Many of us interact with bacteria on a daily basis. If you eat yogurt or cheese you can thank bacteria! They are so common that there are <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/scientists-bust-myth-that-our-bodies-have-more-bacteria-than-human-cells-1.19136" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">about as many bacterial cells</a> as human cells in your body. Their diversity is also stunning. Recent estimates found that there are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3160642/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">over one billion</a> different types of bacterial species. Even though bacteria may seem wildly different than humans, we all do have at least one thing in common: we all undergo reproduction. Bacteria definitely don't reproduce like humans or other animals, so exactly how do bacteria reproduce?
<h1>Domains of Life</h1>
Before we talk about how bacteria reproduce, we need to understand their place in biology. All life on earth evolved about 3.5 billion years ago. Scientists think we all <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/5/100513-science-evolution-darwin-single-ancestor/#close" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">came from one common ancestor</a>. Since then, living organisms have changed greatly. The first way to distinguish one organism from another is by classifying what domain it falls into. 

Current classification uses three domains: eukarya, archaea, and bacteria. Bacteria are then grouped into five major categories: proteobacteria, cyanobacteria, chlamydiae, spirochetes, and firmicutes.
<h1>Bacterial Uses</h1>
Bacteria are all around us. From our bodies to our food. From the <a href="https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/desert-microbes" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hottest deserts</a> to the <a href="https://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2010/01/26/tundra-microbes-and-world-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">coldest tundras</a>. Between the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11434-007-0360-4" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">highest mountains</a> to the <a href="https://divediscover.whoi.edu/hot-topics/bacteria-at-hydrothermal-vents/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">deepest oceans</a>, bacteria live everywhere. Over the last several thousand years, we humans have learned to use bacteria to our benefit. 

Let’s take a look at some of the unique ways we use bacteria.
<h2>Cheese</h2>
Cheesemaking brings together everybody’s favorite ingredients: milk, salt, and bacteria. A necessary step in almost all cheese production is the separation of the two products of curdling: curds and whey. This process is accomplished by acidifying the pre-cheese mixture. While this can be accomplished by adding acid directly, more often, various types of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780750615136500111" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">starter cultures</a> are used. 

The starter bacteria accomplish two things. First, they digest the milk sugars and turn them into lactic acid. Second, they help to develop the flavor protein of the cheese. Different bacteria are used for different cheeses. Interestingly, certain strains of bacteria even help to give some cheese their <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/what-makes-some-cheese-smell-so-bad/">awful smell</a>.
<h2><img class="alignnone wp-image-1878671 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/compost-419261_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="compost garden" width="1024" height="682" /></h2>
<h2>Composting</h2>
Composting is a method of using bacteria and air to break down organic solids. In other words, it can be an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/composting-eco-friendly-decisions/">easy, at-home</a> way to sustainably get rid of your food waste. Typically, it will involve a large, covered container that stores the waste. First, it needs to be placed in the sun and given the room to ventilate. After that, the composter becomes the perfect home for billions of bacteria. 

The bacteria come from many places. Whereas some come from the surfaces of the waste or our hands, others exist in the ambient environment. They slowly break down the scraps and waste into organic fertilizer. Alternatively, it can now be safely disposed of in a much more environmentally friendly manner.
<h2>Bioremediation</h2>
Bioremediation is the process of using living organisms to <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/books/advances-in-bioremediation-of-wastewater-and-polluted-soil/bioremediation-of-polluted-waters-using-microorganisms" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">clean up a polluted area</a>. Bacteria are capable of utilizing dangerous heavy metals, like lead, and transforming them into other compounds that are no longer dangerous. 

What's more, recent studies have made significant headway into showing the possible uses of bioremediation technology. Scientists are hopeful that these processes can help with mining accidents and even <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-microbes-clean-up-oil-spills/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">oil spills</a>.

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1878670" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/bacteria-808158_1280-1024x731.jpg" alt="bacteria" width="1024" height="731" />
<h1>Reproduction</h1>
Now that we understand where bacteria fit and what they’re used for, let’s take a look at how they reproduce.
<h2>Binary Fission</h2>
The most common way for bacteria to reproduce is through binary fission. The basics of the process are simple. First, the cell grows to approximately double its normal size. Next, it makes a copy of all of its genetic material. This is through a process called DNA replication. Last, the cell actually splits down the middle into two identical ‘daughter’ cells. This process is roughly the same as how our body cells reproduce. 

Specifically, binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction because there is no exchange of genetic material at the time of the split.
<h2>Baeocyte Production</h2>
Baeocyte production is very different from binary fission. Contrary to binary fission which copies genetic information once, some types of bacteria will copy their DNA dozens and dozens of times. After the copying is complete, the ‘parent’ cell will rapidly divide dozens or hundreds of times. As a result, dozens or even hundreds of new baeocytes form. This is a common process found in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01283581">cyanobacteria</a>.
<h2>Budding</h2>
Budding is a reproductive strategy that is more commonly seen in eukaryotic single-celled organisms, like yeast. Essentially, the bacteria stretch out into large, thin cells with a set of ‘arms’ around the center. Each of these arms is the site of a ‘budding’ event, whereby new buds can break off. 

Each of these buds can go on to be a fully functioning adult bacteria. These bacteria, themselves, will undergo budding. While less common, this process takes place for many different bacteria across the whole domain of bacteria. Indeed, you can find the process of budding in almost all major types of bacteria.
<h1>Wide World of Bacteria</h1>
We’ve now seen that bacteria can live almost anywhere, and their diversity of uses is paralleled by their unique strategies of reproduction. Next time you’re eating a cultured food think about the fact that bacteria helped create it!

Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How Do Bacteria Reproduce

Many of us interact with bacteria on a daily basis....

The mushroom kingdom (Eumycota) is extremely diverse. Species of fungus provide powerful medicines, key ecosystem services, and some showy displays. Scientists group fungi together due to their shared evolutionary history. One unique trait that unites these related organisms is their cell wall. This fungal skeleton has a unique composition, not found in any other type of cell.

Though the classic red and white toadstool of Amanita muscaria is most closely associated with Eumycota, this kingdom includes species that occur throughout nature. Fungi grow between the cells of nearly every plant. They provide nutrient flow and chemical signaling between trees through the forest floor. They also break down dead matter, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem. These many services are all done by cells protected by the unique fungal cell wall.

&nbsp;
<h2>What Is a Cell Wall?</h2>
&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1876670" align="aligncenter" width="1443"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1876670" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/PlantCells.jpg" alt="An image of a plant root cross section under a light microscope. The colors come from added stains, highlighting cell walls and other structures." width="1443" height="1420" /> A dyed root cross-section under a microscope. Each curved polygon is a plant cell. Photo by <a href="https://www.caseyhofford.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Casey Hofford</a>.[/caption]

&nbsp;

Cells are the most basic unit of life (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origins-life-simple-molecules/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">though viruses and self-replicating RNA</a> deserve some consideration as well). These tiny pockets of genetic information and molecular machinery are the building blocks of everything from your fingers to the petals of flowers. Cells come in many shapes and sizes. Fungi, plants, animals, and bacteria each have unique cellular features.

Though <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eukaryotic-cells-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">all eukaryotic cells have organelles</a>, a nucleus, and a plasma membrane, only plants and fungi have cell walls. These walls provide rigidity and structure to their cells. While most animal cells are soft, requiring bones to give them structure, plants, and fungi get their structure from their cells’ walls.

&nbsp;
<h2>The Structure of Fungi</h2>
&nbsp;

[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="884"]<img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Oyster_mushroom_%28Pleurotus_ostreatus%29_mycelium_in_petri_dish_on_coffee_grounds.JPG" alt="An oyster mushroom's mycelium growing out through coffee grounds. All credit for this photo goes to Tobi Kellner on Wikimedia Commons." width="884" height="663" /> This mycelium includes millions of individual threads of hyphae, providing a huge surface area. Photo by <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oyster_mushroom_(Pleurotus_ostreatus)_mycelium_in_petri_dish_on_coffee_grounds.JPG" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Tobi Kellner</a>.[/caption]

&nbsp;

Though we generally think of fungi as being umbrella-shaped toadstools, these are simply the reproductive organs of the fungi. Fungi spend most of their lives as a network of thin fibers called mycelium. This mycelium is made up of many thin strands of fungal cells, called hyphae. These cells wind through decomposing matter, secreting digestive enzymes and slowly consuming the resulting nutrients through osmosis.

These thin fungal cells provide a huge surface area. With all this exposed surface area, a cell wall is essential for protection. The cell wall provides more than just structure to fungi. It is also the outermost barrier between the fungi and the outside world. Therefore, it plays an essential role in protecting the fungi from pathogens and toxins. The complex mixture of chitin, glucans, and proteins blocks large particles. <a href="https://www.asmscience.org/content/journal/microbiolspec/10.1128/microbiolspec.FUNK-0035-2016" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Proteins allow fungi to remodel the cell wall</a> and to interact with the outside world.

The <a href="http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/Bot201/Myxomycota/Introduction.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">fungal cell wall is outside of the cell membrane</a>. The cell membrane is the semi-fluid layer that creates the boundary between the cell and the outside world. Within this thin barrier, all of the cells essential organelles, proteins, and nutrients float through the cytosol. The cell wall <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8099/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">provides external protection</a> for this soft barrier.

&nbsp;
<h2>Septate and Coenocytic Fungi</h2>
<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/fungimm.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Two different structures of the fungal cell wall</a> define two different categories of fungi.
<ul>
 	<li>Coenocytic fungi do not build cell walls between the nuclei of their hyphae. Under a microscope, these hyphae appear as single long cells with many nuclei.</li>
 	<li>Septate fungi form cell walls between the cells of their hyphae, called septa.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<h2>How Do Fungi Differ from Plants?</h2>
Fungi were once thought to simply be a type of plant. As recently as the 1960s, scientists considered fungi to be a type of plant, within the kingdom Plantae. This seems like a rational guess. Plants and fungi are both stationary, rooted to the ground. Though this seems like an important observation, the way species collect their nutrients is far more important.

Plants are all (or nearly all) capable of collecting energy from sunlight through photosynthesis (autotrophs). Fungi, like animals, must consume other life to get energy (heterotrophs). Fungi are heterotrophic, not autotrophic, and they generally decompose and absorb dead life. Though they don’t hunt or graze like many animals, this “saprophytic” style of eating is more similar to animals than plants.

&nbsp;
<h2>What Are Fungal Cell Walls Made Of?</h2>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="960"]<img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Cell_wall_structure_of_Fungi.png" alt="An illustration of a fungal cell wall showing the cell membrane at the bottom. Chitosan and glucans next, an amorphous matrix and a surface coat of glycoproteins." width="960" height="720" /> This diagram shows the basic structure of a fungal cell wall. All credit goes to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cell_wall_structure_of_Fungi.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the original uploader on Wikimedia Commons</a>.[/caption]

&nbsp;

A unique mixture of chemicals makes up fungal cell walls. These include chitin, a derivative of glucosamine. This substance is not found in plants. Other than fungi, chitin is only found in animals such as in the exoskeletons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-insects-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">arthropods (insects</a> and crustaceans.) Chitin is a tough molecule that can form into long chains and meshes, providing a 3D skeleton around fungal cells.

The structural chitin in fungal cell walls is unique. <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/cell-wall-373613" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Plant cell walls use cellulose</a> to build their structure. This is what provides the structure to plant-derived products like wood and paper.

&nbsp;

In conclusion, yes, fungi have cell walls, but not of the same sort as plants. Fungi are a distinct kingdom of life. Their characteristics, life habits, and cellular structure are different from both plants and animals.

Do Fungi Have Cell Walls?

The mushroom kingdom (Eumycota) is extremely diverse. Species of fungus...

Mushrooms are an endlessly fascinating organism on planet earth. Defined as the fruiting body of fungus, it is most often found above ground in soil or upon its food source. To say that people are passionate about this branch of fungi feels like an understatement - folks go wild for certain delicious varieties. For every person that turns their nose up at mushrooms in a meal, there’s someone else, closely guarding the secret location of a morel patch or finding a way to cook them into breakfast, lunch, and dinner. 

So why are mushrooms so cool? There are many angles at which to approach this question. To start with, some mushrooms are extremely poisonous and can kill you. It seems to be the case that anything dangerous in the forest takes on a certain mystique. Adding to the mystery of mushrooms is the fact that people have been foraging for them for thousands of years - this adds to certain cultural understandings of mushrooms as precious and revered. Some types of mushrooms contain the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-vote-medicinal-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">psychedelic compound psilocybin</a>, which when ingested, can cause a person to hallucinate. Scientists are even conducting research on the ways in which psilocybin might<a href="https://www.healthline.com/health-news/denver-decriminalizes-magic-mushrooms-here-how-they-may-help-your-health#1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> affect individuals’ mental health</a>. A type of mushroom, mycelium, connects the root systems of trees, allowing them to communicate like <a href="http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20141111-plants-have-a-hidden-internet" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a high-speed internet connection</a>. Some types of mushrooms may have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-mushrooms-anti-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">anti-cancer properties.</a> The more you learn, the more interesting the kingdom of fungi becomes. 

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1875581 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/fungus-1194380_1280.jpg" alt="mushroom farming morels" width="1280" height="853" />

&nbsp;
<h2>So You’re Interested in Mushroom Farming?  </h2>
With such a mysterious organism, is it really possible to start mushroom farming? Yep, it is. Though, it’s not as simple as throwing some dill seeds in a raised bed. It’ll take some planning and close attention. Mushroom farming, or Fungiculture, is a profitable sector of the agricultural business and depending on your goals, it’s something you can do at home or on a farm. A pound of log-grown shiitake mushrooms can sell for <a href="https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.cornell.edu/dist/d/958/files/2014/03/Shiitake-BMP-3-11-1osfnxs.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">$10 - $18</a>, depending on the demand in your area. While there are a plethora of books to read on the subject and you can spend days watching youtube videos full of helpful tips and tricks, below is an introduction to the process: 
<h2>Outdoor Logs Are a Great Place to Start</h2>
Outdoor logs can be a great way to begin mushroom farming, especially if you’re hoping to grow the shiitake variety. In the United States, this practice is <a href="https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.cornell.edu/dist/d/958/files/2014/03/Shiitake-BMP-3-11-1osfnxs.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">still fairly new </a>but particularly successful in the midwest regions. You want to use a log from an oak tree ideally, but sugar maple and beech logs can work as substitutes. Logs should be cut during the dormant season - between December and March. Keep any cut logs in a sheltered area so they don’t dry out. Keep them close to the ground, and use a tarp or snow cover to keep moisture in. 

You’ll want to do research on what type of spawn and strain to use, as this can be a fundamental aspect of whether or not your mushroom farm is a success. There are certain strains that are more<a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=LE46+mushroom&amp;tbm=isch&amp;source=univ&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiv_-7Mh8zjAhUbWs0KHaveCGcQsAR6BAgHEAE&amp;biw=1436&amp;bih=717" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> beginner-friendly</a> than others, but your selection should also depend on what you’re excited about growing and where you live. You can order <a href="https://fungi.com/collections/plug-spawn-for-logs-stumps" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">spawn plugs</a> from a variety of places online or at a local nursery. 
<h2>Moisture is Everything</h2>
After you’ve found the perfect spawn and strain for your mushroom farm, moisture is probably the most important factor when it comes to actually growing mushrooms. You want the moisture content of your log to be <a href="https://fungially.com/how-to-grow-mushrooms-outside/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">around 45%</a>. If it hasn’t rained in over 2 weeks, you’ll need to water the log(s) yourself. You can soak a log for 2-5 hours to re-hydrate it and keep it thriving for another month. Less water-efficient but also effective is to use a sprinkler on the logs for 4-8 hours, bringing the moisture content back up. 

To inoculate your log, drill 1-inch deep holes in rows 6 inches apart. Use a hammer to push the spawn plug into the hole until the plug is flush with the log’s surface. Once you’ve filled the holes, you can cover the log in a light<a href="https://fungially.com/how-to-grow-mushrooms-outside/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> layer of wax </a>to protect the log from unwanted spores and bacteria and then place the log in a shady area. 

This process takes patience. For example, logs inoculated in April will fruit over a year later, around June. 
<h2>Indoor Trays</h2>
If you’re craving a more regulated and nuanced approach than log-growing is able to provide, you might consider indoor trays as a technique for mushroom farming. With indoor trays, you have greater control over light, temperature, and moisture. Your crop will be better protected from pests and other contaminating elements. This allows for a more consistent production cycle. However, it is also a considerably more amount of work and might deter beginning mushroom farmers. There are plenty of <a href="https://www.namyco.org/growing_mushrooms_at_home.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">accessible resources</a> available to learn more about growing crops indoors. 
<h2>Troubleshooting </h2>
Mushroom farming is an intensive technique - but the bounty can absolutely be worth the trouble! As with any new farming or gardening endeavors, it’s important to have a realistic understanding of the necessary time and resources. Farming mushrooms should be fun, so start small and grow from there. 

Most often, problems arise from either too much moisture or not enough. Soak up as much knowledge as you can from experienced growers online and in your community, and then go for it. There’s really only one way to succeed - and that’s to give it a try. 

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1875582 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/tree-stump-1040639_1280.jpg" alt="mushroom farming tree" width="1280" height="853" />

Have you had success with mushroom farming before? What techniques did you use and what did you learn along the way?

How To Start Mushroom Farming

Mushrooms are an endlessly fascinating organism on planet earth. Defined...

If you haven’t heard of chaga, you aren’t alone. This mushroom, while wildly popular amongst certain groups in the far northern reaches of the planet, has yet to make it into mainstream culture. That being said, it is rapidly gaining celebrity for its wide variety of therapeutic uses, including diabetes, weight-loss, and even anti-cancer properties. 

&nbsp;
<h2>How Does Chaga Grow?</h2>
Chaga is a fungus, which means it reproduces through spores and it feeds on organic matter. This mushroom grows on birch trees that prefer northern climates in places such as Russia, Alaska, Sweden, and Canada. Chaga is circumpolar, meaning it grows around the world in its preferred habitat.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1873582" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/40358524662_6fb0d37238_k.jpg" alt="chaga mushroom on birch tree" width="2048" height="1365" />

Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/40948266@N04/40358524662">Bjorn S</a>

&nbsp;

During reproduction Chaga spores float through the air, hoping to land on an open wound of a birch tree. Squirrels and bugs feeding on branches for sap or branches broken in wind cause these wounds. 

If successful, the spore enters the tree and slowly spreads throughout the wood. This is a slow process. It can take up to 80 years for Chaga to finally kill its host tree. Once its host is dead, the mushroom uses the inside of the tree to create fruiting bodies that spread more spores into the forest. 

Unlike mushroom species commonly eaten as food, which are the fruiting bodies of the organism, the part of Chaga that interests people is the mycelium. Mycelium is a network of vegetative fungal growth, rather than sexual fungal growth. If you think of an apple tree, the wood and leaves are equivalent to the mycelium, whereas the apple is comparable to the fruiting part of the mushroom. 

The mycelium of Chaga appears as an abnormal growth on the outside of the birch tree. These growths are incredibly hard and dense. They appear black on the outside and orange on the inside. 

This mycelium is harvested from the side of the birch with minimal injury to the tree. Since the mycelium growths appear far before the fungus kills the tree, a single birch can produce Chaga for decades. All Chaga in the world is harvested from the wild by hand. 

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1873583" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/birch-4108669_1920.jpg" alt="birch tree" width="1920" height="1280" />

&nbsp;
<h2>What Do People Claim Chaga Can Do?</h2>
Some say that Chaga has so much healing potential because it concentrates the entire life of a tree into a small, consumable package. Imagine, the power of a hundred springs, summers, falls, and winters sitting in the palm of your hand as a medicine. 

In Russia, people have used this mushroom for centuries in folk-medicine. Currently, people of many backgrounds from around the world swear by this northern 'Black Gold.' Is there any science to back up these claims?

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1873585" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Chaga-Tad4.jpg" alt="chaga mushroom" width="1280" height="960" />

&nbsp;

To date, no clinical trials on humans have been published on the medicinal effects of Chaga. However, the last decade has seen a remarkable uptick in scientific research on the fungus. We now have dozens of studies using Chaga on mice, rats, and human cancer cells. These studies have some remarkable findings. 
<h3>Diabetes and Weight Loss</h3>
<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/pressrel/2010/r101022.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">One in three Americans</a> is predicted to be diabetic or prediabetic by the year 2050. That is over 100 million people! Research shows that Chaga can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18434051" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">decrease the level of glucose</a> in the blood of diabetic mice. A different study revealed that regular ingestion of a fermented Chaga mixture <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/pressrel/2010/r101022.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">suppressed body weight gain</a> of mice on a high-fat diet. Perhaps we will see an increase in Chaga consumption with our nation's growing diabetes problem.
<h3>Antioxidants</h3>
Chaga contains an impressive amount of antioxidants. By weight, it can have up to <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/pressrel/2010/r101022.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">150 times the antioxidant load of blueberries</a>. While I would certainly rather eat a cup of blueberries compared to a cup of woody Chaga, the amount of antioxidants it contains is quite impressive. These chemicals are widely known to stave off cancer and inflammation. 
<h3>Cancer</h3>
Perhaps the most exciting secret that Chaga may hold is in fighting cancer. A recent study found that Chaga was effective in <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/pressrel/2010/r101022.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">destroying human lung cancer</a> cells, while leaving normal cells healthy. Other studies have demonstrated similar <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/pressrel/2010/r101022.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">anti-cancer properties</a> for leukemia, colon, and cervical cancers. Furthermore, evidence shows that Chaga can elevate the immune system in mice. This could prove useful for patients undergoing chemotherapy for cancer, because they have diminished immune systems due to the harsh treatment. Chaga is also reported to work as an antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, and to cure stomach ulcers. Some think it can even repair damaged DNA!

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1873584" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/IMG_2399.jpg" alt="brich trees" width="4032" height="3024" />

&nbsp;
<h3>How Is Chaga prepared?</h3>
Chaga is not bioactive (available for your body to process) in its natural state. The mushroom is as hard as wood and bigger than a softball. Try taking a bite out of that! Here are three ways people access the medicinal benefits of chaga:
<ol>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Typically, this woody mushroom is broken into chunks the size of peppercorns and brewed as a tea. The fungus needs to boil for at least fifteen minutes for the therapeutic chemicals to come out. However, some research suggests that other methods may capture more of the medicinal benefits. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">An extraction via alcohol is performed to remove all water-soluble compounds from the mushroom, creating a higher potency medicine. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">A more challenging way to turn the mushroom into medicine is through fermentation with bacteria. While research on the fermentation of Chaga is in its infancy, it seems to be promising. </li>
</ol>
These three methods are currently the most common. It’s possible that the method of extraction could vary depending on the intended use of the plant. For weight loss, the Chaga <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/pressrel/2010/r101022.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">prepared through fermentation</a> might be best, whereas for anti-cancer properties an alcohol extraction could be superior. To complicate matters further, Chaga that grows in different areas across the globe have different concentrations of therapeutic compounds. This means that Chaga native to France could be<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/pressrel/2010/r101022.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> better for curing cancer</a> than the Chaga that grows in Russia.

&nbsp;
<h3>How Can I Get Chaga?</h3>
Various companies sell Chaga in different forms. It is commonly sold as a tea, as a powder to mix into smoothies, as a tincture, and as an ingredient in mixtures with other therapeutic mushrooms. <a href="https://us.foursigmatic.com/mushroom/mushroom-coffee?gclid=CjwKCAjw0N3nBRBvEiwAHMwvNoNsb5CF_HCY0DE0hHq291cWg5oXBQtxW6Jwh_g8i6iN1gC8m_MlRxoC4n0QAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">One company</a> even puts Chaga in coffee, along with Reishi and other mushrooms, to add a little dose of medicine to your morning routine. 

I look forward to seeing more research emerge about Chaga and its benefits. While I am a natural skeptic, this mushroom really does seem to have something going on. Don’t be surprised if you see Chaga popping up everywhere in the next few years. It is certainly beginning to be a fad, and may become much more than that.

&nbsp;

What Is Chaga? Intro to the Alaskan Medicinal Mushroom

If you haven’t heard of chaga, you aren’t alone. This...

What’s growing on that tree? This is a question you may have asked yourself once or twice on a walk around your neighborhood, in the park, or out in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/government-wildness-wilderness/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">wilderness</a> somewhere. If you’ve ever wondered about an odd-looking growth on a trunk, stump, or branch, you’re not alone. Many of us would love to be masters at identifying tree fungus, so that’s why we’ve made this handy guide!

Keep in mind that fungus growing on a tree is usually a good sign that the tree is decaying or dying. Because fungi feed on organic matter, they are often a sure sign that a tree is <a href="https://treesforlife.org.uk/forest/forest-ecology/decomposition-and-decay/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">nearing the end of its life</a>. Tree fungi come in diverse arrays of shapes and sizes. There are a few growth forms of fungus that are easily identifiable. We’ll go over some of the main types of tree fungus and how to identify them.

In order to identify a tree fungus, the main thing to look for is the general shape and texture. The part you see is actually the fruiting body of a fungus, and it’s just the tip of the iceberg. The rest of the organism is the hidden mycelium which the fungus uses to retrieve nutrients, like the roots of a plant. The most important part of a fungus in order to identify it, however, is the visible part. Here are 3 common types of tree fungus and examples to look for:

&nbsp;
<h2>1. Shelf Fungus</h2>
This type of fungus is named after the easily identifiable shape they create. They look like little shelves that protrude from the trunk or branches of a tree. Although they all exhibit the same general shape, they can be all sorts of colors and textures.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873578 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Ganoderma_applanatum-1024x768.jpg" alt="artist's conk fungus" width="1024" height="768" />
<h3>Artist’s Conk (Ganoderma applanatum)</h3>
Another super abundant shelf fungus is the artist’s conk. You can find it growing on many species of trees, from conifers to broad-leaf trees. It's a thick shelf fungus, with brown on the top and white on the bottom. If you think you've identified one, to be sure, try drawing a picture on the underside with a twig or even your fingernail, and see how the artist's conk <a href="http://themushroomforager.com/2010/08/03/artists-conk-canvas-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">got its name</a>!

&nbsp;
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1873579 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/turkeytailfungus.jpg" alt="turkey tail fungus" width="768" height="576" /></h3>
<h3>Turkey Tail Fungus (Trametes versicolor)</h3>
One of the more common species of shelf fungus is the turkey tail fungus. This one can be found all over the world, and the psychedelic colors it displays make it easy to identify.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>2. Cap Fungus</h2>
When one thinks of a mushroom, the first image to appear in their head is the shape of a classic cap mushroom. Although this type of fungus is more common growing on the ground than on a tree, it’s still possible to see them on a tree trunk.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873581 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/mushrooms-295823_1280-1024x768.jpg" alt="Oyster mushrooms" width="1024" height="768" />
<h3>Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus)</h3>
An incredibly common cap fungus is the oyster mushroom. These are <a href="https://www.giverecipe.com/fried-oyster-mushroom/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">eaten worldwide</a>, and are the target of many a mushroom forager. They grow in clusters and are a creamy white color. Oyster mushrooms can be found nearly everywhere in the temperate regions of the world, growing on the trunks of broad-leaf trees.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873580 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/matryoshka-516281_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="amanita mushroom" width="1024" height="682" />
<h3>Fly Amanita (Amanita muscaria)</h3>
Fly amanita mushrooms, also simply called amanita mushrooms, can be found anywhere. You may wonder why a mushroom that grows out of the ground is on our list of tree fungus. Well, it’s because it is a tree fungus! This one is associated with the roots of a tree, an incredibly common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-everywhere/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">life strategy many fungi have</a>. Amanita mushrooms are beneficial for their host, by reducing the number of parasitic fungi that would otherwise grow on the tree. Their easily identifiable, too. Look for the bright red cap with white spots.

&nbsp;
<h2>3. Jelly Fungus</h2>
Another fungus name that describes the organism all too well is the jelly fungus. These gelatinous blobs are sometimes called snot fungus due to their gooey, amorphous forms. It’s relatively easy to recognize this type of fungus. Here's my favorite example of jelly fungi:

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873577 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/jelly-ear-fungus-1024x681.jpg" alt="jelly ear fungus" width="1024" height="681" />
<h3>Wood Ear (Auricularia auricula-judae)</h3>
Wood ear fungus is coppery red and resembles a shelf fungus in its shape. Due to its gelatinous form, it’s actually a type of jelly fungus. You’ll find this one on dead or dying branches of trees, usually in the colder months of the year. It can also be on fallen wood on the forest floor. Like oyster mushrooms, wood ear fungus is a delicacy in some countries, despite the weird texture!

&nbsp;

Remember - don’t go around eating random mushrooms! Many are poisonous, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushrooms-hallucinogenic-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">hallucinogenic</a>, or deadly, and it’s easy to mistakenly identify different types. Go with a seasoned mushroom forager who knows what they’re doing. If you're curious about learning more about foraging for mushrooms, check out our guide on identifying edible mushrooms.

Guide to Identifying Tree Fungus (and the 3 Most Common Types)

What’s growing on that tree? This is a question you...

Bacteria, of many strange shapes and sizes, are everywhere. In every habitat - desert, forest, ocean, grassland, and even in the Arctic, bacteria are an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-travel-thousands-miles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">inescapable part of life</a>. No matter how many detox diets you do, or how often you clean the kitchen, bacteria will still be all around you and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-microbiomics/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">inside of your body</a>. And this isn’t a bad thing! Most bacteria live in the lining your digestive system, helping to keep things running smoothly. 

Bacteria can benefit humans, like turning milk into yogurt, but they can also cause deadly conditions like pneumonia. Needless to say, the human relationship with bacteria is complicated and fascinating.

&nbsp;
<h2>What Are Bacteria?</h2>
Here are a few more details for those of us that haven’t sat in a science classroom for a while: bacteria are single-celled microbes. Their cell structure is less complicated than multicellular organisms, and their genetic information is contained in a single loop of DNA. By contrast, humans have about <a href="https://phys.org/news/2014-12-scientists-human-loop-ome-revealing-genetic.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">10,000 loops of DNA</a>. 

Sometimes a bacterium also includes an extra circle of genetic material called a plasmid. This plasmid gives certain bacterium an advantage over other bacteria and can make them resistant to certain antibiotics, for example. 

Because they have a <a href="https://microbiologyinfo.com/different-size-shape-and-arrangement-of-bacterial-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">rigid cell wall</a>, they maintain distinct and definite shapes - some stranger than others. These shapes can exist as single cells, pairs, clusters, and chains. They vary greatly and are an ongoing area of scientific study and discovery.

So let's take a look at some of the strange shapes of bacteria...

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<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873181 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/bacteria-808751_960_720.jpg" alt="coccus" width="960" height="678" />
<h2>Coccus</h2>
One of the <a href="https://microbiologyinfo.com/different-size-shape-and-arrangement-of-bacterial-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">three basic shapes</a>, coccus are round cells. Occasionally they are slightly flat due to their proximity to other cells.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873182 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/koli-bacteria-123081_960_720.jpg" alt="koli bacteria" width="960" height="694" />
<h2>Bacilli </h2>
Bacilli is another of the three basic shapes. It is rod-shaped or cylindrical.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1873183" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1873183 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/microbe-bacteria-parasite-elongated-shape-spirochetes-spirilla-worms-3d-animation_hmxpegmhl_thumbnail-full09-1024x540.png" alt="spirilla" width="1024" height="540" /> Still shot from "Microbe, bacteria, parasite, elongated shape, spirochetes, spirilla, worms"[/caption]
<h2>Spirilla </h2>
The final basic shape is spirilla. Spirilla curve like a ripe banana. Other cells can look more like a spiraling corkscrew. Some are rigid, others are flexible.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="wp-image-1873188 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/4-filamentous-bacteria-nocardia-farcinica-wiki.jpg" alt="Filamentous" width="700" height="490" />
<h2>Filamentous </h2>
Filamentous form long, stretching filaments that can connect. A network of these filaments is known as <a href="https://microbiologyinfo.com/different-size-shape-and-arrangement-of-bacterial-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">“mycelium”</a>.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1873185" align="alignnone" width="341"]<img class="wp-image-1873185 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Rectangular-Bacteria.jpg" alt="rectangular bacteria " width="341" height="266" /> Photo by <a href="https://microbiologyinfo.com/different-size-shape-and-arrangement-of-bacterial-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Microbiology Info</a>[/caption]
<h2>Rectangular </h2>
You guessed it - these bacteria are box-like in shape.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873189 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Star-Shaped-Stella-vacuolata.jpg" alt="star shaped bacteria" width="700" height="242" />
<h2>Star-shaped </h2>
Ongoing scientific research continues to illuminate how certain bacteria are related. Star-shaped bacteria found along the Atlantic ocean floor and the Baltic sea are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1371058" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">still a mystery.</a>

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1873186" align="alignnone" width="259"]<img class="wp-image-1873186 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/download.jpg" alt="appendaged bacteria " width="259" height="195" /> Photo by <a href="https://www.bioexplorer.net/bacteria-shapes.html/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bioexplorer.net</a>[/caption]
<h2>Appendaged </h2>
Still maintaining rigid wall cells, appendaged or budding bacteria have strange shapes and may <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-13187-9_29" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">reproduce differently than other shapes.</a> Scientists continue to investigate more.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873190 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Trichome-Thiotrix-nivea-flickr.jpg" alt="Trichome " width="700" height="603" />
<h2>Trichome-forming</h2>
Trichomes are a chain of <a href="https://www.bioexplorer.net/bacteria-shapes.html/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">vegetative cells.</a> A protective structure can enclose them, like a sword in a sheath.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

[caption id="attachment_1873187" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1873187 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/F2.large-1-1024x819.jpg" alt="pleomorphic bacteria" width="1024" height="819" /> Image by the <a href="https://jcm.asm.org/content/40/12/4771" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Journal of Clinical Microbiology</a>[/caption]
<h2>Pleomorphic </h2>
Unlike all the others listed above, pleomorphic bacteria do not have a characteristic or standard shape. Their shapes can change or appear in a variety of ways.

&nbsp;

What experiences in your life have changed your perspective on bacteria? Did you know about the strange shapes of bacteria and does that change how you feel about it? Let us know in the comments!  

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

The Strange Shapes of Bacteria

 Bacteria, of many strange shapes and sizes, are everywhere. In...

Getting a stomach “bug” (usually a bacteria or virus) from food is a horrible ordeal. Unfortunately, this is an experience that most people share. <a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/consumers/what-you-need-know-about-foodborne-illnesses" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">According to the FDA</a>, 1 in 6 Americans will experience foodborne illness each year. Though food poisoning is generally mild and can be treated at home, some cases are more severe. Children, the elderly and those with compromised immune systems are at a higher risk of severe infections. However, some foodborne pathogens are life-threatening, even to healthy individuals.

Symptoms of <a href="https://www.foodsafety.gov/poisoning/causes/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">food poisoning</a> generally include nausea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea. The best protection against food poisoning is proper food handling practices. To avoid food contamination, make sure to wash your hands before handling foods and avoid leaving food at room temperature. Pregnant women, young children, the elderly and other people with <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/symptoms.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">weakened immune systems</a> should be extra careful.

Food poisoning can take many different forms and come from many places. The term “food poisoning” is not entirely accurate. In most cases of foodborne illness, the culprit is a bacteria or virus. Though the toxins they produce cause many symptoms, the root cause of the illness is usually an infection. There are many different bacteria and viruses that can cause food poisoning. Mold, parasites, pesticides and natural toxins <a href="https://www.poison.org/articles/2013-apr/food-poisoning" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">can also cause food poisoning</a>. They vary in severity, symptoms, sources and how long they take to hit.

&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1873016 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1Staphylococcus_aureus_50000x_USDA_ARS_EMU.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="800" />

Staphylococcus aureus
<h2>Common Types of Food Poisoning</h2>
Take a look at this chart for a summary of some common forms of food poisoning:

&nbsp;
<table>
<tbody>
<tr style="background-color: #e0e0e0;">
<th style="border: 1px solid black;">Contaminant</th>
<th style="border: 1px solid black;">Symptoms</th>
<th style="border: 1px solid black;">Sources</th>
<th style="border: 1px solid black;">Prevention</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Campylobacter jejuni</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Diarrhea, stomach cramps, fever, vomiting. Blood in diarrhea.

Onset: 2-5 days

Duration: 2-10 days</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Raw and undercooked poultry, “raw” milk, contaminated water.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Cook poultry to an internal temperature of 165°F. Do not consume “raw” milk products.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Bacillus cereus</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Abdominal cramps, watery diarrhea, nausea.

Onset: 10-16 hours

Duration: 24-48 hours</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Meats, stews, rice products, starchy foods, and sauces.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Cook meat thoroughly. Do not store perishable foods at room temperature.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Salmonella</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting.

Onset: 12-72 hours

Duration: 4-7 days</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Undercooked meat, poultry, and eggs, “raw” milk, and produce.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Cook meat thoroughly. Do not eat raw or undercooked eggs. Do not consume “raw” milk products. Wash produce thoroughly.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Staphylococcus aureus</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Nausea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Onset: .5-6 hours

Duration: 1-3 days</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Milk and cheeses. Present on skin.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">The toxins from Staph aureus are not destroyed by heat. Food must be kept above 140°F or below 40°F to prevent growth.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Clostridium botulinum (Botulism)</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Botulism is a rare but serious form of food poisoning. Symptoms include vomiting, diarrhea, blurred/double vision, difficulty swallowing, and weakness. Botulism can be deadly and requires medical attention.

Onset: 12-72 hours

Duration: Varies</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Improperly canned foods.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Avoid eating home canned foods. If you do eat home canned foods, make sure they are properly sealed and sterilized. Do not eat food from damaged cans.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Escheria coli</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Severe diarrhea, abdominal cramps and vomiting. E. Coli can cause kidney failure.

Onset: 2-8 days

Duration: 5-7 days</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Uncooked beef, “raw” milk, and juice, contaminated produce or water.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Cook meat thoroughly. Only drink pasteurized milk and juice. Wash produce thoroughly before eating.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Hepatitis A</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Diarrhea, dark urine, jaundice, fever, headache, nausea, abdominal pain.

Onset: 2-6 weeks

Duration: 8 weeks</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Produce, including berries. Shellfish from contaminated water.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Wash produce thoroughly. Cook meat and seafood thoroughly. Reheat cooked foods before eating.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Listeria monocytogenes</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Fever, muscle aches, nausea, and diarrhea. Can cause stillbirth in pregnant women. Listeria can spread to the nervous system, causing headaches, confusion, and loss of balance.

Onset: 1-4 weeks

Duration: Variable</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Pre-made deli foods and soft cheeses. Hot dogs, dried or fermented sausages, deli salads.</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black;">Cook meat thoroughly. Wash your hands before and after handling raw meat and eggs. Only consume pasteurized dairy products. Do not eat prepared deli salads.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Cyclospora</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Diarrhea, loss of appetite, sudden weight loss, fatigue, nausea, stomach cramps.

Onset: 1-14 days

Duration: weeks to months</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Produce</td>
<td style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">Wash produce thoroughly before eating.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
&nbsp;

Though food poisoning is generally mild, some forms are more dangerous. Diseases like botulism and listeria can be life-threatening. There are a few key strategies for avoiding food poisoning. Using proper food handling techniques and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avoid-food-poisoning-precautions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">checking restaurants health inspection scores</a> can help decrease your risk. Storing and carrying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grocery-bags-food-poisoning/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">meat separate from produce</a> is another way to avoid food poisoning. Read use by dates on perishable foods and <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/tell-food-thrown-away/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">throw out old food</a>.

&nbsp;

Curious to learn more? Read about the relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-global-warming-clearly-liked-to-waterborne-food-poisoning/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">climate change and foodborne illnesses</a>.

&nbsp;

Most Common Types of Food Poisoning

Getting a stomach “bug” (usually a bacteria or virus) from...

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The tell-tale signs and symptoms of the scariest flesh-eating bacteria were first described over 2000 years ago, but only recently in medical history have scientists been able to characterize thee diseases they cause and identify the bacteria responsible.

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Physicians now refer to the vast majority of flesh-eating bacterial infection cases as “<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/groupastrep/diseases-public/necrotizing-fasciitis.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">necrotizing fasciitis</a>.”‘Necrotizing’ refers to the death of tissue, while ‘fasciitis’ refers to inflammation of the fascia - a tissue layer that is under the skin.
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<h2 data-offset-key="3tj5k-0-0">Flesh-Eating Bacteria Case Study</h2>
</div>
In July of 2016, a Florida man learned of the horrors of flesh-eating bacteria. As reported in the <a href="https://www.orlandosentinel.com/opinion/guest-commentary/os-op-flesh-eating-bacteria-survive-bob-morris-20190517-3dboqefws5hlxcvhwxiikgesry-story.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Orlando Sentinal</a>, Bob Morris and his wife had intended to go out for a quiet evening paddleboard on the Caloosahatchee River, a few miles east of Sanibel Island. A submerged oyster bed sent Bob flying off his board, and when he crawled back on he realized he had gashed his left knee open.
Bob and his wife rushed home and they knew the drill: “wash the cut, force it to bleed, flush with hydrogen peroxide, apply antiseptic. Repeat, repeat, repeat.” But by the next morning, his leg was only looking worse: swollen, red, and very painful. After rushing to the hospital, Bob received morphine and added to an amputation watch. After a week of testing, physicians were finally able to diagnose Bob: necrotizing fasciitis caused by the bacteria <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-waters-will-lead-to-pathogenic-bacteria-crossing-the-seas/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">vibrio vulnificus</a>.
Bob survived (with all his limbs), but the disease can be deadly. In Florida in<a href="http://www.floridahealth.gov/diseases-and-conditions/vibrio-infections/vibrio-vulnificus/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> 2015 alone</a>, 45 people contracted V. vulnificus and 14 of those cases proved to be fatal.

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<img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/bacteria-811861_1280-978x1024.jpg" alt="Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteria" width="978" height="1024" />

&nbsp;
<h2 data-offset-key="212br-0-0">Flesh-Eating Microbes</h2>
</div>
V. vulnificus is just one of many bacteria that can lead to flesh-eating diseases. Many others exist and live in unique environments. Here are a few examples:

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<ul>
 	<li data-offset-key="25eeh-0-0"><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cows-antibiotic-resistant-superbugs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Staphylococcus aureus</a>: this bacteria is often found on the skin without causing any problems. It is only when S. aureusenters the body that it typically causes disease.</li>
 	<li data-offset-key="25eeh-0-0"><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antimicrobial-resistance-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Klebsiella pneumoniae</a>: K. pneumoniae is a common bacteria that causes hospital-acquired urinary tract infections as well as pneumonia. The first case of necrotizing fasciitis caused by the bacteria<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4307707/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> was discovered in 2015</a>.</li>
 	<li data-offset-key="25eeh-0-0"><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6094465/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Prevotella buccae</a>: P. buccae is typically found in the mouth and the gut. While they rarely cause necrotizing fasciitis alone, they can contribute to particularly resistant infection when coupled with other bacteria.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
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<h2 data-offset-key="59thv-0-0">Who Is At Risk?</h2>
</div>
Usually, flesh-eating bacteria are classified by how many species of bacteria are to blame. Type 1 infections are ‘polymicrobial’ (many bacteria), and Type 2 are 'monomicrobial' (one bacteria).
Individuals will often contract Type 1 vs. Type 2 infections for different reasons. People who have <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/immunocompromised" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">weakened immune systems</a> are most at risk. These patients already have other diseases that are stressing their body’s ability to fight off infection. Individuals with diabetes mellitus or chronic renal failure are particularly at risk of contraction. Type 2 infections usually result from some minor trauma that allows the bacteria entry into the body. In Bob’s case, this was likely caused by the cut on his knee and the presence of the flesh-eating V. vulnificus in the water.
&nbsp;
<h2 data-offset-key="7va4c-0-0" data-editor="42oll" data-block="true">Signs and Symptoms</h2>
One of the scarier parts of necrotizing fasciitis is that the symptoms are often hard to recognize or are even misleading. According to the<a href="https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/necrotizing-fasciitis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> National Organization for Rare Disorders</a>, the symptoms will often present as if the patient has the flu. These symptoms will often include ‘high fever, sore throat, stomach ache, nausea, diarrhea, chills, and general body aches.’ One of the signs that separates the flu from flesh-eating diseases is the presence of an ‘erythema’ - a redding of the skin due to dilated blood vessels - that is painful to the touch. This erythema can also grow in size rapidly, often times up to 1 inch per hour.
As the bacteria spread under the skin, the initial symptoms will continue to worsen. A high fever often persists and pain levels increase well above what the initial injury would normally feel like. Additionally, the skin may start to turn a deep purple color with black splotches. At this point, left untreated, the patient's chances of surviving are extremely low.

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&nbsp;
<h2>Treatment</h2>
</div>
The first step in treating flesh-eating bacteria is getting a patient to the hospital. No at-home remedies exist to treat such a fast-moving infection. Upon arrival and diagnosis, surgery is typically the first procedure. This involves a surgeon removing all of the dead and dying tissue - regardless of where it is. Sometimes, this may lead to amputations of affected limbs.
Next, doctors will treat a patient with a powerful cocktail of antibiotics. Depending on which strain of flesh-eating bacteria is causing the infection, this cocktail will differ. There is currently no standard length of antibiotic treatment, thus doctors typically administer antibiotics until the patient shows no further signs of infection.

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</div>
</div>
</div>

Scariest Flesh-Eating Bacteria

The tell-tale signs and symptoms of the scariest flesh-eating bacteria...

It may come as a surprise to learn that most of the cells in your body are not your own. Scientists estimate bacteria may outnumber human cells by as much as 10 to 1! Admittedly, this estimate is on the higher side. However, it is generally agreed that there are at least as many non-human cells as human cells in the average person.

This may sound like a terrifying invasion, but don’t fear. These “foreign” cells are your microbiome. They are an essential part of the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3450280/pdf/12088_2010_Article_34.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">human “superorganism.”</a>

Since the advent of "germ theory," we’ve seen bacteria as evil. They're invaders, hiding out on doorknobs and cellphones. Bacteria is just waiting for you to forget to wash your hands. Then it can infect you and everyone you come in contact with. This view of bacteria isn’t entirely accurate. Though some bacteria can be harmful (and you should definitely keep washing your hands), most are benign and some are helpful!

The microbiome is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humansrelationship-microbes-inside/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the community of organisms living inside you</a> (<a href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">or their collective genes</a>.) These include bacteria, fungi, archaea, and even viruses! The term microbiome can also refer to the communities of microbes in environmental samples. In this article, we will be focusing on the human microbiome.

Scientists are just beginning to research the role of the microbiome in health. The importance of the microbiome to human health has become apparent.

The human microbiome is often associated with gut bacteria. But, the microbiome is not restricted to the digestive tract. Microbes live throughout the human body, and helpful microbes are found in many organs.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>What Makes a Microbe Good?</h2>
Everyone's microbiome has many different types of microbes. This microbial community plays an essential role in digestion and our immune systems. The amount of help provided by bacteria can vary. Some <a href="https://www.gutmicrobiotaforhealth.com/en/glossary/commensal-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">species are mutualistic</a>, providing and receiving benefits to their host. Others are commensal, simply living inside our guts without harming or benefiting us.

Microbes play an essential role in digestion. They assist in digesting foods that humans have trouble processing. Probiotics supplements and foods offer a way to boost your gut microbiota. These good bacteria include many species of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium.

The microbes in the urinary tract and eyelids keep foreign bacteria at bay. By establishing a community, they make it harder for bad microbes to invade.

Bacteria are by far the most common and most discussed microbe in our bodies. However, the microbiome is far more complex. It also includes fungi, viruses, and archaea. These organisms provide a diverse environment that can respond to changing conditions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Where Do These Microbes Come From?</h2>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871718 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/yogurt-1442034_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="Yogurt with oats and strawberries sitting on a table with a plate of strawberries in the corner." width="1024" height="683" />

&nbsp;

We know the microbiome is an essential part of a healthy human. But where do all these microbes from? It turns out that our first exposure to these microbes happens as early as birth. We are exposed to microbes in the birth canal. The microbial community continues to develop through infancy. Breast milk can also deliver microbes. Though our microbiome is not inherited in the traditional sense it is still <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">passed from mother to child</a>.

The microbiome continues to develop and change throughout life. Diet has a huge influence on how the microbiome grows. It can also introduce new bacteria to the microbiome. Many probiotic or cultured foods contain good bacteria and yeast. Yogurt, kombucha, and kimchi are just a few examples of sources of good digestive bacteria.

Environment, location, diet, and health can all influence exposure to good and bad microbes.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Where Is Our Microbiome?</h2>
The microbiome occupies a large number of different organs. The microbes present are different in each. Though they share many functions, each community is unique. Research is ongoing to better understand the microbiome's role. Imbalances in the microbiome can have far-reaching effects. The microbes can influence many parts of the body.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Skin</h3>
</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3535073/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The skin</a> is a diverse habitat for a wide range of organisms. These include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and even small mites. These organisms are primarily harmless, while others provide essential services. They protect against invasion by pathogens, train the immune system, and even assist in killing pathogens.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Eye (conjunctiva)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The ocular microbiome is less well-known but can provide essential services. The <a href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/anatomy/microbiome-of-eye" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the eye</a> occurs on the conjunctiva, the clear tissue covering the whites of your eye. The eye has fewer microbes than the skin, around 1/100th the number. Healthy eyes usually have only 4 genera of bacteria. The ocular microbiome may be important in many conditions. These include chronic dry eyes and blepharitis.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Gut</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The gut is host to the most diverse and active microbiome. Microbes in the gut are essential for digestion. There is evidence that the gut microbiome may play a role in a wide array of different diseases. This article will focus on the gut microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Urinary Tract (UT)</h3>
</li>
</ul>
In the past, scientists believed the urinary tract was sterile. Any microbes in the UT were assumed to be a UTI. New evidence has shown that a healthy urinary tract has certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405456916301596" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbial communities</a>. Changes in this community have been linked to diseases. These include incontinence, cysts, STIs, pain, and even cancers! Research is being done on how to protect and repair this community. Diet, probiotics, and prebiotics may help regulate the urinary microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Vagina</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The <a href="http://vmc.vcu.edu/about" target="_blank" rel="noopener">microbiome of the vagina</a> is essential to vaginal health. These communities are complex and change over time. Hormonal and environmental changes have a large influence on this community. In general, the beneficial bacteria that exist in the vagina produce lactic acid. This acid lowers the pH, protecting against pathogens and infections. This protection is essential to prevent STIs, yeast infections, UTIs and bacterial vaginosis.

The vaginal microbiome is also involved in birth. Miscarriages and infertility are associated with an imbalanced microbiome. The vaginal microbiome also exposes newborns to microbes. This process provides many of the microbes that will become the child's microbiome.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Mouth</h3>
</li>
</ul>
The mouth leads directly to our largest microbiome, the gut. With this in mind, it makes sense that the mouth would also host a <a href="https://askthedentist.com/oral-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">complex microbiome</a>. The oral microbiome has around 700 species of organisms. Many diseases are associated with imbalances in the oral microbiome. These include cavities, gingivitis, and other conditions. Brushing and flossing are key to maintaining a balanced oral microbiome. Avoiding antibacterial mouthwash may also help.
<ul>
 	<li>
<h3>The Lungs</h3>
</li>
</ul>
Like the UT, the lungs were historically believed to be sterile. Genetic sequencing has revealed that this is not the case. Though the lungs have fewer total microbes than the gut, they are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3440512/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">extremely diverse</a>. However, lung microbes are still poorly understood. The lung microbiome may play a role in lung diseases. Research into the microbial community associated with pneumonia, cystic fibrosis, HIV, tobacco use, and other diseases may reveal important treatment options.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>Why Does the Microbiome Matter?</h2>
&nbsp;
<h3>Digestion</h3>
The microbiome is most prevalent in the gut. Here, bacteria play essential roles in digestion. They are crucial to digesting foods that humans naturally cannot. Bacteria digest a group of sugars called FODMAPs. This stands for Fermentable Oligo-, Di, Mono-saccharides, And Polyols. FODMAPs include well-known culprits of digestive issues such as lactose. FODMAPs may also play a role in the rise of reported non-celiac gluten intolerance. Many of these sugars are difficult or impossible for people to digest on their own.

An abnormal gut microbiome is associated with various gastrointestinal disease. <a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:mixTdAaa9JcJ:https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news/microbiomics_its_growing_significance_in_the_world_of_medicines_testing+&amp;cd=1&amp;hl=en&amp;ct=clnk&amp;gl=us" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Irritable bowel syndrome </a>is one example. In this condition, disrupted gut bacteria interfere with normal bile acid metabolism. Other medical issues including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-fungi-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">obesity</a> and diabetes are linked to an irregular microbiome. An improved understanding of the role of the microbiome in disease will improve treatment options.

&nbsp;
<h3>Immune function</h3>
The microbiome also plays an <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-03-gut-bacteria-essential-healthy-immune.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">essential role in immune health</a>. The microbiome is a training ground for your immune system. Exposure to these bacteria helps your immune cells build a response to pathogens. It also teaches the body that some microbes are not dangerous. This is important to prevent unnecessary inflammatory responses. Without the microbiome, every new food or environment would cause an unnecessary waste of energy.

Experiments on mice have shown that a lack of microbes creates an immature immune system. Adding bacterial flora quickly causes the immune system to improve.

A diverse microbiome provides the best benefits to health and immune function. It is essential that your microbiome remains balanced. Measuring and understanding the variation in gut microbes may help treat immune diseases like Crohn’s. Techniques to characterize the gut microbiome will continue to improve. This will enable individually targeted treatments to rebalance the gut microbiome.

&nbsp;
<h3>Relationship to the Brain</h3>
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871719 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/brain-512758_1280-1024x736.png" alt="A drawing on a human brain." width="1024" height="736" />

&nbsp;

The phrase “trust your gut” may have more truth to it than you ever knew. <a href="https://psychscenehub.com/psychinsights/the-simplified-guide-to-the-gut-brain-axis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The gut-brain axis</a> is the connection between the central nervous system (CNS) and the enteric nervous system (ENS). The role of the gut microbiome in influencing these systems is being investigated.

The CNS and ENS are independent but connected by the vagus nerve. This connects the gut directly to the hypothalamus and limbic system. These parts of the brain regulate emotion. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trust-your-instincts/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The limbic system and the gut</a> send signals back and forth. This relationship may be important in psychiatric disorders. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-health-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Depression</a>, anxiety, and even schizophrenia are linked to the microbiome.

Microbes can create neurotransmitters. These compounds are what our neurons use to communicate. These end up circulating in the blood. As a result, they affect day to day experience. In addition, bacteria play a role in modifying metabolism. As a result, levels of important precursors to neurotransmitters such as serotonin are changed.

The relationship between the gut and the brain is not well understood. However, it is clear that your microbiome has the potential to influence your emotions.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>How Do We Study the Microbiome?</h2>
&nbsp;
<h3>Culturing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871716 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Agar_plate_with_colonies.jpg" alt="Petri dish with microbes growing on it. Microbes are yellow on a black background. The dish is labeled &quot;Falcon&quot;" width="600" height="450" />

&nbsp;

The simplest way to look at a microbiome is to try and grow it in the lab. They place samples from the gut or another organ on nutrient-rich media. After that, the samples sit at body temperature until the microbes begin to grow. Finally, they grow each species on its own. Therefore, culturing microbes allows them to isolate individual species. Finally, they characterize species by appearance and chemistry.

However, culturing faces major hurdles. It is not possible to culture all the organisms present in the gut. Some need specific conditions only found in the gut. Reproducing these in the lab can be extremely difficult. Others need oxygen and will die immediately when removed from the body. Some species may be completely impossible to grow in the lab.

In addition, identifying microbes is difficult. For example, many species have similar appearances.

Even when culturing techniques succeed, they can be misleading. The species that grow may not represent the actual expression of genes and proteins. This is because they may behave differently outside of the body. Therefore, understanding the functional microbiome requires genetic techniques.

&nbsp;
<h3>Sequencing</h3>
&nbsp;

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1871717 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/dna-163466_1280-1024x576.jpg" alt="An artistic rendering of the double helix of DNA. 3 Blue strands of DNA on a black background." width="1024" height="576" />

&nbsp;

To get an accurate impression of the microbiome, you need genetic techniques. Sequencing helps determine the species present as well as the microbiomes gene expression. Both of these are important in understanding how the microbiome relates to health. Sequencing all the RNA and DNA in a sample gives a better picture of the function of the microbiome.

There are many techniques to sequence the genome. As technology improves detailed sequencing is more available. In the future, it may even be practical to use sequencing to diagnose patients.

&nbsp;
<h3>rRNA Sequencing</h3>
rRNA is a special type of RNA that helps create protein. This RNA sequence changes very little because it is so important. It also occurs in all cells. This makes it a great way to identify species.

rRNA sequencing lets researchers determine the diversity of species in the microbiome. It can also help determine which species are most common. This information is essential to help characterize the gut microbe community.

It is not always easy to identify the sequenced species. The meaning of “species” becomes a lot less clear with bacteria. These organisms readily share genes. They also reproduce so quickly that they evolve in real-time.

This makes it difficult to classify species. Instead, researchers group genomes by their similarity. Preset cutoffs define the groups. They call these cutoffs operational taxonomic units (or OTUs).

&nbsp;
<h3>Shotgun Sequencing</h3>
The alternative to rRNA sequencing is metagenomic, or “shotgun” sequencing. This technique involves sequencing tons of small pieces of DNA. Computers can reconstruct the genome. First, they find overlapping sequences. With enough overlapping sequences, you can reconstruct the whole genome.

This strategy has the potential to reveal the full genomes of microbes. Knowing this could provide better detail of the diversity of the microbiome.

&nbsp;

Genetic techniques and technologies continue to improve. These improvements will help researchers understand the microbiome. This research could pave the way towards microbiome diagnosis, which might provide early warning signs of diseases like IBS, diabetes, and obesity.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;
<h2>The Microbiome Provides New Insight</h2>
The role of the microbiome in health is complex. These communities are ecosystems with complex relationships. Each microbe interacts with their hosts (you and me) and each other. This complex network of interactions can have important impacts on health and disease. An improved understanding of these systems will help us to diagnose, prevent, and treat human disease. As advances in genetic sequencing continue to open the door to a better understanding of the microbiome, ongoing research into the human microbiome holds great potential.

&nbsp;

What Is Microbiomics?

It may come as a surprise to learn that most...

Vermilion,Waxcap,(hygrocybe,Miniata),Orange,Edible,Mushrooms,Growing,Through,Ground

Mycology has impacted your life, I guarantee it. Whether it was that penicillin you took to get better or those cultivated mushrooms you ate for dinner yesterday, you have mycology to thank. Mycologists are scientists who dedicate their careers to all things fungi.

It may be surprising to hear that mycology is not a booming discipline. Most universities don't offer programs in mycology and this doesn't seem to be changing. Fungal pathogens infect over 1 billion people worldwide. They also destroy one-third of global food production! Why aren't there more mycologists working on this stuff? On the other hand, humans benefit from many species of fungi, including those we eat and use as medicine.

[caption id="attachment_1892126" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892126 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/calocera-viscosa-4511805_1280.jpg" alt="fungi" width="1280" height="862" /> Fungi come in all sorts of unusual shapes and size. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/adege-4994132/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andreas</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/calocera-viscosa-goatee-cockscomb-4511805/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">How Are Mycology, Mycorrhizae, and Mycelia Different?</h3>
Mycology is the study of fungus, which is an entire kingdom of life. Mycology is to fungi as botany is to plants. Most scientists consider mycologists to be a type of microbiologist.
To date, scientists have named over 70,000 fungal species. Researchers believe there are up to 20 times that many fungus species out there. This means there could be about 1.5 million species of fungi on planet Earth. For some context, there are only about <a href="http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/A/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">350,000 named species</a> of flowering plants. The fungi kingdom is massive and we know so little about it!
Mycelia is simply the vegetative part of fungi. It is a branching, often invisible substance that is home to many wonders. If you have ever seen a white, webby substance in wet woodchips or in the soil, that is mycelium. Mycelia can form vast networks of fungus. One such network is thought to be the <a href="https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/606952-largest-living-organism#:~:text=The%20largest%20living%20organism%20is,equivalent%20to%201%2C350%20soccer%20fields." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">largest organism</a> on the planet.
Mushrooms, in contrast, are the fruiting bodies of these mycelial networks. They are the reproductive structures of fungal organisms. If we compare fungus to a peach tree, the mycelia would be the roots, wood, and leaves of the tree. The mushroom would be the flowers and peaches.
Mycorrhizae are the mycelia that grow in a symbiotic relationship with a plant host (more on this later).


[caption id="attachment_1892128" align="alignnone" width="800"]<img class="wp-image-1892128 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/4973009538_0daca97095_c.jpg" alt="mycelia, mycology" width="800" height="600" /> Mycelia growing between pine needles. Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/laurelfan/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Laurel Fan</a> via <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/laurelfan/4973009538" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Flickr</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">The Origins of Mycology</h3>
Humans have an older relationship with fungi than with agriculture. By analyzing plaque on ancient human teeth, <a href="https://www.mpg.de/9173780/mushrooms-food-source-stone-age" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">scientists revealed</a> that hunter-gatherers in Europe ate mushrooms as early as 18,000 years ago. Ever since then, our species has found hundreds of uses for this kingdom of life.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, groups like the Mycological Society of America and the British Mycological Society began to organize mycologists into a broader community. More recent groups, such as the North American Mycological Association, International Mycological Association, and <a href="https://mikrobiologie.eurofung.tu-berlin.de/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">EUROFUNG</a> have bolstered the mycological community. By publishing ground-breaking research in their <a href="https://imafungus.biomedcentral.com/?gclid=CjwKCAjwqIiFBhAHEiwANg9szp2cRtU_p0VNTsrEAyR62Xe8OSPknv1xzGZth_hsctD-zHX59rcf0BoCpzMQAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">scientific journals</a>, these societies have aided the development of mycology around the world.

<h3 data-marked="true">Trends in Mycology</h3>
Fungi remain understudied across the globe. There are various reasons for this. First, fungus is inherently difficult to study. Most species of fungi are impossible to grow in a lab. In nature, fungi have a short 'fruiting' period where mushrooms are visible. Without mushrooms, it is really hard to find mycelia.
Few universities offer classes or programs that specialize in mycology. Fungi experts were formerly housed within botany departments (which is funny, since fungi are actually <a href="http://tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3" target="_blank" rel="noopener">more closely related to animals</a> than plants). However, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-plant-blindness/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">botany departments are shrinking</a>, they are less interested in supporting their mycologist colleagues. These department-less mycologists have a hard time fending for themselves in university politics.
While the number of amateur mushroom hunters may have increased in the last decade, the number of people studying fungi hasn't. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1749461316300896" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Some mycologists</a> think that the lack of coordination, cooperation, and specialization within their scientific field is to blame for the decreasing funding towards mycology at universities.


[caption id="attachment_1892127" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892127 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/agaric-2638701_1280.jpg" alt="fungi" width="1280" height="853" /> A picture of the underside of a mushroom. Taxonomists often use the 'gills' of a mushroom to identify the species of fungus. Photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/adege-4994132/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Andreas</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/agaric-mushroom-disc-fungus-yellow-2638701/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h2 data-marked="true">What Makes a Fungus?</h2>
All fungi share a handful of common characteristics. In taxonomy, fungi are an entire kingdom of life (although the 'kingdoms' are <a href="https://thebiologynotes.com/three-domain-system/#:~:text=The%20three%2Ddomains%20of%20Carl,%2C%20Fungi%2C%20Plantae%2C%20Animalia.&amp;text=The%20main%20difference%20from%20earlier,splitting%20of%20archaea%20from%20bacteria." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">always in dispute</a>).
At the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9780470015902.a0002320.pub2" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">most basic level</a>, fungi have eukaryotic cells. This means that the cells have a nucleus. This differentiates them from prokaryotic bacteria. Fungi are also multicellular. This separates them from eukaryotic bacteria.
Animals and plants are other groups with eukaryotic cells. Fungi are different from animals because fungi can't move. They also reproduce by spores rather than sexually. Fungi are distinct from plants because fungi can't make their own food via photosynthesis. Instead, they absorb food from their surroundings. This process is called decomposition.
<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/lichens/lichenlh.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lichens</a> are unusual kinds of fungi. They are a symbiotic, obligate relationship between a species of algae and a species of fungi. Where do lichens fit into the tree of life? Beats me.
By far the largest order of fungi is ascomycetes, which contains the vast majority of named fungi species.

<h2 data-marked="true">Areas of Mycology</h2>
From biotechnology to addiction therapy, mycologists cover a wide variety of topics. Fungi touch many aspects of our lives. They are in our daily food, our backyards, and our medicine. Here is a quick overview of some topics mycologists study.


[caption id="attachment_1892130" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1892130 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/mushrooms-1603667_1280.jpg" alt="chanterelles, mycology" width="1280" height="853" /> Edible mushrooms can be big business! These chanterelles can cost up to $30 a pound. Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/blende12-201217/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gerhard G.</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/mushrooms-food-mushrooms-mushroom-1603667/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pixabay</a>.[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">Edible Fungi</h3>
I'm sure you've eaten lots of mushrooms if you've made it this far into the article. Mushroom cultivation is a <a href="https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/mushroom-market#:~:text=The%20global%20mushroom%20market%20size,market%20over%20the%20forecast%20period." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">booming business</a> as more people turn to plant-based diets. However, outside of a handful of species of fungi, most edible fungi species must be wild-harvested. These species include <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/an-introduction-to-gourmet-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">true delicacies</a>, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-find-chanterelle-mushrooms-and-cook-with-them/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">chanterelles</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/market-mushrooms-truffles/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">truffles</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-find-morel-mushrooms-and-avoid-false-morels/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">morels</a>. Mushrooms don't only taste delicious, they are super healthy, too. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-consumption-linked-to-45-percent-lower-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">A recent study</a> determined that daily mushroom consumption is linked to a 45% decrease in cancer! Some emerging health-food trends include the arctic fungus superfood, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-chaga-intro-to-the-alaskan-medicinal-mushroom/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Chaga</a>.

<h3 data-marked="true">Mychorrizae and the Environment</h3>
Fungi perform crucial roles in our environment. Every ecosystem needs decomposers. Decomposers are organisms that break down material. Without decomposers, logs and dead animals would never rot into the Earth. Fungi are essential decomposers in the ecology of many habitats.
Fungi also aid plant growth. With the exception of the pea family, plants can't make their own nitrogen. Nitrogen is an absolutely critical element plants need to grow. Mycorrhizae can convert nitrogen present in our atmosphere to the kind of nitrogen useable by plants. The plants use this nitrogen and in return give the mycorrhizae energy. These symbiotic relationships increase the biodiversity and resiliency of ecosystems on our planet.

<h3 data-marked="true">Medical Mycology</h3>
We should all be thankful for fungi because they are directly responsible for the increase in the human lifespan. The discovery of penicillin in 1928 had profound consequences on the human species. Penicillin works by distracting the enzyme in bacteria that produce cell walls. This distraction results in dead, disease-causing bacteria. Penicillin led to the antibiotic revolution. These drugs were a large part of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5354621/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">increasing the human lifespan</a> by nearly 30 years in places such as the U.S.


[caption id="attachment_1892129" align="alignnone" width="800"]<img class="wp-image-1892129 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/35158892481_0f91121e43_c.jpg" alt="fungal disease, mycology" width="800" height="600" /> A fungal disease of bananas causing cigar end-rot. Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/scotnelson/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scot Nelson</a>[/caption]
<h3 data-marked="true">Pathogenic Fungi</h3>
Fungi are the largest source of plant disease. These fungi cause diseases in many ways. They can enter a plant through leaves, bark, or roots. Some economically devastating fungi can destroy entire harvests of the world's most important crops.
These crops include rice, corn, cereals, bananas, tomato, cotton, and so many more. These fungi are serious business. It's no wonder that many of the employed mycologists focus on plant pathology.

<h3 data-marked="true">Entheogenic (a.k.a. Magic) Mushrooms</h3>
Yes, those kinds of mushrooms. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Psilocybin</a> is a hallucinogenic compound found in certain species of fungi. This group of mushrooms is found all around the world.
The first evidence of human use of these mushrooms dates back 7000-9000 years ago. This evidence is based on trippy prehistoric rock art in northern Africa.
Today there is a research boom in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-may-boost-our-ability-to-learn-and-explore/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">powerful mushrooms</a>.
There is strong, emerging evidence that psilocybin can drastically help people with addiction and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-could-help-millions-who-suffer-from-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">depression</a>. In a few decades, we may see a much broader acceptance of these medicinal mushrooms.

<h2 data-marked="true">Why Aren't There More Mycologists?</h2>
Short answer: I don't know. It really seems like we need more people studying these species. Fungi can be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mycocrete-new-material-made-of-fungi-hopes-to-replace-concrete-in-construction-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">wildly beneficial to humans</a> and also incredibly destructive.
Maybe they are hard to research. Maybe research into fungi just isn't sexy enough for government or private funding. Whatever the case, it seems like an increase in people studying fungal biology would help the human species as a whole.​
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A Beginner's Guide to Mycology

Mycology has impacted your life, I guarantee it. Whether it...

Humans and bacteria have coexisted for millions of years. Many of these microbes are necessary to our lives on earth. For example, the bacteria Lactobacillus acidophilus aids in the digestion of food <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbiome-promotes-healthier-aging/">in our gut.</a> Streptococcus thermophilus is a starting culture for yogurt and some cheese. While these bacteria are helpful, others, known as pathogenic, are capable of causing disease. What are some of the most deadly diseases caused by bacteria? First, let’s understand more about microbes. 
<h2>What are Bacteria?</h2>
<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-strange-shapes-of-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Bacteria</a> are <a href="https://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/N100/2k23domain.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">one of the three domains of life</a> - along with eukarya and archaea. They are characterized by several key features:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Single-cell: all bacteria are single-celled organisms. This means that each cell must be capable of accomplishing every function that an entire multi-celled organism is capable of. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Size: bacteria are much smaller than human cells. A typical bacterial cell is the same size as a human mitochondrion. This is about ten times smaller than a typical human cell.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Organelles: Human cells have a whole host of membrane-bound organelles, including nuclei and lysosomes. Bacterial cells, on the other hand, have no membrane-bound organelles. </li>
</ul>
<h2><img class="alignnone wp-image-1875760 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/bacteria-62993_1280.jpg" alt="diseases caused by bacteria cluster" width="1280" height="930" /></h2>
<h2>How Bacteria Make Us Sick</h2>
The first phase of sickness from a bacterial infection isn’t the bacteria itself. Instead, it is <a href="http://needtoknow.nas.edu/id/infection/how-pathogens-make-us-sick/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">our body’s response to the bacteria</a>. Our immune system recognizes that there is an invader and attempts to get rid of the foreign bacteria. Many of the initial symptoms - fever, rash, headache - are simply our innate immune response to infection. 

Some of the most deadly diseases are caused by the actual effects of the bacteria. These can manifest themselves in many different ways. For example, some bacteria multiply so quickly that they crowd our tissues and organs. This often disrupts normal functions or stops them entirely. Others release toxins that can damage cells and disrupt immune responses. Consequently, while the effects of pathogenic bacteria vary widely from species to species, the effects are always negative. 
<h2>Deadly Diseases</h2>
Now that we understand what bacteria are and how they cause disease, let’s take a look at some of the most deadly diseases caused by microbes. 
<h3>Bubonic Plague</h3>
The term ‘plague’ is oftentimes used to describe any disease outbreak. While it is commonly used to describe any disease that is especially nasty, this is incorrect. In fact, a <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/plague/symptoms-causes/syc-20351291" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">plague</a> is a specific disease caused by the bacterium, and it has three variations. The first variation is one that appears in history books: the bubonic plague. This version of plague infects the lymph nodes, causing them to swell. This triggers an immune reaction causing the victim to experience flu-like symptoms. 

The bubonic plague pandemic of the 14th century was the most devastating disease outbreak in recorded human history. Y. pestis is estimated to have killed a third of Europe’s population at the time - <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-diseases/the-plague/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">roughly 25 million people</a>. However, even with modern medicine the bubonic plague still has a mortality rate of 10%. Most of these reported cases originate in Africa. 
<h3>Anthrax</h3>
In popular culture, anthrax manifests itself in the form of a white powder that can cause disease. In reality, anthrax is the disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis, and it causes a whole host of nasty problems. B. anthracis originates in soil, plants, and water, but it is usually transmitted to humans via infected livestock like cattle or sheep. 

Symptoms of anthrax are <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/anthrax/basics/symptoms.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">similar to symptoms of the worst flu</a>. An infected individual may experience nausea, vomiting, sweats, confusion, diarrhea, and blisters or small bumps on the skin. Serious cases of exposure require hospitalization, often requiring aggressive treatment of ventilation and fluid drainage. Left untreated, the bacteria will produce toxins that can be deadly to humans.
<h3>Botulism</h3>
Botulism is usually caused by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. It can be the result of improperly stored foods - like home-made canned goods. The symptoms of botulism can appear extremely rapidly - <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/botulism/symptoms.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sometimes as soon as six hours post-infection</a>. If those symptoms do manifest, they are not fun. 

First, victims will have a hard time controlling their minor muscle movements. For example,  they may struggle to open their eyes, swallow, breath, and experience generalized weakness. All of these symptoms are the result of the chief problem with botulism: paralysis. The toxins released by C. botulinum cause paralysis, which, if left untreated, can stop the victim’s breathing eventually causing death. 
<h3><img class="alignnone wp-image-1875758 size-full" style="font-size: 16px;" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/pill-1884775_1920.jpg" alt="diseases caused by bacteria pills and antiobiotics " width="1920" height="1152" /></h3>
<h2>Disease Cures</h2>
Each of these diseases can, in theory, be treated with the proper course of antibiotics. The rise of antibiotic-resistant strains of various bacteria has complicated this option. This increase is directly related to an increase in the prescription of antibiotics. In 2015 alone, Clostridioides difficile killed<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/botulism/testing-treatment.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> 15,000 people</a> due to a lack of effective antibiotics. In the future, we will have to develop new and innovative means of treating these deadly diseases. 

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

Most Deadly Diseases Caused by Bacteria

Humans and bacteria have coexisted for millions of years. Many...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

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