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Native to New Zealand, kiwi birds are fascinating and unique creatures. These birds cannot fly and don’t have a tail, but they have long, loose feathers and powerful legs.



Hundreds of years ago, these birds thrived abundantly in their home country. Now, their populations have become dispersed and fragmented, as well as vulnerable.&nbsp;



Why are kiwi birds endangered? Let’s take a look at all of the factors that are threatening their long-term survival and driving this species toward extinction.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Habitat-loss-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911708"/><figcaption>Deforestation has reduced New Zealand's landscape dramatically. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/nazar_ab?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">nazar_ab</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat Loss</h2>



In an effort to make room for new farmlands and urban development, a majority of New Zealand’s natural forests have been cleared. As a result, the landscape has changed dramatically.&nbsp;



Around 750 years ago, natural forests covered about 85% of the country’s landscape, or about 23 million hectares. Deforestation efforts have reduced this to around 23%, which equals just 6.2 million hectares.&nbsp;



Many lowland forests, estuaries, and dunes have been converted into grasslands and pastures, while others are transformed into towns. Both measures are designed to boost local economies, though they have devastating effects on certain species, like the kiwi birds, that depend on the forest for survival.&nbsp;



Flat pastures do not provide kiwi birds with the natural protection and barriers they need to survive. Yet, their scope is rapidly increasing. Before New Zealand was populated, only 5% of the country was grassland. Now, more than 38% of the country’s total land area is covered in grass.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-the-damaging-effects-of-clearing-land">The Damaging Effects of Clearing Land</h3>



What happens to the kiwi birds when forest land is cleared and converted into grasslands and pastures? There are three main ways these actions harm the species.&nbsp;



Population Movement



When land is cleared, kiwis and their predators are forced to move out of their widespread natural habitats. Instead, they migrate into smaller and more concentrated areas, where there are fewer resources and the likelihood of an encounter is greater. If the kiwi birds remain in the farmland, they are often attacked by predators, such as dogs.&nbsp;



Physical Threats



Developers use various means to clear land, including burning and crushing vegetation. Both approaches pose a direct threat to kiwis and other species that call the area home. The large rollers used to crush plants and trees can harm or kill the birds, who cannot fly to higher altitudes for safety. Likewise, the fire and smoke from the burning process are also significant dangers.&nbsp;



Increased Competition



With a smaller habitat to live in, kiwis are affected both physically and socially. Deforestation creates more competition for free space, which leads to boundary wars between kiwi birds and other local inhabitants. Not only can these encounters turn deadly, but they also make breeding less frequent.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-the-rise-of-the-dairy-farming-industry">The Rise of the Dairy Farming Industry</h3>



In an effort to offset the negative effect of pastureland development, country leaders have led programs to establish plantation forests where the kiwi birds can live. The movement hit its apex in 2006, when planted forests covered around 1.8 million hectares in New Zealand.&nbsp;



However, there’s another movement changing the landscape and diverting attention elsewhere: the growth of the dairy farming industry. Over the past 30 years, dairy exports in New Zealand have increased from around NZ $2 billion per year to nearly $20 billion per year.&nbsp;



Dairy farmers need pastures to support their livelihoods, which means fewer exotic forests are being replanted. In fact, some immature forests have even been converted into dairy farms to support this sector.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/stoat-1024x487.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911710"/><figcaption>Stoats are particularly dangerous for baby kiwi birds. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/Andyworks?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">Andyworks</a> <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/ahmettgiden?mediatype=photography"><img alt=""></a>on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-predatory-activity">Predatory Activity</h2>



While habitat loss contributes to the dwindling numbers of kiwi birds, it isn’t the primary factor affecting their survival.



In fact, kiwi birds are surprisingly adaptable and can conform to a variety of environments. While flat grasslands aren’t ideal, these soil feeders can survive in other areas, from native forests and rougher farmland to sand dunes and mangroves.&nbsp;



The only problem? When they migrate to these different habitats, kiwis aren’t alone. Instead, they meet a variety of predators, including dogs, stoats, and ferrets. Faced with these constant threats, it’s estimated that only 5% of kiwi bird chicks survive into adulthood.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-stoats-and-baby-kiwi-birds">Stoats and Baby Kiwi Birds</h3>



Stoats are particularly dangerous for baby kiwi birds. In the same family as ferrets and weasels, these short-tailed mammals are extremely smart, fast, and mobile. They were introduced into New Zealand back in the 1800s in an attempt to control the overpopulation of introduced rabbits.&nbsp;



However, once they arrived in the country, the stoats quickly found that it was easier to attack and kill flightless ground-nesting birds (like the kiwi) than rabbits. Thus, newly-hatched kiwi birds became their primary prey -- a relationship that continues to this day. It’s especially difficult for kiwis to outwit or outrun stoats due to the fact that kiwis are mostly nocturnal, while stoats hunt during the day.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-dogs-and-adult-kiwi-birds">Dogs and Adult Kiwi Birds</h3>



While baby kiwis often fall victim to stoats, dogs are the biggest predator of adult kiwi birds. Even the smallest and most delicate dog can crush a kiwi due to its size and weight. While there has been some legislation to control dog populations in New Zealand, including the Dog Control Act of 1996, some dog owners are not aware of (or choose to openly ignore) the rules required to keep their pets under control in areas where wild kiwi birds live.



<h3 id="h-other-predators">Other Predators</h3>



In addition to dogs, adult kiwi birds also have to be on the lookout for ferrets, which are increasing in number across New Zealand. Ferrets also prey on rabbits and have had plenty of hunting activity lately. As summers become longer, hotter, and dryer, rabbit populations are on the upswing.&nbsp;



Thus, ferrets are thriving as well. It’s not uncommon for them to migrate from farmlands into deep forests, where they can find kiwi among other forms of natural wildlife. Other animals that can kill kiwi birds include possums, cats, and pigs.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-predator-control-efforts">Predator Control Efforts</h3>



As conservation leaders learn more about the types of animals that commonly prey on kiwi birds, they are taking measures to keep them safe. Research shows that when predatory activity is intensively controlled, kiwi hatching rates increase to up to 60%. For population levels to grow, a rate above 20% is necessary, so this is promising progress.&nbsp;



The specific techniques and tools used to control predators will vary depending on the target species, area size, terrain, and personnel responsible. However, there is always a focus on using humane measures (including traps and poisons) to protect the kiwi birds and preserve other native species.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Future-kiwi-1024x550.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911711"/><figcaption>Education and advocacy are key for the future of the kiwi bird population. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/tobiasjo?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">tobiasjo</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-future-of-the-kiwi-bird-population">The Future of the Kiwi Bird Population</h2>



As a result of habitat loss and predatory activity, kiwi bird populations across New Zealand are becoming increasingly sparse and fragmented. When this occurs, it becomes more difficult for the species to breed, which further inhibits population growth.&nbsp;



As long as safe and effective pest control measures are in place, kiwi can thrive in various habitats. The key is understanding how to protect the birds that live in your homeland, whether that’s a town, pasture, forest, or farm.&nbsp;



As community leaders continue to look for ways to drive out predators and keep these birds safe, education and advocacy are key. Continue to educate yourself on the measures taken to safeguard this species, and check back here often for all of the eco-central news and updates you need. 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Why Are Kiwi Birds Endangered?

Native to New Zealand, kiwi birds are fascinating and unique...

For millennia, the planet's birds have been an integral part of the ecosystem, playing important roles in pollination, seed dispersal, and controlling insect populations. Sadly, human activity has put many species of birds in danger.



The world's population has <a href="https://www.irishtimes.com/news/earth-s-population-doubled-since-1960-1.336155">more than doubled</a> since 1960, and as our demand for resources increases, so does the pressure on the environment. Sure, human activity is the primary threat to birds, but there are other causes, too.



In this post, we'll take a look at some of the most vulnerable bird species and why these birds are endangered. We'll also outline some of the things you can do to help protect them.



<h2 id="h-which-bird-species-are-endangered">Which Bird Species Are Endangered?</h2>



There are <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/birds#:~:text=There%20are%20more%20than%2011%2C000,the%20most%20unique%20bird%20species.">more than 11,000 species</a> of birds in the world, with the tropics being home to the greatest diversity. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List classifies bird species into several categories, including birds that are vulnerable, endangered, and critically endangered. The list also includes animals from other groups, such as mammals, reptiles, and fish.



Currently, the IUCN lists <a href="https://www.iucn.org/content/more-critically-endangered-birds-iucn-red-list#:~:text=The%20IUCN%20Red%20List%20now,than%20in%20the%202008%20update.">192 bird species</a> as critically endangered. That makes birds the highest category in terms of threat. Some of the most endangered birds include the:



<ul><li>Medium Tree-finch</li><li>Gorgeted Puffleg</li><li>Bateleur</li><li>Sidamo Lark</li><li>Chimney Swift</li><li>Chatham Petrel</li><li>Lear’s Macaw</li></ul>



The threat of bird extinction is spread across the globe. However, there are some hotspots where the problem is more acute. These include the island of Madagascar, Brazil's Atlantic Forest, and the Himalayan region.



<h2 id="h-what-are-the-biggest-threats-to-birds">What Are the Biggest Threats to Birds?</h2>



For a long time, birds thrived, ruling the skies and playing vital roles in ecosystems around the world. But the tables have turned, with these creatures now among the most at risk of disappearing forever. But why are birds endangered? Here are four reasons:



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Deforestation-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911699"/><figcaption>Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/WhitcombeRD?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">WhitcombeRD</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-1-human-activity">1.&nbsp;&nbsp; Human Activity</h3>



Human actions have had an unprecedented impact on the earth and its wildlife. According to a UN report, humans have severely altered <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/International/human-activity-put-million-species-risk-extinction-report/story?id=62852406#:~:text=Around%2075%25%20of%20Earth's%20terrestrial,mostly%20within%20the%20past%20century.">75 percent</a> of the planet's terrestrial environment, putting at least one million animal species at threat of extinction.



<h4 id="h-a-habitat-loss-and-degradation">a.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Habitat loss and Degradation</h4>



As human settlements expand, they encroach on natural habitats, destroying them in the process. This is one of the biggest threats to bird populations and has contributed to the decline of many species.



<h4 id="h-b-deforestation">b.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Deforestation</h4>



The clearing of forests for timber, agriculture, or urbanization destroys vital habitats for birds and other animals. It also fragments once-continuous habitat, making it harder for birds to find mates and food.



<h4 id="h-c-pollution">c.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pollution</h4>



Air, water, and soil pollution can all take a toll on bird populations. For example, lead poisoning is a major problem for many bird species that feed on insects contaminated by the toxin.



<h4 id="h-d-pesticides">d.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Pesticides</h4>



The widespread use of pesticides has had devastating effects on bird populations, particularly those that eat insects. Studies have shown that some insecticides can cause neurological damage in birds, leading to impaired motor function and death.



<h4 id="h-e-overfishing">e.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Overfishing</h4>



Birds that rely on fish for food are among the hardest hit by overfishing. As fish stocks decline, so do the birds that depend on them. This is a particular problem for seabirds such as albatrosses and penguins.



<h4 id="h-f-illegal-hunting">f.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Illegal Hunting</h4>



In some parts of the world, birds are still hunted for food or trade, despite laws against it. This is a significant problem in Asia, where many bird species are captured and sold as pets.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Climate-change-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911702"/><figcaption>Climate change is one of the biggest threats to birds and other wildlife. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/AegeanBlue?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">AegeanBlue</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com/">iStock</a>. </figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-2-climate-change">2.&nbsp;&nbsp; Climate Change</h3>



Climate change is one of the biggest threats to birds and other wildlife. As temperatures rise and weather patterns become more extreme, many bird species are struggling to adapt. This is especially true for those that breed in the Arctic, where melting sea ice is destroying vital habitats.



Rising temperatures are also causing problems for migrating birds. For example, as spring arrives earlier in the northern hemisphere, some migrant birds are arriving too early to find food. This leads to malnutrition and reduced breeding success.



In the tropics, meanwhile, climate change is making it harder for birds to find food as droughts become more common. Studies have shown that drought can cause widespread starvation among insect-eating birds.



As if that wasn't enough, climate change is also making it easier for diseases to spread. For example, avian malaria is a serious problem in many tropical countries. As temperatures rise, the mosquitoes that carry the disease are able to survive and breed at higher altitudes, putting more birds at risk.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Invasive-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1911703"/><figcaption>Invasive species can cause harm to the local ecosystem. Photo from <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/cmannphoto?mediatype=photography"><img alt="">cmannphoto</a> on <a href="http://istockphoto.com/">iStock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-3-invasive-species">3.&nbsp;&nbsp; Invasive Species</h3>



Invasive species are a major problem for bird populations around the world. These are plants, animals, or diseases that are not native to an area and can cause harm to the local ecosystem.



For birds, invasive species can destroy habitats, compete for food, or spread disease. In some cases, they can even directly prey on birds. For example, rats introduced to island ecosystems have caused the extinction of many ground-nesting birds by eating their eggs and chicks.



Climate change is making the problem worse by increasing the range of some invasive species. For example, as temperatures rise in the Arctic, mosquitoes that carry <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/diseases-of-terrestrial-wildlife/avian-malaria">avian malaria</a> are able to survive and breed at higher altitudes, putting more birds at risk.



<h2 id="h-what-can-be-done-to-protect-birds">What Can Be Done to Protect Birds?</h2>



The good news is that there are things we can do to protect birds and other wildlife. Here are a few ideas:



<h3 id="h-1-support-conservation-organizations">1.&nbsp;&nbsp; Support Conservation Organizations</h3>



There are many organizations working to protect bird populations around the world. Support their efforts by donating money or time.



<h3 id="h-2-be-mindful-of-your-impact-on-the-environment">2.&nbsp;&nbsp; Be Mindful of Your Impact on the Environment</h3>



We all have a role to play in preserving bird habitats. Be conscious of your impact on the environment and do what you can to reduce your footprint.



<h3 id="h-3-support-sustainable-agriculture">3.&nbsp;&nbsp; Support Sustainable Agriculture</h3>



Agricultural practices are a major threat to bird populations. But there are ways to farm without damaging the environment. Support sustainable agriculture initiatives and buy organic products whenever possible.



<h2 id="h-do-your-part-in-averting-bird-extinction">Do Your Part in Averting Bird Extinction</h2>



Bird species are quickly disappearing from the skies. For the most part, human activity is to blame. But there is hope. By working together, we can protect birds and other wildlife and preserve the planet for future generations.



Would you like to read more interesting articles like this? Keep visiting our blog.



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Why Are Birds Endangered?

For millennia, the planet's birds have been an integral part...

Closeup,Macro,Big,Drone,Bee,In,Honeycomb,Male,Bee,With

The honey you enjoy with breakfast or tea required the selective, brutal killing of an entire class of bees. Worker bees systemically evict each and every drone bee at the beginning of winter. These workers make sure all, and I mean&nbsp;all, of the drones die. Workers ensure this drone death by biting drone wings off and dragging their brothers out of the hive. Why would worker bees be so awful to their own brothers? &nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1433362262-1024x683.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903453"/><figcaption>An artistic example of the three kinds of honeybee varieties. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Art-Design-Studio">ArtoPhotoDesigno Studio</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-honeybee-caste-system">The Honeybee Caste System</h2>



Not all honeybees are created equal. There are three kinds of honeybees; the queen, the worker, and the drone. Each type of bee performs its own function, which is crucial to the continuation of the hive. Interestingly, all three types of bees, even though they are very different, are part of the same species.&nbsp;Apis mellifera, or the western honeybee, is the typical bee raised by beekeepers in the U.S. There are a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-origins-of-western-honey-bees-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">handful of other honeybee species</a>. All honeybee species have a similar caste system.



<h3 id="h-the-queen-bee">The Queen Bee</h3>



Surely you have heard of the all-important queen bee. Layer of eggs! Controller of the hive! Queen bees enjoy enormous power within their colony. Each colony has just one queen. This queen lays (almost) all of the eggs in the entire colony. She decides what ratio of workers to drones she wants.&nbsp;



The queen lives inside the hive. A typical queen will make only one flight out of the colony in her entire life. More on that "nuptial flight" later.&nbsp;



If a hive needs a new queen, workers will select a larva in a queen cell and feed it royal jelly. This will turn an ordinary worker larva into a queen.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-the-worker-bee">The Worker Bee</h3>



The worker bee is the bee you see on the day to day. These bees are all female. They gather pollen from flowers, produce honey, clean the hive, and mercilessly kill their drone bee brethren when the time comes. The vast majority of bees in a colony are worker bees.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large is-resized"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1904344906.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903454" width="500" height="334"/><figcaption>Can you tell the difference between the workers and the drones? Hint: drones have much larger eyes. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/vera2">Kuttelvaserova Stuchelova</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-drone-bee">The Drone Bee</h3>



The drone bees are the male honey bees of the hive. Drone bees have just one major purpose; spread the genetic seed from their colony far and wide. Drone bees' only purpose is to mate with other hives' queens. This is important because a drone successfully mating with a different colony's queen is the only way a colony can ensure their genetic material survives into the future. However, as we will see, drone bees are really just sperm vessels. They sadly don't get to make their own choices, plan for the future, or see their own children.&nbsp;



While hives may have thousands of workers, the number of drones will be in the low hundreds.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1581150907.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903455"/><figcaption>The brood cells with exposed honeybee larvae will soon be capped by worker bees. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/kosolovskyy">kosolovskyy</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-a-quick-bit-on-honeybee-reproduction">A Quick Bit on Honeybee Reproduction</h3>



A queen bee has tons of eggs and sperm inside of her. She stores the eggs and sperm in different internal compartments and can choose when to use each. Drones come from unfertilized eggs and are haploid, meaning they only have one set of genes from the queen. When the queen wants more workers, she opens up both chambers and lays fertilized eggs. The queen lays these eggs into brood cells, which are the cells of the familiar honeycomb pattern.&nbsp;



Honey bees begin as eggs, turn into worm-like larva, transform into pupa, and then finally into adult bees. Each hexagon can house one honeybee larva. Worker bees feed the larvae until the larvae are ready to turn into pupae. When they are ready to pupate, worker bees seal up the top of the brood cell and let the larvae transform in a private chamber. Because drone pupa are larger than worker pupa, the seals on their brood cells is raised slightly higher than the top of the honeycomb. These brood cells are called drone cells.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_643911313.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903456"/><figcaption>Honeybee larvae grow in their honeycomb brood cells. The sealed cells have pupa. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/vera2">Kuttelvaserova Stuchelova</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-varroa-mites">Varroa Mites</h3>



If you're a beekeeper, you surely know about varroa mites. These mites live in bee colonies and can destroy the colony at a high enough density. Drone's take more days to pupate than worker bees. Varroa mites prefer drone brood&nbsp;cells to worker brood cells because the mites have more time to reproduce.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-drone-bees-begin-their-life-in-spring">Drone Bees Begin Their Life in Spring</h2>



When spring comes around, drone bees eagerly burst out of their sealed-off brood cells as fully formed, adult drones.&nbsp;



Drone bees are mostly useless. In fact, they often need female worker bees to bring them food so they don't starve. &nbsp;These drones lay low for&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2441913/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2441913/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">about 12 days</a>&nbsp;as they gather up energy and let their reproductive organs mature. After the drones have gotten used to their new, adult bodies and packed on some weight, they are ready to mate.



A drone bee typically&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2441913/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">only lives about 20 days</a>, but can occasionally live up to 60.



<h2 id="h-mating-the-ultimate-drone-bee-experience">Mating: The Ultimate Drone Bee Experience</h2>



Successful mating is the highest aim of a drone bee. Unfortunately, only 1 out of 1000 drones mate with a queen. What happens to the other 999? More on that sad story later...



Following cues unknown to science, drone bees gather in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybee-drones-have-congregational-sites-for-mating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drone congregation areas</a>&nbsp;while they wait for the arrival of a queen bee. A congregation area is a space of air, usually 30-120 feet above the ground, where drone bees gather to wait for a queen.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybee-drones-have-congregational-sites-for-mating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Up to 10,000 drone bees</a>&nbsp;from up to a hundred different colonies gather at the same congregation area. This mixing from different colonies ensures that the queen will receive a large variety of genetic diversity from males.&nbsp;



Scientists have found that honeybees will use the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3635128/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">same drone congregation areas</a>&nbsp;year after year. This is odd since none, since all of the drones are new to the world and haven't been to the congregation area before.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1907514187.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903457"/><figcaption>Worker bees wish their queen (with the dot on her back) the best of luck on her nuptial flight. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/vera2">Kuttelvaserova Stuchelova</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-queen-bee-s-nuptial-flight">The Queen Bee's Nuptial Flight</h3>



A new&nbsp;queen bee doesn't have any sperm to fertilize her eggs. Fertilization is necessary to make worker bees, and therefore essential to the continuation of the colony. When the virgin&nbsp;queen is ready, she departs from the hive on her nuptial flight. On this nuptial flight, a queen seeks out a drone congregation area. Once there, the drones intensely pursue the queen in a desperate attempt to mate with her. Drone bees have extra large eyes so that they can detect and follow the queen when she arrives.&nbsp;



A queen mates with up to 20 drones, at which point she considers herself sufficiently inseminated for the rest of her life. She will fly back to her hive, likely to never see the light of day again.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1560317594.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903458"/><figcaption>Two bumblebees mate. While bumblebees are a different species from honeybees, the mating visual is similar, except honeybees would be airborne. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/utilityimage">utility image</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-unexpected-consequences-of-mating">The Unexpected Consequences of Mating</h3>



So the few 'lucky' drone bees successfully mate with a queen. Do they get to revel in the fact that they beat out 99.9% of their drone peers? They sure don't!&nbsp;



You've likely heard that a bee can only sting once and dies shortly thereafter. Any honeybee that stings is a worker bee. When worker bees sting, they rupture their abdomen to release the stinger. This causes their death.



In contrast, drone bees don't have stingers. Instead, they have penises. The drone bee is so desperate to inseminate the queen that he inverts his entire reproductive system from inside his body to outside his body when mating. This force helps push the semen into the queen. As a result, a portion of the drone bee's abdomen is ripped away from itself as it falls away from the queen bee. The drone falls to the ground and bleeds to death, similarly to how a worker bee who used her stinger dies.



That's the fate of the&nbsp;lucky&nbsp;drones.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-a-drone-bee-who-has-failed-can-try-again">A Drone Bee Who Has Failed Can Try Again</h3>



Just like human-made drones, drone bees have a surprisingly short flight time. They can fly about 20 minutes before they must return to the nest and refuel. If a drone doesn't successfully mate on a flight, they will continue trying until there are no longer queens looking for mates. &nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1269380515.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903459"/><figcaption>A pile of dead drone bees outside of the entrance to a colony. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/christening">Lipatova Maryna</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-drones-who-don-t-mate-are-killed-by-worker-bees">Drones Who Don't Mate Are Killed by Worker Bees&nbsp;</h2>



The 99.9% of drone bees who don't mate also have unfortunate deaths. Those who die away from the hive have it much better off than those who survive to the end of fall. Once the temperature in the fall drops enough, the queen tells to worker bees to evict all the drones from the hive.&nbsp;



No bee mating happens in the winter. A drone bee's only purpose is to mate. Therefore, the drones have no purpose in the winter. Why would the workers want to feed their precious resources to keep their useless brothers alive all winter? Well, they don't!



Instead, the worker bees drag each drone bee out of the hive. Since drones are slightly larger than workers, multiple workers gang up on a drone to drag it out of the hive. The workers then proceed to bite off their brothers' wings, push them off the hive, or do any other brutal act necessary to rid the colony of these useless bees.



Worker bees will even evict poor larval drones. So sad!



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1425748982.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903460"/><figcaption>Bees gotta do what they can to keep their hive healthy. Can you blame them? <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/christening">Lipatova Maryna</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



If we don't impose our own human emotions and experiences onto these bees, we can instead see the drone eviction as merely a necessary part of insect communal living.



<h2 id="h-bee-conservation">Bee Conservation</h2>



While drone death is a natural part of the bee lifecycle, there are plenty of unnatural threats to bees across the U.S. The widespread and increasing use of pesticides is a major threat to bees, contributing to colony collapse that has killed&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/40-percent-honeybee-colonies-lost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">40% of honey bee colonies</a>&nbsp;in a single year. About one third of the types of food we eat is directly pollinated by bees.&nbsp;



In addition to honey bees, native bees like bumblebees struggle with habitat loss, pesticide use, and climate change. Buying food grown without pesticides, pressuring elected officials to curtail pesticide use, and educating your friends and family about bee conservation are ways to aid the efforts to keep our food-producing insect friends healthy.



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Welcome to the Dystopian Life of a Drone Bee

The honey you enjoy with breakfast or tea required the...

The,Poison,Is,A,Green,Liquid,In,A,Glass,Vial.

While not very common, there are a handful of poisonous birds! Though we wouldn’t be too worried next time you see a flock passing overhead. Many of these birds live discreet and elusive lives. Some have been dangerous to humans in the past, but thanks to modern science, we know quite a bit more about what is safe to put on our plate. Here we have our ranking of the most poisonous birds. Learn how these feathered fiends get their toxins and read to the end to find out the most dangerous poisonous bird!



<h2 id="h-poison-vs-venom">Poison vs. Venom&nbsp;</h2>



Before we dive into the details around these fascinating birds, let’s review some key vocab words. While both poisonous and venomous animals use toxins as a defense strategy, they have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/venomous-vs-poisonous-whats-the-difference-hint-theyll-both-kill-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distinct difference</a>. Venoms require an injection through a bite or sting (viperous snakes, wasps, spiders…). On the other hand, poisons are transferred through more passive contact like touching or eating (poison ivy, monarch butterfly, poison-dart frogs).



<h2 id="h-how-do-birds-become-poisonous">How Do Birds Become Poisonous?</h2>



Animals can develop toxins in a few different ways. Some can produce their own toxins and have a specific gland or organ for secretion. Others adapt and integrate poisons from other organisms. In most cases, they will consume and repurpose a toxin that will be distributed throughout their tissue rather than restricted to a specific gland. While many insects and amphibians develop their own toxins to deter predators, most poisonous birds integrate toxins from their diets.&nbsp;



This strategy is called <a href="https://webapps.fhsu.edu/ksHerp/bibFiles/21756.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heteroaglandular poison</a>. The prefix “hetero” refers to getting the chemical defense from another source, and “aglandular” means that there isn’t a specific organ or gland that houses it. By eating other poisonous plants or animals, some bird species&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-do-they-poison-themselves">Do They Poison Themselves?</h3>



How do they not poison themselves, you might ask? Poisonous birds, such as the hooded pitohui, often have a specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-secret-that-protects-poisonous-animals-from-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protein</a> that soaks up the toxins before they can harm the animal itself. Called “toxic sponges,” these protect the birds from any toxic effects while allowing the poison to remain in their feather, skin, or tissue.



<h2 id="h-ranking-of-poisonous-birds">Ranking of Poisonous Birds</h2>



While only studied in the past few decades, poisonous birds have evolved around the world. Examples of toxic birds have shown up across avian taxa, indicating convergent evolution. This means that poisonous birds aren’t all in the same genus or even family. Several different lineages of birds have developed a chemical defense system independently. From passerine songbirds to large game fowl, below are some of the most common poisonous bird species. Additionally, we’ve ranked them from most dangerous to least dangerous, so you know what to watch out for!



<h3 id="h-rare-and-wiley-the-red-warbler">Rare and Wiley: The Red Warbler</h3>



The red warbler (Cardellina rubra) keeps to itself in the Mexican highlands. For a long time, the little bird has been nondescript apart from its beautiful plumage and elusiveness, but the ancient Aztec knew better. Similar to how the indigenous Guinean people avoided the pitohui birds, the Aztec had recorded a small red bird as being inedible.&nbsp; To test this theory, scientists <a href="https://www.academia.edu/14089093/Symposium_Chemical_defense_in_birds" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">injected extracts</a> from the red warbler’s feathers into study mice. The mice were immediately agitated, alternating between acting hyperactive and inactive.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-the-poison">The Poison</h4>



The toxin appears to include a mix of two different alkaloids. However, more research needs to be done to identify the specific chemicals. Since the warbler is completely insectivorous, the poison likely comes from a toxic bug in its diet.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_729422431.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902642"/><figcaption>The Hooded Pitohui. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/feather0510">feathercollector</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-passerine-poisons-the-hooded-pitohui">Passerine Poisons: The Hooded Pitohui</h3>



Native to the Papua New Guinea rainforest, the hooded pitohui (Pitohui dichrous) was one of the first poisonous birds to be discovered. Pitohui birds are a lovely rusty orange with bold black feathers on the head, wings, and tail. Their specific toxin comes from their diet. The birds eat poisonous Choresine beetles - the same insect that gives some poison dart frogs their toxicity. The native people of Papua New Guinea have nicknamed the pitohui the “rubbish bird” since it's a bad option for dinner.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-the-poison-1">The Poison</h4>



The steroidal alkaloid called <a href="https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/nab/v046n05/p01084-p01087.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">homobatrachotoxin</a> is found in the pitohui’s feathers and skin. Since the poison is most highly concentrated on the feathers, it’s likely meant to be a deterrent for parasites like lice and ticks.



Fun Fact: When discovering the poison on the pitohui, researcher Jack Dumbacher made the realization when his hand burned after untangling this dove-sized bird from a mist net in 1988. He also tested his theory by putting a clipping of a feather in his mouth! That’s some scientific sacrifice!



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1169665096.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902643"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/BESTBIRDS">Dirk Kotze</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-unsuspecting-poisonous-bird-the-little-shrike-thrush">The Unsuspecting Poisonous Bird: the Little Shrike-Thrush</h3>



Another little Australian songbird, the little shrike-thrush (Colluricincla megarhyncha) garnered the attention of bird toxicity studies along with the pitohui. However, only a couple of specimens have been found to be poisonous. Since this is not a species-wide phenomenon, this further advances the theory that the poison is diet-based. The shrike-thrush only becomes poisonous when it eats certain food.



<h4 id="h-the-poison-2">The Poison</h4>



The chemical batrachotoxin again is the culprit, likely from the same insect or plant food source that the pitohui eats.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_492731368.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902644"/><figcaption>Bronzewing Pigeon. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Chris+Watson">Chris Watson</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-poison-to-protect-the-bronzewing-pigeons">Poison to Protect: The Bronzewing Pigeons</h3>



The bronzewing pigeon’s (Phaps spp.) toxicity is a bit of a superpower. Living in southwest Australia this little bird acts as the spokesperson for its native ecosystem. As we’ve seen time and time again, when humans introduce a nonnative predator into a habitat, they often cause problems for the native community. Our domesticated cats and dogs are often the culprits, and, in many cases, they are a factor in animal extinction (e.g. the dodo bird).&nbsp; However, cats and dogs beware because the bronzewing pigeon has a defense! Like many animals in its habitat, it feasts on the tasty plant <a href="https://watermark.silverchair.com/az_2011_034.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAukwggLlBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggLWMIIC0gIBADCCAssGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQM3TB8lbt6_BGL7Aa5AgEQgIICnLLgfw4lmRLN6TwBWDCwICUkkDHuPpVxJySEBuVF1rya3FBxGu6Y0BCiAotvii57vBPLPTrH7YJ31kJCLYWy2-XYG1AuiuNDI6Z_OxFcVS_fQiQrq1-arbIfBrAfdY0UsJ1N33eBlbb532PeT299yuu_w2OQhBCwmfX96oOcgdnHOR06a4LVjTZaNMe2GyhY3Nzjnyb5j92iLh-sGeDcsRwauBSCb1E-ue89DbQJe5DoHDNaXO1oE92HMQptiEg-Aaq_zjc9kPltobpbNpvWbGlMoN6hkw6PNR3OSyJU8jFf-nYgQQHPYCWRSclUtmC7ICiyvBEhI2S7iwHXMzYaIb9BwzQPpr7qN8y4j3Dd0g7DiOB-qdcgYw6_Sj-f_eJ_1Uvqsiepxc0fqP4tslj9mOTI_T1TDHUY18NMq2VUyI6Z37pOOizjBW_WFnUMvjI3133Pz4cZfg5Ff0XtZyu-bZe-jozT2cU5xQLGd094eu3_DA7YceNwxlmRHsuZTzPQaqO1EmW0Iv2VafF9MoRgiYh5VKeiP7J1UOiHqH4u521z-KmvoOl52oGhB0gVBqdEwg-fHhly3BOfbhSvLGFGyo5SinAZ-7YpVYdikaq_EBHKHXFGxC32fqZg1C_08-da5gZ8PK7v5pQMIawNDO2jYPKB9tJ-hpkzlMybaBoZy_LVfS64ggwPvkfVOOdWyFbAKJ1Mxmn2FLqwvXjVxG6jpnKpYSANziRWWCvZzOiNEAC08LO1ttYBfJxWVtrAswYAiWyY8lT15acZ40je3aq4ryXgdIQ0HcpJyXxvR7Vyc9NnG8PrPZZz3LjaCeVQcBiIlqRaRfV3hwbzPIl85lIxuJvFcmocnPpzQHblLMZCmN762-N5XGhFIG_1cSWk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gastrolobium</a>. Though an important part of the diet for these poisonous birds, the plant harbors a chemical that is fatal to anyone else.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-the-poison-3">The Poison</h4>



The poison fluoroacetate acts as an <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17288493/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inhibitor</a> for cellular respiration, causing a range of responses from intense stomach pain to death.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1880576734.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902645"/><figcaption>Ruffed Grouse. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Worper">LarryDallaire</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-risky-in-winter-ruffed-grouse">Risky in Winter: Ruffed Grouse</h3>



Hunters and birders from North America will be surprised to see the ruffed grouse or partridge, (Bonasa umbellus) on this list. In fact, many fowl hunters often serve grouse at the dinner table. In the 18th and 19th centuries, however, reports of grouse poisoning surfaced across the country. When observed by a physician, <a href="https://nutritionalgeography.faculty.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/106/2014/11/Dietary.Roulette.Davis_.Califiornia.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumers experienced</a> nausea, vomiting, and vision impairment. But what was causing this and why is it not a problem today?



<h4 id="h-the-poison-4">The Poison</h4>



The dominant theory behind the ruffed grouse poisoning is, unsurprisingly, in its diet. In the winter, the grouse often forages on mountain laurel buds which contain the chemicals <a href="https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/kalmia-latifolia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">andromedotoxin and arbutin</a>. Toxic to mammals, they don’t seem to affect the grouse. Today no one succumbs to grouse poisoning due to the current hunting regulations. Since the grouse can not be shot in the winter or spring, hunters avoid the time of year when the poisonous birds are at their most dangerous.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_108243128.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902646"/><figcaption>Spur-winged goose. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Neal+Cooper">Neal Cooper</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-most-intimidating-poisonous-bird-spur-winged-goose">The Most Intimidating Poisonous Bird: Spur-Winged Goose</h3>



A strange bird from the start, the spur-winged goose (Plectropterus g. gambensis) makes an impression. These large birds can weigh up to <a href="https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1083&amp;context=zeabook" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">20 pounds</a> and are highly aggressive. Not only will they fiercely defend their territory, but they also have the weapons to do it. Each goose has a sharp spur on the end of each wrist that they wield against invaders. While all spur-winged geese are rather intimidating, only one population of the geese is actually poisonous. In the Gambia, the geese tend to eat the poisonous blister beetle. However, while they are immune to the toxin, their flesh is imbued with it.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-the-poison-5">The Poison</h4>



Integrating the chemical from the blister beetle, the toxin in question is the terpenoid compound called cantharidin.&nbsp;



&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_486685009.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1902647"/><figcaption>The common quail, looking completely unsuspecting. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Martin+Mecnarowski">Martin Mecnarowski</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-most-dangerous-poisonous-bird-the-common-quail">The Most Dangerous Poisonous Bird: The Common Quail</h3>



The common quail (Coturnix commix coturnix L.) easily makes it toward the top of the list of poisonous birds. Though it looks more like a fluffy football than a toxic menace, we wouldn’t recommend serving this particular quail for dinner.&nbsp; Also called the European quail, this particular fowl has likely affected the most people. In fact, the danger of quail poisoning has reached such heights to warrant its own name - <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08873638709478507" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coturnism</a>. Similar to the ruffed grouse, the quail picks up the poison from its diet, but only seasonally. Depending on the location, quail are only dangerous during the spring or fall migration. Other times of the year, the birds are completely safe to eat.



<h4 id="h-the-poison-6">The Poison</h4>



While there has been some debate as to the origin of the poison, current theories suggest the quail eat the toxic seeds from the mint plant Slachys annua. Sickness from coturnism can result in weakness and muscle pain to paralysis along with vomiting, kidney failure, cardiac arrest, and even death.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-happenstance-or-defense">Happenstance or Defense?</h2>



While some poisonous birds, like the bronzewing, seem to have advantageously evolved to incorporate toxins, others, like the goose, seem a bit more random. However, all the species likely benefit from their poisons. Nobody wants to eat a toxic bird, and their potential predators learn pretty quickly that a birdy bite can make them sick.  



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70% of the world's surface is the ocean - and much to the horror of humans through the millennia, scary sea monsters are actually a real thing. They prowl the vast waters of our globe and emerge with terrifying results in stories - and real life.&nbsp;



From the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, from the North to the coast of New Zealand, there are fascinating sea creatures that strike fear into the hearts of the bravest explorers and threaten the most unsuspecting coastal tourist. At the same time, these scariest sea animals are wonderful, enchanting, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-vents-are-favorable-to-the-formation-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living examples of evolution</a>, adaptive behaviors, and thrilling possibilities within nature.&nbsp;



Perhaps that's why they play such a massive role in our collective imaginations as well: the Kraken of Nordic sea lore, the loch ness monster of Scotland, the Lukwata sea monster of Uganda. The list of fables, legends, and sea shanties is as deep as the deep-sea waters where some monstrous animals swim. Science is just beginning to catch up and we can look to organizations like NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) and MBARI (Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute) and others for emerging information on the truth behind the scary stories.&nbsp;



So let's dive in: today we'll look at the ecosystem of the ocean - the playground and habitat of an estimated one million animal species - and rip through some flash-points of the scariest swimming creatures among the masses. We'll also look at the ways in which the changing, warming oceans make even the most fearsome creatures vulnerable to disturbance and possible extinction. Scary stories abound!&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-an-ecosystem-of-monstrous-proportions">An Ecosystem Of Monstrous Proportions</h2>



When you think about it, the ocean itself is a bit of a monster - a living, breathing system of giant proportions.&nbsp;



For example, most life on earth is aquatic. Less than 5% of the oceans have been explored. The longest Mountain range is underwater. <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://kealakai.byuh.edu/twenty-fun-facts-about-the-ocean" target="_blank">70% of the world's oxygen</a> - a fiendish amount - is produced by the ocean. The pressure on the seafloor will crush you. 90% of the Earth's volcanic activity happens in the ocean and the <a href="https://earth.google.com/web/@-18.57813014,147.57013641,-41.94434357a,0d,60y,201.23400896h,83.69613794t,0r/data=ClUaUxJNCiUweDZiZGYxNDQ2ODIyYzcxM2I6MHgxOTJhNTc0MTM2ODMzY2RhGXLEtTV9STLAITRUe8dfdmJAKhJHcmVhdCBCYXJyaWVyIFJlZWYYASABIjAKLEFGMVFpcE5ZdE5CTzd6bi01bGxXVzNEbGxTbGtxRHAxS0FTaGM4Q1JvZWR2EAU">great barrier reef</a> of Australia is so massive it can be seen from the moon.&nbsp;



The stats continue on in epic, sublime ways: the largest blue whale on record is as long as an 11-story building. The rounded sound ever recorded was of an iceberg falling into the ocean - and could be <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://kealakai.byuh.edu/twenty-fun-facts-about-the-ocean" target="_blank">heard 3,000 miles away.</a> The ocean exists as a living fossil of itself, providing important clues and records of sea animals what has occurred on planet earth. It contains limitless secrets for us to slowly piece together, like a salty sea foam puzzle.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1137771782.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900841"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/posteriori">posteriori</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-some-specific-scary-sea-monsters">Some Specific Scary Sea Monsters</h2>



There are plenty of secrets of the monstrous seven seas that we have yet to understand. But there are plenty of real-life sightings to send a shiver-of-a-jellyfish sting up your spine.&nbsp; The depths of the ocean are where mysticism meets horror movies - and the surface is by no means safe, either.&nbsp; Read on for a thoroughly-inconclusive list.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-box-jellyfish">Box Jellyfish&nbsp;</h3>



Box Jelly is especially scary because to encounter a box tentacle is usually a death sentence for a human being. Named for their shape, they are considered the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/box-jellyfish.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most venomous animal</a> in the ocean according to NOAA.&nbsp;



Their tentacles are loaded with poison darts known as nematocysts. People and animals that encounter these booby-trap-laden strings can become paralyzed, have heart failure, and die within minutes. There are 50 or so species of box jellyfish, and only a couple have the venom count to kill people. Those species are found in the Ind-Pacific region and Australia. Terrifyingly, they do not live in deep water but are a coastal species.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_68332459.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900842"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/lienkie">Daleen Loest</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



Yes - box jellyfish live up to the hype. We often do not live up to their tentacles. Avoid these sea creatures at all costs.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-frilled-shark">Frilled Shark</h3>



The frilled shark is what many scientists consider a "living fossil" with its strange lizard-like head, ruffled throat, <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/ecology/deepsea-frilled_shark.htm" target="_blank">long body, and tiny fins.</a> It definitely looks a lot like how a "sea serpent" of folklore is described. While it doesn't exactly add validity to stories like the Loch Ness monster or the Midgard serpent, it does have an "enchanting beast" quality to its appearance.&nbsp;



Frilled sharks rarely swim up to surface waters. Instead, they are a species of shark that moves through various life cycles in the area of the ocean known <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/ecology/deepsea-frilled_shark.htm" target="_blank">as the "twilight zone". </a>Want to take a look at another "living fossil" of the <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/everything-youve-wanted-to-know-about-deep-sea-fishing/" target="_blank">deep sea</a> with an unnerving smile? Check out the <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3877998" target="_blank">Goblin Shark.</a>&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-1">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



No - these sea monsters just look scary. They are active predators but pose no threat to humans.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_134776526.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900858"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/demarfa">Natursports</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-fangtooth-fish">Fangtooth Fish</h3>



Fangtooths have a look that will haunt your dreams - and will continue to inspire the art-imitates-life-forms of various installations and horror films. It has <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/5-strangest-deep-sea-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">razor-sharp teeth of terrifying lengths</a> - perfect for catching prey such as fish and crustaceans.&nbsp;



They are deep-sea swimmers along with Anglerfish. Their habitat ranges in tropical and temperate seas <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/animals/animals-a-to-z/fangtooth" target="_blank">at 1,640 to 6,561 feet deep.</a>



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-2">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



No - these fangtooths live so deep, they pose no threat to us - just the other animals that they feast and hunt for.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-viperfish">Viperfish&nbsp;</h3>



Another fish with an appearance that can absolutely give you nightmares is the viperfish. It's a broad title for any species of marine fish in the genus Chauliodus. These species are characterized by needle-like teeth and hinged jaws that will remind you of an underbite.&nbsp;



These are also deep-sea swimmers. Similar to other species living in the dark depths of the ocean, they lure in their prey with <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article-abstract/1/3/113/1696037" target="_blank">light-producing organs called photophores.</a>



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-3">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



Nope - again, these fish swim so deep that they pose no risk to us.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Giant_squid-1-1024x921.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900860"/><figcaption>Specimen of giant squid nicknamed&nbsp;Wheke&nbsp;plastinated&nbsp;from 2005 and displayed on 26&nbsp;March 2008 in the&nbsp;Grande galerie de l'Évolution&nbsp;of the&nbsp;muséum national d'histoire naturelle&nbsp;in Paris. Photo via <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_France#/media/File:Giant_squid.jpg">Wikipedia.org</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-giant-squid">Giant Squid</h3>



Indeed, the giant squid is much more than a fictionalized creature in the lake on the Hogwarts School Of Witchcraft And Wizardry grounds. The giant squid is a real-life animal and the second-largest mollusc we know of in Earth's history. It is an excellent example of deep-sea gigantism, <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://daily.jstor.org/why-deep-sea-creatures-get-weirdly-giant/" target="_blank">a phenomenon and zoology term</a> that describes species of animals that are significantly larger than their shallow-water cousins.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Why is this? <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3838549?mag=why-deep-sea-creatures-get-weirdly-giant&amp;seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McLain et al.</a> propose that "limited resources [in deep water] select for larger body sizes that can better withstand periods of famine or ability to cover larger distances in search of scarce prey."&nbsp;



In 2019, a giant squid sighting was documented <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/21/science/giant-squid-cephalopod-video.html" target="_blank">on video near the Gulf of Mexico</a>, reigniting the public's fear and fascination. In this instance, the squid was only a juvenile but was still an estimated 10 feet long.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-4">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



<a href="https://www.tepapa.govt.nz/discover-collections/read-watch-play/science/colossal-squid/difference-colossal-squid-giant-squid-octopus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Squid and octopus</a> (giant, or otherwise) are formidable fighters. While they do not typically attack humans, they are well equipped to defend themselves if they feel threatened.



<h3 id="h-vampire-squid">Vampire Squid</h3>



A name worthy of a horror movie in and of itself, the vampire squid is indeed a real-life thing - - a sea creature that is actually quite small with an intriguing appearance. It's scientific name&nbsp; is Vampyroteuthis infernalis. It lives in tropical and temperate waters in areas identified by "extreme deep-sea conditions". It is the only known survivor of the order Vampyromorphida and is a species that produces bioluminescence.&nbsp;



The arms of this squid will <a href="http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/vsfh.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regenerate if bitten or ripped off.</a> Often, the discarded limbs then act as a diversion for the vampire squid to escape. It's a defense mechanism that is equal parts scary and amazing.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-5">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



According to NOAA, vampire squids are not even slightly dangerous to humans - they simply live too deep for us to encounter them.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_390021130.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900862"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Martin+P">Martin Prochazkacz</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-great-white-shark">Great White Shark&nbsp;</h3>



One of Finding Nemo's charming villains with a soft side, the Great white shark is no stranger to our psyches. Horror stories, films, and encounters abound.&nbsp;



These monsters are a species of large mackerel shark found in the coastal waters of all major oceans. It's only predator in the wild is, occasionally, the killer whale.&nbsp;



While scientists explain that humans are not the "<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090426174140/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0123_040123_tvgreatwhiteshark.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preferred prey</a>" of the great white shark - it's just that these creatures are curious, and are willing to take a taste test. Not a comforting thought for surfers and swimmers, to say the least.&nbsp;



Similar to the drama around bears, lions, and tigers on land, the idea of a shark attack ends up being much bigger, culturally, than the actual risk. For example, there were <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/shark-attacks/yearly-worldwide-summary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">8 reported shark attacks in 2021</a>. For some context, over 40% of the world's human population lives in coastal areas. These attacks are exceedingly rare.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-is-it-actually-dangerous-6">Is It Actually Dangerous?</h4>



Even if these attacks are more rare than we might realize, there's no doubt about it. Great white sharks are dangerous animals.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-protecting-our-sea-monsters">Protecting Our Sea Monsters&nbsp;</h2>



Of course, the scariest story of all the scariest sea monster stories are the monstrous implications of human impact on our oceans, coastlines, and fragile marine ecosystems.&nbsp;



In addition to warming water and unknown impacts on deep sea migration and global currents impacting weather, there are the immediate crises that our societies must address.&nbsp;



<a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/beach-dangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Contaminated water</a> from oil rigs, untreated sewage, boats, pets, broken septic systems, and fertilizers accumulate in the ocean. People become outraged when their favorite swimming beach is closed due to dangerous contamination - and yet, the companies and public industry responsibility is rarely held accountable or reformed in a sustainable way.&nbsp;



The same goes for the terrifying amounts of plastic in our oceans, in the bodies of the animals that live there, and of course, <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/beach-dangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in our own systems.&nbsp;</a>



And of course, there is a lot of conversation about the fishing industry - much overdue - and the ways in which extractive and exploitative fishing methods ravage the populations of tasty fish, <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral-overfishing.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">and demolish additional species</a> habitats and behaviors in the process.&nbsp;



Scary sea creatures are impacted by all of this of course - along with the more beloved marine-dependent creatures that whole throngs of people identify with - like sea turtles, dolphins, lobsters and other crustaceans, Giant Isopods, crocodiles, and oh so many species of birds. There is an endlessly nuanced web of life that depends on healthy oceans. All of it, ourselves included, depends on our ability to shift our own species' behavior. Either we do so or we are the true monsters.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Scary Sea Monsters That Are Actually Real

70% of the world's surface is the ocean - and...

Chicken,Taking,Dust,Bath,In,Garden

Is it possible? A dust bath could be cleaner?&nbsp;



This is a fairly radical idea, especially since the pre-fab, sparkling clean convenience of the 20th century continues to shape our societies. But within that, or perhaps in response to that, exciting movements around farm-to-table activism and conscious food production emerge to redefine how people eat and what they expect of farmers and growers in their area. Even in bustling big cities, many families are spending the extra money to purchase free-range meat and dairy, exploring options like permaculture, and investing in community programs such as CSAs (community-supported agriculture). Some families and individuals are even taking it a few steps further in urban and suburban settings: they're keeping backyard chickens.&nbsp;



Today we're going to dust up on the nitty gritties of dust baths. This will be old news to farmhands and a strange discovery for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicken-psychology-birds-smart-complex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first-time chicken keepers</a> - and as it turns out, it's a behavior taking place all over the animal kingdom.



So - what is a dirt bath? Why do chickens do it? What other animals engage in this behavior? And how does this information pertain to your new family egg-layers or burgeoning homestead operation? Should we be taking dust baths too?&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-dust-bath-definition">Dust Bath Definition&nbsp;</h2>



Dust bathing, which is also sometimes referred to as sand bathing, is an animal behavior. It looks just like how it sounds - an animal will roll around in the dirt, dust, and sand.&nbsp;



Technically, animal biologists categorize this as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-change-makes-animals-alter-their-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a "maintenance behavior"</a>. A wide range of avian and mammalian species take dust baths. Examples include sparrows, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-have-personality-traits-that-help-them-solve-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a>, turkeys, ostriches, and quail. There are chinchilla dust baths, pig mud baths, and horses rolling around in the dry dirt.&nbsp;



Now that you know of it, you can probably recall a time or two where you witnessed a mammal or bird taking a dust bath. If not, the time has come to get outside and pay attention! There is also plenty of satisfying examples proliferating on the internet of just this sort of behavior. It's hard not to assign a certain amount of joyfulness and relief to the animals engaging with flying dirt particles. <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NYIdmpp69MY&amp;ab_channel=ChinTubeHD" target="_blank">This fluffy chinchilla knows just what to do</a>. And animals in captivity and <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9E6hKzsNwkI&amp;ab_channel=FriendsoftheHeberWildHorses" target="_blank">in the wild</a> take part in the ritual.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/shutterstock_1582998499.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900275"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Dennis+Diehl">Dennis Diehl</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-perks-of-dust-baths">Perks Of Dust Baths</h2>



Most humans have a weird thing with dirt and it can be hard for us to understand the impulse. Much of our commercial, medical, and societal conformities have to do with not being dirty. It can come as a shock that a dirt bath would actually be a very effective way for various animals to stay clean.&nbsp;



But unsurprisingly, our "enlightened" homo sapien assumptions can miss important details. Farming communities have long known this to be an aspect of certain animals' lives and zoological and agricultural scientists are now conducting studies into what's going on.&nbsp;



The consensus: dirt baths do work. Dirt baths can help keep external parasites away such as mites and fleas. A dirt bath can help an animal dry off from moisture in the environment or sweat from exertion from a hard day's work. A chicken can clean her feathers for preening, and a racehorse is able to cool off in a sandy stable. Animals can clean off the build-up of excess oil, all the better to fluff up their exteriors and combat parasites for healthier lives.&nbsp;



Some scientists suggest that dust baths have an important communicator function for some animals as well. In the case of squirrels, for example, a strong odor is left in the dirt after a dirt bath. This may be a way individuals are able to signal one another - leading to other various behaviors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-to-promote-health-dust-baths-for-your-chickens">How To Promote Health Dust Baths For Your Chickens&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>



If you have a pet chinchilla or llama or a racehorse, you are going to want to investigate how best to support your animal companion's dust bathing regiment. Most people with dust bath quandaries on the internet and in communities around the globe are probably inquiring on behalf of their chicken, however, and so we're going to focus in on that. Here are some things to consider for DIY chicken keepers, crafting the ideal chicken coop, chicken run, and dirt bathing environment for the pecking members of their household.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/shutterstock_1011523030.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900276"/><figcaption><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/mariecristabernjoyce">marie martin</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-in-the-dust-bath-area">In The Dust Bath Area</h3>



First of all, the chickens will want regular dust baths in the proper season - and this is a necessary behavior for laying hens, so if you want eggs, you're going to want to facilitate dirt baths.&nbsp;



The chickens are going to do it whether you create the ideal environment for it or not. And while it can seem like more dirt = more clean from our discussion so far, it actually depends greatly on what dirt the chickens are using for this to truly be the case. Without your help, your chickens may end up dirt bathing in areas that are unclean and <a href="https://groworganicforlife.com/blogs/news/build-a-dust-bath-for-chickens-in-just-5-minutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potentially full of manure or dead and decaying material</a>. All of this can harbor deadly bacteria for your birds, which can lead to wasted effort on your part, unnecessary animal suffering, and no home-layed scrambled eggs in the morning. These are some truly sad endings that can be avoided.&nbsp;



Luckily, <a href="https://groworganicforlife.com/blogs/news/build-a-dust-bath-for-chickens-in-just-5-minutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building a dust bath</a> for your roost of feathered ladies is a quick and easy task. And this way, you can guarantee that your birds are showering in the dusty matter that is beneficial instead of harmful, empowering them to preen away and live their best chicken lives.&nbsp;



You can build a sandbox, use a kitty pool, or even a plastic bin for a dust bath. Plastic containers will be easy to clean of any wayward droppings that are sure to happen. Sprinkle in food-grade diatomaceous earth and maybe even some products like <a href="https://groworganicforlife.com/products/mitesbgone?variant=12444657778722" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MitesBGone</a>. You could also go the herbal route and incorporate lavender, oregano, and wormwood into your sandy dirt - all of which have antibacterial, antimicrobial properties in their essential oils. There's really no need to mix things up much in your container - your chickens, in their dirt bathing splendor, will do that work for you.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-requirements-vary">Requirements Vary&nbsp;</h3>



The European Union has had <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032579119386365?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strict legal requirements around dustbathing</a> material since 2012 - and the same may be true where you live. It can be important (and instructive) to look into city and country ordinances in your area regarding this subject to make sure you are meeting these requirements.



Generally, "adequate substrates" include food particles, some brands of cat litter (just not the litter that's already been used by feline friends in the litter box!), feathers, straw, wood shavings, and wood ash (which contains a healthy dose of vitamin K and magnesium for your chickens). Scientific studies suggest that chickens prefer sandier combinations - though that substrate can be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032579119386365?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">difficult to supply</a> depending on your area and the functionality of the supply chain system. The dryer and sandier, the better.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion</h2>



There's a lot to learn from the animal world - and perhaps the time has come to rethink our own human ideas about dirt, dust, soil, clay, and other messy elements of our geographical landscapes.&nbsp;



We may still be debating exactly why the chicken crossed the road - but the perks of cleanliness of a dust bath are easy enough to understand. Indeed, while you may not want to forgo the use of your house shower, it can apply to us as well.&nbsp;



Examples include cleaning dishes on a camping trip, beating out the living room rug in the snow, or bobbing around a spa in Iceland and spreading earthen clay all over your face. Sometimes, dirt can be cleaner for us too.&nbsp;



The fact of the matter is, our lives depend upon dirt and the animals remind us that it's in our best interest to collaborate and embrace the dirt for health, and also for the dirt-bathing fun of it.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

More Dirt = More Clean? What Is a Dust Bath?

Is it possible? A dust bath could be cleaner?&nbsp; This...

Eye,Of,The,Caribou,In,Alaska,Denali,National,Park

Largest On Earth: Caribou Migration

The caribou migration is the longest land migration on planet...

Dinosaur,Fossil,(tyrannosaurus,Rex),Found,By,Archaeologists

The Chicxulub disaster marks one of Earth’s greatest mass extinctions in which an asteroid hit the Gulf of Mexico, devastating the planet. Known best for being the downfall of the dinosaurs, the Chicxulub impact crater is one of the largest craters in the world. The date of impact has been memorialized by a thin band of clay surrounding layers in the Earth’s crust called the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Separating the Cretaceous period from the Paleogene, this crater signifies more than just a flip of a calendar. The apocalyptic events that transpired have been documented in the rock layers around the globe, just waiting for a geologist to uncover them. Here, we dive into the causes and the fallout of the disaster.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-caused-the-chicxulub-diasater">What Caused the Chicxulub Diasater?</h2>



As we examine the most monumental moments in Earth’s history, we can’t jump in our time machines and zoom back 65 million years. To understand the cause of the Chicxulub disaster, we turn to chemistry, geology, and paleontology. To start, let’s get out the periodic table because the entire theory behind the Chicxulub disaster has a chemical foundation.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-volcanoes-vs-meteorites-competing-theories">Volcanoes vs. Meteorites: Competing Theories</h3>



Physically, the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary is delineated by a thin band of clay, unique to the geologic layers above and below it. The clay demarcation has an unusually high concentration of the element iridium. In fact, the K-T boundary has <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/Chicxulub/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1,000</a> times more iridium than all the oceans! While rarely found in the Earth’s crust, both meteorites and the Earth’s interior are iridium-rich. The prevalence along the K-T boundary led geologists to two predominant theories. Either the band formed during a worldwide cataclysmic volcanic eruption or from an extra-terrestrial source. Luckily, thanks to scientific advances, more evidence quickly made itself apparent, and the iridium pendulum swung toward outer space.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/shutterstock_1221183757.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899747"/><figcaption>Examples of rock cores used for geological study. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/smile+plus">smile plus</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-the-chicxulub-crater">The Chicxulub Crater</h3>



The discovery of the Chicxulub impact crater advanced the conversation around the K-T boundary. First noted off the coast of Haiti, several clues on the seafloor helped push the dialogue to support the meteor theory. Physically, the crater spans 93 miles across and 12 miles deep, the impact zone is buried underneath the Yucatan Peninsula off the coast of Mexico.&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-shocked-quartz">Shocked Quartz</h4>



If a giant depression in the Earth’s crust isn’t enough to convince you of a meteor impact event, there’s more geologic evidence that goes hand-in-hand. This time, instead of an other-worldly element, an uncommon form of a very common rock raised the red flag. Quartz is a mineral found all over the Earth. Rosey, smokey, clear, or opaque, quartz crystals have a varied but predictable diversity. Each quartz molecule is made from one silicon atom and two oxygens. Normally, these molecules arrange themselves in a regular lattice. However, when hit with absurdly high pressure and temperatures, quartz gets a bit funky. Undergoing a series of phase transitions, shocked quartz has a <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/news/meteorite-strikes-may-create-unexpected-form-silica" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disorderly structure</a>, with lines of molecules intersecting at irregular angles. Unsurprisingly, an expedition of geophysicists with the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) discovered shocked quartz in the rock core around the Chicxulub crater at the K-T boundary!&nbsp;



In conclusion, Given the prevalence of iridium, the large impact zone, and the correlation with a layer of shocked quartz, scientists believe that a meteorite caused the Chicxulub disaster and created the K-T boundary.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/shutterstock_1452445010-1024x596.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899748"/><figcaption>The K-T boundary is a geological marker of the Chicxulub Disaster. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Captain+Cobi">Captainz</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-chicxulub-meteor">The Chicxulub Meteor</h2>



Where did the meteor come from? Looking at celestial patterns, physicists have also developed a theory about the origins of the meteor in question, and it looks like we have Jupiter to blame. The giant planet has a proportionally giant gravitational field. Every once in a while Jupiter pulls debris from the Oort cloud at the outskirts of our solar system and whips them toward the center, called a “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sungrazing-comet-may-have-caused-dinosaur-extinction-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sungrazer</a>.” In astronomic terms, “every once in a while” means every <a href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2021/02/new-theory-behind-asteroid-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">250-730 million years</a>, so we don’t have to worry about a similar event any time soon. Subsequently, the tidal force of the sun breaks the meteors into smaller pieces and increases their speed.&nbsp;



As luck would have it, one of these pieces hurtled toward the Earth over 60 million years ago. An estimated six miles in diameter, the asteroid hit Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula in a <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/Chicxulub/regional-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">100 million megaton</a> explosion. While six miles may seem pitiful compared to the size of a planet, its impact was truly global.



<h4 id="h-immediate-effects-of-the-chicxulub-disaster">Immediate Effects of the Chicxulub Disaster</h4>



The Chicxulub disaster caused a series of events that changed the world forever. While the global situation became dire, the region around the impact site got completely demolished.&nbsp; Using <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/Chicxulub/regional-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> from fossilized plant debris, sediment deposits, core samples, ripple marks, and other geological clues, scientists have been able to piece together the initial aftermath of the Chicxulub impactor.&nbsp;



<h5 id="h-the-impact-zone">The Impact Zone</h5>



The blast of the impact alone created devastating plasma that reached temperatures of over <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/Chicxulub/regional-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">10,000 degrees</a>, destroying everything in the crater’s radius.&nbsp;



<h5 id="h-the-air-blast">The Air Blast</h5>



If lifeforms avoided being literally squished, the asteroid strike created shockwaves and high-velocity winds sent across the Gulf of Mexico called an air blast would be next to get them.&nbsp;



<h5 id="h-tsunamis">Tsunamis </h5>



Along with the air blast, tsunamis rolled over the Mexican coast and southeastern North America. Estimated to have been up to 300 meters tall, the waves rolled inland up to 100 kilometers before depositing mainland sediment back onto the ocean floor.&nbsp;



<h5 id="h-earthquakes-the-peak-ring">Earthquakes &amp; The Peak Ring</h5>



The asteroid impact also caused seismic activity equivalent to a magnitude 10 earthquake. The seismic pulse also created a tectonic formation unique to craters over 2 km wide. When the meteor hit, seismic waves moved in and out of the crater simultaneously. The colliding movement caused an uplift of rocks to the center of the basin which then collapsed into a circle of mountains, called a peak ring.



Overview: the initial impact of the Chicxulub asteroid caused high winds, tsunamis, earthquakes, forest fires, and general devastation&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h4 id="h-global-effects-of-the-chicxulub-disaster">Global Effects of the Chicxulub Disaster</h4>



In addition to the catastrophes that erupted at the impact site and surrounding region, the effects of the Chicxulub disaster spread worldwide. Not only was their impact global, but also the extent of the damages wasn’t brief. In many cases, the consequences of the crater lasted years, ultimately changing the makeup of the world’s ecosystems.



<h5 id="h-wildfires">Wildfires</h5>



After colliding into the Yucatan Peninsula, the meteor exploded into a cloud of scorching debris. Scattered over the earth, the flaming fall-out lit wildfires around the globe. Evidenced by a layer of ash, these fires likely released significant amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.&nbsp;



<h5 id="h-acid-rain">Acid Rain</h5>



When the meteor hit the Gulf of Mexico, all the soot and debris from the impact shot back up into the atmosphere. Initially, the influx of debris shocked the atmosphere with firey temperatures. Additionally, the impact of the asteroid released sulfurous gas. The combination of heat and sulfur started a chain of chemical reactions causing acid rain.&nbsp;



<h5 id="h-global-cooling">Global Cooling</h5>



Depending on their size, the particulates stayed suspended in the atmosphere for up to a year. Consequently, they acted as a giant cloud, blocking the sunlight. As a result, average temperatures decreased around the globe.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h5 id="h-global-warming">Global Warming</h5>



After the initial global cooling event, the greenhouse gases released during the impact had the opposite effect. Based on measurements of potential CO2 release to growth rates seen in fossilized leaves, scientists estimate that temperatures likely rose between <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/Chicxulub/global-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1.0 and 7.5°C</a> and lasted for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicxulub-asteroid-strike-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">100,000 years</a>.&nbsp;



Overview: After the initial wave of devastation from the Chicxulub impact, the airborne soot and debris, along with a release of greenhouse gases caused worldwide wildfires, acid rain, and global cooling and warming events that completely disrupted life on Earth.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/shutterstock_1713496240.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1899749"/><figcaption>Ammonites were some of the animals to go extinct during the Chicxulub Disaster. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Kuzmalo">Kuzmalo</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-the-5th-mass-extinction-event">The 5th Mass Extinction Event</h2>



Though scientists publish new studies each year on the events of the Chicxulub disaster, there’s one thing we know for sure. Below the K-T boundary, dinosaurs dominated the Earth. Above it, only avian dinosaurs remain. When the Chicxulub asteroid hit the Earth, it marked the end of the Cretaceous period and opened up thousands of niches to mammals, reptiles, and amphibians.



There have only been five recorded mass extinction events in Earth’s history. Of course, species go extinct all the time, but this usually coincides with the evolution of more complex organisms. The five mass extinctions, on the other hand, cause a dieoff of at least <a href="https://samnoblemuseum.ou.edu/understanding-extinction/mass-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">40%</a> of species due to extreme environmental factors.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-shifts-in-the-food-web-the-nail-in-the-dinosaur-s-coffin">Shifts in the Food Web: the Nail in the Dinosaur’s Coffin</h3>



The Chicxulub disaster notoriously caused the dinosaur extinction. But not just the dinosaurs suffered. Pterosaurs (flying reptiles) and mosasaurs (large marine reptiles) went extinct as well. While the tsunamis and acid rain surely took out a good number of critters, they couldn’t have been enough to wipe out over 75% of the living plants and animals. That accolade goes to the long-term impacts of the meteor.&nbsp;



Initially, plants couldn’t adapt to the dramatic shifts in climate combined with blocked sunlight from the particulates.  The impact on plant life had a domino effect on the global food web. While many plants have seeds and pollen that could outlast the most severe conditions in a dormant state, the animal kingdom was not so lucky. Starving and suffering, the largest animals took the hardest hit. Small mammals, avian dinosaurs, and reptiles found a way to survive the devastation. When the climate stabilized, the surviving lineages adapted, grew, and developed into diverse evolutionary trees.  The events that marked the end of the dinosaurs were the origin of life as we know it today.



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The Chicxulub Disaster

The Chicxulub disaster marks one of Earth’s greatest mass extinctions...

Chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest living relatives. Humans (Homo sapien) share not only a common ancestor with both these primates, but we also share over 98% of our genome. But while these two great ape species have many similarities, they are actually quite different animals. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-and-chimpanzee-taxonomy">Bonobo and Chimpanzee Taxonomy</h2>



Physically, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-chimpanzee-day-celebrating-our-closest-cousins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a> are quite similar, and together, they make up the sole members of the genus Pan. Their genus shares the family Hominidae with the other tailless great apes like gorillas and orangutans. Originally, researchers assumed bonobos were just a subspecies of chimpanzees. 



In fact, until <a href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=943824&amp;print_version=PRT&amp;source=to_print#null" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1954</a>, scientists called them pygmy chimpanzees. Eventually, the two ape species were seen as distinct. Over the years, research has continued to reveal differences between chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus). Keep reading to learn more about the ecology of these two primates along with some of their key differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-amp-range">Distribution &amp; Range</h2>



Both chimpanzees and bonobos live in the tropical jungles of central Africa. However, bonobos have a much smaller range. In fact, bonobos are <a href="https://evolutionaryanthropology.duke.edu/research/3chimps/chimps-bonobos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endemic</a> to a small region of the Congo River Basin in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 



On the other hand, chimpanzees are found across twelve countries in east, central, and west Africa. Though both species can be found in the Congo River Basin, bonobos stay south of the river while chimpanzees can be found to the north.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_222261151.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903275"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/rolands">Patrick Rolands</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-chimpanzees-and-bonobos-look-different">Do Chimpanzees and Bonobos Look Different?</h2>



At first glance, it might be hard to tell the two primates apart, but, in fact, chimpanzees and bonobos have a few key differences in appearance. To start, they have quite different body shapes. Bonobos are slender with long lanky limbs. Chimps, on the other hand, are much burlier. 



Additionally, chimpanzees display sexual dimorphism as the males are significantly larger than the females. In contrast, bonobo females and males are much closer in size. Their coloration differs slightly as well. 



Bonobos have dark black faces from birth, while baby chimps have pale pink faces that darken with maturation. You can always tell a bonobo from a chimp by their lips! Bonobos have bright pink lips while chimpanzees have dark lips. 



<figure class="wp-block-table"><table><tbody><tr><td>Trait</td><td>Chimpanzees</td><td>Bonobos</td></tr><tr><td>Lip Color</td><td>Bright Pink Lips</td><td>Dark Lips</td></tr><tr><td>Build</td><td>Slender</td><td>Robust</td></tr><tr><td>Face Color</td><td>Black</td><td>Darkens with age</td></tr></tbody></table><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A table highlighting the key physical differences between chimpanzees and bonobos.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h2>



Both chimps and bonobos are primarily frugivores, preferring to munch on the wide variety of fruit available in the tropical forests of central Africa. However, bonobos are more likely to <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.393.9208&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">add vegetables to their diets</a> by grazing on stems, leaves, and flowers. 



Additionally, while bonobos won’t shy away from a protein source like worms or ants or the occasional duiker (small antelope), chimps tend to be a bit more carnivorous. 



Seemingly tied to competition for status and mates, male chimpanzees will go on violent hunting sprees, mostly targeted at the smaller colobus monkeys. Bonobo communities tend to hunt for meat about twice per month, and they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-generous-share-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">share</a> their prey generously with the group. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-vs-bonobo-behavior">Chimpanzee vs. Bonobo Behavior</h2>



The most dramatic differences between chimps and bonobos lie in their social behaviors. Not only fascinating from an ecological perspective, but primate behavior can also give us clues to human evolution. 



In the field of evolutionary anthropology, scientists use <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/204757" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate studies</a> to answer questions. Chimpanzee and bonobo behavior can help us understand if certain human behaviors are part of our genome or learned through societal pressures.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-structure">Social Structure</h3>



Both primates live in social groups of mixed males and females, with bonobos generally occupying larger groups. Both groups use a fission-fusion structure in which smaller foraging teams reunite at night to sleep. 



However, there are several key divergences in how the primates interact between ages and genders. Chimpanzee communities have a clear hierarchy of males that defend clearly marked territories. 



On the other hand, wild bonobos are less strict with their territory borders and operate under a more matriarchal society. These trends in social structure are built on the social bonds between individuals.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_2111507969.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903276"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/anolis01">Edwin Butter</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-society">Chimpanzee Society</h4>



For chimpanzees, the relationships between males define the group structure. A classic example of natural selection, chimps compete for power in the group which translates to more chances to mate and pass on their offspring. 



The more dominant alpha males intimidate younger chimps and have more offspring. However, this fierce competition comes at a violent cost. Chimps are known to commit both infanticide and cannibalism to increase their chances of fathering offspring. 



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-society">Bonobo Society</h4>



In contrast, female bonobos run the show south of the Congo River. In general, bonobo society has much more interaction between genders and ages, and female bonds are critical. While young males stay with their natal groups, adolescent females disperse to find a new group. 



In the quest to become accepted, the new female will pamper the higher-ranking females. Sexual behavior between females is extremely common, and this new female will use <a href="https://www.reed.edu/biology/courses/BIO342/2011_syllabus/2011_websites/subramanian_jaime/genesis.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">socio-sexual behaviors</a> to eventually bond with all the non-related female bonobos.  



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication">Communication</h4>



Both species of great ape have complex communication with several similarities. However, their vocalizations sound quite different. Chimpanzees have lower-pitched voices, letting out barks and grunts. Bonobos are higher-pitched, and their vocalizations sound like squeals and yelps.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_235455565.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903277"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/joshuadavenport">Joshua Davenport</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-use">Tool Use</h3>



One of the most well-known fun facts about these two primates is their creative tool use! Chimpanzees have been observed using a plethora of tools from absorbant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-drinking-sticks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking sticks</a> to makeshift shovels. To help with foraging, chimp mothers intentionally <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-mothers-teach-their-children-how-to-use-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teach their young</a> to use specific herbs like a spoon in a termite mound. 



Bonobos have also been seen to use tools including rocks and sticks. Due to the nature of their habitat, wild bonobo populations are understudied, and most of the tool observations have been made in captivity. Who knows what else they could be up to in the jungle?! 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation">Conservation</h2>



Unfortunately, the IUCN red list lists both chimpanzees and bonobos as endangered. Most of their population declines come as a result of human action. Whether deforestation, poaching, urban development, or the impending threat of climate change, these primate populations are at risk.&nbsp;



While all species deserve protection, certainly we owe it to our closest living relatives to treat our shared planet with a bit more thoughtfulness. 



Conservation efforts to protect both these species have garnered attention since Jane Goodall made her first observations. However, slowing the devastating effects of climate change and habitat destruction is critical to the survival of these two amazing apes!



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Chimpanzees vs. Bonobos: What’s the Difference?

Chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest living relatives. Humans (Homo...

The alpine ibex is a mysterious animal on our wondrous planet. And as it turns out, the history of conservation surrounding this <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mspecies/article/doi/10.1644/830.1/2600872" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mammalia ungulate</a> is an informative example of recovery and renewal.&nbsp;



Today, we're going to dive into the basics of Capra ibex, their return from near extinction, and where you can try to catch glimpses of them yourself. In this story, there is a warning regarding our own behavior. There is also hope exemplified in this species we were able to save with swift, bold action from community awareness and sure-footed leadership.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-the-basics-of-capra-ibex">The Basics of Capra Ibex</h2>



Capra ibex is the scientific label for this beloved "mountain goat" of sorts with a whole list of other names. Some examples include steinbock, bouquetin, just ibex, and even Capra ibex ibex. If this last name seems redundant, you are absolutely right. This is a feature of botanical species with various subspecies. The double name helps us to distinguish differences while acknowledging evolutionary relationships. Species of wild goats that were considered subspecies of the Alpine ibex (at one time) include Nubian ibex,&nbsp; walia, and Siberian ibexes.&nbsp;



Back to Capra ibex specifically:&nbsp;



This is a mysterious, wild goat that lives in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mspecies/article/doi/10.1644/830.1/2600872" target="_blank" rel="noopener">European alps</a>. This species' endemic range includes Italy, Switzerland, Austria, France, and even Slovenia. Evolutionary biologists and archeologists have found fossils of an ancestor animal in Kenya, China, and Slovenia.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The alpine ibex has a short, broad head. Its coat is a brownish-grey color with a pale underbelly. These mammals molt twice a year - growing a thicker coat through September to prepare for late autumn and winter months.&nbsp;



These goats are herbivores and climbers, moving around through the swiss alps at snow line where the landscape is rough, jagged, and gritty. They are classified as <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/artio/artiodactyla.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">an Artiodactyla</a>. This means "cloved-foot animals". It's a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goat-genome-domestication/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">distinct category</a> that also includes sheep, antelopes, camels, pigs, cows, and giraffes. These creatures are adapted for thriving in open grasslands most often. Though Alpine ibex are obviously an exception - frequenting the monstrous and sublime heights of the alps.&nbsp;



The most distinct feature, for male ibex at least, is the very long and pointed horns. They are not the sort of feature you want to get tangled up with.&nbsp;



These arcing horns, in addition to being wicked sharp, are a great example of <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mspecies/article/doi/10.1644/830.1/2600872" target="_blank" rel="noopener">sexual dimorphism</a> in nature. This is a zoological term that <a href="https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary-en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">we define as</a> "distinct difference in size or appearance between the sexes of an animal in addition to the difference between the sexual organs themselves."



Additional <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mspecies/article/doi/10.1644/830.1/2600872" target="_blank" rel="noopener">to the horns</a>, the male ibex is also larger bodied than the females.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/capricorn-gf565c70db_1920-1024x729.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1896725"/><figcaption>Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/scholty1970-7596740/">scholty1970</a> on <a href="https://pixabay.com/">Pixabay</a></figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-reproductive-behavior-and-life-cycle-habits">Reproductive Behavior And Life Cycle Habits</h2>



For most of the year, male ibex and females <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130522213611/http://www.ivb.cz/folia/52/2/113-120.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">live separately from one another</a>. This of course changes during the breeding season, when the animals are in rut - usually around December of each year. The breeding period lasts six weeks.&nbsp;



Adult males fight for females using their horns against one another. Sometimes, male aggression can be indirect in the form of threats and displays. Scientists note a "linear dominance hierarchy" amongst the males, which usually depends on horn size and group cohesiveness.&nbsp;



The courtship process is determined by these <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130522213611/http://www.ivb.cz/folia/52/2/113-120.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">power dynamics</a> and has intricate phases and happenings - a reminder that these animals are social beings with habits, preferences, and memories of past encounters. After a male and female copulate, the gestation period lasts <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130522213611/http://www.ivb.cz/folia/52/2/113-120.pdf">around 167 days</a>. About <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/pdf/10.4141/cjas95-022" target="_blank" rel="noopener">20% of C. ibex births are twins</a>. Like other species of goats, these offspring are called "kids" until they mature into adolescent adults.&nbsp;



When not breeding, the sexes separate again into distinct groups: adult male groups, female herds and their offspring, and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/016815919190262V" target="_blank" rel="noopener">groups of young individuals</a>.



Individuals reach sexual maturity at 18 months - but will keep growing through the years. Females usually reach their full size in between five and six years of age. Alternatively, males take a bit longer, reaching full size in nine to eleven years of life.&nbsp;



In the wild, these creatures <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/016815919190262V" target="_blank" rel="noopener">live up to 19 years old</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-a-near-extinction">A Near Extinction</h2>



Ibex are present in the fossil record dating back to the Pleistocene. This is a period of time when the Alpine Ibex and the Spanish ibex split and evolved from the extinct Pleistocene species Capra camburgensis.&nbsp;



As is so often the case with human population increase and technological progress, we began to seriously impact the endemic landscape of these alpine goats as early as the 16th century. Due to poaching, overharvesting, and encroaching pressure, the population steadily declined.&nbsp;



Extirpated is a term that means "<a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=extirpated&amp;oq=Extirpated&amp;aqs=chrome.0.0i433i512j0i512l9.833j0j4&amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;ie=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noopener">root out and destroy completely</a>." We use this word specifically to describe an animal that has completely vanished from a particular area, but not from the globe as a whole. Obviously, extirpation leads to extinction.&nbsp;



And this is exactly what happened in the case of alpine ibex: by the 18th century, these sharp horned goats were gone from Germany and Switzerland. By the 19th century, they had disappeared from Austria and northeastern Italy as well.&nbsp;



The situation devolved into something dire: at one point, the only remaining territory where alpine ibex climbed the snowline was the Gran Paradiso and Vanoise Massifs. There were <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1381520" target="_blank" rel="noopener">less than 100 of them</a>. This area (Located in the western Italian Alps and the Maurienne valley) then became a park in an attempt to save the species. At the time, Victor Emmanuel II, the first king of a united Italy named it as a "Royal hunting reserve of Gran Paradiso". It became an <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1381520" target="_blank" rel="noopener">official national park in 1922</a>. With these actions, the number of individuals had gone from nearly extinct to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1381520" target="_blank" rel="noopener">over 3,000</a>.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image is-resized"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/goats-g07cd2d181_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="baby alpine ibex" class="wp-image-1896729" width="840" height="559"/><figcaption>Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/dominikrh-12119308/">DominikRh</a> on <a href="http://pixabay.com">Pixabay</a> </figcaption></figure>



<h3 id="h-a-success-story-with-strings-attached">A Success Story With Strings Attached</h3>



In some instances, this recovering population naturally spread to adjacent areas. However, reintroduction is a major part of this success story. Today there are over 30,000 Alpine ibex. And while they are still mysterious to us, their conservation status is in a much better state. They roam the Italian alps, rutting, fighting, foraging. The IUCN lists them as a species of least concern. In a world increasingly defined by the climate crisis, this sort of success story is a rare boon.&nbsp;



But it's not exactly a "one and done" sort of thing with conservation and reintroduction efforts. While the size of herds is worth celebrating, as are restored chains of reciprocity within ecosystems, these recovered populations have a very low genetic diversity. Because they recovered from such few individuals, the species is now inbred and extra vulnerable to disease. This could be a problem in the future to come.&nbsp;



Additionally, the conservation efforts of ibex cousin species are not so optimistic. Two species of the Iberian ibex, endemic to the Iberian peninsula, are already extinct. And even with massive cloning experiments underway, no individuals of these species have lived longer than a few minutes.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/alpine-ibex-g3f5c956f3_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="ibex" class="wp-image-1896730"/><figcaption>Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/nickype-10327513/">NickyPe</a> on <a href="http://pixabay.com">Pixabay</a></figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-where-to-see-them-today">Where To See Them Today</h2>



The European alps are an incredible place to visit for a plethora of reasons. And thanks to conservation efforts, you might have a chance to spot <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/nov/03/goats-italy-dam-precipitous-heights" target="_blank" rel="noopener">the mysterious alpine ibex</a> for yourself - though you'll have to get pretty high up in the mountains to do so. Pack those hiking boots!&nbsp;



Gran Paradiso national park remains a popular destination to bask in the wonders of ecology while scanning the snow line for any wild goats. Fellow bovidaes of the mountain goat variety in this area of the world include <a href="https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/47071125/The_conservation_of_the_chamois_Rupicapr20160706-628-tuzuk8-with-cover-page-v2.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">chamois</a> - another mammal to keep an eye out for.&nbsp;



Ultimately, the story of the alpine ibex <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00442-008-1198-4" target="_blank" rel="noopener">continues to unfold</a>. We witness them in their natural habitat and feel compelled to protect them and the delicate systems where they climb, graze, chew. As we move about our lives it behooves us to consider these other sentient beings - organisms that contribute to healthy environments - as neighbors and relatives. And while creatures like the Alpine ibex don't currently get a vote in our societies, it is our job to vote and activate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goats-happy-people/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">on their behalf</a>.&nbsp;



Species of wild goats are an important link in the connective chain of a landscape. They are a reminder that our human species should endeavor to fix the detrimental impacts we have caused.



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All About the Mysterious Alpine Ibex

The alpine ibex is a mysterious animal on our wondrous...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...