Alert,Serval,Cat

Savannah cats are all the rage in the world of cat breeds and pet fads. And perhaps less popularized on Instagram but innumerably more precious to thriving ecosystems are servals. 



Both are incredibly beautiful animals. And the truth of the matter is that while they are distinctly different, they are also related. A serval is a wild animal, native to Africa. On the other hand, a savannah cat is a hybrid of a wild serval and a domestic cat - a cat breed. 



Ever wonder what is the difference between savannah cats and servals?



Both are highly intelligent and have similar colors and patterns, but they are generations removed.&nbsp;



Crosses between a small wild cat and domestic breeds are not novel and are bought and bred as a valuable commodity. In fact, Bengals (a cross between a domestic cat and an Asian leopard cat) rank as The International Cat Association’s (TICA) <a href="https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/cat-breeds/bengal" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">top breed</a>. 



The opportunity of having a pet that looks like a fierce wild cat but has the temperament of a sweet house kitty is quite alluring to many people's socialized conceptions of the 'exotic" and unique. 



But we have to ask ourselves - what are the distinguishing elements between wild and domestic? What do we really want from the animals in our homes? And how do the stories around these wild and domestic animals reflect our own history?



Here, we’ll look at the key differences and similarities between savannah cats and their wild cousins, starting with servals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-servals">What are Servals?</h2>



Slender, small, and lanky, servals (serval&nbsp;Leptailurus serval) stand out as feline beauties even though their coats keep them camouflaged on the African savannah and tall grasses. Servals are the ultimate pouncer, powered by their long legs. After a couple of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">derivations</a>&nbsp;through Portuguese and French, their name means “the wolf that hunts the stag.”



Servals have the&nbsp;<a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biggest ears and longest legs</a>&nbsp;in proportion to their bodies of any species in the cat family (Felidae).



Fun Fact: If our ears were in the same proportions as this African wild cat's ears, they would be as big as a dinner plate!



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-servals-appearance">Servals Appearance</h3>



With a beautiful tawny coat, decorated with black spots and stripes, it comes as no surprise that they became so popular as a tourist attraction and within our collective imaginations. Yellow eyes are emphasized by a dark line streaking from the ears down to the nose, similar to a cheetah. 



Their have long necks and gigantic ears both look charming and help them on the prowl. Long legs and a slender body are another good identifying factor. Finally, they have a beautiful yellow tail with several black rings. This coloration is often compared to "black smoke."



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-nbsp-size">Body&nbsp;Size</h4>



A medium-sized cat, servals weigh between&nbsp;<a href="https://wildkratts.fandom.com/wiki/Serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">18-40 lbs</a>. Their shoulders stand about<a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">&nbsp;two feet high</a>, and they are about<a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">&nbsp;three feet long</a>. Additionally, females tend to be smaller and more slender than males. Within the discipline of biology, we call this occurrence sexual dimorphism.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-servals-habitat">Servals Habitat</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution">Distribution</h4>



Native to the African continent, servals are more commonly found in&nbsp;<a href="https://wildcatconservation.org/wild-cats/africa/serval/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sub-Saharan countries</a>. Except in the Sahara, the rainforest, and southern Africa, these creatures are widely distributed throughout parts of Africa. They are an important member of the vast landscape of the world's second-largest landmass. While you won't find wild servals in the region of South Africa, their habitats do stretch all the way out to east Africa.&nbsp;



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-home-on-the-grassy-range">Home on the Grassy Range</h4>



While servals are found in 34 different countries, they have their favorite habitats. These wild cats love the grass - especially the grassed areas of the river and surrounding areas. Think savannas, reed beds, high-altitude moorlands, wetlands, and bamboo thickets. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/7-of-the-coolest-savanna-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> are distinct with long savannah grasses and reeds - all playing a part in the serval survival and life cycle. 



Servals don’t just enjoy the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-riparian-ecosystems/">riparian</a> plants… These cats love playing in the water! Additionally, if there are water and prey available, servals have even adapted well to agricultural land - a growing factor as human development spreads across less developed countries on the continent that will surely have marked impacts. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



All Felidae family members are carnivorous and the serval is no different. Its carnivore&nbsp;<a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a>&nbsp;is primarily small rodents, though it will also eat birds, amphibians, reptiles, and other small mammal invertebrates. &nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-servals-behavior">Servals Behavior</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting"> Hunting</h4>



The serval’s distinctly long legs and large ears are key to its hunting strategy. These traits have been passed down from many a serval ancestor. These cats are most active during crepuscular hours (dawn and dusk). They will listen and wait for prey before subsequently going for the dramatic pounce. And dramatic it is! Serval can leap<a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/serval" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> 9 feet</a> into the air to snatch a bird. Long, flexible toes allow them to swiftly hook a frog out from the reeds. 



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-servals-reproduction">Servals Reproduction</h4>



Quite the solitary animals, these African serval cats will rarely be seen in groups. They will mark their territories with scents and scratches, and they mostly give each other space. Male and female home ranges will overlap, and while they will come together to breed, they soon go their separate ways. 



The female will usually have 2-3 savannah kittens, and she acts as the sole care provider for the young. She’s a good mother too! In fact, female serval hunting success <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Leptailurus_serval/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increases</a> while she has cubs, perhaps because she must be on the hunt more often to feed the hungry mouths. Their gestation period is 68-74 days long. Their lifespan average is 11 years in the wild and up to <a href="https://www.catsforafrica.co.za/serval-leptailurus-serval/serval-life-cycle/">22 years in captivity</a>.  



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-note-on-exotic-pets-nbsp">A Note On Exotic Pets&nbsp;</h4>



In most places, it is illegal to keep exotic cats as pets. Reporting and protecting those individual cats living as exotic pets is important - in both ending animal abuse as well as ensuring human and animal safety.&nbsp;



In the beginning days of the coronavirus pandemic, many people of the western world became infatuated with the documentary series "Tiger King" which took a closer look at some particularly entertaining and horrific examples of exactly this sort of industry abuse. 



When learning about the facts of wild cats such as servals, it's important to also weigh the nuances of these sorts of conversations. What's commodification and abuse and what is conservation? When we are all glued to our TV or visiting a local "safari", where do we fall on the scale of learning and/or extracting? 



With awareness and education comes change and accountability - and maybe just this sort of cultural fixation will lead to positive things. A hopeful thing indeed!&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-savannah-cats">What are Savannah Cats?</h2>



Now that we're all on the same page with servals, let's turn our attention to the savannah cat - a less wild descendent and popular animal companion.&nbsp;



In contrast their wild cousins, savannah cats are bred to be pets. While they do have serval blood, domestication has made them very different animals. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-cats-domesticated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Domestication</a> can be a slightly confusing concept for some people working to understand how a domesticated species is different from a domesticated wild animal. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word is defined as "the process of taming an animal and keeping it as a pet or on a farm." 



Domestication of a whole species however is a multi-generational process where humans select for desirable traits over and over again. In doing so, often, some animal species eventually ceases to exist in the wild, or are bred yet again with other wild animals that are close relatives and still untamed. 



There are endless versions, attempts, and variations in our history. It is a process that we humans have undertaken time and time again, changing our fate and societies in monumental ways and carrying the descendants of certain animals along with us as we go.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-savannah-cats-a-history-of-hybrid-house-kitties">Savannah Cats -- A History of Hybrid House Kitties</h3>



Unsurprisingly, humans have long been fascinated with wild cats. They are prominent aspects of our mythology, songs, and pop culture. With that in mind, it comes as no further surprise that there have been many attempts to breed domestic cats (Felis catus) with species of wild cats. 



Besides servals, breeds that humans have attempted crosses with include: caracals, Asian leopard cats, fishing cats, and ocelots. The goal of any cross is to capture the aesthetic of a wild cat with the disposition of a house kitty. 



These attempts have had varying amounts of success. If people do succeed in their attempts, this work of breeding can be an extremely lucrative business endeavor. The price tag on many of these specialty wild-infused cat breeds sell for over 100,000 dollars. 



The savannah cat is one of the success stories. The first hybrid was bred in the <a href="https://tica.org/breeds/browse-all-breeds?view=article&amp;id=870:savannah-breed&amp;catid=79" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1980s</a>. The kitten was named Savannah, giving the breed its identifier. However, it wasn’t until 2001 that the breed was accepted by The International Cat Association (TICA).



Today, this breed of cat is beloved for their distinct features. And they sometimes sell for up and over $50,000. 



That is an undeniably large lump of money - and many people will, rightfully so, balk at a number so large. People sure love their pets, though - and cats are one of the most popular furry companions in the world. 



Even with an average barn cat as a beloved four-legged roommate, most pet owners will spend over $1,000 a year on average in care and food for that animal. 



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-savannah-cats-generations">Savannah Cats Generations</h4>



It can be quite challenging to breed wild cats with house cats. While more savannah cat breeders are developing respectable practices, the initial cross is rare. More commonly, the relationship to a serval will be more distant. 



These are tracked by filial generations. For example, an F1 savannah cat has a serval cat as a parent, and an F2 savannah cat has a serval as a grandparent. In general, generations F4,5,6 are easier to find. And easier to afford. 



The F1 and F2 generations can be some of the most expensive kittens in the world as the rapper <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=70XMW2fxHtQ&amp;list=PLhIBvHsb9MWZD2rK-uoJjGGZNLLuU5GjW&amp;index=5&amp;ab_channel=GQ" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2 Chainz</a> discovered on his show.



Experts warn that you shouldn’t be suckered in by a “deal”  when trying to acquire a Savannah cat for your own home and daily life. Often, if the cat is much less expensive, there were too many shortcuts taken in the breeding process. A good tip is to make sure the breeder is TICA registered. This can result in long-term health issues for savannah cats. Do your research before investing in your potential kitten!



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-savannah-cats-temperament">Savannah Cats Temperament</h3>



Besides their alluring appearance, one of the reasons for the savannah cat’s popularity is their dog-like character. These kitties form close bonds with their family. They will greet you at the door, play fetch, and even go on leashed walks! They even will <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-recognize-name/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">come</a> when called! 



Notorious for being mischievous and high energy, don’t be surprised if they knock around knickknacks, learn to turn on the faucet, or open doors! And remember serval’s amazing jumping ability? This isn’t lost on the savannah cat. They can jump incredible horizontal and vertical distances. They love cat trees and bookshelves! 



One wonders if in leaping from shelf to shelf, the domesticated cat senses a genetic echo of their reed-bed weaving, savannah traversing ancestors still roaming the landscapes of sub-Saharan Africa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-related-but-different">Related but Different</h2>



While savannah cats do have serval blood, they are domestic. Servals are wild. This is an important distinction to remember. And it is worth repeating: wild animals have a distinct set of needs that are met through distinct habitats, diets, and behaviors, and are not suited to life in a living room. 



Wildness exists, even within the domestic. This is true of the savannah cat as well as many other examples that surround us all the time - whether you have a cool 50 grand to spend or simply a moment to pause and take in the world around you, you'll see relationships between the two in enchanting ways. 



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Savannah Cats vs. Servals: They're Not the Same!

Savannah cats are all the rage in the world of...

Persian,Golden,Chinchilla,Cat,In,A,Grassy,Garden

Cat species have had a wild journey through time. One living cat species is domesticated while all others are not. Some species are long extinct, while others walk our planet today in need of protection from human development. 



They pepper the internet, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-of-predators-can-damage-prey-as-much-as-predation-itself/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prowl in windowsills</a> and in the wild landscapes from Africa to Europe, to Asia, and the Americas. They hunt in the jungle or amongst the house plants. They are a vast group of fascinating creatures that enchant, mystify, and terrify - depending on their size and ferocity.



The most popular pet in the world is the house cat. Known for their elusive personalities, more than 600 million cats live among humans worldwide. According to <a href="https://ecommons.cornell.edu/handle/1813/79421" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>, "Nearly three-quarters of U.S. households own pets". So while some species, such as the lynx of North America, is almost impossible to spot, house cats (or feral ones) are nearly impossible to avoid if you live in a developed area. 



Today we are going to explore these categories - from wildcats, tabby, feral cats, to domestic cats to understand the nuances between the groups and better understand the evolutionary process of domestication that takes place when certain species come into close proximity to Homo sapiens over generations.&nbsp;



These stories and biological examples stretch the breadth of the globe - from the fertile crescent of antiquity to the high rise apartments of New York City, cats are a sneezingly, meowingly, purringly prevalent animal in our societies that have possibly shaped us as much as we've shaped them.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-cats-nbsp">The Evolution Of Cats&nbsp;</h2>



The evolution of cats on planet earth is a story told in the fossil record and through our own inherited imaginations - and it plays out today in our own homes and in ecosystems around the world.&nbsp;



Felidae is a family of mammals <a href="http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?id=14000003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in the order Carnivora</a> - these are the cats, big and small. Members of this family are also known as felids, and people also use the term feline to describe these creatures. They are terrestrial carnivores with various fur patterns, muscular body shapes, and claw and teeth sizes. 



The earliest cats in the archeological record date back somewhere between 30 million and 28.5 million years ago.  Proailurus is the oldest known cat we know of. It roamed the landmass we now designate as Eurasia and we've found fossil remains of this species <a href="https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/3156" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in France and Mongolia</a>. 



Today, there are 36 species of wild cats. This includes the African wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica), European wildcat, lynx, lions, and tigers. Further subdivisions into subspecies are, at best, controversial. We will touch more on these wild species later on. 



Either way, they are a far cry from the house cats (felis catus) at your grandmother's house. So what happened in between and how did one species of cat come to be domesticated? 



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_141217435.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904053"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Sombra">Sombra</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-domestication-nbsp">Defining Domestication&nbsp;</h2>



Domestication is the "sustained multi-generational relationship in which one group of organisms assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another group to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that second group." It is a process of innovation that has defined our societies and is ranked with similar importance as making fire and the development of language.  



While individuals of an animal species can be "semi-domesticated" in the sense that someone has endeavored in taming a particular individual (like a pet leopard for example), this is different than domestic animals within human society - an evolutionary process we can see right down to the DNA sequencing of species and subspecies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-domesticating-cats-across-the-globe">Domesticating Cats Across The Globe</h2>



We can see the fingerprints of this process in the gene sequencing of cats today. According to <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1139518" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a 2007 study published in Science</a>, the world's domesticated cats " carry patterns of sequence variation in their genome that reflect a history of domestication and breed development" and explains that cats were "domesticated in the Near East". 



One theory is that this happened in conjunction with early human settlements of farming in the Middle east. Most cats today, no matter where they are found on the globe, are descendants of 5 "founders" from this region. 



In the case of cat domestication specifically, it was a hotly contested issue for many years, but with the development of science and our ability to look at the cat genome, we now know that "all domestic cats [house cats] are descended from Felis silvestris lybica.&nbsp;



This dates the relationship between humans and at least semi-domesticated cats to over 10,000 years ago. Pretty wild when you consider the fact that the house cat contributes so little to human survival - a factor that evolutionary biologists and sociologists have been scratching their heads over for years.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_392382514.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904054"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/gvictoria">gvictoria</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



There is also evidence to suggest that a species of cat became domesticated on the continent of Asia simultaneously. Cat remains in China may be evidence of a domesticated leopard species that occurred independently of the domestication process that took place in the Fertile Crescent and was later accelerated in Ancient Egypt. However, scholars did not find evidence to link any modern-day house cats to leopards, so the species did not last.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-cats-domesticate-themselves-nbsp">Did Cats Domesticate Themselves?&nbsp;</h2>



Now here's an entertaining tidbit that probably won't be too shocking to any cat owners out there: there's evidence to suggest that cats actually domesticated themselves, in a sense.&nbsp;



Scholars theorize based on certain findings that cats essentially invited themselves to human settlements 10,000 years ago - taking advantage of the mice in the grain stores and food scraps that they were sure to find nearby. 



Which, of course, begs the question: did cats <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-mentally-track-their-owners-whereabouts-based-on-sound/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domesticate us?</a> It's an entertaining twist to ponder. Either way, humans and felids have been living domestically for a long, long time. 



Scholars argue that cat domestication has shifted in the last 200 years - to the detriment of house cat health, unfortunately. Nowadays, most cats are kept indoors, neutered, and aggressively selected for specific traits. 



<a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/daf9/5acc1a4ab58b5ffe49a0e347bec1b4fdfa23.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A study in Denmark</a> found that "purebred" cats have significantly higher rates of disease. Their study also showed that neutered cats are more likely to display behavior abnormalities. Overall, it appears as though our current practices of cat breeding are no longer beneficial for the cats, instead escalating their negative welfare. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cat-worship-nbsp">Cat Worship&nbsp;</h2>



Scholars long believed that the Ancient Egyptians were the first to domesticate and keep cats as pets before more recent studies revealed an even longer history dating back to neolithic farming communities in the near eastern fertile crescent. 



Even if the timeline of domestication has shifted with more information, we know that 3,600 years ago or so, Ancient Egypt was indeed a cat-enthusiast culture as communicated by what remains of Egyptian murals and texts - and even mummified felines. 



Egypt isn't the only nation-state with a history of cat worship and cat burial, however. Other Mediterranean regions also took part. In 2001, archeologists discovered the grave of a human and their pet cat on the Island of Cyprus, buried together <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.304.5668.189a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in ceremony some 9,500 years ago.&nbsp;</a>



In India today there is a widespread belief in a cat-diety named Waghoba. This is a deity connected to the power of protection and linked to tigers and leopards. There are not many studies surrounding this spirituality and framework or others similar to it. 



Cultural scholars continue to encourage ecologists to take these spiritual philosophies into consideration, however, explaining that these mythological understandings might be the foundation for effective, lasting collaborations and co-adaptions with local indigenous communities. 



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_202297768.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904055"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/TospornPreede">lavoview</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-today-wild-or-domesticated-nbsp">Cats Today - Wild Or Domesticated&nbsp;</h2>



Some cats are wild, some cats are domesticated. It depends on the species and the history of that species in tandem with humans.&nbsp;



While people may dream of having a pet tiger or leopard, these animals are not domesticated and to keep these wild cats in captivity is in most instances a cruel fate for these majestic creatures. The documentary series "Tiger King" which took the western world by storm during the early days of the Coronavirus pandemic is an excellent, intriguing, and somewhat horrifying example and discussion around the topic.&nbsp;



And plus, there is a wide variety to house cats to chose from if you are wanting to incorporate a feline into your life. There are about 42 cat breeds recognized by veterinarians. Cat owners delight in various personality traits - a comforting purr, a tabby cat's distinctive "M" on the forehead, or an affinity for catching and killing vermin to name a few. 



And as it turns out, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-older-women-match/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">house cats are a big business</a>. The most expensive cat breed is the Ashera cat. This breed is a genetic combination of wild cat breeds and domestic cats. The price for this feline friend can be upwards of $125,000. And the spending doesn't stop when you buy a new furry friend - animals cost money to care for, as well. 



The pet industry saw an especially dramatic boom during the pandemic as affluent consumers were home full-time with their pets. This industry surpassed a whopping 100 billion dollars in 2020 alone. This includes expenditures such as food and vet visits. For individuals, the average amount spent on a cat will go up along with the cat's age. 



There are also many instances of feral cats - these are domesticated cats that are unowned and avoid contact with humans. They might live individually or operate in large colonies.



 Feral cats can be a massive challenge for city planners. Their numbers are sprawling in some parts of the world and can cause serious problems via pathogens and also pose a threat to bird populations in the area. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protection-for-wild-cats-today-nbsp">Protection For Wild Cats Today&nbsp;</h2>



We've touched on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/savannah-cats-vs-servals-theyre-not-the-same/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild cats a bit today</a>. And while focusing in on the domestic cats we consider family members is a fun and fascinating look at a particular species, the truth of the matter is that wild cats are threatened by human development and climate crisis. 



Domestic cats might make our houses feel like home, but wild cats are often keystone species within an ecosystem and balanced ecology is bleak without them. 



Without a functioning food chain or available food sources, our interactions and overlaps with wild animals become dangerous and untenable. Many are on the brink of extinction. Examples include tigers, Iberian lynx, Borneo Bay cat, and the Andean cat. 



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_1108801895.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904056"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/tonymills">tony mills</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



As we learn about the quirks of our pets, we must also mobilize and organize habitat conservation and restoration on behalf of their wild animal cousins and the landscapes they inhabit. We must cultivate protected ecosystems and animal sanctuaries instead of tiger king horror shows. 



Human development is speeding up, not slowing down - even as our predictive science paints a dire portrait of our fate should we continue on this path. 



The journey that cats and humans have shared is long, with many chapters, twists, and turns. In our modern age, the story continues. 



As we unfold into the future, we have to decide what to do as a species and in doing so, determine the fate of the wondrous cats, and the wide kingdom of other creatures whose lifecycles swing delicately in the balance of our human ability to shift and restore.



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The animal kingdom of Planet Earth is a wild and wondrous place - but it is often a dart or sting away from danger. We've all heard stories, and perhaps lived the realities, of encountering poisonous animals, venomous creatures, and monstrous organisms. 



These creatures dominate folklore, pop culture, horror stories, and even experimental medical treatments and spiritual practices. It is a bubbling cauldron of toxic possibilities and necessary caution. 



However, the terms venomous and poisonous are often thrown about quite casually - and interchangeably. This leads to confusion and misunderstanding - and to stay safe, it's important to stay informed, too.&nbsp;



Today we're taking a look at the definitions of venomous and poisonous - where they overlap and how they differ. 



We're going to look at what happens with venom and poison to cause fatal results in the bodies of ill-fated, curious passers-by, and focus on some examples of harrowing venomous, poisonous organisms that enchant, mystify, and frighten most people (and inspire others). 



We'll also look briefly at certain scientific theories and medicinal breakthroughs that have occurred in our societies in conjunction with an ever-deepening understanding of poison, venom, and the animals that wield these strategies of survival. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangerous-definitions">Dangerous Definitions </h2>



To understand these terms, it's important to define them.&nbsp;



According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, venomous animals are "capable of putting poison or venom into another animal's body usually by biting or stinging it · containing venom". 



Comparatively, "poisonous" is defined as "a substance that can cause people or animals to die or to become very sick if it gets into their bodies especially by being swallowed".&nbsp;



So, in summation, biologists (as well as online dictionaries) identify venomous creatures as those that bite or sting to inject their toxins. Poisonous organisms, on the other hand, are those that unload toxins when consumed or absorbed. Here are some examples: a scorpion and a box jelly are venomous. 



Some species of mushrooms,  pufferfish, and poison ivy are poisonous and should not be consumed in most instances (pufferfish being an exception and a regional delicacy). 



Both poison and venom are powerful defense mechanisms that animals utilize to their own benefit of survival - whether they are coming from a perfectly poised stinger or upon arrival at the insides of an unsuspecting digestive system. These categories can be fluid in the sense that what might be deadly toxic to humans might not be the case for another animal and vice-versa.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_560609749.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900772"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/bjcher">Cheryl Thomas</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venomous-vs-poisonous-where-in-nature-to-be-aware">Venomous vs Poisonous: Where In Nature To Be Aware </h2>



Poisonous and venomous organisms are found all over the planet, in various ecosystems and biomes. Some parts of the world are more infamous than others as far as threats to look out for: Australia, equatorial jungles, and the ocean are hot spots that take up a lot of space in our venom-wary imagination in this regard.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venomous-vs-poisonous-snakes">Venomous vs. Poisonous Snakes</h3>



Snakes will send a shiver up most people's spine - especially when encountering one unexpectedly. In certain parts of the world, this can be a really dangerous moment. Venomous snakes and poisonous snakes (there are both) can cause serious injury and even death, depending on the species of snake. Some of these species of epic legend and lore include vipers, Asian tiger snakes, black mambas, and rattlesnakes.&nbsp;



If you happen to encounter a venomous snake (or a species you have yet to identify), safety experts recommend remaining calm and not disturbing the snake - give it a safe distance and an area to take cover in. 



Pay close attention to the colors and markings of the snake in order to later identify it (this could be lifesaving if bitten). Never try to handle or remove a snake yourself if you cannot identify it or know it to be a venomous snake. Contact a professional and keep children and animals well away from the area. Snakebites kill over 100,000 people each year and may have <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/11/11/666" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved independently over 100 times.</a> 



Snake venom inflicts death on humans and other animals - but it also "can also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12974396/#:~:text=Snake%20venom%20contains%20several%20neurotoxic,cancer%20and%20many%20other%20diseases." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">be used for the treatment</a> of thrombosis, arthritis, cancer and many other diseases."<a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/11/11/666"> </a>Snake venom is now considered a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6832721/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">valuable therapeutic tool</a> in the medical field.&nbsp;



There are also snakes that are not venomous, but poisonous -&nbsp; <a href="https://lucec.loyno.edu/natural-history-writings/poisonous-and-venomous-snakes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">such as garter snakes</a>. These snakes, as long as you don't cook them up and eat them, can be an exciting animal-life encounter devoid of concern for venomous bites - and a teachable moment in that some animals that move in unnerving ways are critical elements of a healthy ecosystem.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1998822314.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900773"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Laurence+Suryanata">Lauren Suryanata</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venomous-vs-poisonous-frogs">Venomous vs. Poisonous Frogs </h3>



Certain species of frogs are commonly known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-secret-that-protects-poisonous-animals-from-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">"poisonous" amphibians</a> - especially poison dart frogs whose bright colors have made for some memorable conservation campaigns. Their vibrant appearance also <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-makes-poison-dart-frogs-poisonous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serves as a warning</a> to those who should encounter one - do not touch. They live in the tropical forests of central and South America. Similar to the monarch butterfly, these amphibians have toxic secretions due to their plant diet. 



There are some species of poisonous toads as well. The larger the toad, the bigger the gland that excretes toxins. In North America, these poisonous toad species include the cane or marine toad (Bufo marinus) and the Colorado River toad (Bufo alvarius). This is less of a concern for us (not many people munch on toads) and more something to watch for in domestic pets.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venomous-vs-poisonous-insects">Venomous vs. Poisonous Insects </h3>



There are between <a href="https://www.si.edu/spotlight/buginfo/fun-facts-bugs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">6 and 10 million species</a> of insects on the planet. Bees, ants, and wasps are just a few examples of venomous species - even though they don't have fangs.&nbsp;



There are other, less obvious insect critters with sometimes venomous intent - like stinging caterpillars. A study from Kentucky explains that these venomous crawlers can cause anywhere from "a mild itching to the more severe pain, swelling, blistering, dermatitis, and <a href="https://entomology.ca.uky.edu/ef003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">even intestinal disturbances."</a>&nbsp;



Even the monarch butterfly is a venomous species! This is due to the plant these insects consume - milkweed.  The milkweed plant creates toxic substances called "glycosides" - a defense mechanism that the migrating butterflies have evolved to withstand and depend upon. A bird that decides to take a bite out of those orange and black wings will get sick, though likely not die. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poisonous-organisms-of-the-ocean">Poisonous Organisms Of The Ocean </h3>



Of course, venomous and poisonous are not exclusively land-dwelling. There is plenty to worry about in <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-much-of-the-ocean-have-we-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the salty waves of the ocean</a> that cover about <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth#:~:text=About%2071%20percent%20of%20the,percent%20of%20all%20Earth's%20water." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">71% of the earth's surface</a> area.&nbsp;



Jellyfish are particularly notorious for their venomous stinging tentacles. Some stings are light and irritating, others extremely painful and temporarily debilitating. In the case of the box jellyfish, a sting is lethal. According to NOAA, they are <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/box-jellyfish.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the most venomous marine animal.</a>



Sting Rays - named for their stinging tails - are generally regarded as gentle creatures in the water that blend in very well with the coloring of the seafloor. Generally, they only sting when disturbed or stepped on. They can grow up to 6.5 feet long. In 2006, the beloved "crocodile hunter" Steve Irwin was killed by a stingray - which sent shock waves around the globe and left many heartbroken. This sort of attack is extremely rare, however. Sting Rays are much more likely to flit away than to fight. 



Pufferfish, blowfish, or any other members of the Tetraodontidae family are fish, considered some of the most toxic vertebrates on earth. Many of these species contain tetrodotoxin - a highly toxic poison, though certain species are also considered a delicacy in Japan as well. What's dinner without a little danger? This delicacy is catching on in western countries now, and not without some risks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-poisonous-take-away">A Poisonous Take Away </h2>



Let's conclude with an important note: as human development continues and wild spaces become more contained and constricted, our interactions with wildlife can become more deadly. 



Our societies continue to encroach and decimate the habitats of wildlife - and the call to change course has never been more urgent. 



In reflecting on our relationships within an ecosystem and the important role that all species play within them, we might illuminate a healthy respect and regard for the animals with which we share this planet - even the really scary ones that can kill us.



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Venomous vs. Poisonous, What's the Difference? (Hint: They'll Both Kill You)

The animal kingdom of Planet Earth is a wild and...

Exotic,Kittens,Sleeping,With,A,Ball,Of,Wool

A cat’s purr comes from the vibrations of the vocal cords, resonating against the bones of the voice box. Most cat vocalizations (all the meows, mews, and hisses) happen in the same way humans talk. However, a purr is more of a curiosity. Learn how cats purr and some more interesting facts about their vocalizations here!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-voicebox-works">How The Voicebox Works</h2>



To understand how cats purr, we need to start with an anatomy lesson. In general cats make noise similarly to humans - using the larynx or voice box. A combination of cartilage, muscle, and bone, the larynx sits in our respiratory tract at the back of our throat and above the trachea. 



The bones from the lower jaw, in conjunction with the cartilage from the thyroid and epiglottis, create a chamber for the sound to reverberate. The center of the epiglottis is called the glottis. Perpendicular muscles line the glottis region and control the expansion and contraction of the airway. 



One function of the epiglottis is to ensure food goes into the stomach and air goes into the lungs! On an inhale, these muscles open to create a wide opening for plenty of oxygen to pass through to the trachea. 



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1172373601-1024x661.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900802"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/gritsalak+karalak">gritsalak karalak</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meow-meow-meow">Meow, Meow, Meow!</h3>



A cat meows in the same way a human sings! To produce sound, two of the<a href="https://www.rit.edu/ntid/slpros/sites/rit.edu.ntid.slpros/files/tv_obj1.pdf"> laryngeal muscles</a> will actually touch together and vibrate, also known as the vocal cords.&nbsp; These vibrations happen when air forces its way through on the exhale. Simultaneously, another muscle group controlling the size of the opening creates varying pitches. Your cat’s determined meow literally looks different in their throat than their demure mew.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-cats-purr">How Do Cats Purr?</h2>



Purring, on the other hand, doesn’t happen in quite the same way.&nbsp; While meows and yowls can only happen while the cat breathes out, the purring sound can come from both the inhale and exhale. The purr starts from the vibrating muscles of the vocal cords as air pushes in and out with the cat’s breath. But the true sound comes from the bones!&nbsp;



All cats have something called a hyoid bone (humans have one too!). The bone sits in the back of your throat and supports the tongue and larynx. When the vibrations from the cat’s vocal cords hit the hyoid bone, it begins to rumble. That low-frequency reverberation is purring!



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1635613207.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900804"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sand cats are wild cats that purr. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/es/g/slowmotion.pro">slowmotiongli</a>/<a href="http://shutterstock.com">Shutterstock.com</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-cats-purr">Which Cats Purr?</h2>



While you’ve probably grown to expect purring from your house cats, not all cats purr! While all kitties, big and small, belong to the family Felidae, two subfamilies delineate a difference between two distinct groups: the purring cats and the roaring cats. Interestingly, these groups are separated by the noises they can make!



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purring-kitties">Purring Kitties</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-domesticated-10000-years/">Domestic cats</a> are obviously among the purring group, but others in the subfamily Felinae may surprise you. Many wild cats purr including cheetahs, servals, bobcats, and pumas (aka mountain lions or cougars). While purring cats are generally smaller, they don’t have to be. Pumas, for example, can weigh over 200 pounds!



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roaring-kitties">Roaring Kitties</h3>



On the other hand, members of the subfamily Pantherinae can’t purr, regardless of how happy they feel or what snuggles they get.&nbsp; This group includes all the classic big cats like jaguars, leopards, lions, and tigers. But while they can’t purr, they have another sonic superpower… roaring!&nbsp;



The difference? It all comes back to the hyoid bone. For purring cats, the hyoid bone is rigid and completely ossified. For big cats, the hyoid is not completely ossified, allowing the <a href="http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/104_2012_web_projects/Jessalyn_Ginnaty/Slide03.htm">vocal tract to elongate</a> and create a roar.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/shutterstock_1824790283.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1900805"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Asmakhan992">Asmakhan992</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-cats-purr">Why Do Cats Purr?</h2>



This question has remained a bit of a mystery, but there are a few dominant theories. While the generally accepted idea is that cats purr to show contentment, that is not always the case. Many kitties also purr right before being fed or on the way to the vet. 



We won’t entirely discount the affection a cat owner may feel while snuggling with your furry friend, but it’s safe to say that cats sometimes also purr when they are hungry and when they are nervous. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purring-for-health">Purring for Health</h3>



From an evolutionary perspective, there’s a whole different theory. Based on research from Elizabeth von Muggenthaler, a bio-acoustician who studies animal sounds, it seems likely that purring is a form of self-healing. The frequency of cat purring lies between <a href="https://asa.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1121/1.4777098">25 and 150 Hertz</a>. 



Those are the very frequencies that have also been shown to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5243970/#:~:text=Several%20studies%20have%20suggested%20that,11%2C%2014%2D17).">stimulate bone growth</a> and <a href="https://asa.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1121/1.4777098">reduce pain</a>. As they purr, they are essentially doing a health and wellness practice! Since cats spend much of their time being sedentary, incorporating purring into their daily routine keeps them fit and healthy while conserving energy. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-purr-fect-friend">The Purr-fect Friend</h2>



Whether cats purr as a form of communication or as a deeply ingrained way to stay fit, it’s safe to generalize that they do it for comfort. But that comforting sound doesn’t have to be all for them. Studies indicate that cat owners benefit from purring as well. Not only is it simply destressing to pet a purring kitty, being around a purr-box correlates with lower blood pressure and a decreased risk of heart disease in their human counterparts. Maybe that means you should add adopting a kitty to your list of health goals for the year! 



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Okay… How Do Cats Purr?

A cat’s purr comes from the vibrations of the vocal...

Birds are currently classified by scientists as a subgroup of theropod dinosaurs. So yes, birds are dinosaurs! 
There used to be a more rigorous debate among evolutionary biologists about whether or not birds are dinosaurs - but now it’s mostly an accepted consensus.
Birds belong to a group of dinosaurs that emerged during the Mesozoic Era, about 252 to 66 million years ago. 
The Mesozoic includes the Jurassic, Triassic, and Cretaceous periods. Technically, birds are “avian dinosaurs,” whereas a velociraptor or a sauropod is a non-avian dinosaur.
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870482 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/archeopteryx-911017_1280-767x1024.jpg" alt="" width="767" height="1024" />
 
<h2>How do we know birds are dinosaurs?</h2>
While larger dinosaurs still roamed the earth, there were little guys like the Microraptor which had long, vaned feathers on their arms and legs to create little wings. Microraptor, Archaeopteryx, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fossil-dinosaur-flight/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">small, feathered, semi-flighted dinosaurs</a> formed the missing link between “traditional” theropod dinosaurs like velociraptors and modern-day birds. 
There’s a bit of a misconception that there basically were only two stages of bird development: a feathery Jurrasic Park lookalike, and a modern bird like a tiny sparrow. For a long time, that’s because there was only one real fossil that pointed to a middle ground: Archaeopteryx, which was pretty darn bird-like. But how did it get so bird-like so fast?
But in recent years, scientists have discovered more and more evidence of gradual changes that led to birdlike dinosaurs, and eventually birds (which, remember are dinosaurs). This means that we don’t have to rely on the idea of a successful genetic freak leading to all birds today. 
In the 1990s, researchers in China started unearthing fossil after fossil of feathered, fuzzy dinosaurs that lacked wings. Avian feathers evolved over time, starting with fuzz and eventually leading to the quilled feathers necessary for flight.
Small, feathered dinosaurs that could glide, climb, and hide from the big dinosaurs exploded in diversity (much like the small burrowing mammals did). Over time, these early bird ancestors probably started gliding from tree to tree, and eventually started flying.
In fact, the modern-day hoatzin bird of the Amazon is still pretty dinosaur-like. The chicks of this species of bird still have claws on their wings! Genetic research in 2015 suggested that the hoatzin is the last member of a group of birds that separated from other dinosaurs and birds 64 million years ago.
 
[caption id="attachment_1870486" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="wp-image-1870486 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/hoatzin-1024x683.jpg" alt="" width="1024" height="683" /> Wild hoatzin in Yasuni, Ecuador. Photo credit to Sean Hacker Temper Photography, @hackertepe on Instagram.[/caption]
 
Being small was key for the success of early birds - there’s just more space for diversity if you’re tiny! You can read all about how birds arose from dinosaurs (and an in-depth analysis of all the evidence) in this <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/avians.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">great article from UC Berkley</a> on the subject.
That said, there are some scientists who fall into the “Birds Are Not Dinosaurs” (BAND) camp. Most of the arguments saying that birds can’t be dinosaurs falls based on differences in lung morphology (which doesn’t fossilize, so it’s impossible to prove or disprove), ankle bones, and finger bones. The “controversy” over whether or not birds are dinosaurs is much more popular in the media than in the scientific community.
 
<img class="wp-image-1870484 size-large alignnone" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/chicken-2742352_1280-1024x438.jpg" alt="chickens are dinosaurs" width="1024" height="438" />
 
<h2>What is a Theropod Dinosaur?</h2>
Theropods are two-legged dinosaurs (think T. Rex) - but theropods also include chickens and pigeons and Peregrine falcons! 
Theropods are generally two-legged. They have hollow bones and three-toed limbs. Modern and ancient theropods have wide varieties in diet and behavior. 
Some theropods might have been capable of swimming, based on fossil evidence of just the tips of claws scraping a river floor in China. Those tracks were well-coordinated, suggesting the theropod was a decent swimmer. 
Some theropods, like the T. Rex, had very small forelimbs. Others had well-developed forelimbs (think Blue in Jurassic World). And, of course, birds have well-developed forelimbs!
 
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1870483 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/hatching-chicks-2448541_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="bird dinosaur egg" width="1024" height="682" />
 
<h2>So… does that mean birds are reptiles?</h2>
That depends! In the Linnaean taxonomic system, a reptile is defined as cold-blooded and scaled. That’s not a bird! 
But in modern biology, many biologists classify animals by phylogeny - by their common ancestors. By this system, birds are reptiles. <a href="https://askabiologist.asu.edu/questions/birds-dinosaurs-reptiles" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Their closest relative is actually a crocodile!</a>
 
<h2>Why did birds survive when dinosaurs went extinct?</h2>
Like mammals, birds probably survived the Cretaceous extinction largely thanks to their small size. Smaller birds could take cover from the chaos that ensued when an asteroid strike paired with volcanic eruptions to kill the dinosaurs.
Birds also can eat a wide variety of things - and many of those things also survived the extinction! Even if a big predator did survive the initial stages of the Cretaceous extinction, it became increasingly hard to find large prey animals to eat. Likewise, large vegetarians needed large amounts of foliage to eat.
Finally, small animals have shorter reproductive cycles. This means that they’re able to replenish a bit more quickly. And, with more offspring being born more often, survival of the fittest is able to work more quickly to help some survive. 
Basically, if a bird hatches 6 chicks per year whereas a large sauropod only raises a few offspring per lifetime, there’s a better chance of some of the bird’s offspring surviving and passing along those successful genes. It’s just math!


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Are Birds Dinosaurs?

Birds are currently classified by scientists as a subgroup of...

Komodo,Dragon,Sniffs,The,Air,With,His,Forked,Tongue..,Scientific

All About the Mysterious Komodo Dragon

Of all the mythical creatures across fantasy and fable, the...

Mouthbrooding,Jaw,Fish,With,Eggs,In,Its,Mouth,,Indonesia

Mouthbrooding refers to the parenting strategy in which the adult keeps their eggs or young offspring in their mouth! Also called oral or buccal incubation, this approach to parenting may have you raising an eyebrow. 



But let’s let go of our attachments to mammalian wombs and childsafe cribs (at least for the length of this article) and consider that the mouth could offer a safe cozy spot for some species. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-mouthbrooding">What is Mouthbrooding?</h2>



Mouthbrooding is a fascinating life history strategy, but it makes a lot of sense. Many fish and amphibians lay hundreds of eggs in very vulnerable places. Mouthbrooders reduce that risk dramatically. By housing their eggs and fry (juveniles) in their mouths, very few are predated. 



Among these different species, there are a couple of different types of mouthbrooding behaviors: maternal and paternal mouthbrooding. We’ll dive into both of these more with our review of sexual selection.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_305243708.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904127"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">African cichlid. Photo from <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/ET1972">ArtEvent ET</a> on <a href="http://shutterstock.com">Shutterstock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paternal-vs-maternal-mouthbrooding-animals">Paternal vs. Maternal Mouthbrooding Animals</h3>



Depending on the species, sometimes the mouthbrooder is the female (maternal mouthbrooding) and sometimes the male (paternal mouthbrooding). For maternal mouthbrooding fish, the female will lay the eggs, scoop them up in her mouth, then the male will fertilize them. On the other hand, in species with paternal mouthbrooding, spawning happens before the male houses the fertilized eggs.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sexual-selection">Sexual Selection</h4>



Interestingly, these differences have brought to light some fascinating trends about sexual selection. Sexual selection is the theory that certain traits give an individual a greater advantage in winning a mate. 



For example in the avian world, the more beautifully colored males with the most charming songs win the attention of the females. For mouthbrooding animals, the mate that extends parental care (i.e. provides the mouth for brooding), is the subject of intense competition by the other mate. 



For example, in cichlid fish, the females are usually the mouthbrooders. Therefore, the males intensely compete with one another for mates. For the <a href="http://www.mit.edu/~lxs/cichlids/breeding.html">African cichlid</a>, the male will first dig out a nest in the substrate, then perform a dance to attract the female into the den.  It’s the reverse for cardinalfish, in which the males are the mouthbrooders. 



In that case, the females compete with one another for their mates. The reason for this competition has to do with time and energy. In both paternal and maternal mouthbrooding fish, the parent that doesn’t mouthbrood has a higher reproductive rate than a clutch of eggs can hatch. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-mouthbrooding-animals">Types of Mouthbrooding Animals</h3>



While there are a few mouthbrooding frogs, the behavior is actually more typical in fish. In fact, this strange form of parental care is found in nine different families of fish. Examples of this uncommon parenting strategy have shown up independently throughout the animal kingdom. Here are a bit more details on these fascinating animals that evolved to incubate their young in the parent’s mouths.&nbsp;



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-darwin-s-frogs">Darwin’s Frogs</h4>



Just three species of pointy-nosed frogs make up the family Rhinotermitidae. Also known as Darwin’s frogs, these amphibians hop around the forests of Chile and Argentina. All three species display paternal mouthbrooding. After the female lays her eggs, the male cares for them in his mouth. 



The wiggling larvae force the male to swallow the eggs. They then complete their metamorphosis in his vocal sac, only to emerge from his mouth as fully developed frogs. 



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_639016705.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1904129"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The chocolate gourami is a mouthbrooding fish. Photo from <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Chonlasubworavichan">chonlasub woravichan</a> on <a href="http://shutterstock.com/">Shutterstock</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mouthbrooding-fish">Mouthbrooding Fish</h4>



There are nine families that each include at least one mouthbrooding species of fish. For some families, all the species evolved to be mouthbrooders, while in others, just a single species developed the trait. Coincidentally, many of these species are popular freshwater aquarium fish.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-table"><table><tbody><tr><td>Fish Family</td><td>Mouthbrooding Type?</td></tr><tr><td>Cichlids (Cichlidae)</td><td>Many maternal, some paternal</td></tr><tr><td>Cardinalfish (Apogonidae)</td><td>All paternal</td></tr><tr><td>Sea Catfish (Ariidae)</td><td>All paternal</td></tr><tr><td>Bagrid Catfish (Bagridae)</td><td>One biparental species</td></tr><tr><td>Snakeheads (Channidae)</td><td>Some paternal&nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Snailfish (Liparidae)</td><td>At least one paternal species</td></tr><tr><td>Jawfish (Opistognathidae)</td><td>All paternal</td></tr><tr><td>Gouramis (Osphronemidae)</td><td>Mostly paternal with few maternal</td></tr><tr><td>Arowanas (Osteoglossidae)</td><td>Some paternal</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-to-mouthbrooders">Challenges to Mouthbrooders</h2>



When your mouth is full of eggs, other, more typical mouth functions become more difficult. With limited space in the buccal cavity, mouthbrooding fish typically don’t eat while they have eggs in their mouths. 



Depending on the species, it can be one to two weeks before the eggs hatch. That’s quite a long time to fast! So these parents face quite the evolutionary trade-off: sacrifice significant amounts of energy to give the young a safe place to hatch.



While the primary goal of mouthbrooding is to protect the young, there’s a chance that a few might be swallowed. In the case of unfertilized eggs, the mouthbrooding female might intentionally swallow them. 



But some species of cardinalfish have been documented to even eat some of the fertilized offspring. It’s unclear whether this act of <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/685303">cannibalism</a> is completely accidental or they’re just desperate for a snack. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brood-parasitism">Brood Parasitism</h3>



Another very brutal risk to mouthbrooders is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brood-parasitism-animal-kingdom/">brood parasites</a>. A common phenomenon in birds, a mother will lay her eggs in another bird’s nest to avoid taxing parental care. This happens to mouthbrooding fish as well! 



For example, the mochokid catfish will trick a neighboring, mouthbrooding cichlid into including its eggs in its brood. Unfortunately for the cichlids, the catfish eggs hatch first, and the young fry feed on the yolk of the remaining eggs. 



The animal kingdom is full of stories of animals going to impressive lengths to protect their young. While a bit strange, mouthbrooding is not different.&nbsp;



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Mouthbrooding: Everything You Didn’t Want to Know

Mouthbrooding refers to the parenting strategy in which the adult...

Andrewsarchus,,An,Extinct,Creature,Of,The,Eocene,Period,,Was,Possibly

The Terrifying Biology Of Hell Pigs

Ever heard of a hell pig?&nbsp; Yes, they're a real...

Chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest living relatives. Humans (Homo sapien) share not only a common ancestor with both these primates, but we also share over 98% of our genome. But while these two great ape species have many similarities, they are actually quite different animals. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-and-chimpanzee-taxonomy">Bonobo and Chimpanzee Taxonomy</h2>



Physically, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-chimpanzee-day-celebrating-our-closest-cousins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a> are quite similar, and together, they make up the sole members of the genus Pan. Their genus shares the family Hominidae with the other tailless great apes like gorillas and orangutans. Originally, researchers assumed bonobos were just a subspecies of chimpanzees. 



In fact, until <a href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=943824&amp;print_version=PRT&amp;source=to_print#null" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1954</a>, scientists called them pygmy chimpanzees. Eventually, the two ape species were seen as distinct. Over the years, research has continued to reveal differences between chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus). Keep reading to learn more about the ecology of these two primates along with some of their key differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-amp-range">Distribution &amp; Range</h2>



Both chimpanzees and bonobos live in the tropical jungles of central Africa. However, bonobos have a much smaller range. In fact, bonobos are <a href="https://evolutionaryanthropology.duke.edu/research/3chimps/chimps-bonobos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endemic</a> to a small region of the Congo River Basin in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 



On the other hand, chimpanzees are found across twelve countries in east, central, and west Africa. Though both species can be found in the Congo River Basin, bonobos stay south of the river while chimpanzees can be found to the north.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_222261151.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903275"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/rolands">Patrick Rolands</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-chimpanzees-and-bonobos-look-different">Do Chimpanzees and Bonobos Look Different?</h2>



At first glance, it might be hard to tell the two primates apart, but, in fact, chimpanzees and bonobos have a few key differences in appearance. To start, they have quite different body shapes. Bonobos are slender with long lanky limbs. Chimps, on the other hand, are much burlier. 



Additionally, chimpanzees display sexual dimorphism as the males are significantly larger than the females. In contrast, bonobo females and males are much closer in size. Their coloration differs slightly as well. 



Bonobos have dark black faces from birth, while baby chimps have pale pink faces that darken with maturation. You can always tell a bonobo from a chimp by their lips! Bonobos have bright pink lips while chimpanzees have dark lips. 



<figure class="wp-block-table"><table><tbody><tr><td>Trait</td><td>Chimpanzees</td><td>Bonobos</td></tr><tr><td>Lip Color</td><td>Bright Pink Lips</td><td>Dark Lips</td></tr><tr><td>Build</td><td>Slender</td><td>Robust</td></tr><tr><td>Face Color</td><td>Black</td><td>Darkens with age</td></tr></tbody></table><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A table highlighting the key physical differences between chimpanzees and bonobos.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h2>



Both chimps and bonobos are primarily frugivores, preferring to munch on the wide variety of fruit available in the tropical forests of central Africa. However, bonobos are more likely to <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.393.9208&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">add vegetables to their diets</a> by grazing on stems, leaves, and flowers. 



Additionally, while bonobos won’t shy away from a protein source like worms or ants or the occasional duiker (small antelope), chimps tend to be a bit more carnivorous. 



Seemingly tied to competition for status and mates, male chimpanzees will go on violent hunting sprees, mostly targeted at the smaller colobus monkeys. Bonobo communities tend to hunt for meat about twice per month, and they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-generous-share-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">share</a> their prey generously with the group. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-vs-bonobo-behavior">Chimpanzee vs. Bonobo Behavior</h2>



The most dramatic differences between chimps and bonobos lie in their social behaviors. Not only fascinating from an ecological perspective, but primate behavior can also give us clues to human evolution. 



In the field of evolutionary anthropology, scientists use <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/204757" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate studies</a> to answer questions. Chimpanzee and bonobo behavior can help us understand if certain human behaviors are part of our genome or learned through societal pressures.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-structure">Social Structure</h3>



Both primates live in social groups of mixed males and females, with bonobos generally occupying larger groups. Both groups use a fission-fusion structure in which smaller foraging teams reunite at night to sleep. 



However, there are several key divergences in how the primates interact between ages and genders. Chimpanzee communities have a clear hierarchy of males that defend clearly marked territories. 



On the other hand, wild bonobos are less strict with their territory borders and operate under a more matriarchal society. These trends in social structure are built on the social bonds between individuals.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_2111507969.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903276"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/anolis01">Edwin Butter</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-society">Chimpanzee Society</h4>



For chimpanzees, the relationships between males define the group structure. A classic example of natural selection, chimps compete for power in the group which translates to more chances to mate and pass on their offspring. 



The more dominant alpha males intimidate younger chimps and have more offspring. However, this fierce competition comes at a violent cost. Chimps are known to commit both infanticide and cannibalism to increase their chances of fathering offspring. 



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-society">Bonobo Society</h4>



In contrast, female bonobos run the show south of the Congo River. In general, bonobo society has much more interaction between genders and ages, and female bonds are critical. While young males stay with their natal groups, adolescent females disperse to find a new group. 



In the quest to become accepted, the new female will pamper the higher-ranking females. Sexual behavior between females is extremely common, and this new female will use <a href="https://www.reed.edu/biology/courses/BIO342/2011_syllabus/2011_websites/subramanian_jaime/genesis.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">socio-sexual behaviors</a> to eventually bond with all the non-related female bonobos.  



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication">Communication</h4>



Both species of great ape have complex communication with several similarities. However, their vocalizations sound quite different. Chimpanzees have lower-pitched voices, letting out barks and grunts. Bonobos are higher-pitched, and their vocalizations sound like squeals and yelps.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/shutterstock_235455565.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1903277"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/joshuadavenport">Joshua Davenport</a>/Shutterstock.com</figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-use">Tool Use</h3>



One of the most well-known fun facts about these two primates is their creative tool use! Chimpanzees have been observed using a plethora of tools from absorbant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-drinking-sticks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking sticks</a> to makeshift shovels. To help with foraging, chimp mothers intentionally <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-mothers-teach-their-children-how-to-use-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teach their young</a> to use specific herbs like a spoon in a termite mound. 



Bonobos have also been seen to use tools including rocks and sticks. Due to the nature of their habitat, wild bonobo populations are understudied, and most of the tool observations have been made in captivity. Who knows what else they could be up to in the jungle?! 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation">Conservation</h2>



Unfortunately, the IUCN red list lists both chimpanzees and bonobos as endangered. Most of their population declines come as a result of human action. Whether deforestation, poaching, urban development, or the impending threat of climate change, these primate populations are at risk.&nbsp;



While all species deserve protection, certainly we owe it to our closest living relatives to treat our shared planet with a bit more thoughtfulness. 



Conservation efforts to protect both these species have garnered attention since Jane Goodall made her first observations. However, slowing the devastating effects of climate change and habitat destruction is critical to the survival of these two amazing apes!



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Chimpanzees vs. Bonobos: What’s the Difference?

Chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest living relatives. Humans (Homo...

Hallucigenia,,Prehistoric,Aquatic,Animal,From,The,Cambrian,Period,(3d,Paleoart

Hallucigenia existed during the middle of the Cambrian era, about 500 million years ago. This era was just after the 'Cambrian explosion' when the diversity of life on Earth radiated from simple, multi-cellular organisms to complex animals that were the ancestors of animals that live on Earth today. 



<div class="wp-block-group">
<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/hallucigeniafossil-1024x712.jpeg" alt="hallucigenia fossil" class="wp-image-1897193"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fossil of Hallucigenia sparsa at the Royal Museum of Ontario via <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HallucigeniaSparsa-ROM-June11-10.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wikimedia</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-setting-the-stage">Setting The Stage</h2>



500 million years ago most life was in the oceans instead of on land. The&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supercontinent Gondwana</a>&nbsp;was forming, which created a massive mountain range. The nutrients that flowed down to the ocean from the erosion of that mountain range is thought to have provided the building blocks necessary for&nbsp;the&nbsp;Cambrian&nbsp;explosion.&nbsp;



The big dinosaurs and insects didn't evolve until much later. During the middle&nbsp;Cambrian&nbsp;era, most animals were still fairly small.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/7036595247_e7f639bb02_c.jpg" alt="burgess shale, fossil" class="wp-image-1897194"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fossils collected by Charles Doolittle Walcott from the Burgess Shale at the Smithsonian Museum. Hallucigenia is in the top right corner. Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ideonexus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ryan Somma</a> via <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ideonexus/7036595247" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flickr</a>.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unusual-encounter">An Unusual Encounter</h2>



Charles Doolittle&nbsp;Walcott&nbsp;discovered the first fossils of a strange,&nbsp;worm-like&nbsp;creature in the&nbsp;burgess shale&nbsp;of&nbsp;Canada&nbsp;in 1911.&nbsp;Mr.&nbsp;Walcott&nbsp;was a distinguished&nbsp;paleontologist&nbsp;who later rose to be the head of the Smithsonian from 1907-1927.&nbsp;Walcott&nbsp;described this other-worldly creature as an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/annelids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">annelid</a>. He gave the fossils the genus name of&nbsp;Canadia, based on where he found the fossils.&nbsp;



Annelids are a group of animals that includes segmented worms, such as earthworms and leeches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-trippy-re-discovery-of-hallucigenia">The Trippy Re-Discovery of Hallucigenia</h2>



Although he was a world-class&nbsp;paleontologist,&nbsp;Walcott&nbsp;was wrong about his&nbsp;Canadia&nbsp;fossils being annelids.



Simon Conway-Morris, an English paleontologist, decided to look into Canadia. After researching the fossils for some time, he re-named the mundane&nbsp;Canadia&nbsp;genus to&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;in 1977. He thought these creatures had a "bizarre, dream-like quality" and named them accordingly. Conway-Morris decided that the creature was closer to a caterpillar than a worm because of all the unusual&nbsp;appendages&nbsp;shown in the fossils. He also thought that&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;walked on pointy, stilted legs and that it used the&nbsp;appendages&nbsp;on its back as food-scavenging tentacles.&nbsp;



In a fun fact in scientific history, Conway-Morris won the Charles Doolittle&nbsp;Walcott&nbsp;Medal in 1987. This medal is only given out every five years.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_1341968684.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1897353"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An artistic rendition of Hallucigenia foraging on the ocean floor. <a href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Dotted+Yeti">Dotted Yeti</a></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-upside-down-flip-of-hallucigenia">An Upside-down Flip of Hallucigenia</h2>



Half a century after&nbsp;Walcott's discovery,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/351225a0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lars Ramsköld and Hou Xianguang</a> conducted the first about-face in this creature's story.&nbsp;Ramsköld and Hou took a close look at some&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;fossils&nbsp;from&nbsp;China. These fossils flipped (literally) a new page in our understanding of the genus.&nbsp;



Researchers&nbsp;Ramsköld&nbsp;and&nbsp;Hou&nbsp;realized prior researchers had imagined the&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;upside-down since its discovery. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/351225a0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In 1991</a>,&nbsp;Ramsköld&nbsp;and&nbsp;Hou&nbsp;suggested that the long spikes of&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;were actually protective spikes on the creature's back, not stilted legs. The food-foraging&nbsp;appendages&nbsp;were actually the dexterous legs that these&nbsp;worm-like&nbsp;creatures used to move around. A key hint in the Chinese fossils that supported&nbsp;Ramsköld&nbsp;and&nbsp;Hou's reorientation lied in the legs. The new legs had little claw-like structures on the end of them. These claw-like structures gave strong evidence to support those appendages being legs. &nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_535109380.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1897354"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A 3d rendered illustration of a tardigrade. <a class="jss338 jss113 jss115 jss114" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/rukanoga">3Dstock</a></figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taxonomical-reclassification">Taxonomical Reclassification</h3>



Ramsköld&nbsp;and&nbsp;Hou&nbsp;also thought that&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;was more closely related to&nbsp;velvet worms&nbsp;(Onychophora) than to caterpillars, as Conway-Morris had thought. More specifically,&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;are currently described as&nbsp;lobopodians&nbsp;('blunt-feet' in Latin). Some taxonomists consider&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/video/what-makes-the-tardigrade-so-resilient/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tardigrades</a>&nbsp;(sometimes called water bears) in this same group.&nbsp;Lobopodians&nbsp;are a type of&nbsp;arthropod, which are segmented insects with&nbsp;appendages&nbsp;and an exoskeleton&nbsp;Arthropods&nbsp;are part of the superphylum of&nbsp;ecdysozoans, which includes nematodes, and some marine worms.



Today,&nbsp;velvet worms&nbsp;live in the tropics and the southern hemisphere, where they appear as something between a velvety caterpillar and a worm. Further research of&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;will help scientists construct a more accurate&nbsp;common ancestor&nbsp;of&nbsp;velvet worms.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_9616774.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1897355"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A cute velvet worm curled up. <a class="jss269 jss44 jss46 jss45" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/atelopus">Dr Morley Read</a></figcaption></figure>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-about-that-dark-blob">What About that Dark Blob?</h3>



Shortly after his&nbsp;upside-down&nbsp;dicscovery with&nbsp;Hou,&nbsp;Ramsköld&nbsp;questioned whether the head of&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;was actually its real head. All the&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;fossils&nbsp;had a <a href="http://Walcott, C. 1911. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology II. Middle Cambrian annelids. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 57(5): 109-145." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark&nbsp;blob</a>&nbsp;on one end of the body. While prior researchers had assumed this was a&nbsp;blob-like head,&nbsp;Ramsköld&nbsp;wasn't so sure.&nbsp;



He thought the&nbsp;blob&nbsp;might be a result of the creature's death. Perhaps all of the guts squirted out of the worm as it died, creating a small puddle behind the creature in the fossil. While&nbsp;Ramsköld&nbsp;had no evidence, he had a hunch that the&nbsp;blob&nbsp;might actually be at the tail end of this insane critter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hallucigenia-s-face-to-tail-transition">Hallucigenia's Face to Tail Transition</h2>



It took scientists over 20 years to confirm what&nbsp;Ramsköld&nbsp;expected.&nbsp;Martin R.&nbsp;Smith&nbsp;from&nbsp;the University of Cambridge&nbsp;and&nbsp;Jean-Bernard Caron&nbsp;from the&nbsp;Royal Ontario Museum&nbsp;in Toronto used an&nbsp;electron microscope&nbsp;to analyze&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;fossils&nbsp;in great detail and resolution.&nbsp;Martin Smith&nbsp;and Jean Caron made a startling discovery while looking at what was previously thought to be the tail. They saw two&nbsp;simple&nbsp;eyes&nbsp;and even a goofy smile on the mouth of the fossil. The mouth even had&nbsp;a ring of needle-like teeth in its throat. This evidence confirmed&nbsp;Ramsköld&nbsp;suspicion that&nbsp;Hallucigenia's head&nbsp;was actually not the&nbsp;blob&nbsp;but the other side of the body. This face-to-tail transition was the most modern change in our understanding of&nbsp;Hallucigenia.&nbsp;



We currently understand there to be three species of in the&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;fossil&nbsp;record;&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;sparsa, H. fortis, and H. Hongmeia.



<figure class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/shutterstock_1370840759.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-1897356"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Another modern artistic rendition of Hallucigenia. <a class="jss338 jss113 jss115 jss114" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/g/Dotted+Yeti">Dotted Yeti</a></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-nbsp-hallucigenia-nbsp-teaches-us-about-the-scientific-process">What&nbsp;Hallucigenia&nbsp;Teaches Us About the Scientific Process</h2>



While Hallucigenia is an interesting animal, its wild ride of being turned upside-down and front to back teaches a lot about the scientific process. Science is our best guess as to what is happening in the natural world. Time and again, these guesses are proven to be off point or just plain wrong. The scientific disciplines build off of prior research to try to get ever closer to the truth. New technologies, such as the electron microscope in this case, often help to reimagine a previously accepted scientific hypothesis. Oftentimes, these changes meet great resistance from the prior generation of researchers who don't want their work refined or overturned.



It is likely that researchers will make yet another groundbreaking discovery of Hallucigenia. Don't be surprised when they do! Paleontology techniques will improve. Technology will become more sophisticated. And researchers might twirl Hallucigenia around in another direction making it even more bizarre.



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What the heck is Hallucigenia?

Hallucigenia existed during the middle of the Cambrian era, about 500 million years...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...