem? In order to effectively make that sound, the club-winged manakins need solid wingbones.

<iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tSHjhCN6NC0" width="560" height="315" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe>

Let that sink in - a flighted bird with solid wingbones.

The club-winged manakin now has slow, clumsy flight. While the trees in the Amazon Rainforest are dense enough to allow some hopping, these birds are at a serious disadvantage. Since the bones become solid while the birds are tiny embryos (before they’re male or female), both males and females have this disadvantage.

According to scientists, this phenomenon is known as “decadence” - the females are choosing beauty that actually harms the survival prospects of their own young.

But this flies in the face of the basic tenet of evolution: evolution is about survival of the fittest. And yet, these birds are evolving a handicap in the name of sexual selection.

There’s nothing, in theory, to stop this trend from pushing the club-winged manakin to extinction.

Many high school biology teachers just tell you about adaptive evolution - pretty feathers and showy colors exist because they signal that the showy male is extra-healthy.

But in the club-winged manakin, we have at least one clear counter-example. Biologists seem uncomfortable with the concept that some aspects of evolution can be driven by pleasure rather than function.
<h2>Survival of the Sexiest?</h2>
It is arguably impossible to know if the peacock’s tail really is a great signal of health, or if the<a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/archbolds-bowerbird-archboldia-papuensis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> bower bird’s</a> bower-building signals his fitness. 

We can’t ask the females if they like the looks of a male because of his beauty or because he seems fit. And even if we could, perhaps the females perceive something as pretty because it signals fitness. 

We don't know for sure.

But we can say that there is at least one example where something that the females find “sexy” is a downright disadvantage. There is seemingly no defense to the claim that the solid wingbones of a club-winged manakin resulted from survival of the fittest - it appears to be survival of the sexiest.

Evolution: Survival of the Fittest Versus "Decadence"

When we’re first learning about evolution, we always hear about...

Elephants are the largest land animal on earth. They’re also incredibly intelligent, caring, and have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-unique-personalities/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">distinct personalities</a>. Many can even recognize our faces! We know some of them by name: Horton, Dumbo, and Tarzan’s friend Tantor. In the real world, elephants are colossal, charismatic animals that are vital to the savannas of Africa and the dense jungles of India and Indonesia.

Although they seem to be untouchable by other animals because of their sheer size, elephants face many threats on a day-to-day basis. Perhaps the most significant of these threats is habitat loss. Big animals need a lot of space, and these massive mammals are no exception. While humans expand development and cut down forests, elephants have less and less space to roam around in.

Another grave threat to elephants is poaching. Elephant ivory is prized in certain parts of the world, and some people go through great lengths to harvest the valuable material. Unfortunately for the elephants, this means hunting. More often than not, poachers strip the animal of its tusks and leave it for dead.

With such huge threats to this animal, we have to ask:

&nbsp;
<h3>Are elephants endangered?</h3>
<h3>Short answer: Yes.</h3>
&nbsp;

Of course, the answer to this question is much more complex than a simple yes or no. So, let’s break it down by species. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), There are 2 distinct species: the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). We’ll use information from the IUCN’s “<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Red List</a>.” They are the world’s leading authority on determining whether or not an animal or plant is considered endangered.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868321 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/African-Elephant.jpg" alt="african elephant" width="1000" height="750" />
<h2>African Elephants:</h2>
The African elephant is listed as “Vulnerable” by the IUCN in 2019. What does “vulnerable” really mean here? This classification is one step in the right direction from being endangered. Technically speaking, as of right now the African elephant is not "endangered." However, a little over 20 years ago in 1996, the African elephant was considered endangered by the IUCN. Since then, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-recovering-poaching/#" target="_blank" rel="noopener">its population has been increasing</a>, causing the animal to come out of endangerment.

This is, of course, great news! African elephant populations are slowly growing, thanks to successful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/safe-place-elephants-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">conservation initiatives in Africa</a>. Lots of parks and reserves have been established, and many governments have cracked down on poaching.

However, we shouldn’t be complacent just because African elephants are doing better now than they were 20 years ago. They constantly face increasing pressure from illegal hunting and other conflicts with humans.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1868322 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Asian-Elephant.jpg" alt="asian elephant" width="1000" height="663" />
<h2>Asian Elephants:</h2>
Unlike its African relative, the Asian elephant is "endangered" according to the IUCN in 2019. The threats that face this elephant are pretty much the same as those of the African species. However, deforestation and harvesting timber are both more rampant in Asian countries than in Africa. This leads to <a href="https://treesforlife.org.uk/forest/human-impacts/habitat-fragmentation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">habitat fragmentation</a>, which is when one large forest becomes several smaller, unconnected patches. If you’re an elephant, it’s nearly impossible to travel from patch to patch.

Aside from the threats of habitat loss, Asain elephant populations are declining. Unfortunately, it’s really hard to track populations and we don't know much about them. What we do know is that they occupy only about 10% of their historic range, and each population is small and isolated.

&nbsp;
<h2>What can we do?</h2>
You don’t have to be the next Jane Goodall or David Attenborough to help save animals. There are a couple simple things any average Joe (or Jane!) can do to help elephant conservation.

First, don’t buy ivory. This seems like a no-brainer, but it's surprising how much ivory makes it into the hands of ill-informed tourists. Don’t buy any products from stores or street vendors that sell ivory. Sometimes sellers claim that a souvenir is from an old stash or an antique - but this is usually false. Purchasing any ivory, antique or not, adds more fuel to the fire and strengthens the market for the illegal material.

Second, if you buy products sourced from Africa like coffee or wood, make sure they are fair-trade. The <a href="https://us.fsc.org/en-us" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Forest Stewardship Council</a> certifies products from Africa and Asia that don’t negatively impact elephants.

Third, you can donate directly to conservation organizations! <a href="https://www.earth.com/take-action-save-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Check out our top picks.</a>

What else can we do to help save elephants? If you have any ideas, or other thoughts about elephants, let us know in the comments!

&nbsp;

Are Elephants Endangered?

Elephants are the largest land animal on earth. They’re also...

&nbsp;

Staying awake at night and sleeping during the day is relatively common in the animal world. While this seems pretty strange to most humans (except for some of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-nocturnal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ancient ancestors</a>), there are plenty of advantages that make being nocturnal a smart evolutionary move.

Of course, it’s not that animals decide one day to switch their sleeping patterns. And truthfully, it’s almost impossible to truly say why a given trait arose. Here are some of our best theories for why some animals are nocturnal.

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Are Some Animals Nocturnal?</h2>
<ul>
 	<li>There are fewer predators out at night. The vast majority of nocturnal animals are birds, insects, and mammals, not reptiles. A leading theory for why animals are nocturnal is that this trait evolved as a way to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mammals-nocturnal-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">avoid being eaten by dinosaurs</a> and other top predators back when mammals and birds started to expand as groups.</li>
 	<li>It’s easier to avoid detection at night. While many nocturnal animals have heightened senses of smell and hearing, it’s still a bit easier to avoid detection at night. The darkness helps both predators and prey move around a bit more stealthily. Prey animals use the cover of night to forage more safely, while predators capitalize on the same darkness to ambush prey more easily. </li>
 	<li>There are prey animals out at night. If you’re a predator who specializes in eating small mammals, there’s no better time to be outside than nighttime. Predators are generally more successful if they hunt while their prey is awake and mobile - so many predators hunt at night to match their prey’s schedule. </li>
 	<li>There’s less competition at night. Some nocturnal species likely developed this schedule as a way to reduce conflict over food sources. If everyone else in the neighborhood heads to the watering hole and the grazing field in the morning, perhaps it’s helpful for you to go during the off times.</li>
 	<li>Nighttime is cooler. Many desert animals are nocturnal for the evident reason that this helps them avoid the heat of midday. In scorching-hot parts of the world, being nocturnal is simply a good move. Water conservation is also an important aspect of avoiding the heat of the day. Moving around when it’s cool and dark avoids overheating and wasting precious water.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Many nocturnal animals are probably active at night for a combination of these reasons. Evolution is a slow process, and it’s almost impossible to say exactly which pressures caused each species to evolve in a given direction.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="wp-image-1867876 alignnone" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/tree-736877_640-300x200.jpg" alt="nocturnal cat" width="200" height="133" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Special Adaptations of Nocturnal Animals</h2>
Nocturnal animals also have special adaptations to help them get around in the dark. Unlike humans, they generally don’t rely on their sight as their primary sense. Instead, they get around thanks to sensitive ears, whiskers (to sense nearby objects), and smell. 

Of course, many nocturnal animals also have large eyes that are specially adapted to excel in low-light conditions. This is especially true for birds and nocturnal primates, which need to be able to see branches to land. Some animals, like cats, can see well both in daytime and at nighttime. Others, such as bushbabies and bats, have poor eyesight in the light.

&nbsp;
<h2>Threats to Nocturnal Animals</h2>
Light pollution is a huge threat to nocturnal animals. Lights from cities cause changes in migration patterns and can confuse animals. Light pollution is a major problem for sea turtles and nocturnal migratory birds because they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nocturnal-creatures-starlight-compass/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">use starlight as a compass</a>.

Human activity and disturbance are also pushing some animals to become more nocturnal. Read more about that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activity-mammals-nocturnal/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>.

Climate change is also making some areas of the world much hotter and drier than they used to be, potentially pressuring some animals to become more nocturnal or crepuscular (preferring to be active at dawn and dusk) than they are currently.

&nbsp;

Why Are Some Animals Nocturnal?

&nbsp; Staying awake at night and sleeping during the day...

On the cellular level, how are plants and fungi different? Plantae and Fungi are two of the three main kingdoms in the domain Eukaryota (the third group is Animalia, which includes you and me). 

Many fungi grow in a way that’s similar to plants. They inhabit similar ecosystems and may even form symbiotic relationships together. <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/tricholoma-matsutake/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mycorrhizae</a> are fungi that grow on the roots of plants, helping the plants take up nutrients in the soil while the plant provides the fungus with sugar. Of course, most fungi don’t look much like plants. 

But the differences between fungi and plants are more than just skin (or bark) deep. While mushrooms often inhabit similar ecosystems to plants, molds and yeasts are even more different from plants!

Looking at a plant cell and a fungi cell under a microscope will reveal some interesting similarities and differences.

&nbsp;
<h2>Similarities Between Plant Cells and Fungus Cells</h2>
On a cellular level, plants and fungi do have some similarities. Let’s start there.

Both plant cells and fungi cells:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Have cell walls. This is basically a thin, tough shell made of sugars that surrounds the cell. Animal cells (like yours) don’t have this cell wall.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Have membrane-bound nuclei, like animal cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have these.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Have DNA condensed thanks to histone proteins (again, like all Eukaryotes but not Prokaryotes).</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Have organelles, including mitochondria. You and I also have organelles.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Produce different tissue types. Animals can also do this.</li>
</ul>
Plants and fungi also both are non-mobile as adults, though the seeds of plants and spores of fungi can travel great distances. Fungi have rootlike structures called hyphae as well - though this similarity isn't at the cellular level.

&nbsp;

<img class="aligncenter wp-image-1867565 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/paprika-1582256_1280-1024x1024.jpg" alt="plant cells and fungus cells" width="1024" height="1024" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Differences Between Plant Cells and Fungus Cells</h2>
Despite all of the similarities between plants and fungi, they’re dramatically different groups of organisms. 

Differences between plant cells and fungus cells include:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The cell wall of a fungus is made up of a three-part matrix of chitin, glucans, and proteins. The cell wall of a plant is usually made of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin, agar, and others.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Fungi absorb their food from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-break-down-plastic/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">substrate they grow on</a> - whether that’s soil, a plant, a piece of bread, or even a living animal. This is why fungus can be such a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rust-fungus-outbreak-coffee-supply/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">big problem in crops</a> and your produce drawer!</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Fungi produce fruiting bodies called spores, whereas most plants produce seeds. The exception here is ferns, which produce spores similar, but not identical to, to fungi’s.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Some fungi, including yeast, appear in single-cellular forms.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Fungi cells don’t have chloroplasts, the organelle that plants use to turn sunlight into energy.</li>
</ul>
Unfortunately, all of these differences don’t necessarily make it easy to tell the difference between a plant cell and a fungus cell under a microscope. It’s not likely that looking at a cell will tell you if its cell wall is made of chitin or chloroplast, and finding a chloroplast isn’t easy either.

It’s generally easier to actually identify a fungus or plant by looking at the whole organism, rather than trying to identify it at the cellular level!

How Are Plant Cells Different Than Fungi Cells?

On the cellular level, how are plants and fungi different?...

One of the most enjoyable things for a gardener is seeing a flower bloom in spring that was planted years before. These types of flowers, called perennial flowers, come back year after year. These types of plants make a great choice for a beginner gardener because of their durability and low maintenance.

Perennials can survive through multiple dormant seasons, even after they seem to completely vanish in the fall or winter. In spring, they harness energy stored in their rootstocks to grow new shoots and leaves. Their rootstocks are often in the shape of a bulb.

Plants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-onions-antioxidants-flavonoids/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">onions</a> and garlic are technically perennials, but only if they aren't eaten after one or two years! A perennial is different from an annual or biennial plant. Instead of persisting for just one or two years, perennials can outlive the gardener! But usually, <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/epa-lawn-care-tips-weeds-and-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">pests</a> or disease get to them before that happens.

Here's our list of the 5 easiest perennial flowers to grow in your garden, and what makes them so low maintenance!

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1867242 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/coneflower-3974541_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="echinacea, purple coneflower, perennial" width="1024" height="682" /></h3>
<h2>Echinacea/Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea)</h2>
Echinacea is a popular perennial in the sunflower family. They are native to the eastern United States, but now grow in gardens all over the world in temperate regions. The flowering stalk can grow to be a little over a meter in tall, and grow relatively fast. Plus, the flowers themselves can last for over a month. So, they provide gardeners with an option that will certainly make a statement in the spring.

Aside from their towering, vibrant flowers, people also use Echinacea as a medicinal plant. The leaves are commonly used in teas and tablets, and contain anti-inflammatory properties that can treat colds and the flu. These durable, long-lasting blooms are perfect for any garden, especially for beginners!

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1867245 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/daylily-183294_1280.jpg" alt="Daylily, Hemerocallis" width="1000" height="855" /></h3>
<h2>Daylily (Hemerocallis)</h2>
Another easy perennial to grow in your garden are daylilies. These showy plants are native to eastern Asia, mostly in China, Korea, and Japan. The actual flowers of daylilies are rather shortlived and only last one day. Fortunately, another flower blooms soon after another. Horticulturists have been tending to these flowers for generations, and now there are well over 80,000 <a href="https://hortnews.extension.iastate.edu/2008/2-6/CultivarOrVariety.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cultivars</a>. The variety of colors and patterns of daylilies that are on the market today can be overwhelming. But, they certainly give a gardener many options to choose from!

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1867248 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/yarrow-3571494_1280.jpg" alt="Yarrow, Achillea millefolium" width="1000" height="666" /></h3>
<h2>Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)</h2>
<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/achillea-millefolium/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Yarrow</a> is a plant that doesn’t recognize borders. It’s native to most of the northern hemisphere and grows in many parts of North America, Europe, and Asia. Yarrow is incredibly durable, which is one reason it’s so widespread. It can tolerate poor soils and survive long droughts. So no matter what type of environment you live in, yarrow can probably live there too.

Yarrow also supports your native wildlife. Because this wildflower is found naturally in so many different parts of the world, there’s a good chance you would be helping your local pollinators by planting it. Yarrow is also used for medicine, and some even brew beer with it!

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1867249 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/iris-3385748_1280-1024x676.jpg" alt="bearded iris flower" width="1024" height="676" />
<h2>Bearded Iris (Iris spp.)</h2>
Irises are one of the most common perennials. Like daylilies, there are loads of cultivars to choose from. Bearded irises are one category of cultivar, named for the beard-like petals. Because there are so many types of irises, it can be tricky choosing which one is right for your <a href="https://www.cnet.com/how-to/what-is-a-hardiness-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">specific environment</a>. Luckily, local garden stores and nurseries usually keep these flowers on hand and should know which types would fare best at home.

Irises are generally very hardy and, like yarrow, grow well in dry soil with little water. However, they won’t typically tolerate soil that’s too wet, so a spot in the sun is this flower’s favorite. Irises are one of the best flowers to cut for an arrangement, another reason this is a great perennial choice.

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1867250 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/sedum-3372064_1280.jpg" alt="Sedum, flower, stonecrop" width="1000" height="666" /></h3>
<h2>Sedum (Sedum spp.)</h2>
Sedums, also called stonecrops, are the champions of hardiness. Many have adapted to have succulent leaves in order to survive through the hottest and dryest of summers. Others are equally as happy through frigid, frosty winters. Sedum is commonly used as a groundcover. The creeping plant can cover poor soil that other plants wouldn’t even consider growing in. They can also cover rocks and steep slopes most vegetation would struggle on.

Although sedum doesn’t die back completely in the winter, unlike most other perennials, it will grow bigger and stronger year after year. Plus, the green leaves can change appearance and turn a soft red color in winter. Sedum is one of the easiest plants to care for, as they require little maintenance and will continue to grow through virtual neglect.

Did we miss any easy perennial flowers? Let us know in the comments!

&nbsp;

5 Easiest Perennial Flowers to Grow in Your Garden

One of the most enjoyable things for a gardener is...

&nbsp;

Watching birds zip across the sky is a breathtaking experience - However, how fast can some birds of prey go - and how do they do it? Let’s look at the five fastest birds of prey. 

<a href="http://www.birdsleuth.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/BirdWingTypes-Handout-Sept2014.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Wing shape</a> is a major factor in how fast a bird can fly - and not all wing shapes are created equal.The long, thin, pointy wings that are perfect for high-speed flight aren’t well-suited to soaring on thermals, hovering, or maintaining a high constant speed. because of speed isn't always the number one goal of a given bird species, many bird species evolved to have other wing shapes that are well-suited to their niche.

There are many incredibly fast birds out there. The White Throated Needletail, a tiny swift from the mountains of Asia, clocks speeds of up to 105 miles per hour - the fastest flapping speed of any bird out there. <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/magnificent-frigatebird-fregata-magnificens/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Frigatebirds</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/antipodean-albatross-diomedea-antipodensis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">albatrosses</a>, and other seabirds can also hit nearly 100 miles per hour when they catch the right wind currents.

But today, we’re almost focusing on birds of prey - and that means we’re primarily looking at the diving speeds of these formidable predators.

&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/endangered-species/falco-peregrinus-peregrinus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus</a></h2>
&nbsp;
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Native to: North America</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Top Airspeed: 389 km/h (242 mph) in a stoop</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Average Horizontal Speed: 65–90 km/h (40-56 mph)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">About: This bird lives primarily along mountain ranges and river valleys, though the species is also adapting to thrive in cities. There are several subspecies with a range of sizes. They hunt other birds, sometimes as large as ducks. They are highly prized in falconry thanks to their exciting stoop (dive) and the relative ease with which they can be trained . Measuring the top speed of 389km/h took some seriously cool bird training and a Cessna plane - <a href="https://www.airspacemag.com/flight-today/falling-with-the-falcon-7491768/?c=y&amp;page=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">read about that here</a>.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/golden-eagles-migrate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos</a></h2>
&nbsp;
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Native to: Most of the Northern Hemisphere, including Eurasia, North America, and northern Africa.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Top Airspeed: 320 km/h (200 mph) in a stoop</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Average Horizontal Speed: 45-51 km/hr (28-32 mph)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">About: This massive eagle is one of the most widespread Accipiters in the world. They’re also relatively rare. Renowned for their hunting prowess, this bird is well-studied and revered as a falconry bird. They known to hunt foxes, waterfowl,</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/gyr-falcon-falco-rusticolus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gyrfalcon, Falco rusticolus</a></h2>
&nbsp;
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Native to: Arctic coast and tundra, including northern islands in North America, Europe, and Asia. Adults sometimes are found further south in the winter.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Top Airspeed: 209 km/h (130 mph)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Average Horizontal Speed: 80-110 km/h (50-68 mph)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">About: The gyrfalcon is the largest falcon species. They hunt ptarmigan and waterfowl. Hybrids between the gyrfalcon and peregrine falcons are commonly used for falconry, as the larger size allows falconers to hunt more quarry. </li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<h2><a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/eurasian-hobby-falco-subbuteo/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Eurasian Hobby, Falco subbuteo</a></h2>
&nbsp;
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Native to: Africa, Asia, and Europe</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Top Airspeed: 159 km/h (99mph)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Average Horizontal Speed: unknown</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">About: This bird thrives in open grassland and is fast enough to catch swallows and swifts mid-flight. It prefers to hunt around dawn and dusk. They are astonishingly agile, and part of their courtship ritual involves passing off food at high speeds.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Flight speed is just one of many ways that birds can gain a competitive - and evolutionary - advantage. While most fast birds of prey primarily use their speed to capture prey, some also use their speed to harass rivals or get away from even bigger predators!

&nbsp;

4 Fastest Birds of Prey

&nbsp; Watching birds zip across the sky is a breathtaking...

Vermilion,Waxcap,(hygrocybe,Miniata),Orange,Edible,Mushrooms,Growing,Through,Ground

Mycology has impacted your life, I guarantee it. Whether it was that penicillin you took to get better or those cultivated mushrooms you ate for dinner yesterday, you have mycology to thank. Mycologists are scientists who dedicate their careers to all things fungi.

It may be surprising to hear that mycology is not a booming discipline. Most universities don't offer programs in mycology and this doesn't seem to be changing. Fungal pathogens infect over 1 billion people worldwide. They also destroy one-third of global food production! Why aren't there more mycologists working on this stuff? On the other hand, humans benefit from many species of fungi, including those we eat and use as medicine.

[caption id="attachment_1892126" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892126 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/calocera-viscosa-4511805_1280.jpg" alt="fungi" width="1280" height="862" /> Fungi come in all sorts of unusual shapes and size. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/adege-4994132/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andreas</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/calocera-viscosa-goatee-cockscomb-4511805/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">How Are Mycology, Mycorrhizae, and Mycelia Different?</h3>
Mycology is the study of fungus, which is an entire kingdom of life. Mycology is to fungi as botany is to plants. Most scientists consider mycologists to be a type of microbiologist.
To date, scientists have named over 70,000 fungal species. Researchers believe there are up to 20 times that many fungus species out there. This means there could be about 1.5 million species of fungi on planet Earth. For some context, there are only about <a href="http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/A/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">350,000 named species</a> of flowering plants. The fungi kingdom is massive and we know so little about it!
Mycelia is simply the vegetative part of fungi. It is a branching, often invisible substance that is home to many wonders. If you have ever seen a white, webby substance in wet woodchips or in the soil, that is mycelium. Mycelia can form vast networks of fungus. One such network is thought to be the <a href="https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/606952-largest-living-organism#:~:text=The%20largest%20living%20organism%20is,equivalent%20to%201%2C350%20soccer%20fields." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">largest organism</a> on the planet.
Mushrooms, in contrast, are the fruiting bodies of these mycelial networks. They are the reproductive structures of fungal organisms. If we compare fungus to a peach tree, the mycelia would be the roots, wood, and leaves of the tree. The mushroom would be the flowers and peaches.
Mycorrhizae are the mycelia that grow in a symbiotic relationship with a plant host (more on this later).


[caption id="attachment_1892128" align="alignnone" width="800"]<img class="wp-image-1892128 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/4973009538_0daca97095_c.jpg" alt="mycelia, mycology" width="800" height="600" /> Mycelia growing between pine needles. Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/laurelfan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Laurel Fan</a> via <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/laurelfan/4973009538" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Flickr</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">The Origins of Mycology</h3>
Humans have an older relationship with fungi than with agriculture. By analyzing plaque on ancient human teeth, <a href="https://www.mpg.de/9173780/mushrooms-food-source-stone-age" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">scientists revealed</a> that hunter-gatherers in Europe ate mushrooms as early as 18,000 years ago. Ever since then, our species has found hundreds of uses for this kingdom of life.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, groups like the Mycological Society of America and the British Mycological Society began to organize mycologists into a broader community. More recent groups, such as the North American Mycological Association, International Mycological Association, and <a href="https://mikrobiologie.eurofung.tu-berlin.de/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EUROFUNG</a> have bolstered the mycological community. By publishing ground-breaking research in their <a href="https://imafungus.biomedcentral.com/?gclid=CjwKCAjwqIiFBhAHEiwANg9szp2cRtU_p0VNTsrEAyR62Xe8OSPknv1xzGZth_hsctD-zHX59rcf0BoCpzMQAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">scientific journals</a>, these societies have aided the development of mycology around the world.

<h3 data-marked="true">Trends in Mycology</h3>
Fungi remain understudied across the globe. There are various reasons for this. First, fungus is inherently difficult to study. Most species of fungi are impossible to grow in a lab. In nature, fungi have a short 'fruiting' period where mushrooms are visible. Without mushrooms, it is really hard to find mycelia.
Few universities offer classes or programs that specialize in mycology. Fungi experts were formerly housed within botany departments (which is funny, since fungi are actually <a href="http://tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3" target="_blank" rel="noopener">more closely related to animals</a> than plants). However, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-plant-blindness/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">botany departments are shrinking</a>, they are less interested in supporting their mycologist colleagues. These department-less mycologists have a hard time fending for themselves in university politics.
While the number of amateur mushroom hunters may have increased in the last decade, the number of people studying fungi hasn't. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1749461316300896" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Some mycologists</a> think that the lack of coordination, cooperation, and specialization within their scientific field is to blame for the decreasing funding towards mycology at universities.


[caption id="attachment_1892127" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892127 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/agaric-2638701_1280.jpg" alt="fungi" width="1280" height="853" /> A picture of the underside of a mushroom. Taxonomists often use the 'gills' of a mushroom to identify the species of fungus. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/adege-4994132/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andreas</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/agaric-mushroom-disc-fungus-yellow-2638701/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h2 data-marked="true">What Makes a Fungus?</h2>
All fungi share a handful of common characteristics. In taxonomy, fungi are an entire kingdom of life (although the 'kingdoms' are <a href="https://thebiologynotes.com/three-domain-system/#:~:text=The%20three%2Ddomains%20of%20Carl,%2C%20Fungi%2C%20Plantae%2C%20Animalia.&amp;text=The%20main%20difference%20from%20earlier,splitting%20of%20archaea%20from%20bacteria." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">always in dispute</a>).
At the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9780470015902.a0002320.pub2" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">most basic level</a>, fungi have eukaryotic cells. This means that the cells have a nucleus. This differentiates them from prokaryotic bacteria. Fungi are also multicellular. This separates them from eukaryotic bacteria.
Animals and plants are other groups with eukaryotic cells. Fungi are different from animals because fungi can't move. They also reproduce by spores rather than sexually. Fungi are distinct from plants because fungi can't make their own food via photosynthesis. Instead, they absorb food from their surroundings. This process is called decomposition.
<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/lichens/lichenlh.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lichens</a> are unusual kinds of fungi. They are a symbiotic, obligate relationship between a species of algae and a species of fungi. Where do lichens fit into the tree of life? Beats me.
By far the largest order of fungi is ascomycetes, which contains the vast majority of named fungi species.

<h2 data-marked="true">Areas of Mycology</h2>
From biotechnology to addiction therapy, mycologists cover a wide variety of topics. Fungi touch many aspects of our lives. They are in our daily food, our backyards, and our medicine. Here is a quick overview of some topics mycologists study.


[caption id="attachment_1892130" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892130 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/mushrooms-1603667_1280.jpg" alt="chanterelles, mycology" width="1280" height="853" /> Edible mushrooms can be big business! These chanterelles can cost up to $30 a pound. Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/blende12-201217/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gerhard G.</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/mushrooms-food-mushrooms-mushroom-1603667/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">Edible Fungi</h3>
I'm sure you've eaten lots of mushrooms if you've made it this far into the article. Mushroom cultivation is a <a href="https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/mushroom-market#:~:text=The%20global%20mushroom%20market%20size,market%20over%20the%20forecast%20period." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">booming business</a> as more people turn to plant-based diets. However, outside of a handful of species of fungi, most edible fungi species must be wild-harvested. These species include <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/an-introduction-to-gourmet-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">true delicacies</a>, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-find-chanterelle-mushrooms-and-cook-with-them/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">chanterelles</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/market-mushrooms-truffles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">truffles</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-find-morel-mushrooms-and-avoid-false-morels/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">morels</a>. Mushrooms don't only taste delicious, they are super healthy, too. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-consumption-linked-to-45-percent-lower-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">A recent study</a> determined that daily mushroom consumption is linked to a 45% decrease in cancer! Some emerging health-food trends include the arctic fungus superfood, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-chaga-intro-to-the-alaskan-medicinal-mushroom/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Chaga</a>.

<h3 data-marked="true">Mychorrizae and the Environment</h3>
Fungi perform crucial roles in our environment. Every ecosystem needs decomposers. Decomposers are organisms that break down material. Without decomposers, logs and dead animals would never rot into the Earth. Fungi are essential decomposers in the ecology of many habitats.
Fungi also aid plant growth. With the exception of the pea family, plants can't make their own nitrogen. Nitrogen is an absolutely critical element plants need to grow. Mycorrhizae can convert nitrogen present in our atmosphere to the kind of nitrogen useable by plants. The plants use this nitrogen and in return give the mycorrhizae energy. These symbiotic relationships increase the biodiversity and resiliency of ecosystems on our planet.

<h3 data-marked="true">Medical Mycology</h3>
We should all be thankful for fungi because they are directly responsible for the increase in the human lifespan. The discovery of penicillin in 1928 had profound consequences on the human species. Penicillin works by distracting the enzyme in bacteria that produce cell walls. This distraction results in dead, disease-causing bacteria. Penicillin led to the antibiotic revolution. These drugs were a large part of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5354621/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increasing the human lifespan</a> by nearly 30 years in places such as the U.S.


[caption id="attachment_1892129" align="alignnone" width="800"]<img class="wp-image-1892129 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/35158892481_0f91121e43_c.jpg" alt="fungal disease, mycology" width="800" height="600" /> A fungal disease of bananas causing cigar end-rot. Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/scotnelson/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scot Nelson</a>[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">Pathogenic Fungi</h3>
Fungi are the largest source of plant disease. These fungi cause diseases in many ways. They can enter a plant through leaves, bark, or roots. Some economically devastating fungi can destroy entire harvests of the world's most important crops.
These crops include rice, corn, cereals, bananas, tomato, cotton, and so many more. These fungi are serious business. It's no wonder that many of the employed mycologists focus on plant pathology.

<h3 data-marked="true">Entheogenic (a.k.a. Magic) Mushrooms</h3>
Yes, those kinds of mushrooms. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Psilocybin</a> is a hallucinogenic compound found in certain species of fungi. This group of mushrooms is found all around the world.
The first evidence of human use of these mushrooms dates back 7000-9000 years ago. This evidence is based on trippy prehistoric rock art in northern Africa.
Today there is a research boom in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-may-boost-our-ability-to-learn-and-explore/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">powerful mushrooms</a>.
There is strong, emerging evidence that psilocybin can drastically help people with addiction and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-could-help-millions-who-suffer-from-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">depression</a>. In a few decades, we may see a much broader acceptance of these medicinal mushrooms.

<h2 data-marked="true">Why Aren't There More Mycologists?</h2>
Short answer: I don't know. It really seems like we need more people studying these species. Fungi can be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mycocrete-new-material-made-of-fungi-hopes-to-replace-concrete-in-construction-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">wildly beneficial to humans</a> and also incredibly destructive.
Maybe they are hard to research. Maybe research into fungi just isn't sexy enough for government or private funding. Whatever the case, it seems like an increase in people studying fungal biology would help the human species as a whole.​
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A Beginner's Guide to Mycology

Mycology has impacted your life, I guarantee it. Whether it...

You may think of bees as annoying, stinging pests or cute, fluffy balls, but their most important role is as pollinators of food plants. There are <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">almost 20,000 different species of bees</a>, many of which provide essential services to humans and ecosystems. In the United States alone there are around 3,500 species.

&nbsp;
<h2>What Is a Bee?</h2>
Bees are a <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">group of animals</a> that include a handful of different families. The best-known group, Apidae, includes honey-bees and bumblebees and have a shared “hivemind.” These collective bees dominate most peoples image of bees. <a href="https://www.beelab.umn.edu/bees/bee-diversity" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">However, 98% of bee species are naturally solitary</a>, living without a queen or hive. Many nest in the ground, others form biological plastics to keep their homes dry. The many adaptations of bees are impressive and contain an amazing amount of diversity.

Another common misconception <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/group/wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">is that wasps are bees</a>. Wasps share many characteristics with bees. Both wasps and bees are classified in the order Hymenoptera (along with ants.) There are 30,000 unique species of wasps. You can tell wasps from bees by their narrow waist that connects their abdomen to their thorax. Wasp nests are papery and made from wood fiber, compared to the waxy hives of bees.

&nbsp;
<h2>Are Bees Endangered?</h2>
In recent years, bee populations have been declining globally. Increased rates of colony collapse disorder, climate change, and other factors have contributed to these changes. These changes have sparked fear that bees may go extinct, leaving us without essential pollination services. As a result, researchers are even exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-robots-electronic-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">creating robotic replacements for bees</a>.

The American Fish and Wildlife Service has recognized the severe decline in some threatened wild bee populations. In 2016, seven species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seven-bee-species-put-endangered-species-list/">Hawaiian yellow-faced bees were placed on the endangered species list</a>. In 2017 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rusty-patched-bumble-bee-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the rusty patch bumble bee (Bombus affinis) was designated as an endangered species</a>. This was the <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/u-s-lists-a-bumble-bee-species-as-endangered-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">first bumblebee species to receive this classification</a>. This provides these species some protection under the endangered species act.

In addition, <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=135293&amp;searchType=species" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists</a> 16 species of bees as vulnerable, 18 as endangered and 9 as critically endangered globally. However, these endangered species include American native bee species that are not on the endangered species list. Groups in California are <a href="https://newsroom.defenders.org/conservation-organizations-seek-protection-for-californias-endangered-bumble-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">pushing to protect these species.</a>

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1869701 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/bee-170551_1920-1024x680.jpg" alt="A bee on a yellow flower" width="1024" height="680" />

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Do Bees Matter?</h2>
The great diversity among species of bees means that there is a great risk of losing species before we understand them. Many bee species have developed extremely complex and intricate relationships with plant species. These relationships provide pollination for plants that could otherwise never reproduce. With the loss of bees comes the loss of many plants.

The diversity and evolution of insects likely played a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollination-insects-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">major role in the evolution of flowering plants</a>. We could lose this diversity that has developed over hundreds of millions of years in just decades.

&nbsp;
<h2>Humans and Bees</h2>
Humans rely upon bees to pollinate our food, as well as the many flowering plants we grow for all sorts of uses. In the wild, bees play an essential role in keeping our natural lands healthy.

However, human impacts are a serious threat to many species of bees.

&nbsp;
<h2>The Biggest Bee in the Business</h2>
The western honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most important pollinator for agriculture. These bees are cultivated on every continent except Antarctica. This species plays a huge role in the food supply. As a result, they are domesticated and bred at a large scale.

In recent years, colony collapse disorder has risen for unknown reasons, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-native-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">harming many apiarists and farmers</a>. Though honey bee populations have experienced substantial changes over the last few decades, they are not endangered.

&nbsp;
<h2>Are Pesticides Killing Bees?</h2>
One of the most likely culprits harming bee colonies is a common insecticide used on crops. Neonicotinoids are synthetic compounds derived from nicotine, a natural insecticide. These chemicals are often sprayed on seeds to prevent insects from eating them before they begin to grow. Studies have shown that these compounds may affect bees at extremely low concentrations. Additionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harmful-pesticides-bee-colonies/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">these insecticides are neurotoxic to bees </a>and cause harm to colonies even in non-deadly doses.

&nbsp;
<h2>How Agriculture Harms Bee Diversity</h2>
The loss of bees is not enough to fully explain changes in pollination. Decreasing bee diversity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-losses-pollination-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">due to habitat fragmentation from agriculture may play a role</a>. In addition, many pesticides have non-lethal effects on bee behavior. This may cause bees to pollinate less effectively, and has the potential to change how our forests and grasslands are pollinated.

&nbsp;
<h2>Climate Change and Bees</h2>
Climate change also plays a significant role in threatening populations of bees and other pollinators. Changing seasonal trends in temperature, water availability, and season length can have significant impacts on flowering plants. Many of these species rely on these seasonal cues to know when to flower. Historically, pollinators have been in sync with these cycles. But when climate change disturbs these cycles, pollinators may emerge to find that all of the flowers have already bloomed, or that none are open yet. These complex relationships are difficult to predict, and changes to them ripple throughout the ecosystem.

&nbsp;

There are only a few bee species classified as endangered. However, the many sudden changes to their environment pose a real threat. The incredible importance of bees makes it essential that we find ways to protect them.

&nbsp;

Are Bees Endangered?

You may think of bees as annoying, stinging pests or...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...