In a stark update on the deteriorating condition of our planet, an international assembly of climate experts has reported that the Earth’s vital signs have declined to levels never before witnessed in human history. This critical state threatens the very fabric of life on our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-scientific-consensus">Unprecedented scientific consensus</h2>



Led by William Ripple, a prominent figure from the Oregon State University <a href="https://www.forestry.oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Forestry</a>, and Christopher Wolf, formerly associated with OSU, a team comprising 12 scientists has delivered a grim prognosis on Earth&#8217;s vital signs in their paper published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/biosci/biad080" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioScience</a>. 



Titled &#8220;The 2023 State of the climate report: Entering uncharted territory,&#8221; the study underscores that a staggering 20 out of 35 planetary vital signs used as barometers for climate health have hit record extremes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-on-the-brink">World on the brink</h2>



&#8220;Without decisive steps to address the fundamental issue of humanity&#8217;s overconsumption of the Earth&#8217;s resources, we are navigating towards the potential disintegration of natural and socioeconomic systems,&#8221; Wolf stated, painting a picture of a future marred by intolerable heat, food scarcity, and water shortages.



The authors highlight alarming data from 2023, pointing out that numerous records related to climate and Earth&#8217;s vital signs have been shattered &#8220;by enormous margins.&#8221; This includes unprecedented ocean temperatures, drastic reductions in sea ice, and an extraordinary Canadian wildfire season contributing to record levels of carbon dioxide emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-echoes-of-past-warnings">Echoes of past warnings</h2>



This report is not the first of its kind. It follows a significant &#8220;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-pushed-earth-to-code-red/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Scientists’ Warning of a Climate Emergency</a>&#8221; published four years ago, where Ripple, alongside other collaborators, received support from over 15,000 scientists from 161 countries. 



Despite these earlier calls to action, little progress has been made, with Ripple emphasizing, &#8220;Life on our planet is unmistakably under assault.&#8221;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-climate-health-statistics">Alarming climate health statistics</h2>



The report lays bare several shocking statistics that outline why Earth&#8217;s vital signs are at an all-time low.



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-chief-fossil-fuel-era-must-end-for-humanitys-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fossil fuel</a> subsidies saw a staggering increase from $531 billion to over $1 trillion between 2021 and 2022, incentivizing harmful emissions. </li>



<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-amplify-risks-for-socially-vulnerable-populations-in-western-states/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildfires</a> in Canada alone have already contributed more than 1 gigaton of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere in 2023, surpassing the nation&#8217;s total greenhouse gas emissions the previous year. </li>



<li>A concerning trend in global temperature rise, with 38 days already recorded where temperatures were more than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5-degrees-celsius-would-save-billions-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1.5 degrees Celsius</a> above pre-industrial levels. </li>



<li>July experienced the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/july-was-earths-hottest-month-in-120000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">highest average</a> Earth surface temperature on record, likely the most extreme in the last 100,000 years.</li>
</ul>



Wolf expressed deep concern, stating, &#8220;As scientists, the sudden escalation in the frequency and intensity of climate-related disasters is deeply unsettling.&#8221;



The study cautions that these disasters&#8217; frequency and intensity might even be accelerating faster than temperature rises. The paper forecasts a dire future, where 3 to 6 billion people will find themselves in uninhabitable conditions by the end of this century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-vital-signs-need-transformative-policies">Earth&#8217;s vital signs need transformative policies</h2>



The scientific community is advocating for policies that address &#8220;ecological overshoot,&#8221; a scenario where humanity&#8217;s demands exceed the Earth&#8217;s capacity, resulting in numerous environmental crises, including a decline in biodiversity.



They argue that solutions focusing solely on carbon or climate will fall short of repairing Earth&#8217;s vital signs unless the overarching pressures on global systems are alleviated. As Ripple puts it, the scientific community has a &#8220;moral duty&#8221; to guide humanity away from potential existential threats and lead action-driven dialogues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steering-towards-a-just-sustainable-future">Steering towards a just, sustainable future</h2>



The paper calls for a comprehensive overhaul of global economic practices. The authors of the study urge a transition that foregrounds human well-being, curtails excessive consumption, and drastically reduces affluent populations&#8217; emissions.



Key policy recommendations to reverse the decline of Earth&#8217;s vital signs include:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies. </li>



<li>Encouraging shifts towards plant-based diets. </li>



<li>Amplifying efforts to protect global forest areas. </li>



<li>Establishing international treaties focused on eliminating coal and preventing new fossil fuel exploration.</li>
</ul>



The authors underscore the necessity for equity and social justice in all climate-related decisions. They clearly recognize the disproportionate impact of climate calamities on the world&#8217;s most impoverished populations, who have the smallest carbon footprints.



In a world where climate-related disasters are becoming the norm rather than the exception, this clarion call from the scientific community is more urgent than ever. It implores global leaders, decision-makers, and individuals alike to embark on a more sustainable path, with the understanding that the very future of life on Earth hinges on the actions humanity takes now.



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Life under siege: Earth’s vital signs reach an all-time low

The ocean, which covers 70% of Earth’s surface, is reaching unprecedented high temperatures - not just at the surface but throughout the upper 2,000 meters (6,561 feet).



A new study led by Lijing Cheng, a professor in the <a href="http://english.iap.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Atmospheric Physics</a> at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, brings this alarming fact into sharp focus.



“The broken records in the ocean have become a broken record,”&nbsp;said Professor Cheng, who led a research team of 54 scientists from seven countries.



The research highlights the critical role ocean warming plays in shaping life on Earth and the climate’s future trajectory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-s-role-in-climate-change">Ocean's role in climate change </h2>



The ocean plays a critical role in Earth's climate system by acting as its primary heat reservoir. It absorbs 90% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">excess heat generated by global warming</a>, helping to regulate global weather patterns. 



This regulation occurs as the ocean transfers heat and moisture into the atmosphere, influencing everything from rainfall to storm intensity.



“To know what is happening to the climate, the answer is in the ocean,”&nbsp;explained Professor John Abraham from the <a href="https://www.stthomas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St. Thomas</a>, emphasizing the ocean's central role in understanding climate changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-troubling-trend-in-the-ocean">Troubling trend in the ocean</h2>



Research from three international teams confirmed a troubling trend: ocean heat content (OHC) reached record levels in 2024. The data shows that the upper layers of the ocean continue to absorb unprecedented amounts of heat.



From 2023 to 2024 alone, ocean heat content increased by a staggering 16 zettajoules (ZJ). To put this in perspective, this is roughly 140 times the total electricity generated by the entire world in 2023. 



This dramatic rise emphasizes the steady and dangerous warming of the planet’s oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-ocean-warming">Consequences of ocean warming </h2>



Ongoing ocean warming has profound <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-is-subtly-changing-the-tides/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consequences for weather</a>, ecosystems, and human life. 



Regional variations in warming highlight areas such as the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and mid-latitude Southern Ocean, where temperatures are rising rapidly. Polar regions are also absorbing significant heat, exacerbating ice melt and global sea level rise.



Warmer ocean waters amplify extreme weather by increasing atmospheric water vapor - a powerful greenhouse gas. This phenomenon intensifies storms, droughts, wildfires, and flooding events.



“The main way the ocean continues to influence the climate is through accompanying increases in water vapor in the atmosphere,”&nbsp;explained Dr. Kevin Trenberth from the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a>. 



The result is a vicious cycle of climate extremes, including hurricanes, typhoons, and record heatwaves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intensifying-impacts-of-ocean-warming">Intensifying impacts of ocean warming</h2>



Over the past year, 104 countries experienced their hottest temperatures on record, highlighting the growing impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-at-risk-global-warming-threatens-the-oceans-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>. 



This rise in heat has fueled catastrophic weather events worldwide. Heatwaves, droughts, floods, and wildfires have caused devastation across regions including Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas. These events have inflicted widespread damage to communities, economies, and ecosystems.



In the United States, climate-related disasters have been particularly costly. Since 1980, such events have led to nearly $3 trillion in damages, illustrating the significant economic burden of a warming climate.



The rise in ocean surface temperatures plays a critical role in amplifying these impacts. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-rise-in-ocean-warming">Dramatic rise in ocean warming </h2>



Surface waters, where the ocean interacts with the atmosphere, transfer heat and moisture, fueling extreme weather events.



Since the 1950s, these temperatures have risen dramatically, with far-reaching consequences for marine ecosystems and coastal communities. 



Warmer waters disrupt marine life, erode coastal habitats, and increase the frequency and intensity of storms, making the situation even more urgent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-warming-warns-of-planetary-danger">Ocean warming warns of planetary danger</h2>



Dr. Karina von Schuckmann from <a href="https://www.mercator-ocean.eu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mercator Ocean International</a> described the ocean as a sentinel for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-shatters-heat-records-earths-hottest-year-is-here/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary warming</a>.&nbsp;“The ocean is our sentinel for planetary warming, acting as the major sink of surplus heat,”&nbsp;she emphasized.



If immediate action to combat climate change is not taken, the consequences will grow increasingly severe. Rising costs, damages, and loss of life demand urgent mitigation efforts to slow warming and protect our planet's future.



The findings of the study serve as a critical reminder: addressing ocean warming is essential to safeguarding Earth’s climate and humanity's future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-025-4541-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advances in Atmospheric Sciences</a>.



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Record ocean warming in 2024 is a warning for our planet

The ocean, which covers 70% of Earth’s surface, is reaching...

Time,And,Space.,3d,Rendering,Illustration

Time feels so obvious that we rarely question its existence. Our clocks tick, we sense the hours passing, and we connect events to a single timeline. Yet, in many corners of theoretical physics, the very notion of time as a forward-moving entity is under scrutiny.



Some researchers claim that time may not exist in any fundamental way. They argue that our deeply held belief in a flowing “now” might be a trick of perception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-illusions-in-daily-life">Time illusions in daily life</h2>



Our daily life depends on the past, present, and future being well-defined. We pay bills on time. We set our alarms to wake up in the morning.&nbsp;



“The equations of physics do not tell us which events are occurring right now,” is an unsettling statement for <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-04558-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientists</a> to make. 



That remark highlights the gap between how we sense time and how modern equations describe it.



This perspective on timelessness has gained traction through work from many theoretical physicists, including <a href="https://www.cpt.univ-mrs.fr/~rovelli/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Carlo Rovelli</a> a theoretical physicist and Emeritus Professor at the Centre de Physique Théorique (<a href="https://www.cpt.univ-mrs.fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CPT</a>) of Aix-Marseille University in France. 



Dr. Rovelli has developed approaches in loop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/central-theory-of-quantum-gravity-is-modeled-in-the-laboratory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum gravity</a> that often do away with a global time parameter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-physics-and-intuition">Time, physics, and intuition</h2>



Our intuitions tell us the present moment is distinct, while the future feels open and the past seems fixed. However, Einstein’s theories suggest that all moments could be equally real, leaving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negative-time-observed-measured-tangible-in-new-quantum-experiments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">no universal present</a>.&nbsp;



Researchers have shown that gravity can slow clocks. So, for instance, time passes a little bit slower at sea level compared to the top of a mountain, because you’re a bit closer to Earth’s gravity.



It’s relative, meaning that time can move differently depending on how fast you’re moving or how close you are to a strong gravitational field. 



Although we don’t experience this effect in our daily routines, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.177.4044.168" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atomic clocks confirm it</a>. Such experiments show that time intervals can vary depending on speed and gravitational fields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sense-of-flow-in-time-s-existence">A sense of flow in time's existence</h2>



If we listen to our everyday instincts, time seems to rush onward, dragging events from future to past. 



Yet in general relativity, there is no built-in rule mandating a <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/that-mysterious-flow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universal flow</a>. Instead, many physicists say that our brains layer the experience of flow on top of an otherwise static reality.&nbsp;



Some propose that what we call the “flow of time” emerges from correlations among physical objects. 



Our stories and memories might be responsible for building a chain of events we label “before” and “after.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-einstein-and-our-understanding-of-time">Einstein and our understanding of time</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-new-theory-finally-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Albert Einstein’s theories</a>, particularly his theory of relativity, revolutionized how we think about time. In his special theory of relativity, published in 1905, he proposed that time isn’t the same for everyone. 



For example, if you’re traveling at a very high speed or near a massive object like a planet, time will seem to pass more slowly for you compared to someone who’s farther away from the gravitational pull or moving more slowly. 



This concept is often called "time dilation," and it’s been proven in experiments with fast-moving particles and GPS satellites.



In his general theory of relativity, which he published in 1915, Einstein expanded this idea by showing how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/matter-spacetime-gravitational-waves-fabric-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity can also affect time</a>. The stronger the gravitational field, the more it slows down time.



These theories completely changed our understanding of time - it’s not a constant, unchanging backdrop to everything that happens. Instead, it’s flexible and can stretch, bend, and warp depending on the circumstances. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-twists-on-time-s-existence">Quantum twists on time's existence</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum mechanics</a> complicates matters further. Traditional formulations treat time as an absolute parameter, ticking away while particles hop between possible states.&nbsp;



Yet quantum experiments suggest that no single observer can pin down a universal “right now.” Some scientists try to eliminate time altogether in their unified theories.&nbsp;



<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheeler%E2%80%93DeWitt_equation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Wheeler-DeWitt equation</a>, for instance, famously omits time when describing quantum gravity. Instead of describing how the universe evolves, the equation focuses on correlations between different parts of a whole.&nbsp;



Time becomes something that emerges when observers carve out local “clocks” from the timeless fabric.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chasing-the-arrow">Chasing the arrow</h2>



Despite the insistence that time might be illusory, we still sense an arrow pointing from the past to the future. We watch eggs break rather than un-break, and we see coffee and milk mix rather than un-mix.



This brings us to the relationship of time to entropy, which is a measure of disorder or randomness in a system. 



According to the second law of thermodynamics, entropy in an isolated system always tends to increase over time. In simple terms, things naturally move <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-universe-remains-predictable-insights-from-quantum-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">from order to disorder</a>.



This means that the flow of time is often associated with the increase in entropy, which is why we perceive time as always moving forward, from past to present to future - <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516914/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the arrow of time</a>. 



Low-entropy conditions at the birth of the universe set the stage for irreversible processes. In that sense, the arrow we chase is not woven into time itself. It emerges from a statistical trend toward disorder, giving us the impression that events line up from earlier to later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-minds-and-the-existence-of-time">Human minds and the existence of time</h2>



Some experts suspect that one day we’ll see <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-we-actually-benefit-from-daylight-saving-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">time</a> similar to how we see currency: a clever accounting device rather than a fundamental element of reality. 



Even so, humans will keep living as though each new moment actually matters. 



Our hearts beat in seconds, our schedules rely on hours, and we navigate our days convinced that "tomorrow" has not happened yet.



Regardless of whether time's existence is an illusion, a by-product of thermodynamics, or an emergent property of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-spooky-action-at-a-distance-persists-between-top-quarks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deeper laws</a>, we remain anchored in our daily routines.



Perhaps the biggest puzzle isn’t whether time exists but why our brains are so attached to the notion that it flows without pausing, and why we find it so hard to let go of that idea.



Will our brains one day evolve to the point where we understand the true nature of time? Only time will tell.



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"Time is an illusion" and doesn't exist as we know it, according to many physicists

Time feels so obvious that we rarely question its existence....

Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked on top of each other, like a layered cake, with each layer representing a plate. In reality, those internal zones are complex and often full of surprises.



Seismologists have relied on specific types of earthquake waves to learn about Earth's subsurface, but now a different technique is painting a far more detailed picture.



This fresh perspective has led scientists to wonder if there is hidden material in places once believed to be empty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-earth-s-mantle-the-basics">Understanding Earth's mantle - the basics</h2>



Earth’s mantle is the thick layer of rock that lies between the planet's crust and its core. It stretches about 1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) deep, making up around 84% of Earth's total volume. 



The mantle is primarily composed of silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium, and it's mostly solid, but it behaves like a thick, slow-flowing fluid over long periods of time. 



This flow is what drives the movement of tectonic plates on Earth's surface, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">causing earthquakes</a>, volcanic eruptions, and the shifting of continents. 



Heat from the Earth’s core causes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-rotation-is-slowing-down-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convection currents</a> in the mantle, where hot material rises, cools near the crust, and then sinks back down, creating a continuous cycle. This process plays a key role in shaping the planet's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-plates-in-earth-s-mantle">Tectonic plates in Earth's mantle</h2>



The discovery stems from the use of a high-resolution method called <a href="https://library.seg.org/doi/10.1190/1.9781560803027.entry6">full-waveform inversion</a>. Scientists use this approach to interpret every type of <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/layers-earth/compare-contrast-connect-seismic-waves-and-determining-earth-s-structure#">seismic wave</a> produced by earthquakes, rather than focusing on only one kind.



Because of that, they can build a more precise model of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s internal structures</a>.&nbsp;



After applying this method to the lower mantle, researchers saw pockets that appear to be leftover plate fragments in areas with no known history of subduction. 



Following their analysis, they were startled by just how common these hidden anomalies seemed to be.



This work was led by a team that includes doctoral student <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/people/person-detail.Mjc3OTM4.TGlzdC82NjksNTE5NzQ3MzU0.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thomas Schouten</a> from the <a href="https://www.geology.ethz.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Institute of ETH Zurich</a>, who collaborated with experts from the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a>.



Their combined efforts brought fresh insights that challenge assumptions about where old tectonic plate remnants might reside in Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-seismic-signals">Interpreting seismic signals</h2>



To understand how researchers got here, it helps to remember how seismic waves work. When an earthquake strikes, it sends waves radiating outward in all directions.



These waves bounce, bend, and shift as they travel through the planet. In much the same way that doctors use medical imaging techniques, geophysicists measure the time these waves take to reach various seismic stations around the globe.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/earth_lower-mantle_rock-zones_mysterious-sunken-worlds_credit-ETHZ_1s.webp" alt="Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich" class="wp-image-1956322"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Using a new model, researchers uncover zones in the Earth's lower mantle where seismic waves travel slower (red) or faster (blue). The large blue zone in the western Pacific (right above the center of the image) was previously unknown. Credit: Sebastian Noe / ETH Zurich</figcaption></figure>



The velocity of those signals reveals details about rock density and stiffness. In previous years, scientists relied heavily on <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article-abstract/108/5A/2894/546740/Generalized-Seismic-Phase-Detection-with-Deep?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particular seismic phases</a>. 



But by examining all available wave data instead, new shapes and densities were identified from Earth's lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-earth-s-mantle-important">Why is Earth's mantle important?</h2>



Over hundreds of millions of years, plates have formed, shifted, and sunk back into Earth’s interior. This <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JB073i006p01959">cycling</a> plays a role in controlling phenomena like volcano formation, earthquakes, and the slow drift of continents.&nbsp;



Researchers have long known that slabs of subducted plates cluster under regions where one tectonic plate slides under another. 



So it came as a surprise when the new images revealed large slabs below oceans and continental interiors that lack a clear history of plate collisions.



That signals a possible complication in our understanding of how plates evolve and where they end up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-plate-under-the-pacific-ocean">Mysterious plate under the Pacific Ocean</h2>



One of the biggest surprises was in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zone</a> under the western Pacific. According to current plate tectonic timelines, there is no reason for old plate fragments to be there.&nbsp;



“Apparently, such zones in the Earth's mantle are much more widespread than previously thought,” said <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2">Schouten</a>.



No geologic data points to historical subduction nearby. This indicates that the anomalies might not be chunks of plates at all, or at least not in the way scientists originally imagined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-it-be-something-else">Could it be something else?</h2>



Scientists now face questions about the origin and nature of these structures.



Some say they may be ancient, silica-rich pockets left over from the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-mantle-shapes-surface-topography/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a>. Others suggest they might be iron-rich accumulations that have drifted over billions of years.&nbsp;



Schouten explained that the new model reveals anomalies throughout the Earth's interior, but the exact materials or plate fragments responsible for these patterns remain unclear. 



This uncertainty suggests a more diverse range of compositions in the Earth's mantle than previously understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-deeper-understanding">Next steps for deeper understanding</h2>



Full-waveform inversion is a promising tool for these investigations, but it offers only a view of how fast or slowly waves move through the material. 



Researchers say they need further refinement to tease out chemical and thermal differences. 



Some are turning to additional datasets, including electromagnetic signals and data from mineral physics experiments. 



Combining those methods might highlight whether these mantle “blobs” are from primordial origins, from recycled ocean crust, or from something else entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-plate-tectonics">Implications for plate tectonics</h2>



If scientists confirm that more zones like these exist in Earth’s depths, they may have to adjust many theories about how heat moves through the planet. 



Such hidden zones might alter patterns of convection and the formation of mantle plumes.&nbsp;



The story of plate tectonics could also see updates, with new chapters on how plate fragments wander and transform in ways not previously documented. These discoveries remind us that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-volcanic-hotspots-are-all-connected-to-earths-interior-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geoscience</a>, like any science, is never settled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-continues">The search continues</h2>



In the future, improved supercomputers may crunch even larger datasets to produce clearer images of Earth's lower mantle and its plate structures. That could resolve debates about the true nature of these mysterious anomalies.&nbsp;



By integrating various approaches - seismic, chemical, and computational - Earth scientists will keep uncovering pieces of our planet’s hidden complexity.



As Schouten’s team demonstrated, sometimes seeing the entire picture means looking beyond what we think we already know.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77399-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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'Sunken worlds' discovered under the Pacific ocean in Earth's mantle

Many people imagine Earth’s interior mantle as separate layers stacked...

For many years, scientists believed that prehistoric kangaroos in Australia had specialized diets, relying specifically on certain types of plants or vegetation for their survival. This idea suggested that they were unable to adapt to changes in their environment, such as shifts in climate or vegetation patterns. 



When the kangaroos' preferred food sources became scarce, it was assumed that their dietary inflexibility contributed to their extinction. This theory placed dietary specialization as a key reason for the disappearance of some kangaroo species during the Pleistocene epoch.



However, recent research challenges these assumptions, suggesting that these marsupials were more resilient than we initially realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-diets-of-prehistoric-kangaroos"> Diverse diets of prehistoric kangaroos</h2>



The study was carried out by experts from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> and the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory (<a href="https://www.magnt.net.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MAGNT</a>). 



The researchers used cutting-edge techniques to analyze the microscopic patterns of wear on fossilized kangaroo teeth. These patterns revealed the types of food the kangaroos ate.



The results showed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-kangaroos-of-the-past-didnt-hop-they-walked-on-all-fours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric kangaroos</a> were not limited to specific types of food. Instead, they were generalists, capable of eating a wide variety of plants. This flexibility in diet helped them survive environmental changes over time.



Focusing on fossils from the Victoria Fossil Cave at the Naracoorte Caves World Heritage Area in South Australia, the experts analyzed kangaroo diets across 12 extinct species and compared them with 17 modern species.



The Naracoorte region contains the richest and most diverse fossil deposits of kangaroos from the Pleistocene epoch, making it an ideal location for this research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-diets-helped-kangaroos-survive">Flexible diets helped kangaroos survive</h2>



“Our study shows that most prehistoric kangaroos at Naracoorte had broad diets. This dietary flexibility likely played a key role in their resilience during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protemnodon-kangaroo-fossils-may-explain-their-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past changes</a> in climate,” explained lead researcher Dr. Sam Arman.



Contrary to previous assumptions, the study revealed that most species were mixed feeders, capable of consuming both shrubs and grasses.



“The distinctive short-faced kangaroo anatomy led to a widespread view that sthenurines were unable to adapt their diets when climate change altered vegetation patterns, leading to their extinction,” said study co-author Professor Gavin Prideaux.



However, the findings suggest that their ability to consume a wide range of foods provided a survival advantage during periods of scarcity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-extinction-dynamics">Complex extinction dynamics </h2>



While the ability to adapt their diets likely helped prehistoric kangaroos survive for a time, it wasn’t the only factor influencing their fate. 



The extinction of these megafaunal kangaroos also involved other challenges, such as their large body size, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/not-all-kangaroo-ancestors-hopped-as-a-means-of-locomotion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how they moved</a> (locomotion), and their interactions with early humans, who may have hunted them or altered their habitats. 



To better understand these complex extinction dynamics, the researchers plan to study fossils from other Pleistocene sites. They will focus on the critical period between 60,000 and 40,000 years ago - a time when many large animal species disappeared.



This broader investigation could reveal how different factors worked together to drive kangaroo extinctions.



"Identifying what drove the late Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions on the continents remains one of the most contested topics in historical science," noted the study authors. 



"This is especially so in Australia, which lost 90% of its large species by 40,000 years ago, more than half of them kangaroos."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-ecosystem-vulnerabilities">Insights into ecosystem vulnerabilities</h2>



The study highlights the ecological roles of prehistoric marsupials, offering valuable insights into the evolution of Australia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-attack-predicting-the-success-of-species-invasions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>. 



“Understanding the resilience of ancient species helps contextualize why Australia has been so vulnerable to introduced large mammals like pigs, camels, and deer,” noted Professor Prideaux.



Dr. Arman uses a relatable analogy to describe dietary flexibility: “Most of the time, I don’t need to engage four-wheel drive, but this capability becomes crucial when I do need it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinction-of-australia-s-megafauna">Extinction of Australia’s megafauna </h2>



The research, funded by the <a href="https://www.arc.gov.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Research Council</a>, reflects a long-standing partnership between Flinders University and MAGNT.



The research also honors the traditional custodians of the Naracoorte region, the Meintangk, Marditjali, and Potaruwutj peoples, and acknowledges the contributions of volunteers and students in collecting and preparing specimens.



The study marks an essential step in understanding the resilience of prehistoric kangaroos, their adaptable diet and the complex interplay of factors that led to the extinction of Australia’s megafauna.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq4340" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Prehistoric kangaroos changed their diets to survive climate change

For many years, scientists believed that prehistoric kangaroos in Australia...

Robots are transforming the way nursing homes tackle critical challenges like employee turnover and a shrinking workforce in an aging world. 



These innovative helpers are stepping in to assist with essential care tasks, offering solutions to ease the burden on caregivers. 



A new study from the <a href="https://www.nd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Notre Dame</a> sheds light on the profound impact of robots on worker retention, productivity, and patient outcomes in nursing homes. The research provides important insights into the future of care.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-robots-in-long-term-care">Role of robots in long-term care</h2>



The study was led by Yong Suk Lee, an associate professor of technology, economy, and global affairs at Notre Dame’s Keough School of Global Affairs.



While most research on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hula-hooping-inspires-robotics-and-energy-efficiency/">robotics</a> has focused on industrial sectors, Lee’s work broke new ground by analyzing the role of robots in long-term care. 



The team studied data from Japanese nursing homes collected in 2020 and 2022. This setting was chosen for its relevance to the challenges faced by rapidly aging populations.



“Our research focused on Japan because it is a super-aging society that provides a good example of what the future could entail elsewhere - a declining population, a growing share of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-adults-make-decisions-and-take-risks-just-like-young-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">senior citizens</a>, and a declining share of working-age people,” Lee explained. “We need to be ready for this new reality.”



By 2050, the number of U.S. residents aged 65 or older is expected to reach 88.5 million, making the study's findings particularly timely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-specific-care-needs">Addressing specific care needs</h2>



The study identified three main types of robots commonly used in nursing homes, each designed to address specific care needs. 



Transfer robots assist nurses with physically demanding tasks such as lifting, moving, and rotating patients - reducing the strain on caregivers.



Mobility robots enhance patients' independence by helping them move around and assisting with activities like bathing. 



Meanwhile, monitoring and communication robots leverage advanced technologies, including computer vision, to track patient data and relay vital information to caregivers, ensuring timely and efficient care.



Lee’s findings revealed that adopting these robots complemented care workers, notably by reducing quit rates, which is a significant issue in nursing homes.



“Turnover is a big concern in nursing homes,” Lee said. “Workers typically experience a great deal of physical pain, particularly in their knees and back. The work is hard, and the pay is low. So robot use was associated with employee retention.”



While robot adoption led to an overall employment increase, it also sparked changes in workforce dynamics. These changes included a higher demand for part-time, less experienced employees and a decline in demand for highly experienced workers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-robots-improve-patient-care">How robots improve patient care</h2>



The research also highlighted the benefits for patients. Nursing homes with robots reported reduced use of patient restraints and fewer instances of pressure ulcers, both key indicators of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-future-of-ai-enhancing-patient-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patient care</a> quality.



These improvements stemmed from reducing the physical strain on workers, allowing them to focus on tasks better suited to human empathy and dexterity.



“Robots can improve productivity by shifting the tasks performed by care workers to those involving human touch, empathy, and dexterity,” Lee noted. “Ultimately, robots can help workers provide a higher level of patient care.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-robots-in-care-settings">The future of robots in care settings </h2>



Lee’s study highlights the broader implications of robotics in care settings. 



“This research provides critical insights into how societies can successfully navigate the challenges of caring for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-migration-patterns-will-result-in-rapidly-aging-coastal-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging populations</a>,” Lee said. “It will help inform the work of the long-term care industry and help us better understand how technologies impact workers and patients.”



The research was co-authored with Toshiaki Iizuka from the University of Tokyo and Karen Eggleston from Stanford University. 



The work is part of Lee’s broader exploration into how technologies like robotics and artificial intelligence influence inequality and the future of work.



The study also highlights the importance of cross-institutional collaboration in addressing global challenges, emphasizing the need for a collective effort to harness technology for societal benefit.



As societies worldwide prepare for the realities of aging populations, the findings offer a roadmap for integrating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-predict-health-deterioration-in-hospital-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technology into care settings</a> to enhance both worker and patient experiences.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0927537124001623" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Labour Economics</a>.



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A glimpse of the future: Robots in nursing homes

Robots are transforming the way nursing homes tackle critical challenges...

Being in shape and maintaining fitness play a bigger role in health and survival than many once believed. Recent findings suggest that excess weight and a larger body size may not always carry the risks people assume - as long as there is enough aerobic activity to keep the cardiovascular system strong.



Looking at past data, researchers noticed that individuals who were heavier but maintained strong fitness levels often had lower chances of dying prematurely compared with thinner people who rarely exercised.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weight-doesn-t-reveal-true-health-risks">Weight doesn’t reveal true health risks</h2>



Weight on its own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-and-bmi-do-not-accurately-reflect-a-persons-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">does not give the full picture</a>. A person with a normal body mass index (<a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/lose_wt/BMI/bmicalc.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMI</a>) but poor endurance can face similar or even higher mortality risks than someone who is heavier but regularly engages in moderate physical activity.



This perspective shifts the focus away from the number on the scale toward basic aerobic conditioning. This idea is reinforced by the study’s senior author, Siddhartha Angadi, an exercise physiologist at the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Virginia</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fitness-reduces-risks-even-with-extra-weight">Fitness reduces risks, even with extra weight</h2>



“This tells us that it’s much more important, all things considered, to focus on the fitness aspect of health and longevity, rather than the fatness aspect,” said Angadi.



Among individuals carrying extra weight, those who managed to stay active were about half as likely to die young as those who were slim but unfit.



The experts explain that regular aerobic exercise, even in moderate doses, appears to strengthen the heart, lungs, and muscles enough to neutralize a portion of the risks typically linked to higher weight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fit-but-heavier-people-live-longer">Fit but heavier people live longer</h2>



The researchers combined data from multiple sources to see how body size and fitness related to early death. Using <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/16984-exercise-stress-test" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress tests</a> and direct BMI measurements, they tracked who later died and compared rates across different groups. 



One major pattern emerged: thin but inactive individuals had a greater chance of dying prematurely compared with heavier individuals who logged consistent exercise time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-walks-make-a-difference">Short walks make a difference</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-exercise-can-make-belly-fat-healthy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Increasing aerobic capacity</a> does not require over-the-top workouts. The researchers note that brisk walking in the neighborhood or on a treadmill can be enough to move a person into a safer category if they have been getting little to no activity before.



Walking at a speed that allows you to talk but not sing is often described as moderate. This straightforward approach lowers the odds of early death by improving heart function, managing blood sugar, and helping the body respond better to everyday stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fitness-is-a-better-health-indicator-than-weight">Fitness is a better health indicator than weight</h2>



Body mass index can show general <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-could-save-an-enormous-number-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weight</a> categories, but it does not illuminate how strong or aerobically capable a person is. 



According to a <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa012512" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> from the <a href="https://www.niddk.nih.gov/about-niddk/research-areas/diabetes/diabetes-prevention-program-dpp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diabetes Prevention Program</a>, simply getting active can reduce the likelihood of developing serious health problems such as diabetes by 58% among at-risk people, regardless of whether they hit a certain weight target.



This strategy can be more motivating than aiming for a particular number on the scale, since strength and fitness gains often come faster than weight loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regular-activity-is-better-than-dieting">Regular activity is better than dieting</h2>



Experts say maintaining a baseline level of aerobic conditioning can keep health risks in check, even for people <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/obesity#tab=tab_1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">classified</a> as overweight or obese. Routine physical activity supports essential bodily functions that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diet-tracking-does-not-have-to-be-perfect-to-promote-weight-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dieting</a> alone may not fully address.&nbsp;



While some people may choose to lose weight for comfort or other reasons, building enough endurance to get out of the lowest fitness bracket could protect against many age-related health issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fitness-level-can-guide-better-decisions">Fitness level can guide better decisions</h2>



Endurance tests provide a practical way to see where a person stands in terms of aerobic fitness. A short visit to a doctor or a sports medicine lab can reveal how well the body handles stress tests.&nbsp;



By understanding these numbers, people can tweak exercise routines to get the biggest benefit in the shortest time. 



Once an individual falls into a safe fitness zone, concerns about being a bit heavier tend to matter less from a survival standpoint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focusing-more-on-fitness-than-weight">Focusing more on fitness than weight</h2>



According to the researchers, higher aerobic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-in-a-pill-is-now-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">capacity</a> offers a strong layer of protection against issues like cardiovascular disease and early death.



Short, moderate activities such as active gardening, walking the dog, or using the stairs help build that capacity. Over time, this can lead to bigger improvements in heart health than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ditch-the-diet-trends-for-a-healthier-relationship-with-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diets</a> that focus only on cutting calories.



The study is published in the <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/early/2024/11/07/bjsports-2024-108748" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Journal of Sports Medicine</a>.



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Fitness is far more important than weight for living a healthy life

Being in shape and maintaining fitness play a bigger role...

Concussions and repeated head injuries are no longer seen as mere occupational hazards of contact sports; they are now recognized as serious health concerns.&nbsp;



Recent research from <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tufts University</a> and the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> reveals a potential link between head trauma and the activation of dormant viruses in the brain, which may lead to long-term neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scisignal.ado6430" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Signaling</a>, suggest that early preventive treatments using antiviral drugs could help mitigate these risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-threat-of-dormant-viruses">Hidden threat of dormant viruses</h2>



Our bodies host many dormant viruses, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cold-sores-and-dementia-the-unexpected-connection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herpes simplex virus 1</a> (HSV-1) and varicella-zoster virus, which commonly reside in neurons and glial cells without causing harm.&nbsp;



Dana Cairns, lead author and research associate in Tufts University’s Department of Biomedical Engineering, explained her previous findings.



“In that study, another virus - varicella - created the inflammatory conditions that activated HSV-1. We thought, what would happen if we subjected the brain tissue model to a physical disruption, something akin to a concussion? Would HSV-1 wake up and start the process of neurodegeneration?” 



This question drove the new study, which investigates how concussions might trigger these latent viruses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mimicking-brain-trauma-in-the-lab">Mimicking brain trauma in the lab</h2>



To explore this, the researchers developed a unique brain tissue model. This model is a 6mm wide, donut-shaped sponge made of silk protein and collagen, infused with neural stem cells.&nbsp;



The stem cells matured into neurons and glial cells, forming a network similar to that of a real brain, and some even harbored dormant HSV-1. The team simulated a concussion by enclosing the model in a cylinder and delivering a sudden jolt with a piston.



After subjecting the tissue to this controlled shock, Cairns observed that in models containing HSV-1, the virus reactivated.&nbsp;



Following this reactivation, the tissue began to exhibit key markers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-disease-attacks-the-brain-in-two-separate-phases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a>: amyloid plaques, tau protein tangles, inflammation, neuronal death, and a surge in glial cells - a condition known as gliosis. Repeated shocks intensified these effects.&nbsp;



In contrast, tissue models without HSV-1 showed only minor gliosis and no other Alzheimer's indicators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concussions-and-dormant-viruses-nbsp">Concussions and dormant viruses&nbsp;</h2>



The results strongly indicate that concussions might awaken dormant viruses in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/concussions-alter-brain-signals-that-are-crucial-for-memory-and-focus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>, potentially leading to neurodegenerative conditions over time. 



“This opens the question as to whether antiviral drugs or anti-inflammatory agents might be useful as early preventive treatments after head trauma to stop HSV-1 activation in its tracks, and lower the risk of Alzheimer’s disease,” Cairns said.&nbsp;



This points to a potential new direction in post-concussion care, aiming to prevent the long-term damage often linked to repeated head injuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-breakthrough-brain-model">A breakthrough brain model</h2>



David Kaplan, Stern Family Endowed Professor of Engineering at Tufts and co-author of the study, highlighted the significance of their lab-based brain model.&nbsp;



“The brain tissue model takes us to another level in investigating these connections between injury, infection, and Alzheimer’s disease,” he said.&nbsp;



This model allows researchers to recreate a realistic brain environment in which they can monitor virus behavior, plaque formation, and inflammatory responses in response to simulated trauma.



“There is a lot of epidemiological evidence about environmental and other links to the risk of Alzheimer’s. The tissue model will help us put that information on a mechanistic footing and provide a starting point for testing new drugs,” he added.&nbsp;



The model thus serves as a crucial tool in bridging the gap between large-scale health data and the specific biological processes that underlie neurodegenerative diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeted-interventions-for-concussions">Targeted interventions for concussions </h2>



The study’s findings underscore the potential for antiviral or anti-inflammatory treatments following head injuries to prevent the reactivation of latent viruses like HSV-1.&nbsp;



This approach could reduce the risk of developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-grounds-could-help-prevent-neurodegenerative-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurodegenerative diseases</a> later in life. Moreover, the research highlights the broader importance of understanding how environmental factors and bodily responses interplay after trauma.



As scientists continue to refine these brain models and further investigate how concussions affect brain chemistry, they hope to develop targeted interventions.&nbsp;



Such advancements could not only benefit athletes but also countless individuals worldwide who suffer from traumatic brain injuries, potentially transforming post-injury care and long-term health outcomes.



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Human brains hold dormant viruses that come to life if you hit your head

Concussions and repeated head injuries are no longer seen as...

Different,Types,Of,Non-dairy,Milk

Vegans who replace cow's milk with soy, almond, or other plant-based alternatives may face a higher chance of mental issues like depression and anxiety than individuals who drink cow’s milk regularly.



This finding emerged from a recent investigation of lifestyle patterns and mental health outcomes among hundreds of thousands of adults in the United Kingdom.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-well-being-of-milk-drinkers">Mental well-being of milk drinkers</h2>



Scientists explored how different milk types might be linked to mental and emotional well-being over more than a decade. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-gmo-plants-make-baby-formula-healthy-as-breast-milk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milk</a> is consumed by <a href="https://www.fao.org/dairy-production-products/products/milk-and-milk-products/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">billions of people</a> worldwide, making it a major part of daily diets.&nbsp;After reviewing participants’ intake habits, researchers noted intriguing contrasts in mental health. 



One group that stood out was semi-skimmed milk drinkers. According to data, they had lower rates of both anxiety and depression when compared to those who either consumed full-fat or plant-based alternatives. 



This observation piqued the interest of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chunyan-Wu-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Chunying Wu</a> from <a href="https://portal.smu.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Medical University</a>, who authored the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-to-non-dairy-beverages">Shifting to non-dairy beverages</h2>



In recent years, many individuals have turned to non-dairy beverages. They cite environmental, health, or ethical concerns in their decision to avoid traditional cow’s milk. 



Yet <a href="https://www.mfat.govt.nz/assets/Trade-General/Trade-Market-reports/Milk-alternatives-popularity-growing-in-the-US-February-2022.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> suggests some of these milk alternatives may not provide the same mental health benefits. One explanation involves nutritional content.&nbsp;



“Milk is a rich source of nutrients such as lactose, lipids, protein, and minerals, which are essential for maintaining human health,” wrote the scientists from Southern Medical University. 



Plant-based options, on the other hand, often differ in protein levels and might include added ingredients that influence mood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calcium-and-serotonin">Calcium and serotonin</h2>



Researchers found that cow’s milk <a href="https://www.adsa.org/About-ADSA/Media/Serotonin-found-to-be-an-important-factor-in-calcium-homeostasis-in-dairy-cows-November-16-2021" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">delivers calcium</a> in a form that supports pathways involved in serotonin production. Serotonin, sometimes called the body’s “feel-good” molecule, helps regulate mood and stress responses.&nbsp;



“Serotonin is a chemical that plays a role in the brain with respect to mood and mental health. The most popular group of antidepressant medications promotes the absorption of serotonin,” the authors explained.&nbsp;



As a result, consistent calcium intake can potentially improve these natural coping mechanisms. Some plant-based milks also offer calcium, but the level and bioavailability may vary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saturated-versus-unsaturated-fats">Saturated versus unsaturated fats</h2>



Milk is rich in saturated fats. Semi-skimmed milk reduces the proportion of these fats but still retains valuable fatty acids that might help protect the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11211382/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>. 



Compared to the full-fat version, semi-skimmed appears to occupy a middle ground of moderate fat content without the potential drawbacks of excess saturated fat.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, plant-based milk alternatives can sometimes include added sugars or other compounds that may have unexpected effects on mental well-being. 



These additives, while often enhancing taste or texture, may inadvertently interfere with the body's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breast-milk-lowers-asthma-risk-in-babies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural hormone regulation</a>, potentially impacting emotional stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impact-on-dopamine">Potential impact on dopamine</h2>



In addition to serotonin, <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/dopamine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine</a> plays a key part in focus and reward-related behavior. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4850606/#:~:text=Recent%20research%20has%20shown%20that,to%20be%20vulnerable%20to%20dysregulation." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> have suggested that high levels of certain saturated fats can alter dopamine signaling, which may contribute to mood disorders.&nbsp;



Semi-skimmed milk, with its reduced saturated fat, may avoid some of these mental effects and maintain a healthier balance of essential nutrients. 



Scientists suggest this balance could hold the key to the lower rates of depression and anxiety seen among semi-skimmed milk consumers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varied-mental-health-benefits-of-milk">Varied mental health benefits of milk</h2>



While findings point to fewer mood challenges for people who choose semi-skimmed over other varieties, each individual’s mental health picture depends on much more than beverage choice. 



Genetics, life stressors, sleep, and socioeconomic circumstances all contribute.&nbsp;



Researchers emphasize that food-related decisions are just one facet of psychological well-being. They recommend that people remain mindful of their overall habits and consult healthcare professionals when making major dietary shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-considerations">Practical considerations</h2>



Experts often promote a balanced diet that combines fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and moderate dairy. Semi-skimmed milk could fit neatly into many people’s meal plans.&nbsp;



Individuals who prefer plant-based options may benefit from checking labels for calcium and protein levels, as well as added substances. 



Though no single approach will suit everyone, looking at subtle dietary factors might pay off for those hoping to support a healthy outlook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-milk-s-mental-benefits">Future research on milk's mental benefits</h2>



Additional research may help clarify whether semi-skimmed milk truly provides extra mental health benefits.



Controlled clinical trials could investigate how this option affects depression or anxiety in different subgroups, such as older adults or those with pre-existing conditions.&nbsp;



Researchers also <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7178197/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> that genetics can make some people more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raw-milk-could-carry-deadly-flu-viruses-for-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vulnerable</a> to certain dietary impacts. A closer look at these details might inform tailored recommendations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



Many are interested in how small tweaks to daily meals might lift or lower spirits. 



This study urges people to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-raw-milk-health-hazard-pasteurization-important/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pay attention to milk</a> choice, especially if they already feel down or tense. Substituting semi-skimmed for full-fat or plant-based beverages could make a subtle difference for some.&nbsp;



Experts look forward to future work that explores how simple changes in milk type and eating patterns might support better mental well-being. Further investigation of these connections may help people shape diets that support mental balance.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2024.1435435/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.



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Some types of plant-based milk are linked to mental disorders like depression

Vegans who replace cow's milk with soy, almond, or other...

Montana rancher Arthur “Jack” Schubarth has been handed a six-month prison sentence for smuggling and using genetic material from protected sheep to create larger-than-average hybrids.&nbsp;



The 81-year-old, who owns a 215-acre livestock ranch, aimed to sell these gigantic sheep to commercial hunting sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smuggling-rare-sheep-genetics">Smuggling rare sheep genetics</h2>



The initial plan stretched over several years, beginning around 2013. <a href="https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/montana-man-sentenced-federal-wildlife-trafficking-charges-part-yearslong-effort-create" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Court documents</a> show that Schubarth brought parts of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Polo_sheep" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marco Polo argali sheep</a> into the country from Kyrgyzstan without lawful documentation.



He saw a business opportunity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-are-using-forensic-science-to-fight-wildlife-trafficking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding</a> this majestic animal, known for its lengthy, curling horns and hefty size. 



He hoped a hybrid species would fetch more money in captive hunting markets, which feature exotic or oversized animals for high-paying clients.



Crossbreeding non-native sheep can threaten nearby wild herds by introducing diseases or interbreeding with local species.&nbsp;



These animals are protected under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (<a href="https://cites.org/eng/disc/what.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CITES</a>) and the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/law/endangered-species-act" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endangered Species Act </a>and are banned in Montana to safeguard native sheep from disease and genetic mixing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illegal-sheep-hybrid-aimed-at-profit">Illegal sheep hybrid aimed at profit</h2>



Once Schubarth sneaked the argali parts into Montana, he delivered genetic samples to a laboratory that transformed them into embryos. 



These embryos were then implanted in ewes on his ranch. In a single instance, the outcome was a pure genetic Marco Polo argali, nicknamed Montana Mountain King (MMK).&nbsp;



Schubarth began selling MMK’s semen to out-of-state <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-can-sniff-out-horns-and-tusks-to-combat-wildlife-trafficking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeders</a>. He also used it on different species of ewes to get an even larger hybrid, despite strict prohibitions on such animals within Montana.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-laws-and-monetary-motive">Wildlife laws and monetary motive</h2>



Schubarth violated the <a href="https://fws.gov/law/lacey-act" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lacey Act</a>, a federal law banning interstate trade of wildlife taken or sold unlawfully. He also offended Montana <a href="https://archive.legmt.gov/bills/2013/mca/81/2/81-2-703.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">statutes</a> that forbid bringing in certain animals and forging health certificates.&nbsp;



“Schubarth’s criminal conduct is not how Montanans treat our wildlife population,” said <a href="https://www.justice.gov/usao-mt/meet-us-attorney" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jesse Laslovich</a>, the U.S. Attorney for the District of Montana.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybrid-sheep-threaten-local-wildlife">Hybrid sheep threaten local wildlife</h2>



The risk of contagious diseases was a major concern. <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/print/pdf/node/1944#:~:text=Johne's%20disease%20is%20a%20contagious,agents%20of%20leprosy%20and%20TB." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johne’s disease</a>, a chronic wasting illness that spreads easily among hooved animals, appeared in some of Schubarth’s stock.



If infections had spread to Montana’s native bighorn sheep, entire herds could have been harmed. Bighorns are already vulnerable, and hybridization can damage their genetic integrity, according to ongoing research in wildlife ecology.



“This case exemplifies the serious threat that <a href="https://www.ice.gov/features/wildlife" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife trafficking</a> poses to our native species and ecosystems,” said Assistant Director <a href="https://www.fws.gov/staff-profile/edward-grace" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Edward Grace</a> of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Office of Law Enforcement.&nbsp;



The Marco Polo argali itself is protected under the Endangered Species Act and monitored internationally by CITIES.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-illegal-crossbreeding">Consequences of illegal crossbreeding</h2>



Schubarth's focus on profit over preservation has led to serious consequences for creating illegal sheep hybrids.



Aside from serving six months in federal prison, the rancher must pay a $20,000 fine to the Lacey Act Reward Fund and make a $4,000 payment to the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation (<a href="https://www.nfwf.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NFWF</a>).



Officials say he put not only argali and bighorn sheep at risk but also any future livestock he managed. Mixing genetics of endangered or prohibited species can set dangerous precedents that undermine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



Beyond the fines, authorities intended to send a message. Schubarth’s case highlights how U.S. agencies cooperate to shut down smuggling rings and ensure penalties match the seriousness of the crime.&nbsp;



Federal investigators teamed up with Montana’s Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks to track the evidence, coordinate arrests, and charge every participant involved in the illegal commerce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stark-warning-for-wildlife-traffickers">Stark warning for wildlife traffickers</h2>



For many wildlife advocates, this outcome serves as a reminder that creating hybrids of animals like sheep, or manipulating protected species for financial gain, carries hefty penalties.



Conservation groups caution that unscrupulous breeders often endanger entire ecosystems by introducing diseases and weakening local genetic pools.&nbsp;



Though Schubarth insisted his intentions were business-oriented, officials say entrepreneurs must <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-animal-rights-day-2024-honoring-animals-with-justice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">respect boundaries</a> set by the Lacey Act and other legal frameworks designed to guard both animals and habitats.



In a letter presented at sentencing, Schubarth admitted he let his enthusiasm push him to search for loopholes to craft the “best sheep” for the market.&nbsp;



The court weighed his age and clean record, but <a href="https://www.mtd.uscourts.gov/chief-judge-brian-morris-chambers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Judge Brian Morris</a> made it clear that tampering with nature purely for profit will be addressed with firm legal action.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



His story highlights the vital need for careful oversight. Biologists believe that preserving the true character of wild populations is crucial for maintaining healthy herds, balanced ecosystems, and future research opportunities.&nbsp;



Any intrusion that disrupts established conservation measures could produce a cascade of negative effects that may be impossible to reverse.



Information for this article was obtained from a <a href="https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/montana-man-sentenced-federal-wildlife-trafficking-charges-part-yearslong-effort-create">press release</a> by the Office of Public Affairs, U.S. Department of Justice.



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US rancher who cloned giant sheep for trophy hunting is sent to federal prison

Montana rancher Arthur “Jack” Schubarth has been handed a six-month...

Billions of years ago, in the icy outskirts of our solar system, two celestial bodies collided. Instead of a catastrophic destruction, they united briefly, spinning together like a cosmic snowman. This "kiss and capture" scenario led to the formation of Pluto and its moon, Charon, as we know them today. 



A recent study from the University of Arizona has challenged long-held assumptions, shedding light on how these two icy worlds became a binary system.



Adeene Denton, a NASA postdoctoral fellow at the U of A Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, led the research. Her team revealed an overlooked factor in planetary collision models: the structural strength of rock and ice in small, cold worlds like Pluto and Charon. 



“Pluto and Charon are different - they're smaller, colder, and made primarily of rock and ice. When we accounted for the actual strength of these materials, we discovered something completely unexpected,” Denton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pluto-and-charon-s-unique-collision">Pluto and Charon’s unique collision</h2>



For many years, scientists thought Charon, Pluto’s largest moon, formed in a way similar to Earth’s moon. They believed a massive collision caused the bodies to deform and stretch, behaving like molten or fluid materials. 



This model worked for Earth and its moon because of the high temperatures and larger masses involved, which allowed the materials to flow and reshape easily.



However, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-may-not-be-real-planet-but-has-real-big-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pluto</a> and Charon are smaller, colder, and primarily composed of ice and rock, which are much more rigid than molten material. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kiss-and-capture-mechanism">Kiss and capture mechanism</h2>



Using advanced computer simulations, the researchers discovered that when Pluto and proto-Charon collided, they didn’t behave like fluids. Instead, they temporarily stuck together, forming a snowman-shaped structure.



Over time, they separated but remained gravitationally linked, creating the binary system we observe today. This unique "kiss and capture" process differs significantly from traditional models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-official-earth-now-has-two-moons-captured-asteroid-2024-pt5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> formation.



"Most planetary collision scenarios are classified as 'hit and run' or 'graze and merge.' What we've discovered is something entirely different – a 'kiss and capture' scenario," said Denton. 



Unlike traditional models, this mechanism placed Charon in a stable orbit around Pluto, perfectly matching observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserved-integrity-and-internal-heating">Preserved integrity and internal heating</h2>



The study also revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-objects-spotted-in-the-outer-solar-system-beyond-pluto/">Pluto</a> and Charon remained mostly intact during their collision. This preservation of original composition challenges older models suggesting extensive mixing and deformation. 



Additionally, the collision generated tidal forces that deposited significant heat into both bodies. This heating may have enabled Pluto to develop a subsurface ocean without requiring early solar system conditions that troubled past theories.



“The compelling thing about this study is that the model parameters that work to capture Charon end up putting it in the right orbit. You get two things right for the price of one,” noted Erik Asphaug, senior author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-planetary-science">Implications for planetary science</h2>



This discovery paves the way for new research into Pluto and Charon's formation and evolution. The team plans to study how tidal forces - created as the two bodies separated after their collision - affected their early development.



The experts aim to understand how this impact influenced Pluto’s surface features, such as its mountains and plains, and whether it contributed to the formation of a subsurface ocean.



Additionally, researchers want to explore whether similar "kiss and capture" processes could explain the creation of other binary systems in the universe. 



According to Denton, understanding how the collision’s aftermath shaped Pluto’s geology could reveal more about its surface and internal structure.



This work may shed light on the broader mechanisms driving planetary formation and evolution in icy, distant regions of the solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pluto-and-charon-reshape-planetary-system-theories">Pluto and Charon reshape planetary system theories</h2>



The "kiss and capture" origin story of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-got-its-heart-in-a-violent-collision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pluto</a> and Charon challenges older theories about how planetary systems form. It introduces a new way to think about collisions in space, showing how two bodies can briefly stick together before settling into a stable orbit. 



This discovery changes how we understand not only Pluto and Charon’s history but also how similar systems might have formed throughout the universe. 



By exploring this idea further, scientists hope to uncover more about the processes that shape planets, moons, and other celestial bodies - offering fresh insights into the mysteries of our solar system and beyond.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01612-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Pluto and Charon formed through a 'kiss and capture' collision

Billions of years ago, in the icy outskirts of our...

The world watches as the Great Salt Lake, one of Earth's largest saline lakes, deteriorates. 



Over the past 30 years, the lake has lost a staggering 15 billion cubic yards (11.4 billion cubic meters) of water. It has grown shallower at the rate of 4 inches (10 cm) each year.



This rapid depletion isn't a natural mystery. Decades of unsustainable water diversion, combined with increasing demand and a changing climate, have pushed the lake to a breaking point.



Agriculture is a major contributor to this dire situation, particularly in the case of livestock feed crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-depletion-of-great-salt-lake">Rapid depletion of Great Salt Lake </h2>



A recent study published in the journal Environmental Challenges reveals a shocking statistic. Approximately 62% of the river water heading towards Great Salt Lake gets diverted for human usage.



Agricultural activities are the primary culprits, accounting for nearly three-quarters of the water diverted.



“The research highlights the alarming role of water consumption for feeding livestock in driving the lake’s rapid depletion," explained William Ripple, a professor of ecology at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> and co-author of the study.



Almost 80% of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agricultural-water-scarcity-is-about-to-get-much-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural water</a> use is for irrigating alfalfa and hay crops - the primary feed for livestock.



This level of diversion not only depletes the lake's vital inflows but also raises questions about the long-term sustainability of current agricultural practices in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-great-salt-lake">Significance of Great Salt Lake</h2>



The importance of Great Salt Lake extends far beyond its beauty or agricultural use.



As one of the world's largest saline lakes, it plays important ecological, economic, cultural, and spiritual roles - all of which are in grave danger due to the dramatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-great-salt-lake-has-reached-historically-low-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decline in lake levels</a> during the past decades.



Data from the Utah Division of Water Resources shows a disturbing trend. From 1989 to 2022, consumption and evaporation consistently outpaced inflows from river water and precipitation.



This imbalance has created an annual deficit of approximately 500 million cubic yards (380 cubic meters), which has further accelerated the lake's decline.



The water budget has faced a persistent deficit for most of the past century. The situation has been exacerbated by the growing impacts of climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-has-caused-crisis-levels-of-food-and-water-scarcity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prolonged drought</a>, according to the researchers.



“Abnormally large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snowmelt-changes-may-greatly-affect-farmers-in-western-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snowmelt</a> inflow during the 1980s and 1990s served to temporarily obscure the long-term decline in lake levels, and the lake actually reached its highest level in more than a century in 1987,” explained Professor Ripple. “But it has been dropping by roughly 4 inches per year on average since then.”



Great Salt Lake is the largest saline lake in the Western Hemisphere and ranks eighth globally. Its 21,000-square-mile drainage basin, which includes the Wasatch Mountains, relies heavily on snowfall for water replenishment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-from-declining-lake-levels">Threats from declining lake levels</h2>



Great Salt Lake is also a biodiversity hotspot, hosting over 10 million migrating birds and an estimated 350 different species of birds. These habitats are threatened by declining lake levels.



In addition, the lake creates $2.5 billion in annual economic activity. Recreation, mining, and the harvesting of brine shrimp support more than 9,000 jobs. As salinity levels increase, however, brine shrimp experience extreme stress.



Human health also suffers as the Lake shrinks, with wind-carried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-salt-lake-drying-up-causing-major-dust-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust from the exposed saline lakebed</a> causing a range of pulmonary problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-great-salt-lake">Saving Great Salt Lake</h2>



To halt this alarming trend and start refilling the lake, a 35% reduction of human water consumption in the Great Salt Lake watershed by 35% has been proposed.



This includes a significant cut in irrigated alfalfa production, a fallowing of much of the region’s irrigated grass hay fields, and taxpayer-funded compensation for affected farmers and ranchers.



Conservation measures such as crop shifting, reducing municipal and industrial use, and leasing water rights from irrigators have also been proposed.



The impacts of these changes will be significant, and will affect as many as 20,000 farmers and ranchers in the basin. However, the situation presents an opportunity to set a precedent for addressing water scarcity globally.



“The economic and cultural adjustments required are significant but not insurmountable. With the right policies and public support, we can secure a sustainable future for the Great Salt Lake and set a precedent for addressing water scarcity globally,” concluded Professor Ripple.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2667010024002312" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Challenges</a>.



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Great Salt Lake: Agriculture is draining a natural wonder

The world watches as the Great Salt Lake, one of...

Pawpaws, the largest native fruit in North America, have become a favorite among foragers and food enthusiasts. 



Found in their characteristic dense patches, they are known for their creamy, custard-like texture and sweet flavor - described as a mix of mango and banana - and offer a unique culinary experience.



However, the ecological impact of pawpaws extends far beyond their popularity as a delicious treat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pawpaw-patches-take-over-the-forest">Pawpaw patches take over the forest</h2>



Pawpaws, the state fruit tree of Missouri, naturally grow in groups called patches. These patches form because pawpaw trees can reproduce clonally, meaning they spread through their roots.



New stems grow from these roots, close to the original tree, in a way similar to how aspen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-darkspots-need-urgent-attention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> create groves. This process allows a single pawpaw tree to establish a larger group of genetically identical trees, which is why these patches are often celebrated in American folk songs.



However, these patches don’t just grow - they take over. Pawpaw trees spread quickly, creating dense clusters that dominate the forest understory.



Their thick growth and clonal expansion leave little space or resources for other plants to thrive, effectively reducing plant diversity and altering the local ecosystem. While these patches are great for pawpaws, they can significantly limit the growth of other species around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pawpaws-effect-on-plant-diversity">Pawpaws’ effect on plant diversity</h2>



New research from <a href="https://washu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University</a> in St. Louis highlights how pawpaw patches influence biodiversity.



“Pawpaws create a habitat where the rules of competition are more random than when they’re absent,” noted Anna Wassel, a graduate student and lead author of the study.



The researchers found that pawpaw patches have a significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact on plant diversity</a> within their boundaries. Specifically, the variety of herbaceous plants, which include smaller, non-woody species like grasses and wildflowers, was 49% lower inside pawpaw patches compared to areas outside.



This indicates that nearly half of the usual types of these plants struggle to survive in the environment created by pawpaw trees. The dense shade and competitive conditions within the patches make it difficult for many plant species to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pawpaw-patches-decrease-plant-density">Pawpaw patches decrease plant density</h2>



In addition to reduced diversity, the total density of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-shaped-plant-biodiversity-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> - combining both woody species like shrubs and herbaceous species - was found to be 29% lower inside pawpaw patches.



This means not only are there fewer types of plants, but also fewer individual plants overall. The dominance of pawpaw trees and their resource consumption leave less room and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-diversity-can-help-combat-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fewer resources for other plants to grow</a>.



The study also revealed that pawpaw patches increase the randomness of which plants survive, particularly at larger scales. 



In typical forest ecosystems, plants compete for sunlight, water, and nutrients in predictable ways, with certain species better adapted to the conditions prevailing. However, inside pawpaw patches, these usual rules of competition break down. 



The survival of plants becomes more random, disrupting the natural balance of the ecosystem. This unpredictability makes it harder for a stable and diverse plant community to form within pawpaw-dominated areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pawpaw-patches-ruin-other-plants">Why pawpaw patches ruin other plants</h2>



Pawpaw trees have a strong ability to outcompete other plants, thanks to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-in-dry-landscapes-have-surprising-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">several factors</a>. 



Their large, tropical-looking leaves create dense shade, blocking sunlight that many smaller plants need to grow. Without enough light, these plants struggle to survive and thrive under the pawpaw canopy.



Additionally, pawpaw trees spread through underground roots and produce multiple stems in one area. This high stem density increases competition for soil nutrients and water, leaving fewer resources for other plants in the vicinity.



Another factor is that deer tend to avoid eating pawpaw trees. Instead, they graze on other plants nearby, further reducing the variety of plant species in and around pawpaw patches. 



This combination of shading, resource competition, and selective deer browsing makes pawpaw patches a tough environment for other plants to grow - significantly lowering local biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-forest-management">Implications for forest management </h2>



The study’s findings offer important lessons for managing forest ecosystems. 



“If you are monitoring a plot of land with the aim to encourage the growth of understory species, unfortunately, pawpaws are not your friends,” Wassel noted. 



The dominance and unpredictability of pawpaw patches make them a challenge for land managers focused on promoting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/islands-are-home-to-one-third-of-all-known-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant diversity</a>.



However, for those interested in harvesting pawpaw fruit, the approach is different. To ensure cross-pollination and healthy fruit production, managers should encourage as many genetically distinct patches as possible.



“The presence of pawpaws is never inherently good or bad, it’s just natural. Nature’s goals are never as linear as ours,” noted Wassel.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.70115" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosphere</a>.



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Pawpaw trees form dense patches that outcompete other plants

Pawpaws, the largest native fruit in North America, have become...

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