A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

When astronauts gaze at our planet from space, they call it the “Blue Marble.” But that iconic color, which reflects the vast oceans and sunlit sky, may be a relatively new look. Dive deeper into Earth's past - about 2.5 to 4 billion years ago - and you might see a very different hue. 



Scientists now argue that Earth's oceans once shimmered green, not blue.



These emerald waters weren’t just a geological oddity - they were a cradle for evolution, especially for one of life’s most influential architects: the cyanobacteria.



A recent study by Taro Matsuo and his team at <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a>, which is published in Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution, reimagines Earth’s early biosphere.



By exploring how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underwater</a> light filtered through iron-rich seas, the researchers offer a bold hypothesis: the evolution of cyanobacteria's photosynthetic systems was deeply shaped by the presence of green light.



This green ocean world could change how we recognize life on other planets - and how we view our own beginnings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-oceans-were-iron-rich-and-green">Early oceans were iron-rich and green</h2>



Four and a half billion years ago, Earth formed from cosmic debris. Life took its time to appear, only arriving around 3.7 billion years ago.



Before the first cells emerged, oceans covered the planet’s surface, but their appearance differed greatly from what we see today. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-hydrothermal-vents-provide-clues-about-the-origin-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hydrothermal vents</a>, erupting across ocean floors, pumped reduced iron - Fe(II) - into the water, filling the seas with ferrous iron.



This chemistry defined the early ocean’s interaction with sunlight. With no oxygen in the atmosphere and an abundance of Fe(II), the oceans lacked the reflective quality of today’s blue waters. 



There was no ozone to block UV rays, and no land plants to shift the atmosphere. What these iron-saturated oceans had instead was a strange relationship with light - one that bent toward green.



With the arrival of cyanobacteria, oxygen started appearing in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunken-worlds-discovered-under-the-pacific-ocean-in-earths-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a>. That oxygen transformed ferrous iron into ferric iron, which is insoluble and formed rust-like particles. 



These particles sank slowly but didn’t disappear quickly. Instead, they lingered and affected the light that filtered into the ocean depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-light-shapes-evolutionary-paths">Green light shapes evolutionary paths</h2>



The ferric iron, suspended in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weakening-ocean-currents-could-cost-trillions-of-dollars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> as fine iron hydroxide, had a powerful optical effect. It absorbed red and blue wavelengths but let green light pass. 



As a result, the oceans themselves took on a green hue. Had anyone been there to witness it, they would have seen Earth’s waters glowing emerald.



This green-light environment had significant consequences for the organisms living in it. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-plants-into-carbon-capture-machines-with-cyanobacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cyanobacteria</a>, the early masters of photosynthesis, began to adapt. 



They already used chlorophyll a, a pigment that absorbs red and blue light. But under green light, chlorophyll a becomes far less effective.



To survive, cyanobacteria evolved phycobilisomes - large antenna-like structures that are packed with accessory pigments. Among these pigments, phycoerythrobilin (PEB) proved especially vital.



It absorbed green light and passed that energy to chlorophyll a for photosynthesis. These structures enabled cyanobacteria to dominate the early oceans.



“Genetic analysis revealed that cyanobacteria had a specialized phycobilin protein called phycoerythrin that efficiently absorbed green light,” Matsuo said in a statement. “We believe that this adaptation allowed them to thrive in the iron-rich, green oceans.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-earth-s-early-green-oceans">Simulating Earth's early green oceans</h2>



To test their theory, Matsuo and his colleagues ran detailed numerical simulations, recreating the underwater light environment from the Archean eon. These simulations accounted for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-broke-records-for-450-straight-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> chemistry, light diffusion, and pigment absorption.



They discovered that at depths of 5 to 20 meters (16 to 66 feet), iron hydroxide particles created a persistent green-light window. Even tenfold variations in particle concentration did not shift the spectrum significantly.



Under these conditions, green light dominated, matching perfectly with the absorption range of PEB. Phycobilisomes equipped with PEB gave <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-algae-soak-up-loads-of-carbon-to-help-save-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cyanobacteria</a> an evolutionary edge.



In addition to models, the team performed genetic experiments. They engineered cyanobacteria strains to produce PEB. 



When exposed to green light, the modified strains outgrew the wild-type strains. The energy transfer was so efficient that PEB didn’t even need its usual protein partner, phycoerythrin - it could work by attaching directly to phycocyanin instead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-bodies-match-ancient-green-oceans">Water bodies match ancient green oceans</h2>



Still, simulations and lab results weren’t enough for Matsuo. In 2023, he journeyed to Iwo Island, part of Japan’s Satsunan archipelago. 



There, nature offered a rare analog to Earth’s ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-ocean-warming-in-2024-is-a-warning-for-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a>. Hydrothermal vents beneath the island release Fe(II), which oxidizes into iron hydroxide - just as it did in the early oceans, billions of years ago.



“From the boat, we could see that the surrounding waters had a distinct green shimmer due to iron hydroxides, exactly like how I imagined the Earth used to look,” said Matsuo.



Measurements at 5.5 meters depth (18 feet) confirmed the dominance of green light. Fluorescence analysis showed that cyanobacteria at this depth contained more PEB than those at the surface. It was a perfect modern echo of the ancient world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-phycobilisomes-are-tools-born-from-light">Phycobilisomes are tools born from light</h2>



Phycobilisomes remain a defining trait of the cyanobacteria. Made up of three major proteins - phycoerythrin (PE), phycocyanin (PC), and allophycocyanin (APC) - these structures evolved to absorb light in a range of wavelengths. 



In the Archean oceans, PE’s ability to absorb green light and transfer it to chlorophyll a was unmatched.



Phylogenetic analyses suggest that even the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pyramid-lake-nevada-water-turns-dark-green-with-beautiful-swirling-whirlpool-currents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earliest cyanobacteria</a> had the complete PE–PC–APC system. Over time, some cyanobacteria lost PE, especially those that adapted to brighter or different light conditions. But for the early dwellers of green oceans, PE was crucial.



Further analysis showed that energy transfer from PEB was more efficient than from carotenoids like β-carotene. In fact, the distance over which PEB could transfer energy to chlorophyll was about seven times greater. 



This meant that even in low-light conditions, PEB-packed phycobilisomes kept photosynthesis humming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-earth-s-green-oceans-matter">Why Earth's green oceans matter</h2>



The implications of green oceans stretch beyond Earth's history. They reshape how we might detect life on alien worlds.



Traditionally, astronomers have searched for blue planets, assuming that water reflects that hue. But as Matsuo’s team showed, oceans rich in iron hydroxide appear brighter and greener from a distance.



“Remote-sensing data show that waters rich in iron hydroxide, such as those around Iwo Island in the Satsunan archipelago, appear noticeably brighter than typical blue oceans,” he explained. “This leads us to think that green oceans might be observable from a longer distance, making them easier to detect.”



In the search for extraterrestrial life, scientists might do well to widen their palette. A green tint could signal oceans teeming with microbial activity, and shaped by chemistry just as Earth’s once were.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-ve-learned-from-this-study">What we've learned from this study</h2>



The light window on Earth has not always remained the same. Before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-bacteria-used-oxygen-about-one-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxidation Event</a> (GOE), the planet’s light environment favored green.



After the GOE, as oxygen levels rose and iron dropped, oceans cleared, and the light window shifted toward white. Land plants evolved under this white light, and cyanobacteria on land lost their need for PE.



Still, in dim underwater habitats, PE remained essential. The evolution of phycobilisomes thus mirrors Earth’s atmospheric and oceanic transformations. Each stage of light drove new adaptations, and carved paths for life to expand and diversify.



Matsuo wasn’t always convinced. “When I first started pondering the idea in 2021, I was more skeptical than anything else,” he said. “But now, after years of research, as geological and biological insights gradually came together like pieces of a puzzle, my skepticism has turned into conviction.”



That conviction now paints a different portrait of early Earth as a pale green sphere where light sculpted life in unexpected ways.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02637-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Earth was once a "Green Marble" before its oceans turned blue

When astronauts gaze at our planet from space, they call...

It was once thought that when an aging star engulfed a planet it would be a dramatic swelling and devouring event akin to a predator eating its prey. New observations, however, tell a very different story.



Data from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://webbtelescope.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) reveals that the planet’s orbit didn’t terminate with a sudden engulfment. Instead, the planet spiraled slowly inward over time until it met its fiery end.



The scientists behind this surprising update are from NSF’s <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOIRLab</a>, and they worked with data collected by Webb’s powerful mid- and near-infrared instruments.



Their observations challenge earlier theories and offer a clearer picture of what may await <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-stars-shape-planetary-systems-like-ours-with-ultraviolet-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary systems</a> like our own.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disappearing-planet-grabbed-attention">Disappearing planet grabbed attention</h2>



The star at the center of this event sits about 12,000 light-years from Earth in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> galaxy. A flash of visible light, first spotted in 2020 and labeled ZTF SLRN-2020, originally caught astronomers’ attention. 



But even earlier, infrared data from NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/neowise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NEOWISE mission</a> had picked up a brightening signal that hinted at a build-up of dust. 



A deeper <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/neowise/caught-in-the-act-astronomers-detect-a-star-devouring-a-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation in 2023</a> led researchers to think the star was becoming a red giant.



Webb’s Mid-Infrared Instrument (<a href="https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/01FA0SZA5HPXKRKH8Y6PKB10V1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIRI</a>) changed the narrative. Its ability to isolate faint emissions in crowded star fields showed that the star wasn’t as bright as a red giant should be.



In fact, it never expanded enough to swallow a planet whole.



“Because this is such a novel event, we didn’t quite know what to expect when we decided to point this telescope in its direction,” said Ryan Lau. 



“With its high-resolution look in the infrared, we are learning valuable insights about the final fates of planetary systems, possibly including our own.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engulfed-planet-s-final-orbit">Engulfed planet’s final orbit</h2>



Instead of being engulfed in a sudden flash, the planet met its end in slow motion.



Researchers now believe the planet was roughly the size of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-our-trip-to-jupiter-taking-so-long/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> and orbited its host star much closer than Mercury orbits the Sun. 



Over millions of years, it spiraled inward. Eventually, it began brushing the star’s outer atmosphere. That contact triggered a runaway effect - the closer the planet got, the faster it fell in.



“The planet, as it’s falling in, started to sort of smear around the star,” said Morgan MacLeod.



This violent encounter would have blown gas outward from the star’s surface. That gas then cooled and formed dust, creating a faint halo that continued to glow in the infrared long after the planet’s demise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engulfed-planet-leaves-gas-disk-behind">Engulfed planet leaves gas disk behind</h2>



Webb’s Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) offered an even closer look. 



Along with the expected cool dust cloud, it revealed something much more surprising: a hot, molecular gas disk surrounding the star. 



This accretion disk contained carbon monoxide and other compounds - the kind often found in regions where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-ingredients-of-life-are-with-planets-at-their-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets are born</a>.



“With such a transformative telescope like Webb, it was hard for me to have any expectations of what we’d find in the immediate surroundings of the star,” said Colette Salyk. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://stsci-opo.org/STScI-01JRDSW6JDQZ8TTTY7SCMDX0XK.png" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/planetary-engulfment-event_star-ZTF-SLRN-2020_swallows-planet_Webb_NASA_1s.webp" alt="This illustration depicts the sequence of events that took place over millions of years, based on observations from Webb’s MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument) and NIRSpec (NIR-Infrared Spectrograph). Panel 1: The planet was about Jupiter-sized, and orbited very close to the star – even closer that Mercury’s orbit around our Sun. Panel 2: The planet’s orbit slowly shrank, or decayed, over time, and the planet approached the star. It eventually started to graze the star’s atmosphere. As the planet was falling in, it smeared around the star. Panel 3: The planet was engulfed by the star completely, and blasted gas away from the outer layers of the star. Panel 4: As that gas expanded and cooled off, the heavy elements in this gas condensed into cold dust over the next year. There is a hot circumstellar disk of molecular gas closer to the star. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)" class="wp-image-1965437"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This illustration depicts the sequence of events that took place over millions of years, based on observations from Webb’s MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument) and NIRSpec (NIR-Infrared Spectrograph). Panel 1: The planet was about Jupiter-sized, and orbited very close to the star – even closer that Mercury’s orbit around our Sun. Panel 2: The planet’s orbit slowly shrank, or decayed, over time, and the planet approached the star. It eventually started to graze the star’s atmosphere. As the planet was falling in, it smeared around the star. Panel 3: The planet was engulfed by the star completely, and blasted gas away from the outer layers of the star. Panel 4: As that gas expanded and cooled off, the heavy elements in this gas condensed into cold dust over the next year. There is a hot circumstellar disk of molecular gas closer to the star. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)</figcaption></figure>



“I will say, I could not have expected seeing what has the characteristics of a planet-forming region, even though planets are not forming here, in the aftermath of an engulfment.”



This leftover material provides fresh clues about what happens after a planet disappears into a star. 



Researchers are now questioning how the interaction may have altered the star’s outer layers or affected nearby planetary debris.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The event was observed under Webb’s Guaranteed Time Observation program 1240, one of the first Target of Opportunity programs ever conducted by the telescope.



These programs are meant to catch rare moments, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-blaze-star-explosion-visible-one-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar explosions</a> or dramatic system changes, even though scientists can’t predict exactly when or where they’ll happen.



“This is truly the precipice of studying these events. This is the only one we've observed in action, and this is the best detection of the aftermath after things have settled back down,” enthused Lau. “We hope this is just the start of our sample.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-planet-earth-be-engulfed-by-the-sun">Will planet Earth be engulfed by the Sun</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/see-the-sun-in-exquisite-detail-in-rare-solar-orbiter-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Sun</a>, like all stars, won’t shine forever. In about five to seven billion years, it’ll run out of hydrogen - the fuel that’s kept it stable and warm all this time. 



When that happens, its core will contract and heat up, while the outer layers expand. The Sun will swell into a red giant, growing so massive that it might swallow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/layer-diamonds-nine-miles-thick-discovered-on-planet-mercury-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mercury</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venus-may-have-far-more-volcanic-activity-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Venus</a>. 



Earth sits right on the edge of that danger zone. Some scientists think the Sun could completely engulf it. Others believe Earth might just escape, pushed outward as the Sun loses mass. Either way, the outcome isn’t good.



Even if Earth avoids getting swallowed, it won’t survive the heat. The oceans will boil away. The atmosphere will vanish. The surface will burn. 



Eventually, the Sun will shed its outer layers and collapse into a tiny, dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf</a>. What’s left of Earth - if anything - will be a frozen, lifeless husk orbiting a dim, burnt-out star. No fire, no light, no life. Just silence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



More events like ZTF SLRN-2020 are expected to be discovered in the future, thanks to observatories like the upcoming Vera C. Rubin Observatory and NASA’s Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope.



These tools will scan the sky repeatedly, helping scientists to track sudden changes and expand our understanding of how stars and planets interact in their final acts.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/adb429" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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First-ever recorded planetary engulfment event captured by Webb

It was once thought that when an aging star engulfed...

Microbes live all around us, but some of the most important ones are hidden far beneath our feet. They are part of a world that plays a critical role in keeping our ecosystems healthy.



A recent study revealed that a previously unknown group of microbes is thriving in this deep soil - and they’re quietly helping to clean the water that becomes our drinking supply.



Researchers at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> are exploring one of the least understood parts of our planet - a vast underground zone that quietly supports life above.



What goes on in this zone, known as "Earth's Critical Zone," helps regulate essential processes like water purification, soil formation, and nutrient cycling. Despite how vital it is, scientists still know very little about it, especially at its deepest levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-earth-s-critical-zone">What is Earth's Critical Zone?</h2>



“The Critical Zone extends from the tops of trees down through the soil to depths up to 700 feet,” explained James Tiedje, a world-renowned expert in microbiology from Michigan State University.



“This zone supports most life on the planet as it regulates essential processes like soil formation, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-water-cycle-is-changing-much-faster-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water cycling</a> and nutrient cycling, which are vital for food production, water quality and ecosystem health," said Tiedje. 



"Despite its importance, the deep Critical Zone is a new frontier because it’s a major part of the Earth that is relatively unexplored.”



By analyzing deep soil samples from Iowa and China - two places known for their rich and deep soils - the team discovered something extraordinary: a whole new phylum of microbes, which they named CSP1-3.



A phylum is a major category in biological classification, so this is not just a new species or strain - it's a completely different branch of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-soil-planet-warming-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial life</a>.



The team selected Iowa and China to see whether these microbes are widespread or limited to specific regions. Their findings suggest CSP1-3 might be more common than anyone realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-the-new-microbes">History of the new microbes</h2>



The researchers extracted DNA from these deep soils and traced the evolutionary journey of CSP1-3. It turns out these microbes have a long history. 



Their ancestors once lived in aquatic environments, including freshwater habitats and hot springs, millions of years ago. Over time, they adapted to life in soil, first moving into surface layers and eventually into deeper regions.



But perhaps the most surprising discovery isn't just that they exist - it is that they are thriving.



“Most people would think that these organisms are just like spores or dormant,” Tiedje said. “But one of our key findings we found through examining their DNA is that these microbes are active and slowly growing.”



Not only are they active, they’re dominant. In some samples, CSP1-3 made up over half of the microbial community, which is a rare occurrence in soil ecosystems.



“I believe this occurred because the deep soil is such a different environment, and this group of organisms has evolved over a long period of time to adapt to this impoverished soil environment,” Tiedje added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-microbes-help-purify-water">How microbes help purify water</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-soil-day-2024-protecting-our-planets-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Soil</a> isn’t just dirt - it’s the Earth’s largest water filter.



As rainwater moves down through the layers of soil, it’s cleaned by a combination of physical, chemical, and biological processes. 



While the surface soil does part of the job, much of the water purification actually happens deeper down - and that’s where CSP1-3 comes in.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/microbes-discovered_earths-deep-soil_Critical-Zone_credit_UMichigan_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/microbes-discovered_earths-deep-soil_Critical-Zone_credit_UMichigan_1s.webp" alt="This image shows the Earth’s Critical Zone, which extends from the tops of trees down through the soil to depths up to 700 feet and depicts the microbes which live throughout this zone. This zone supports most life on the planet as it regulates essential processes like soil formation, water cycling and nutrient cycling, which are vital for food production, water quality and ecosystem health. Credit: Michigan State University" class="wp-image-1965498"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This image shows the Earth’s Critical Zone, which extends from the tops of trees down through the soil to depths up to 700 feet and depicts the microbes which live throughout this zone. This zone supports most life on the planet as it regulates essential processes like soil formation, water cycling and nutrient cycling, which are vital for food production, water quality and ecosystem health. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Michigan State University</figcaption></figure>



“CSP1-3 are the scavengers cleaning up what got through the surface layer of soil,” Tiedje said. “They have a job to do.” 



These microbes feed on leftover carbon and nitrogen that percolates down from the topsoil. In doing so, they help purify groundwater before it reaches the aquifers that supply our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strict-pfas-limits-will-make-drinking-water-safer-for-100-million-americans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-scientists-plan-to-do-next">What scientists plan to do next</h2>



The next step for the research team is to grow CSP1-3 in the lab. Culturing deep-soil microbes in the lab is notoriously difficult because their native environment is hard to replicate. However, the researchers are hopeful.



Knowing that CSP1-3’s ancestors once lived in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hot-springs-may-have-played-a-key-role-in-the-emergence-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hot springs</a>, they’re experimenting with high-temperature conditions to encourage growth.



“CSP1-3’s physiology, driven by their biochemistry, is different, so there may be some interesting genes of value for other purposes,” Tiedje commented.



“For example, we don’t know their capacities for metabolizing tough pollutants and, if we could learn that, we can help solve one of the Earth’s most pressing problems.”



As Leonardo da Vinci once said, “We know more about the movement of celestial bodies than about the soil underfoot.” With discoveries like this, we’re starting to change that - one layer at a time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424463122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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New type of microbes discovered in Earth's deep soil, an area known as the 'Critical Zone'

Microbes live all around us, but some of the most...

Urgent action is needed to protect endangered species, human health, and industry from the impacts of the Caspian Sea’s decline.



In a new study, scientists from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a> have mapped the potential risks posed by the shrinking Caspian Sea to the region’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> and infrastructure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-decline-in-the-caspian-sea">Water decline in the Caspian Sea</h2>



Water levels in the Caspian Sea - the world’s largest landlocked water body - are shrinking as hotter temperatures cause more water to evaporate than flows in.



Even if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-experts-predict-global-warming-will-far-exceed-paris-goals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> is limited to below 2°C, the sea level is expected to decline by 5 to 10 meters. If temperatures rise further, levels could drop by as much as 21 meters (more than 68 feet) by 2100.



The findings show that an area of 112,000 km² - larger than Iceland - could dry up, even in an optimistic warming scenario with a 10-meter decline.



Because many of the most ecologically and economically important areas lie in shallow water, the consequences could be severe for biodiversity and the sustainability of human life in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-of-low-water-levels">Risks of low water levels</h2>



The sea is home to the endangered Caspian seal, six species of sturgeon, and hundreds of fish and invertebrate species that cannot be found anywhere else. 



According to the researchers, declining water levels will reduce breeding habitat for Caspian seals, block sturgeon access to spawning rivers, and destroy coastal lagoons and reed beds vital for spawning fish and migrating birds.



In addition, more than 15 million people live along the Caspian coast, in Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan. The bordering nations rely on the water body for fishing, shipping, and trade, and the sea is important for regulating climate in Central Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-will-be-stranded">Some places will be stranded</h2>



In the northern Caspian, the study's findings show that some settlements, ports, and industrial facilities could end up stranded tens or even hundreds of kilometers from the new shoreline.



The exposed seabed is likely to release dust containing industrial contaminants and salt, posing serious threats to human health - as happened during the drying of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aral-sea-dust-emissions-have-doubled-with-major-climate-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aral Sea</a>. 



The researchers argue that policymakers and conservationists need to take a dynamic approach to biodiversity protection, rather than relying on traditional protected areas with fixed boundaries, since these may quickly become obsolete due to the rapidly changing water levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proactive-measures-are-needed">Proactive measures are needed</h2>



Simon Goodman, a researcher in the School of Biology at the University of Leeds, led the study.



“Some Caspian Sea level decline appears unavoidable, even with action to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. However, with the anticipated effects unfolding over a few decades, it should be possible to find ways to protect biodiversity while safeguarding human interests and well-being,” said Goodman.



“That might sound like a long timescale, but, given the immense political, legislative, and logistical challenges involved, it is advisable to start action as soon as possible to give the best chance of success.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-seal-habitat">Shrinking seal habitat</h2>



Currently, the Caspian Sea extends approximately 1,150 by 450 kilometers, with a total area of 387,000 square kilometers.



With a 10-meter decline, four out of ten ecosystem types unique to the Caspian Sea are expected to disappear entirely, and the coverage of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">existing marine protected</a> areas could shrink by up to 94 percent.



Caspian seals give birth to white-coated pups between mid-January and early March on ice in the northern Caspian Sea. However, the research shows that a 5-meter decline could reduce this habitat by up to 81%, putting extreme pressure on their already diminished population.



The Caspian seal was listed as endangered by the<a href="https://iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) in 2008 and appears in the national Red Books of all five Caspian countries, signifying its recognition as a species at risk of extinction.



The decline will also make all current and historical haul-out sites - areas on land where seals rest - inaccessible. While receding water levels may create some new islands, further research is needed to assess their suitability for seals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vanishing-habitats-for-birds-and-fish">Vanishing habitats for birds and fish</h2>



Sturgeons are an ancient family of large fish, and critically endangered due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overfishing</a> for their meat and roe.



The fish usually inhabit shallower parts of the sea in summer and autumn, but these areas are facing a potential reduction of 25% to 45% due to the fall in water levels, which may stop them accessing their few remaining spawning sites in rivers that flow into the sea.



The Caspian Sea is also a globally important habitat for birds migrating between Europe, Asia, and Africa.



Migratory birds rely on coastal lagoons and reed beds for resting, shelter, and food during their migrations, but such habitats are vulnerable to loss as waters recede. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awareness-of-caspian-sea-decline">Awareness of Caspian Sea decline </h2>



Although work has been done to protect areas important for biodiversity, the paper predicts that overall coverage of existing Caspian marine protected areas will disappear almost entirely for all countries except Kazakhstan, which would retain about 5% of current coverage.



Rebecca Court, a PhD researcher in the School of Earth and Environment at Leeds, worked on the research as part of her master's degree in the School of Biology.



“We hope this research will help to raise awareness of the trajectory and potential impacts of the falling sea level. The mapping should better equip policymakers and conservationists to plan for and address the numerous issues in advance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ports-pipelines-and-peril">Ports, pipelines, and peril</h2>



The findings also predict troubling consequences for industry, with key ports in all bordering countries expected to be affected. Baku (Azerbaijan), Anzali (Iran), and Aktau (Kazakhstan) may experience shoreline retreats of 1 km or more. 



Turkmenbashi (Turkmenistan) and Lagan (Russia - a planned future site) could see shoreline shifts of 16 km and 115 km, respectively, according to the study.



The Volga is the only river connecting the Caspian Sea to the global maritime network, and this vital trade route could be severely compromised by a decline of just five meters.



The Kashagan and Filanovsky oil fields in the northern Caspian are among the region’s most important hydrocarbon production sites.



Currently, production takes place at offshore installations using ship-based logistics, but these operations will become landlocked if Caspian Sea levels fall by 5 to 15 meters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communities-in-the-crosshairs">Communities in the crosshairs</h2>



Coastal communities in the north are likely to be hit hard as fishing income disappears, and harsh climatic conditions make other economic activity, such as agriculture more difficult - potentially threatening social stability.



Some cities around the Caspian use desalination (removing salt and minerals from saltwater) for freshwater supplies, and water level declines are already impacting desalination operations at Aktau in Kazakhstan.



The loss of water from the Caspian could also affect the regional climate, leading to reduced rainfall and drier conditions across Central Asia with indirect impacts on agriculture.



Finally, the energy resources of the Caspian Sea make it geopolitically significant. As a result, social, economic, and environmental instability caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> could have worldwide repercussions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-posed-by-climate-change">Risks posed by climate change </h2>



Going forward, a balance needs to be struck between protecting biodiversity and human prosperity and well-being.



The researchers’ recommendations include: investing to enhance regional capacity for biodiversity monitoring, supporting coastal communities to diversify economically, enabling flexible protected areas with fluid boundaries, and taking preemptive steps to avoid conflicts between conservation and infrastructure adaptation.



The team also stresses the urgency of reducing<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2023-climate-change-report-record-high-temperatures-greenhouse-gases-sea-level-rise/"> greenhouse gas emissions</a> globally and warns in order to mitigate these projected impacts, coordinated regional planning and global collaboration are essential.



“This is an important study because it highlights the risks posed by climate change for Caspian region biodiversity and local communities and the need to enhance regional and international cooperation to help manage the impacts,” concluded Elchin Mamedov from the Azerbaijan Ministry of Ecology and National Resources.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02212-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communication: Earth and Environment.</a>



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Caspian Sea decline threatens wildlife, human health, and industry

Urgent action is needed to protect endangered species, human health,...

Deep beneath the Earth's surface, an extraordinary discovery has been made. Microbes - alive and thriving - have been found sealed within a fracture of 2-billion-year-old rock.



This finding pushes the boundaries of our understanding of life's resilience and longevity.



Lead researcher Yohey Suzuki, an associate professor from the Graduate School of Science at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a>, couldn't hide his excitement. 



“We didn’t know if 2-billion-year-old rocks were habitable,” Suzuki explained. “Until now, the oldest geological layer in which living microorganisms had been found was a 100-million-year-old deposit beneath the ocean floor, so this is a very exciting discovery."



By studying the DNA and genomes of microbes like these, scientists may be able to understand the evolution of very early life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bushveld-igneous-complex">Bushveld Igneous Complex</h2>



The rock sample housing these ancient microbes was excavated from the Bushveld Igneous Complex (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushveld_Igneous_Complex" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BIC</a>) in northeastern South Africa.



Covering an area roughly the size of Ireland, the BIC is known for its rich ore deposits, including about 70% of the world’s mined platinum. 



Due to its formation from slowly cooled magma and minimal changes over the millennia, the BIC provided a stable environment for microbial life.



The University of Tokyo team, with the support of the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (<a href="https://www.icdp-online.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICDP</a>) - a nonprofit organization that funds exploration at geological sites - obtained a 30-centimeter-long core sample from about 50 feet below the ground.



The rock varies in thickness up to 5.5 miles and has remained relatively undisturbed, making it an ideal habitat for organisms to persist over geological timescales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closer-look-at-the-rock-microbes">Closer look at the rock microbes</h2>



When the team analyzed thin slices of the rock, they discovered microbial cells densely packed into tiny cracks. 



These fractures were sealed off by clay, creating a closed system where the microbes could survive without outside interference. The cells appeared to be living life in slow motion, scarcely evolving over millions of years.



To ensure the microbes were indigenous to the rock and not contaminants, the researchers employed a refined technique involving three types of imaging: infrared spectroscopy, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watching-electrons-move-1-quintillionth-of-second-attoseconds-attomicroscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron microscopy</a>, and fluorescent microscopy. 



By staining the DNA of the cells and examining the proteins and surrounding clay, they confirmed the organisms were alive and native to the ancient sample.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clay-sealed-microenvironments">Clay-sealed microenvironments</h2>



One intriguing aspect of this discovery is the role of clay in preserving these microbes. The clay acted like a natural barrier, sealing off the cracks and preventing anything from entering or leaving. 



This created a stable microenvironment where the organisms could survive for unimaginable lengths of time.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/microbes_found-alive_2-billion-year-old-rock_credit-Y-Suzuki_UTokyo_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/microbes_found-alive_2-billion-year-old-rock_credit-Y-Suzuki_UTokyo_1s.webp" alt="Microbial cells stained green: This picture shows many tiny cells in which DNA is abundantly included inside the cells. First, the microbial cells were detected in fractures in the rock sample using an infrared imaging technique called O-PTIR spectroscopy. After that, they were stained with a green solution and analyzed using both a scanning electron microscope and then fluorescent microscopy. The combination of readings from these three imaging techniques enabled the researchers to confirm the indigenous and living microbial cells in the 2-billion-year-old rock fissure. Credit: Y. Suzuki, S. J. Webb, M. Kouduka et al." class="wp-image-1965489"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Microbial cells stained green: This picture shows many tiny cells in which DNA is abundantly included inside the cells. First, the microbial cells were detected in fractures in the rock sample using an infrared imaging technique called O-PTIR spectroscopy. After that, they were stained with a green solution and analyzed using both a scanning electron microscope and then fluorescent microscopy. The combination of readings from these three imaging techniques enabled the researchers to confirm the indigenous and living microbial cells in the 2-billion-year-old rock fissure. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Y. Suzuki, S. J. Webb, M. Kouduka et al.</figcaption></figure>



Such natural encapsulation raises interesting possibilities. Could similar mechanisms be at play elsewhere, perhaps even on Mars? If so, our chances of finding preserved life forms on other planets might be better than we thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-early-life-on-earth">Understanding early life on Earth</h2>



This discovery opens up new avenues for studying the early evolution of life on Earth. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-microbes-eat-a-different-diet-that-affects-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Finding organisms</a> that have persisted in such ancient rocks allows scientists to peer back in time and understand how life may have adapted to extreme environments.



“I am very interested in the existence of subsurface microbes not only on Earth, but also the potential to find them on other planets,” Suzuki shared. 



NASA’s Mars <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance rover</a> is currently due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-finds-best-evidence-yet-life-on-mars-cheyava-falls-rock/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bring back rocks</a> that are a similar age to those we used in this study.



"Finding microbial life in samples from Earth from 2 billion years ago and being able to accurately confirm their authenticity makes me excited for what we might be able to now find in samples from Mars," Suzuki enthused.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-rocks-and-alien-life">Microbes, rocks, and alien life</h2>



The techniques perfected in this study could be instrumental in examining rock samples from other planets. 



If microbes can survive sealed in rocks for billions of years on Earth, could similar life forms exist elsewhere in our solar system?



It's a tantalizing question. The methods used to detect and confirm these ancient microbes might help us identify signs of life in Martian rocks. 



With missions like Perseverance bringing back samples from Mars, the possibilities are expanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-time-capsules">Living time capsules</h2>



The idea that life can endure in such isolation and for such immense periods challenges our perceptions of survival and adaptation. These microbes are like living time capsules, offering a snapshot of life from eons ago.



By studying them, scientists hope to uncover clues about the conditions on early Earth and how life managed to take hold. 



This finding also prompts us to reconsider the limits of life on Earth. If microbes can survive in such extreme and isolated conditions, what does that say about life's ability to adapt? 



It suggests that life is incredibly tenacious and can find a way in even the most inhospitable places.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-frontier-in-microbiology">New frontier in microbiology</h2>



To sum it all up, this finding doesn't just push the boundaries of geology and biology - it opens a new frontier. The intersection of deep Earth studies and microbiology could lead to breakthroughs in understanding life's resilience.



Researchers will continue to explore these ancient habitats, using the perfected techniques to avoid contamination and ensure authenticity.



As we look to the future, the implications of this research are vast. 



Could studying these ancient microbes help us prepare for discovering life beyond Earth? What adaptations allow these organisms to survive in such extreme conditions?



The answers may lie in continued exploration and cross-disciplinary collaboration. One thing is certain: the Earth's deep places still have many stories to tell.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00248-024-02434-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microbial Ecology</a>.



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Microbes found alive sealed inside a rock for over 2 billion years

Deep beneath the Earth's surface, an extraordinary discovery has been...

A black hole that had been silent for decades has erupted with brilliant flashes of X-ray light, surprising astronomers and opening a rare window into one of the universe's most extreme phenomena. 



The black hole, known as "Ansky," sits at the heart of SDSS1335+0728 - a distant galaxy located 300 million light-years away in the constellation Virgo.



Scientists from the European Southern Observatory and <a href="https://www.valpo.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Valparaíso University</a> in Chile have been tracking the black hole's activity, using X-ray telescopes to monitor its strange awakening.



The research is supported by XMM-Newton, an observatory operated by the European Space Agency. NASA is also contributing to this global collaboration with the NICER, Chandra, and Swift telescopes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-black-hole-breaks-its-silence">A black hole breaks its silence</h2>



Black holes, despite their reputation for devouring everything in sight, can actually go unnoticed for long periods. They lie dormant, consuming little to no matter from their surroundings. 



This had been the case with the black hole at the center of SDSS1335+0728 - until late 2019. That’s when something changed. The galaxy began to shine unusually bright in optical light, prompting astronomers to dig into archival data and launch new observations.



Paula Sánchez Sáez is a researcher at the European Southern Observatory and leader of the team that first explored the black hole’s activation.



“When we first saw Ansky light up in optical images, we triggered follow-up observations using NASA’s Swift X-ray space telescope, and we checked archived data from the eROSITA X-ray telescope, but at the time we didn’t see any evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/x-ray-radiation-from-black-holes-explained-after-50-year-struggle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray</a> emissions,” said Sánchez Sáez.



Now classified as an active galactic nucleus, or AGN, the black hole is producing intense bursts of X-rays that repeat at nearly regular intervals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-witnessing-a-rare-event">Witnessing a rare event</h2>



In February 2024, the story took a more fascinating turn. A team led by researchers from Valparaíso University began detecting consistent X-ray bursts from the black hole.



These flares are known as quasiperiodic eruptions (QPEs) - brief flashes of high-energy X-rays that appear and disappear in a pattern.



“This rare event provides an opportunity for astronomers to observe a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-vortex-created-lab-mimic-black-hole-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole’s behavior</a> in real time, using X-ray space telescopes XMM-Newton and NASA’s NICER, Chandra and Swift," noted Lorena Hernández-García, a researcher at the Valparaiso University, Chile.



"QPEs are short-lived flaring events. And this is the first time we have observed such an event in a black hole that seems to be waking up.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-faint-x-ray-emissions">Detecting faint x-ray emissions</h2>



Quasiperiodic eruptions have only been seen a few times since their discovery, and no one fully understands what causes them. 



“The first QPE episode was discovered in 2019, and since then we’ve only detected a handful more. We don’t yet understand what causes them. Studying Ansky will help us to better understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-disks-are-unexpectedly-fluffy-new-simulation-reveals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes and how they evolve</a>," said Hernández-García.



Among the many telescopes involved, XMM-Newton has proven to be especially valuable. Hernández-García noted that it is the only X-ray telescope sensitive enough to detect the fainter X-ray background light between the bursts.



"With XMM-Newton we could measure how dim Ansky gets, which enabled us to calculate how much energy Ansky releases when it lights up and starts flashing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-causing-the-x-ray-flashes">What is causing the x-ray flashes?</h2>



Normally, when a black hole captures matter - such as gas or even a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/18-black-holes-captured-devouring-nearby-stars-in-dramatic-tidal-disruption-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a> - the material is shredded and forms a bright, spinning disc known as an accretion disc.



Some quasiperiodic eruptions are thought to be triggered by interactions between this disc and a nearby object like a small star or black hole. These interactions generate energy bursts detectable as X-rays. 



However, Ansky doesn’t fit that model neatly. So far, there’s no sign it has destroyed a star. This led researchers to consider a different explanation: perhaps the black hole is collecting gas from its environment.



A small object might be disturbing this gas repeatedly as it orbits through it, creating periodic shocks that result in X-ray flashes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ansky-challenges-existing-ideas">Ansky challenges existing ideas</h2>



Joheen Chakraborty, a PhD student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, noted that the bursts of X-rays from this black hole are ten times longer and ten times more luminous than what we see from a typical quasiperiodic eruption.



“Each of these eruptions is releasing a hundred times more energy than we have seen elsewhere. Ansky’s eruptions also show the longest cadence ever observed, of about 4.5 days," said Chakraborty.



"This pushes our models to their limits and challenges our existing ideas about how these X-ray flashes are being generated.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-a-black-hole-transform">Watching a black hole transform </h2>



What makes this situation so unique is that researchers are witnessing the black hole’s transformation in real time. Rather than catching the aftermath of some cosmic outburst, they’re watching the outburst as it happens.



“For QPEs, we’re still at the point where we have more models than data, and we need more observations to understand what's happening,” said Erwan Quintin, an ESA research fellow and X-ray astronomer.



“We thought that QPEs were the result of small celestial objects being captured by much larger ones and spiraling down towards them. Ansky’s eruptions seem to be telling us a different story. These repetitive bursts are also likely associated with gravitational waves that ESA’s future mission LISA might be able to catch.”



According to Quintin, it is crucial to have these X-ray observations that will complement the gravitational wave data and help us solve the puzzling behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-massive-early-universe-black-hole-stuns-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">massive black holes</a>.



Image Credit: European Space Agency



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Black hole reawakens with intense, mysterious X-ray bursts

A black hole that had been silent for decades has...

Saving lives with careful intervention is often seen as a trait unique to humans. Yet research suggests that some ants may operate their own version of medical support. 



A peer-reviewed study published in the science journal, Current Biology, highlights how Florida carpenter ants (Camponotus floridanus) handle severe wounds among their nestmates.



In these ants, injuries to legs sometimes call for amputation or cleaning, depending on the severity. These amputations, in turn, save <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the life of the ant</a>. It's an amazing discovery, to say the least.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-and-life-saving-amputations">Ants and life-saving amputations</h2>



According to Erik Frank from the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Würzburg</a>, decisions about how to treat a damaged limb appear to hinge on the potential risk of infection and the amount of muscle tissue in the injured area.



Scientists examining Florida carpenter ants discovered that the insects use a striking combination of wound cleaning and limb removal. 



"When we're talking about amputation behavior, this is literally the only case in which a sophisticated and systematic amputation of an individual by another member of its species occurs in the animal Kingdom," says first author Erik Frank. 



In a separate <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-43885-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paper published in 2023</a>, a different ant species, Megaponera analis, was shown to rely on a special gland to release antimicrobial compounds during treatment.



Florida carpenter ants, lacking this specialized gland, apply purely mechanical means. They use their mouthparts for cleaning, and in certain cases, follow up by removing the entire limb. 



Observations revealed that the ants rely on a systematic evaluation of each wound, suggesting they can detect when amputation is more likely to offer a better outcome than cleaning alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wound-type-determines-the-ants-actions">Wound type determines the ants' actions</h2>



In the study, femur injuries were consistently handled with initial cleaning before the leg was removed, whereas tibia injuries received only cleaning. 



"Femur injuries, where they always amputated the leg, had a success rate around 90% or 95%. And for the tibia, where they did not amputate, it still achieved a survival rate of about 75%," says Frank. 



Such careful attention led to much higher survival than in ants left untreated.



Leg anatomy appears to explain this difference. Muscle tissue within the femur may become compromised if left intact, while the tibia contains less muscle and plays a smaller role in moving blood through the leg. 



"Thus, because they are unable to cut the leg sufficiently quickly to prevent the spread of harmful bacteria, ants try to limit the probability of lethal infection by spending more time cleaning the tibia wound," explains senior author and evolutionary biologist Laurent Keller of the <a href="https://www.unil.ch/unil/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lausanne</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-florida-carpenter-ants-the-basics">Understanding Florida carpenter ants - the basics</h2>



Camponotus floridanus, better known as the Florida carpenter ant, is one of the most common ant species in Florida. These ants are big, bold, and easy to spot thanks to their reddish-brown bodies and darker heads and abdomens. 



Unlike the typical "carpenter" ants that chew through wood to build nests, Florida carpenter ants prefer to move into existing cavities, like tree hollows, rotting wood, or even wall voids in homes. 



They're not shy either - on warm evenings, especially in spring and summer, you might catch them foraging in long trails, searching for sugary snacks or protein-rich morsels.



What makes C. floridanus especially interesting is their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex social structure</a> and communication skills. These ants use chemical signals called pheromones to coordinate everything from food collection to defense. 



They live in colonies with thousands of individuals, and every ant has a specific job - some guard the nest, others care for young, and many act as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-farming-ants-work-hard-to-maintain-healthy-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tireless foragers</a>. 



Scientists actually study them to better understand social behavior and aging, since these ants can live for years and show unique patterns of brain activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-society-and-amputations">Ant society and amputations</h2>



Ants operating as medics raises questions about how a social insect develops such organized responses.



"The fact that the ants are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leafcutter-ants-remember-past-infections-strengthening-colony-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">able to diagnose a wound</a>, see if it's infected or sterile, and treat it accordingly over long periods of time by other individuals - the only medical system that can rival that would be the human one," Frank says. 



These behaviors show a surprising ability to reduce deaths from infected limbs.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/ants_performing-amputation_credit-Danny-Buffat_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/ants_performing-amputation_credit-Danny-Buffat_1s.webp" alt="Video still image – wound care and amputation in Florida carpenter ants, C. maculatus. Credit: Danny Buffat" class="wp-image-1965342"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Video still image – wound care and amputation in Florida carpenter ants, C. maculatus. Credit: Danny Buffat</figcaption></figure>



Another unexpected twist is that these responses seem to appear without learned training. "It's really all innate behavior," says Keller. 



Since ants often rely on age-based division of labor, the individuals performing these treatments may have an inborn skill set that emerges at the right stage in their life cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Researchers are now exploring the prevalence of similar amputation strategies in other Camponotus species. 



They hope to learn whether this practice is unique to Florida carpenter ants or if others without antimicrobial glands share the same approach. 



"<a href="https://youtu.be/Ys96YXXTL1Q" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">When you look at the videos</a> where you have the ant presenting the injured leg and letting the other one bite it off completely voluntarily, and then present the newly made wound so another one can finish the cleaning process - this level of innate cooperation, to me, is quite striking," says Frank. 



This work also raises questions about pain perception in ants, since the injured insect remains conscious throughout the limb removal. 



To sum it all up, this incredible research hints at complex interactions that make ant societies a remarkable source of curiosity.



Understanding the nuances of these responses could shed light on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how all insects</a>, not just ants, balance communal well-being with individual costs.



-------



<a href="https://youtu.be/Ys96YXXTL1Q" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click here to see the full video...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)00805-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Ants are the only animals besides humans that perform life-saving surgeries

Saving lives with careful intervention is often seen as a...

Researchers have been fascinated by how sea sponges build strong yet delicate glass-like skeletons. These natural structures have now inspired scientists to use bacteria to create tiny, durable lenses in the lab.



The research was led by Anne S. Meyer, an associate professor in the Department of Biology at the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enzymes-from-sea-sponges">Enzymes from sea sponges</h2>



Sea sponges combine minerals from their surroundings to create <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/bioglass" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioglass</a>, a material that feels fragile yet remains surprisingly resilient. That fusion of durability and lightness has intrigued research teams for decades.



The concept gained momentum when experts realized that this simple marine biology trick might inspire new imaging technologies. 



By mixing enzymes that were derived from sea sponges, with certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>, Meyer’s team managed to get the living bacterial cells to make themselves into small lenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-form-lenses">Bacteria form lenses </h2>



The tiny lenses belong to a category called <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2012/sm/c2sm06988a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microlens devices</a> that focus or manipulate light at a very small scale. Researchers see big potential in these devices for use in medical imaging and commercial applications.



​Meyer’s group collaborated with scientists from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>, <a href="https://www.tudelft.nl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Delft University of Technology</a>, and <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden University</a>. Together, the experts combined biology and optics to create living cells that coat themselves with a glass-like shell at normal temperature and pressure.​



“This research is the first to engineer light-focusing properties into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-bacteria-used-oxygen-about-one-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> cells, and I am excited to explore the different possibilities that our work has opened up,” said Meyer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bacteria-use-sponge-enzymes">How bacteria use sponge enzymes </h2>



Meyer’s lab inserted a sponge enzyme, called <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29909834/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silicatein</a>, into the outer layers of bacterial cells. That enzyme enabled the cells to gather silica-based material, forming a glass-like coating over each tiny bacterium.



Once covered, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> can focus incoming light into bright beams. This shell also allows the bacteria to stay alive for months, which means they can change or adapt in ways that regular microlenses cannot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-based-lenses-for-medical-imaging">Bacteria-based lenses for medical imaging</h2>



Getting microlenses down to the size of individual cells could push imaging boundaries even further. A small lens often provides sharper images, giving researchers a chance to see structures that might otherwise remain hidden.



Some experts envision these living microlenses in medical imaging, where scientists look for finer details in tissue samples. Others see commercial uses, such as inspection tools in factories where high-resolution images are essential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accessible-and-affordable-lenses">Accessible and affordable lenses</h2>



The microlenses don’t just work - they’re tough. Traditional microlens production often involves harsh temperatures or costly machinery, but these new lenses are made in mild, low-tech conditions. That makes them more accessible, more affordable, and easier to replicate.



Because the coating comes from biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>, the structure holds up under stress. Researchers confirmed that the lenses remained functional even after months, which sets them apart from most synthetic microlens alternatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-optical-tools">The future of optical tools</h2>



There is growing excitement about what living lenses could bring to optical devices. They might be added to image sensors to improve resolution or even woven into flexible materials for wearable technology.



The possibility of self-replicating or self-repairing optical elements opens up entire categories of innovation. If these lenses can change with their environment, future devices might include smart responses to light, temperature, or motion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-devices-for-new-frontiers">Living devices for new frontiers</h2>



Since these microscopic lenses can survive for months, they could serve as tiny detectors that react to different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-antibiotic-found-in-soil-has-potential-to-fight-superbugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surroundings</a>. They might even help monitor conditions inside cramped or extreme environments.



“The ease of producing these microlenses could make them a good way to fabricate optics in locations with less access to nanofabrication tools, including outer space,” said Meyer. 



The team received support to test how these glassy cells behave in places without standard fabrication tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-questions-still-remain">Some questions still remain</h2>



Researchers still don’t fully understand how glass-coated bacteria and their lenses will perform in real-world imaging systems.



Their ability to survive and change over time brings up new challenges about stability and predictability, especially in sensitive medical or aerospace applications.



There are also open questions about scaling up production. While the process works in the lab, using it in industry means developing methods to grow and shape millions of these bacterial lenses in uniform, reliable ways.



The study was published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409335121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: National Science Foundation/ J. Adam Fenster / University of Rochester 



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Bacteria used to create 'living lenses' that can see inside cells

Researchers have been fascinated by how sea sponges build strong...

The bison in Yellowstone National Park have captivated visitors for generations. These animals have roamed the region since the park’s establishment in 1872, bringing travelers from around the world to see these majestic creatures up close.



Bison once endured a disastrous period known as the <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/36694#page/7/mode/1up" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population bottleneck</a>, leaving fewer than 25 wild animals in Yellowstone in the early 1900s. 



A small group of domestic bison from Montana and the <a href="https://www.traveltexas.com/cities-and-regions/panhandle-plains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas Panhandle</a> helped rebuild the numbers when they were introduced to bolster the wild survivors.



The national park <a href="https://www.buffalofieldcampaign.org/images/get-involved/students-resource-about-bison/bison-conservation-papers/White-et-al-Management-of-Yellowstone-bison-and-brucellosis-transmission-risk-January-2011.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> rose to about 4,000 - 6,000 individuals over the following century. This growth stands out as a story of resilience, given the dangers once faced by these iconic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-are-rebuilding-forests-and-restoring-ecosystem-balance-in-yellowstone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bison-now-form-one-big-herd">Bison now form one big herd</h2>



After years of monitoring their movements, Dr. James Derr from the Department of Veterinary Pathobiology at the College of Veterinary Medicine &amp; Biomedical Sciences (<a href="https://vetmed.tamu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VMBS</a>) at Texas A&amp;M has brought new clarity to how these bison breed.



His team’s genetic findings indicate a shift in behavior that rewrites previous understandings of separate herds within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone</a>.



Management plans have often revolved around the assumption of two distinct herds that needed separate strategies. According to the latest research, that division may no longer exist.



“This finding certainly has a direct impact on the long-term conservation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-tourism-generates-over-1-megaton-carbon-annually/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">management</a> of this iconic bison population,” said Dr. Derr. In simpler terms, the park’s bison are now breeding in a unified way.



“To get a clearer picture, we examined samples from the two major summer breeding groups and two major winter ranges,” said Dr. Sam Stroupe, a researcher at VMBS.



Evaluations confirmed that genetic exchange is happening throughout Yellowstone, rather than staying within smaller pockets.



Scientists took advantage of new tools to compare markers in bison DNA, offering a fuller picture than was possible two decades ago. 



This helped them pinpoint the extent of gene flow, revealing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-are-1-5-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> function as one interconnected group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unified-bison-herd-boosts-stability">Unified bison herd boosts stability</h2>



Experts now recommend that these bison be managed as a single population with multiple subunits. This shift in approach aims to preserve genetic diversity for future generations.



One reason for this recommendation is the strong health of the overall gene pool. 



Researchers observed that the bison population carries lineages from both the original <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-lake-maintains-ice-cover-despite-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone</a> group and later introductions, which appears to boost stability.



Park officials work alongside wildlife specialists to watch for any sign of genetic risk in the herd. 



Recognizing a single breeding population encourages consistent strategies that keep gene flow open and protect the animals from harmful inbreeding.



Stewardship also involves collaboration with various stakeholders to maintain ecological balance. By monitoring bison migration between seasonal ranges, specialists can refine how they address population numbers and habitat needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The U.S. national mammal has long served as a symbol of vitality and grit. Part of what makes Yellowstone special is its free-roaming herds that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-tourism-generates-over-1-megaton-carbon-annually/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remind onlookers of wilder days</a> in American history.



These new findings come with the hope that data-driven strategies will guide the next steps in bison management. 



Experts underscore that clear research on herd structure is key to making solid decisions about when, where, and how to intervene.



These animals continue to face environmental challenges, from harsh winters to pressure at park boundaries. 



Yet the results of this study suggest that a single, large interbreeding population can handle setbacks if carefully supported.



Conservation teams believe that gene flow across herds helps the species maintain the adaptability needed for long-term survival. Watching for any future shifts will remain essential, given Yellowstone’s changing landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-yellowstone-bison-herd">Tracking the Yellowstone bison herd</h2>



As rangers and scientists track bison movements, they will look for ways to keep habitats healthy. A wide-ranging herd needs well-managed feeding grounds, especially during winter, to prevent overuse of any single area.



Researchers also emphasize the importance of monitoring herd size. When bison remain robust and widespread, they are less vulnerable to sudden ecological shifts.



Some experts suggest that this united herd might further stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-are-rebuilding-forests-and-restoring-ecosystem-balance-in-yellowstone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone’s ecological balance</a>. 



The presence of these formidable grazers recycles nutrients in grasslands and provides food sources for predators and scavengers.



Standing as the largest wild bison herd in the country, these animals offer a unique window into how to handle wildlife management challenges. They also serve as a source of cultural pride and a reminder of North America’s natural heritage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-based-animal-protection">Science-based animal protection</h2>



Moving forward, the focus is on using science-based approaches to protect these Yellowstone bison without fragmenting the population. 



This aligns with a broader trend toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bison-slaughter-had-lasting-traumatic-impacts-on-indigenous-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">safeguarding genetic variety</a> in national parks across the country.



Keeping tabs on reproduction patterns will remain vital. If different groups started breeding apart again in the future, managers would need to adapt their strategies.



This shift to one breeding population also carries lessons for other species. Large areas of protected habitat, combined with the right research, can help threatened animals recover from historical hardships.



Several wildlife researchers have praised Yellowstone’s example. Their unified effort confirms that even after past declines, thoughtful planning can sustain a species that once hovered on the edge of vanishing.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/116/1/1/7756833?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Heredity</a>.



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Yellowstone's iconic bison have finally merged back into a single herd after 120 years of effort

The bison in Yellowstone National Park have captivated visitors for...

The Cambrian explosion, over 500 million years ago, gave rise to many bizarre and complex life forms. Some were short-lived and mysterious, and vanished without a trace. Others left behind fossils so rare that generations of scientists could only speculate about their nature. 



Among these elusive creatures was Helmetia expansa, an arthropod discovered in 1918 by Charles Doolittle Walcott.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-a-lost-world">Glimpse into a lost world</h2>



For more than a century, Helmetia remained an enigma. Only a single specimen had ever been illustrated. It appeared in research papers but was never formally described. 



With no follow-up studies and no modern analysis, Helmetia existed more as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-fuel-pollution-is-causing-disease-disaster-and-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> footnote than a central figure in Cambrian biology.



Now, after 107 years, a new study has brought Helmetia back to life - figuratively speaking. Led by Sarah Losso at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>, the research team has provided the first complete description of this strange animal. And what they found offers a detailed glimpse into a lost world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examining-the-cambrian-fossils">Examining the Cambrian fossils</h2>



The new work is based on 36 specimens. They come from two major collections: the <a href="https://www.si.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Institution</a> and the <a href="https://www.rom.on.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Ontario Museum</a>.



These fossils were collected between 1975 and 1998 from Canada’s Burgess Shale, a site that is famous for preserving delicate body structures in extraordinary detail.



The team used high-resolution photography, cross-polarized light, and detailed morphological comparisons. For the first time, they could examine Helmetia’s anatomy with clarity. 



This new approach revealed more than just exoskeletons and spines. It uncovered preserved guts, eyes, antennae, and even animals caught mid-molt.



“We need to study more than one specimen to see the species’ full range of morphology and preservation,” said Losso. This is especially important for species known only from flattened, soft-bodied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prototaxites-the-mystery-fossil-from-a-lost-branch-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprises-in-the-cambrian-fossils">Surprises in the Cambrian fossils</h2>



Helmetia expansa had a broad, leaf-like body. It was oval in shape and reached lengths of 92 to 183 millimeters (3.6 to 7.2 inches). The body consisted of a cephalon, six thoracic segments, and a large pygidium.



Each thoracic segment bore spines that increased in size toward the rear. The exoskeleton’s edge showed fine serrations, a feature that is rarely preserved in such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-warnings-fossil-fuels-are-causing-climate-health-and-biodiversity-crises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a>.



At the front, Helmetia sported large anterolateral spines extending from the head. Between them sat a rounded sclerite - a hardened plate - beneath which lay two large, medial eyes.



Two lateral eyes were tucked under small domes on either side of the head. These features give Helmetia an alien appearance but also hint at visual complexity.



Beneath the surface, the researchers found further surprises. The gut was a narrow, straight tube with a J-shaped foregut and five pairs of digestive glands - oblong and ultrastructurally complex. These internal organs add depth to our understanding of Cambrian arthropod biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-movement-of-early-arthropods">Movement of early arthropods </h2>



Early interpretations of Helmetia suggested a floating animal, perhaps drifting above the seafloor. Some even argued it lacked legs entirely. 



But the new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-hollow-bones-just-like-modern-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> proved otherwise. Several specimens preserved both gills and walking limbs, which were narrow, segmented appendages hidden under the body.



The limbs were biramous, meaning they branched into two parts. One acted as a leg for walking and grasping, the other functioned as a gill. This arrangement mirrors that of many early arthropods and suggests a crawling lifestyle, not a pelagic one.



The team concluded that Helmetia walked on the ocean floor, using its limbs to move and its gills to exchange gases. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-molting-strategies">Early molting strategies</h2>



Among the most remarkable finds were two Helmetia individuals preserved mid-molt. The fossils showed a second, fainter outline beneath the primary exoskeleton. This indicated that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> were forming a new cuticle before shedding the old one.



“Molting strategies have never been known in any concilitergan,” said Losso. "All arthropods molt their hard exoskeletons to grow, but no one had seen this behavior before in a concilitergan because you have to catch a specimen in the act of molting, and it’s difficult to get just the right timing.”



The team noted that the new exoskeletons were closer to the front of the body. This suggests Helmetia exited its molt through the head, much like modern horseshoe crabs. Most crabs exit from the rear, so this anterior strategy marks an important evolutionary detail.



“These patterns tell us not only how these 508-million-year-old animals grew, but how big they could get,” Losso said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-and-complex-digestive-glands">Tiny and complex digestive glands</h2>



The internal anatomy of Helmetia included more than just a gut. Researchers found five pairs of digestive glands - small, ovoid structures with submillimetric lamellae. These paired organs are rare among concilitergans and were only previously known in Arthroaspis bergstroemi, a distant relative.



The researchers believe these glands helped process complex food. Their lamellar structure resembles those seen in other marine species that are predators or scavengers. In this light, Helmetia may have fed on soft-bodied prey or organic debris on the seafloor.



These gut glands also serve a deeper purpose. Their similarity to those in Arthroaspis helped confirm a close evolutionary relationship between the two species. Both are now considered part of the same broader group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-cambrian-fossils">Significance of the Cambrian fossils </h2>



The new study also revised the family tree of the Conciliterga, the order of arthropods to which Helmetia belongs. Previous studies placed trilobites as close relatives. But with better data and a broader comparison set, the researchers now propose a new structure.



Arthroaspis emerged as the most primitive concilitergan. Helmetia, with its well-defined segments and spines, sits within the newly redefined family Helmetiidae. This group includes other species like Kuamaia, Haifengella, and Rhombicalvaria. These helmetiids share features like visible tergite boundaries and spiny bodies.



In contrast, a second group - Tegopeltidae - includes concilitergans with fused segments and no spines. Species like Tegopelte and Saperion fall into this category. The revised tree provides a cleaner classification and suggests that body segment fusion evolved multiple times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-epimorphic-growth">Evidence of epimorphic growth</h2>



All studied Helmetia specimens had six thoracic segments. This means they were adults, fully developed in body structure. Yet, their sizes varied significantly, with the largest individuals being twice the length of the smallest.



This pattern suggests that Helmetia continued to grow during adulthood without adding new body segments - a process known as epimorphic growth. Whether they also experienced an earlier phase of segment addition, like many trilobites, remains unknown due to the lack of juvenile fossils.



The growth pattern seen here mirrors that of Arthroaspis, which also showed size doubling in adulthood. The consistency between the two strengthens their evolutionary connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-of-cambrian-arthropods">Fossils of Cambrian arthropods</h2>



The resurrection of Helmetia expansa through detailed study marks a major leap in understanding Cambrian arthropods. Once an obscure name, Helmetia now stands as one of the best-documented concilitergans.



The study sheds light on its structure, growth, molting, and feeding. It redraws concilitergan evolution and confirms shared features among related species. Most importantly, the research reanimates a species long trapped in the pages of forgotten paleontology.



“Our findings give a much fuller picture of what Helmetia looked like, how it lived, and how concilitergans are related to each other,” Losso said.



Thanks to careful analysis, imaging advances, and renewed interest, Helmetia expansa has finally taken its rightful place in the story of life’s ancient past.



The study was published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2025.2468195" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>. 



Image Credit: Marianne Collins



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Cambrian fossils reveal new clues about arthropod evolution

The Cambrian explosion, over 500 million years ago, gave rise...

Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, has a surface that is covered with rivers and lakes of liquid methane. It’s dotted with icy rocks and soot-like dunes - all shrouded beneath a dense, hazy atmosphere.



This strange mix has fascinated scientists and led them to wonder whether life could exist there.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> and Harvard University recently set out to explore that possibility. Their goal was to paint a more realistic picture of what life might look like on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-methane-world-on-titan-could-be-a-secret-alien-haven/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Titan</a>, where it might survive, and how much of it could exist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rich-in-organics-but-are-they-edible">Rich in organics, but are they edible?</h2>



"In our study, we focus on what makes Titan unique when compared to other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-rings-may-have-formed-after-two-icy-moons-collided/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">icy moons</a>: its plentiful organic content," said Antonin Affholder from the U of A&nbsp;Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.



Titan has an abundance of carbon-based molecules present on its surface. They have been formed by complex atmospheric chemistry, but can these molecules support life?



To investigate, the experts used bioenergetic modeling. They examined Titan’s subsurface ocean - believed to be about 300 miles (485 kilometers) deep - and considered whether microorganisms could survive there by consuming organic compounds.



The findings suggest, even if life were possible, Titan could likely support no more than a few pounds of biomass - hardly more than the weight of a small dog.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-limits-of-a-methane-world">The limits of a methane world</h2>



Titan has been described as being Earth-like on the surface with an ocean world on the inside. The moon is the focus of NASA’s upcoming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-space-mission-saturn-moon-titan-gets-greenlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dragonfly mission</a>.



Past estimates of its habitability have focused largely on the availability of organic material, but the researchers argue that this approach oversimplifies the situation.



"There has been this sense that because Titan has such abundant organics, there is no shortage of food sources that could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exploring-the-tranquil-seas-of-saturns-moon-titan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustain life</a>," noted Affholder.



"We point out that not all of these organic molecules may constitute food sources, the ocean is really big, and there's limited exchange between the ocean and the surface, where all those organics are, so we argue for a more nuanced approach."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-fermentation-fuel-life-on-titan">Could fermentation fuel life on Titan?</h2>



Instead of relying on exotic or speculative ideas, the team went with one of the oldest, simplest forms of metabolism: fermentation. 



This process doesn’t need oxygen and only requires organic molecules. It’s what powers breadmaking, beer brewing, and even food spoilage here on Earth.



"Fermentation probably evolved early in the history of Earth's life, and does not require us to open any door into unknown or speculative mechanisms that may or may not have happened on Titan," Affholder said. 



He explained that early life on Earth may have survived on organic leftovers from our planet’s formation.



"We asked, could similar microbes exist on Titan? If so, what potential does Titan's subsurface ocean have for a biosphere feeding off of the seemingly vast inventory of abiotic organic molecules synthesized in Titan's atmosphere, accumulating at its surface and present in the core?"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-small-population-of-microbes">A small population of microbes</h2>



The team focused on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-may-have-extraterrestrial-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glycine</a>, the simplest amino acid known, as a possible food source for any hypothetical microbes.



"We know that glycine was relatively abundant in any sort of primordial matter in the solar system," said Affholder. "When you look at asteroids, comets, the clouds of particles and gas from which stars and planets like our solar system form, we find glycine or its precursors in pretty much all those places."



But simulations showed that only a small amount of Titan’s organics could actually serve as fuel for life. 



The idea is that glycine from the surface might reach the subsurface ocean through Titan’s thick ice shell. This could happen when meteorite impacts melt part of the ice, allowing surface material to sink.



"Our new study shows that this supply may only be sufficient to sustain a very small population of microbes weighing a total of only a few kilograms at most. Such a tiny biosphere would average less than one cell per liter of water over Titan's entire vast ocean," explained Affholder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-on-titan-would-be-extremely-rare">Life on Titan would be extremely rare</h2>



If there is life in Titan’s ocean, it may be incredibly difficult to detect. The experts noted that even a future mission might miss it entirely unless researchers look in the right place - or consider other, less obvious habitats.



"We conclude that Titan's uniquely rich organic inventory may not in fact be available to play the role in the moon's habitability to the extent one might intuitively think," said Affholder.



So, while life on Titan is possible, it is highly unlikely to be abundant. Despite not teeming with life, the planet may still host a tiny, ancient microbial world - waiting, perhaps, for a spacecraft to find it.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/adbc66" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona/University of Idaho



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Titan may harbor life, but it will be difficult to find

Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, has a surface that...

A team of scientists has recently identified a widely available, naturally occurring plant compound that appears to safeguard nerve cells from deterioration, potentially offering a breakthrough in the treatment of ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) and dementia. 



Many fruits and vegetables, including kale, endives, and berries, naturally contain the compound kaempferol, which is an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-proven-to-be-a-nutritional-treasure-packed-with-antioxidants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antioxidant</a>.



Despite its common presence in our diet, new findings reveal that the compound kaempferol’s benefits for nerve cell health may far exceed what we previously understood.



“It’s exciting to discover a naturally occurring compound that may help people suffering from ALS or dementia,” said Smita Saxena, a professor of physical medicine and rehabilitation at the <a href="https://medicine.missouri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Missouri School of Medicine</a> and the lead investigator on this study. 



“We found this compound had a strong impact in terms of maintaining motor and muscle function and reducing muscle atrophy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-plant-compound">A unique plant compound </h2>



Kaempferol is a flavonoid, a class of molecules prized for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In this research, scientists honed in on how kaempferol might help nerve cells deal with two major sources of stress.&nbsp;



First, neurons depend on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/damaged-mitochondria-recycled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mitochondria</a> to produce the energy they need to function. If these mitochondria falter, neurons become less able to maintain the electrical signals and chemical communications essential to muscle control.&nbsp;



Second, neurons rely on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to assemble and process proteins correctly. In many neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS, the ER is under tremendous strain, leading to protein misfolding and cell damage.



In nerve cells sampled from ALS patients, the plant compound significantly boosted the cells’ energy production and reduced ER stress.



The experts argued that this is one of the first compounds scientists have identified to directly act on both mitochondria and the ER at once. That double-targeting mechanism could be a potent means of slowing or preventing neuronal loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compound-has-potential-to-fight-als">Compound has potential to fight ALS</h2>



ALS is a progressive condition that disrupts muscle control, often beginning with twitching or weakness and ending in complete paralysis. Current treatments for ALS are limited and generally only slow progression marginally.&nbsp;



As a result, the demand for new therapeutic options is high. Kaempferol’s ability to bolster two of the cell’s most vulnerable processes - energy generation and protein management - makes it stand out as a promising candidate.



Lab tests showed that kaempferol not only delayed the deterioration of nerve cells but also retained motor function in experimental models.&nbsp;



According to Saxena, the compound is particularly interesting because it seems effective even after symptoms of ALS begin manifesting.



Many potential therapies lose their efficacy once a disease’s clinical signs emerge, so a compound that works in symptomatic patients could represent a major step forward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-obstacles-to-overcome">Obstacles to overcome</h2>



Despite these promising findings, there are two major challenges to transforming kaempferol into a widely used treatment.&nbsp;



The first issue is that the human body absorbs it poorly. While foods such as kale or berries do contain kaempferol, you would need to eat staggering amounts - at least 10 to 11 pounds of kale in a single day - to reach the dosage levels shown to be beneficial in laboratory conditions.



This poor absorption means only a small fraction of dietary kaempferol reaches nerve cells.



Second, the blood-brain barrier adds another challenge. While it protects the brain from harmful substances, it also blocks helpful compounds like kaempferol from reaching target cells in effective amounts. Even if one manages to consume enough kaempferol, delivering it to the brain is another significant challenge.



“Our bodies don’t absorb kaempferol very well from the vegetables we eat,” Saxena said. “Because of this, only a small amount reaches our tissues, limiting how effective it can be. We need to find ways to increase the dose of kaempferol or modify it so it’s absorbed into the bloodstream more easily.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paving-the-way-for-clinical-tests">Paving the way for clinical tests</h2>



To address these issues, Saxena’s team is experimenting with improved delivery strategies. One leading idea is to use lipid-based nanoparticles as carriers. 



Researchers have already explored these tiny fat-based spheres in other areas of medicine - particularly vaccines - to ferry molecules across biological barriers.



By packaging it in this way, scientists can help it dodge some of the body’s natural defense systems and enable more of it to reach the neurons. Essentially, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neurons-can-predict-human-speech-before-we-say-a-word/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> would take up these nanoparticles more efficiently, delivering a potent dose of kaempferol to the exact spot where it’s needed.



Saxena’s lab aims to finalize their nanoparticle formulations and begin testing them in model systems later this year. 



If these trials are successful, it could pave the way for clinical testing in humans, a process that could eventually yield a new class of neuroprotective drugs derived from compounds found in common foods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-compound-s-potential-beyond-als">Plant compound's potential beyond ALS</h2>



While the research is focused on ALS, the mechanisms targeted by kaempferol - such as energy metabolism and protein folding - are also at play in other neurodegenerative diseases, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-a-brain-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s</a> and Parkinson’s. 



This raises the possibility that a kaempferol-based therapy, once refined, could have broader applications in neurology.



By stabilizing both energy production and protein management, there’s a chance the compound could alleviate several types of degenerative stress in neurons.



Of course, researchers must still conduct substantial studies before they can consider kaempferol a bona fide treatment. Still, these early results renew hope in a field that desperately needs effective solutions.



For now, this work reminds us that even a molecule we routinely consume in fruits and vegetables may harbor remarkable secrets - if only we can figure out how to harness its power.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-025-01927-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acta Neuropathologica Communications</a>.



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Plant compound shows potential for treating ALS and dementia

A team of scientists has recently identified a widely available,...

Japan loves otters and so does the internet. From squeaky coos to floating belly naps, Asian small-clawed otters have taken over YouTube and Instagram feeds. These animals show up in themed cafés, cozy up to coffee cups, and pose beside smiling tourists. It’s not hard to see why they’ve become a social media sensation.



But this viral fame hides a growing crisis. The adorable otter’s rise to stardom has come at a cost to wild populations. Behind every click, like, and share may lie a deeper story - one of trafficking, genetic decline, and fading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-help-kelp-forests-recover-but-theres-more-to-the-story/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. 



Japan sits at the center of this trade, both as a consumer and as a mirror to a broader wildlife issue across Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-japan-s-pet-otter-boom">Japan’s pet otter boom</h2>



Asian small-clawed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-have-protected-california-kelp-forests-for-a-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">otters</a>, native to South and Southeast Asia, are now listed as vulnerable by the IUCN. Their populations are threatened by habitat destruction, human-wildlife conflict, and poaching. 



Since 2019, they have been listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (<a href="https://cites.org/eng/disc/what.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CITES</a>), which bans commercial trade except in exceptional cases.



Despite this listing, the otters continue to appear in Japan’s pet stores and animal cafés. Their presence in such places indicates an active, and often illegal, wildlife trade. The allure is strong - cuddly, curious, and highly intelligent, otters are marketed as ideal companions for exotic pet lovers.



But their popularity on social media has created a feedback loop of demand that encourages continued trafficking from wild populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illegal-otters-sourced-from-thailand">Illegal otters sourced from Thailand</h2>



To understand how otters are ending up in Japanese cafés, researchers from <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a> teamed up with Thai scientists. 



They aimed to trace the geographic origins of the otters now living in captivity in Japan. Most attention turned to Thailand - a country previously identified as a key player in the illegal otter trade.



"Collaborative research can help identify the origins of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-use-tools-to-access-larger-prey-and-protect-their-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">otters</a> kept in Japan and hot spots of illegal trade in Thailand, thus encouraging legal control in both countries," said study first author Mayako Fujihara.



Over the last two decades, more than 100 otters have been seized at airports in Thailand and Japan. Most seizures involve multiple individuals at once, suggesting coordinated smuggling efforts. 



Despite Japanese import bans and Thailand’s export restrictions, traffickers continue to find ways to move these animals across borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-links-otters-to-wild-origins">DNA links otters to wild origins</h2>



To track where the otters came from, researchers sequenced 1,511 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA from 81 captive otters in Japan.



These included <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">individuals</a> from zoos, aquariums, animal cafés, and customs seizures. The goal was to compare these sequences with those from known wild populations in Thailand and surrounding countries.



The analysis revealed 12 different haplotypes, grouped into three major clades. Six of these haplotypes matched wild otters from southern Thailand - areas known for coastal wetlands and hilly riparian zones. 



This suggests that the majority of otters found in cafés and seized at airports had likely originated from poaching hotspots in southern Thailand.



The findings are troubling. According to the CITES trade database, no legal otter imports from Thailand to Japan have occurred since 1988. This means the otters arriving since then - including those born to trafficked individuals - have entered the country through illegal means.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-media-stardom-drives-demand">Social media stardom drives demand</h2>



The modern otter craze didn’t start in a forest - it started online. YouTube channels featuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet</a> otters have millions of subscribers. One top channel in Japan, showing the lives of two otters, has over 1.8 million followers and a merchandise line. The same owner also runs otter cafés in major cities.



These cafés, known as exotic animal cafés, let customers play with otters while sipping coffee. They are part of a broader industry that has expanded rapidly since the early 2000s. 



As of 2019, Japan hosted at least 137 exotic animal cafés, housing more than 400 species. The Asian small-clawed otter is among the most popular mammals in these cafés.



Some cafés even sell otters, with prices reaching over $10,000 per animal. In 2018, nearly half of the otters advertised for sale in Japan came from unknown sources. This lack of transparency fuels concerns about continued reliance on wild populations and unclear breeding histories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-japan-s-native-otter-is-gone">Japan’s native otter is gone</h2>



Japan’s obsession with otters may also stem from a deep-rooted cultural memory. The kawauso, or river otter, appears in Japanese folklore as a playful and mischievous shapeshifter. But this creature was based on a real animal - the Japanese river otter, once common across the country.



Decades of hunting for fur and destruction of river habitats led to its tragic extinction. It was declared extinct in 2012 after not being seen for over 30 years.



"It is precisely because Japan's endemic otter species has gone extinct that we aim to continue conducting research that will help protect other vulnerable species," said Fujihara.



This extinction leaves a shadow over current efforts to protect other otters in captivity and the wild. It also heightens the urgency to prevent similar outcomes for other species caught in the trade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uneven-diversity-in-captivity">Uneven diversity in captivity</h2>



One of the most striking findings from the study was the difference in genetic diversity between otters in zoos and those in cafés. 



Otters in zoos and aquariums had higher genetic diversity and more varied haplotypes. This is likely due to more structured breeding programs and a larger pool of founding individuals.



In contrast, the otters found in cafés often shared just a few haplotypes. Many had been bred in-country from a narrow gene pool. Some appeared to be closely related. 



This lack of diversity poses risks. Inbreeding can cause health problems and lower reproductive success. It also weakens the species’ long-term ability to adapt and survive.



Otters in zoos also came from a wider range of regions, including Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia. This indicates legal or semi-legal acquisition before tighter regulations were in place. But many of the café otters clustered genetically with those from southern Thailand - regions known for illegal poaching activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-as-a-shield-for-conservation">Science as a shield for conservation</h2>



The study's genetic work serves a dual purpose: it not only tracks trafficking routes but also supports captive breeding. 



By understanding the genetic background of individual otters, zoos can avoid inbreeding and maintain genetic health. Otters with rare haplotypes - some found in just one or two individuals - can be prioritized for conservation.



However, mitochondrial DNA offers only part of the story. The researchers suggest that nuclear DNA sequencing could give more precise geographic information. This would allow officials to better identify the origin of seized otters and link them to specific regions.



The findings also highlight a need to build comprehensive genetic reference maps for otters across Southeast Asia. Expanding these databases would help pinpoint where wild-caught animals originate and guide future protection efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breeding-for-a-future-not-a-fad">Breeding for a future, not a fad</h2>



As of late 2022, Japan’s zoos and aquariums housed more than 200 Asian small-clawed otters. Many participate in coordinated breeding programs, but others still rely on imports or unverified sources. Without full genetic records, some valuable lineages may be lost.



For example, rare haplotypes found in only one or two otters could disappear without focused efforts. Losing these variants would narrow the gene pool and reduce future adaptability.



Better genetic planning, stronger import regulations, and broader cooperation between nations can help secure the future of this species. The café boom may fade, but the consequences for wildlife will last unless steps are taken now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-japan-s-love-for-otters-has-limits">Japan’s love for otters has limits</h2>



Otters continue to delight audiences with their charm and antics. But behind every viral video lies a question - where did that otter come from, and what did it cost to bring it here?



If admiration leads to exploitation, then love for animals becomes dangerous. Science, policy, and awareness must align to ensure that what we adore today doesn’t vanish tomorrow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.70010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Science and Practice</a>.



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Japan’s obsession with otters comes at a cost

Japan loves otters and so does the internet. From squeaky...

A,School,Of,Salmon,Swimming,In,The,Clear,Water,,Australia

In a large-scale study considered to be the most extensive of its kind so far, researchers from around the world investigated how pharmaceutical pollution influences the behavior and migratory patterns of Atlantic salmon.



The project was led by the <a href="https://www.slu.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences</a> and focused on commonly detected concentrations of clobazam - a medication used to treat sleep disorders - found in waterways.



In the wild, these levels of clobazam were shown to increase the river-to-sea migration success of juvenile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-summer-fishing-shrinks-atlantic-salmon-size-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salmon</a> and shorten the time it took them to pass through obstacles like hydropower dams.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pharmaceutical-pollution-in-salmon-habitats">Pharmaceutical pollution in salmon habitats</h2>



The findings involved collaboration between many institutions, including Griffith University’s <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/research/sciences/australian-rivers-institute" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Rivers Institute</a>. Marcus Michelangeli from Griffith, who played a key role in the study, described it as highlighting a global and growing problem of pharmaceutical pollution in natural habitats.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antidepressant-prozac-pollution-is-severely-depressing-fish-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pharmaceutical pollutants</a> are an emerging global issue, with over 900 different substances having now been detected in waterways around the world,” Michelangeli said. 



“Of particular concern are psychoactive substances like antidepressants and pain medications, which can significantly interfere with wildlife brain function and behavior.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-real-world-approach">Unique real-world approach</h2>



One unique aspect of this research is its real-world perspective. According to Michelangeli, most previous studies examining the effects of pharmaceutical pollutants on wildlife have been conducted under controlled laboratory conditions, which don’t fully capture the complexities of natural environments.



“This study is unique because it investigates the effects of these contaminants on wildlife directly in the field, allowing us to better understand how exposure impacts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-lockdowns-had-unexpected-impacts-on-wildlife-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife behavior</a> and migration in a natural context.”



Clobazam was not the only drug tested. The team also looked at tramadol, an opioid painkiller frequently detected in water samples. 



The researchers used slow-release pharmaceutical implants in combination with tracking transmitters to monitor how both substances affected juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Sweden’s River Dal as the fish made their journey toward the Baltic Sea.



In addition, the team conducted a laboratory experiment that revealed clobazam altered the salmon’s shoaling behavior, reinforcing the idea that shifts in social or risk-taking tendencies might be tied to drug-induced changes in the fish’s neural functioning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-pharmaceutical-pollution">Consequences of pharmaceutical pollution</h2>



“While the increased migration success in salmon exposed to clobazam might seem like a beneficial effect, it is important to realize that any change to the natural behavior and ecology of a species is expected to have broader negative consequences both for that species and the surrounding wildlife community,” Michelangeli said.



He also noted how complicated these consequences might be when multiple pollutants and species are involved. 



“When you consider realistic exposure scenarios where entire ecosystems are exposed - encompassing multiple species and a diversity of contaminants - the potential consequences become even more complex."



So far, the decline in Atlantic salmon numbers has largely been blamed on factors like overfishing and habitat loss. However, the study implies that pharmaceutical pollution could be subtly reshaping critical life events like the salmon’s migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calls-for-better-wastewater-treatment">Calls for better wastewater treatment</h2>



Addressing this issue may be daunting, since many medications do not degrade quickly in the environment and often slip through conventional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reed-beds-a-sustainable-revolution-in-wastewater-management/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wastewater treatment</a> systems.



“Advanced wastewater treatment methods are becoming more effective at reducing pharmaceutical contamination, and there is promising potential in green chemistry approaches,” Michelangeli said.



“By designing drugs that break down more rapidly or become less harmful after use, we can significantly mitigate the environmental impact of pharmaceutical pollution in the future.” Indeed, this study underlines how such pollution can produce biological effects that reverberate throughout ecosystems.



Though improved wastewater practices and drug design might help, Michelangeli argued that the task ahead is to figure out how a multitude of chemicals, each at low concentrations, might collectively influence everything from fish migration to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamics</a>.



“Pharmaceutical pollutants are an emerging global issue, with over 900 different substances having now been detected in waterways around the world,” Michelangeli said, emphasizing that efforts to reduce contamination could make a crucial difference for both animals and humans who share these water sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-atlantic-salmon">The future of Atlantic salmon</h2>



Ultimately, the story of clobazam and Atlantic salmon reminds us how connected we are to the world around us. Many people rely on medications for their well-being, yet each pill or patch might release chemical remnants into rivers and lakes far beyond our sight.



As the global usage of medications continues to rise, researchers hope to refine tools and strategies that can minimize these ecological footprints. 



They believe that thoughtful design of medicines and advanced treatment systems could go a long way toward safeguarding species. This includes the Atlantic salmon and the wider tapestry of aquatic life that sustains our planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp7174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Pharmaceutical pollution changes the behavior of Atlantic salmon

In a large-scale study considered to be the most extensive...

Efforts to protect birds from the growing impacts of climate change may be missing a key piece of the puzzle. According to new research, understanding the specific climate conditions that birds need to survive - known as their climatic niche breadth - could be crucial for identifying which species are at greatest risk.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of East Anglia</a> analyzed data from 159 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/european-breeding-birds-adapt-to-climate-change-at-a-slower-pace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European bird species</a> to explore how a species' tolerance to different temperatures and rainfall patterns relates to its population trends. 



The researchers analyzed four decades of bird population data across 29 countries, combined with 30 years of climate information, to measure how adaptable each species is to a variety of conditions within its habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-even-common-birds-face-climate-risks">Even common birds face climate risks</h2>



It’s widely assumed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-birds-diving-petrels-return-home-island-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare birds</a> or those with small geographic ranges are most vulnerable to climate change. However, new findings suggest that a bird’s vulnerability isn’t solely about how widespread it is. What seems to matter more is how broad - or narrow - the range of climate conditions a species can handle is.



“Deciding which species are more at risk isn’t straight forward, and species may be declining for a range of reasons,” said lead author Karolina Zalewska, a postgraduate researcher in UEA’s School of Environmental Sciences.



“Rare species and those that have smaller distributions are more likely to be vulnerable to climate change. This study has shown that birds that are more widespread, such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-but-mighty-the-significance-of-world-sparrow-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">house sparrow</a> and the common starling, can also face threats to their populations."



"Species, whether rare or widespread, with narrower climatic niches may be more susceptible to the rapid changes brought on by climate change compared to those with broader niches, and this may be one of the underlying reasons behind the population declines observed."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-with-narrow-climate-ranges">Birds with narrow climate ranges</h2>



According to Zalewska, the results emphasize the importance of understanding and incorporating the level of exposure to climatic variability when assessing vulnerability to climate change and long-term population declines.



The study confirmed that a bird’s ability to cope with a variety of climate conditions is strongly linked to its population stability. Even among species with similar geographic ranges, those with narrower climate tolerances were more likely to be in decline.



“Faced with the challenges of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global biodiversity crisis</a> and climate change, the rapid assessment of species vulnerability to environmental change has become of paramount importance to address priorities for conservation," said co-author Professor Aldina Franco.



"As climate change accelerates, our study highlights the need to prioritize species that are most at risk due to their more restricted environmental requirements.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-way-to-assess-risk">A better way to assess risk</h2>



The team used their climate data to develop a new index - climatic niche breadth adjusted for range area - that can help predict which birds are more vulnerable to environmental change. This index, combined with data on diet, body size, primary habitat, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory behavior</a>, offers a more complete picture of each species' resilience.



“These findings can help us understand the threats associated with climate change and allow for rapid assessment of the importance of climatic factors on population trends, providing an invaluable tool for targeting species conservation,” said Zalewska.



“In particular, we show that the climatic niche breadth to range area index can help predict which species may be more vulnerable to population declines.”



Out of the 159 species examined, 58 were found to be declining, 68 remained stable, and 33 were increasing. 



Birds that inhabit farmland - such as corn buntings and skylarks - were more likely to be in decline. By contrast, species more comfortable in human-altered landscapes, like blackbirds and blue tits, were faring better.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-through-a-climate-lens">Conservation through a climate lens</h2>



The research offers a way forward for conservation strategies in an era of accelerating climate change. 



Instead of relying solely on range size or rarity, conservationists may need to look more closely at how birds respond to different climates across their range.



Recognizing which species are climate-sensitive could make all the difference in keeping their populations from slipping away.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jbi.15127" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Biogeography</a>.



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Some birds are more at risk from climate change than others

Efforts to protect birds from the growing impacts of climate...

Dogs have long been recognized for their remarkable ability to detect faint scents associated with various diseases. 



From identifying cancer and low blood sugar to sensing infections, their keen noses have inspired trainers to develop specialized tasks that enhance safety and independence for people managing health conditions.



Scientists recently <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0320158" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">discovered</a> new connections between how dogs interpret ambiguous situations and how they tackle scent detection tasks.



The research was led by Sharyn Bistre Dabbah of the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, who explored whether a dog’s upbeat or doubtful attitude influences how well it can sniff out important odor cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-learn-medical-scent-detection">How dogs learn medical scent detection</h2>



<a href="https://www.medicaldetectiondogs.org.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medical detection dogs</a> have earned respect among healthcare professionals, especially for their role in identifying certain <a href="https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-020-05281-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a> and assisting people with chronic issues. 



They are trained to detect unique scent markers in clinical samples or to warn someone about an imminent change in health status.



Training starts young, using exercises to boost focus and confidence in new environments. The programs highlight gentle yet consistent methods that reward a dog for accurate performance and reduce confusion through repetition.



Because tasks based on scent detection are demanding, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-dogs-severely-harm-wildlife-even-when-leashed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canines</a> must learn to keep calm under pressure. They must stay determined and engaged through repeated trials, which can be challenging for some dogs. Despite these challenges, many dogs handle the work with remarkable ease.



When some dogs show more precision and fewer false alerts, experts start searching for the reasons why. If these traits can be identified early, it could bring more certainty to an already impressive field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-optimism-and-performance">Connecting optimism and performance</h2>



One experimental approach used in this research is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26440495/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">judgment bias testing</a>, a strategy for gauging how animals respond to uncertain situations. 



Dogs learn a bowl in one spot with a known scent means a reward, but in another spot, it doesn't. When the bowl appears in a middle spot, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canines</a>’ reaction time can hint at their emotional outlook.



“Dogs that approached ambiguous cues more quickly - indicative of ‘optimism' - were associated with higher levels of traits such as confidence and playfulness. These insights could have important implications for training and selection methods in medical detection dogs,” said Dabbah.



In plain terms, dogs that zipped toward the bowl, hoping it held a tasty morsel, also seemed to have strong overall abilities when it came to learning and focusing. They appeared quicker to embrace new tasks and bounced back from empty bowls without getting flustered.



At the same time, some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-99-of-dogs-in-the-u-s-have-a-behavior-problem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canines</a> showed a more guarded approach. They paused a moment longer at uncertain bowl placements, almost as if they were doing a double-check before taking action.



Interestingly, these dogs often had fewer false positives, indicating that a degree of “cautious thinking” may reduce errors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimistic-dogs-and-scent-detection">Optimistic dogs and scent detection</h2>



Older dogs showed signs of calm confidence, which might help them approach tricky tasks without wasting energy on confusion. It is possible that time in training leads to more measured responses, as dogs hone both their search skills and emotional stability.



Dogs with a high drive for food did not hesitate to check a bowl, reflecting an eagerness to score a reward. While that can propel a dog to excel in learning, it may lead to hasty alerts on non-target scents. Balancing that enthusiasm with steady caution can be a challenge.



Some dogs leaned on playfulness to make tasks more pleasant. Tail-wagging and enthusiasm can boost training, but too much excitement may disrupt focused sniffing. Striking a middle ground is ideal for daily practice.



When a trainer recognizes that a dog’s personality tends toward optimism, that knowledge can guide how training is structured. The approach may focus on channeling the dog’s quick reactions while refining its ability to stop and think when necessary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimistic-dogs-have-greater-detection-ability">Optimistic dogs have greater detection ability</h2>



“Our findings suggest that dogs displaying more ‘optimistic’ responses in a judgment bias test tend to demonstrate higher overall ability, as rated by their trainers. Understanding this link could help us to better train, select, and support successful medical detection dogs,” said Dabbah.



Some of the more reserved dogs achieved stronger scent specificity, which can be a valuable quality for tasks where false alarms carry greater cost. Training might then look for ways to add a dash of positive expectation to help these dogs stay motivated.



Moving ahead, experts are exploring whether these insights might hint at early screening tools. Dogs that have an optimistic streak could be strong candidates for highly active detection tasks.



Such early indicators might spare time and resources, enabling trainers to focus on dogs whose personality suits the intensity of constant sniffing and monitoring. 



Research suggests this approach may also enhance the dog’s well-being, as training can be fine-tuned to match its natural tendencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-dog-training">The future of dog training</h2>



Trainers often keep logs of each dog’s progress and note any unusual struggles. A quick emotional test could add insight into what drives each dog’s successes and setbacks



Dog organizations might use these new findings to perfect selection programs. Dogs that see gray areas as opportunities often recover quickly from setbacks, making training more enjoyable.



The broader community of working-dog enthusiasts is always on the lookout for ways to elevate standards in canine professions. 



By evaluating how optimism or hesitation shapes detection tasks, it may be possible to maximize performance without pushing dogs beyond healthy limits.



Refining this process promises a better match between each dog’s inherent scent style and the tasks they are asked to tackle. Such harmony could improve the reliability of medical alerts while protecting the dog’s quality of life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0320158" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Good mood, sharper nose? Optimistic dogs excel in scent detection

Dogs have long been recognized for their remarkable ability to...

The idea that extreme heat could one day cause a mass extinction and end the dominance of humans and other mammals might sound like something out of sci-fi movie.



Yet new findings indicate that the planet might face this crisis if continents fuse into one landmass. Some researchers say it could be the first extinction of its kind since the dinosaurs vanished.



In a recent study, investigators used powerful climate models to show how a future supercontinent, called Pangea Ultima, might alter global conditions. Projections suggest a much hotter and drier environment with limited options for survival.



The work appears in Nature Geoscience and was led by Dr. Alexander Farnsworth, a Senior Research Associate at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>. His team examined tectonic plate movement, solar changes, and greenhouse gas levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangea-ultima-the-next-supercontinent">Pangea Ultima - the next supercontinent</h2>



Geologists have long argued that <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s continents</a> move gradually over time. Pangea Ultima is the name given to the hypothesized supercontinent that might emerge millions of years from now. 



If this happens, much of the terrain would sit far from oceanic cooling influences, a situation known as the continentality effect.



“The newly-emerged supercontinent would effectively create a triple whammy, comprising the continentality effect, hotter sun and more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/possible-to-permanently-remove-co2-carbon-dioxide-from-atmosphere-water-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO₂ in the atmosphere</a>, of increasing heat for much of the planet,” Dr. Farnsworth explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-drivers-of-human-extinction">Three drivers of human extinction</h2>



One factor is the expansive landmass itself, which traps regions in scorching interiors. 



Another is that the sun will brighten over time, delivering stronger radiation. Volcanic activity adds more carbon dioxide to the mix, further <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-experts-predict-global-warming-will-far-exceed-paris-goals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming the atmosphere</a>.



“Widespread temperatures of between 40 to 50° Celsius (104 to 122° Fahrenheit), and even greater daily extremes, compounded by high levels of humidity, would ultimately seal our fate,” Dr. Farnsworth added. 



“Humans - along with many other species - would expire due to their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-a-lower-heat-tolerance-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inability to shed this heat</a> through sweat, cooling their bodies.” 



With the sun also anticipated to emit about 2.5% more radiation and the supercontinent being located primarily in the hot, humid tropics, much of the planet could be facing temperatures of between 40 to 70°C (104 to 158°F).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-other-mammals">Impact on other mammals</h2>



Researchers note that mammals have historically endured shifts in temperature, sometimes by growing thicker coats in cold climates or relying on hibernation. 



Yet sustained heat is harder to escape, since sweating is essential for body cooling. As conditions climb, mammals cannot regulate heat for long without access to cooler refuges and reliable water sources.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Pangea-Ultima_supercontinent_illustration_UBristol_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Pangea-Ultima_supercontinent_illustration_UBristol_1s.webp" alt="Illustration showing the geography of today’s Earth and the projected geography of Earth in 250 million years, when all the continents converge into one supercontinent (Pangea Ultima). Credit: University of Bristol" class="wp-image-1965317"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration showing the geography of today’s Earth and the projected geography of Earth in 250 million years, when all the continents converge into one supercontinent (Pangea Ultima). Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Bristol</figcaption></figure>



Study findings hint that only 8% to 16% of land on the future supercontinent would stay within a tolerable range. 



Dryness complicates matters by limiting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water supplies</a> and reducing vegetation. With so much territory turning arid, the quest for food and hydration would become daunting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-should-heed-extinction-warnings">Humans should heed extinction warnings</h2>



“It is vitally important not to lose sight of our current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-crisis-global-supply-chains-face-25-trillion-in-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate Crisis</a>, which is a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases,” urged co-author Dr. Eunice Lo, Research Fellow in Climate Change and Health at the University of Bristol. 



“While we are predicting an uninhabitable planet in 250 million years, today we are already experiencing extreme heat that is detrimental to human health. This is why it is crucial to reach <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5c-is-almost-certainly-out-of-reach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">net-zero emissions</a> as soon as possible.”



Recent decades have seen rising temperatures that strain resources. Heat waves threaten crops, disrupt energy grids, and place communities at risk. 



Many call for faster <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beef-industry-can-cut-emissions-by-30-with-sustainable-practices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emission cuts</a> to prevent even harsher conditions. Some experts believe effective policies and public awareness could still temper the worst near-term damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-carbon-dioxide-levels">Future carbon dioxide levels</h2>



Projections in the study used tectonic and ocean chemistry models to gauge carbon dioxide levels. 



Higher volcanic outgassing over the coming eons points to an increase from current readings to well above 600 parts per million. Such elevated concentrations would create conditions hostile to many organisms.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2023-climate-change-report-record-high-temperatures-greenhouse-gases-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenhouse gases</a> would accumulate and trap more heat in the atmosphere. This feedback loop amplifies warming, making survival increasingly difficult on a planet with minimal oceanic influence.



“We think CO₂ could rise from around 400 parts per million (ppm) today to more than 600 ppm many millions of years in the future,” noted Professor Benjamin Mills at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>. 



“Of course, this assumes that humans will stop burning fossil fuels, otherwise we will see those numbers much, much sooner.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remembering-past-extinction-events">Remembering past extinction events</h2>



Many eras of Earth’s history ended in severe biodiversity loss. 



About 443 million years ago, marine habitats shrank during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-sue-keurbos-susanae-reveals-444-million-year-old-anatomy-of-ancient-arthropod/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ordovician-Silurian Extinction</a>, removing roughly 85% of sea life. 



Near 360 million years ago, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/at-least-two-of-earths-mass-extinctions-caused-by-massive-supernova-explosions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Devonian</a> wiped out up to 75% of species. Later came the Permian-Triassic Extinction about 252 million years ago, erasing over 90% of marine species and 70% on land.



Around 200 million years ago, massive eruptions drove the Triassic-Jurassic Extinction, cutting species by around half. 



Some 66 million years ago, an asteroid impact ended the non-avian dinosaurs in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction</a>, eliminating about 75% of all species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-extinction-and-exoplanets">Human extinction and exoplanets</h2>



This analysis also broadens how scientists evaluate exoplanets. If continents merge, planetary heat can spike, even if a world is inside a so-called habitable zone. 



Researchers think other planets might face analogous shifts, where tectonic movement and solar intensity escalate temperatures. Rotation rates and air chemistry may further affect habitability.



“This work also highlights that a world within the so-called ‘<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-expands-the-habitable-zone-where-we-may-find-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable zone</a>’ of a solar system may not be the most hospitable for humans depending on whether the continents are dispersed, as we have today, or in one large supercontinent,” Dr. Farnsworth concluded. 



“Understanding these configurations can guide experts who look for environments that support life beyond Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-study-matters">Why this study matters</h2>



Today, we already see the impact of climate stress on our resources and health. Scientists warn us that higher temperatures and more extreme weather events could become the norm if we fail to manage our emissions. 



While the prospect of a distant supercontinent meltdown might seem remote, it underscores the importance of taking meaningful steps now.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01259-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Study predicts how and when humans and mammals will face extinction

The idea that extreme heat could one day cause a...

Twelve million years ago, vast herds of rhinoceroses grazed the lush grasslands of what is now the North American Midwest. These barrel-bodied creatures - ancient rhinos known as Teleoceras major - flourished across the region, often gathering in large numbers near waterholes.



Today, a new <a href="https://www.uc.edu/news/articles/2025/04/uc-study-finds-evidence-that-prehistoric-rhinos-lived-in-huge-herds.html">study</a> from the University of Cincinnati (<a href="https://www.uc.edu/?utm_source=gmb&amp;utm_medium=organic" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC</a>) reveals they weren’t just occasional visitors to these sites - they likely lived and died in close-knit herds, much like modern hippos.



As a result, the research sheds new light on one of North America's most extraordinary fossil sites: Ashfall Fossil Beds State Historical Park in northeast Nebraska. 



Over 100 rhinoceroses left fossilized remains at this site, along with camels, horses, and other animals - all of which perished in the aftermath of a massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-are-1-5-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone</a> supervolcano eruption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-an-ancient-rhino-mystery">Unraveling an ancient rhino mystery</h2>



Since the park’s discovery in 1971, scientists have puzzled over why so many animal,s including rhinoceroses, were found clustered in the same place. Did they come from miles away, fleeing the growing disaster of falling ash? Or had they been living there all along?



“We found they didn’t move very much,” said Clark Ward, lead author of the study and a UC graduate. “We didn’t find evidence for seasonal migration or any evidence of a response to the disaster.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-rhino-teeth">Clues from rhino teeth</h2>



Ward, now a doctoral student at the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota</a>, used isotopic analysis of fossilized ancient rhino teeth to track their movements and environmental conditions.&nbsp;



With guidance from co-authors and advisers Brooke Crowley at UC and Ross Secord at the <a href="https://nebraska.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nebraska</a>, Ward analyzed ratios of strontium, oxygen, and carbon isotopes - atomic fingerprints that can reveal everything from diet and rainfall to landscape use.



“By studying carbon in the animal, we can reconstruct carbon in the environment to understand what kinds of vegetation lived there,” Ward explained.



“We can use [oxygen] to reconstruct how wet or dry the environment was,” he added. “And strontium tells us where the animal was foraging because the ratio of isotopes is related to the soil and supporting bedrock.”



Together, these isotopic clues suggest the rhinos were long-term residents of the area, not migrants drawn by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-disasters-are-on-the-rise-but-hazard-plans-are-inadequate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural disaster</a> or seasonal food shifts. It appears they simply lived - and ultimately died - in the place they called home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-supervolcano-s-lethal-reach">A supervolcano’s lethal reach</h2>



The mass death was triggered by ash from one of Yellowstone’s ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supervolcano</a> eruptions. The Yellowstone hotspot has erupted often over 12 million years, spreading ash hundreds of miles away.



“That ash would have covered everything - the grass, leaves, and water,” Ward said. “The rhinos likely weren’t killed immediately, like the people of Pompeii. Instead, it was much slower. They were breathing in the ash, and they likely starved to death.”



In contrast to the sudden catastrophe of volcanic pyroclastic flows, which instantly buried victims in ancient cities like Pompeii, the Ashfall rhinos suffered a slower, agonizing fate.



The ash settled into the landscape like snow, rendering food and water sources toxic or unusable. Over time, the animals succumbed to inhalation of ash and eventual starvation.



Fossils show scavenging by bone-crushing dogs, which came after the animals died. Ancient tracks from these 100-pound carnivores, along with tooth marks on bones, support this conclusion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-creatures-in-ancient-herds">Social creatures in ancient herds</h2>



Teleoceras major was a one-horned rhino with a short, squat body and stubby legs. Like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-data-on-hippos-could-push-them-closer-to-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippos</a>, these rhinoceroses were grazers who likely spent much of their lives near water. Their massive size offered protection from predators, but their calves would have been vulnerable to attack.



The study’s findings have answered one long-standing question: Did these rhinos live alone or in groups? The presence of so many individuals, including adults and juveniles, supports the idea of herd behavior.



Rhino expert John Payne, who spent his career working with Sumatran rhinos in Malaysia, said the conclusion fits the species’ biology.



“I am not surprised that the analyses very strongly suggest that Teleoceras major lived in herds, given that this animal resembles the modern hippopotamus in form, and hippos live in herds of several tens of animals - with several herds in one geographical area,” Payne said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-comes-full-circle">Science comes full circle</h2>



For Ward, the study has a personal significance. As a child, he visited Ashfall Fossil Beds and later returned as an intern to help with fossil preparation and visitor education.



Now, his name is attached to groundbreaking research from the same site that once inspired his curiosity.



“I’m honored and privileged to have my name in science attached to the site,” he said. “As someone who used to go to Ashfall as a kid, it’s come full circle.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



Though Teleoceras major is extinct, studies like this reveal ancient ecosystems and modern species’ responses to threats.



The broader implications of the research go beyond rhinoceroses. By studying how ancient animals responded to environmental change, scientists can better predict the impact of climate disruptions today. 



Whether it’s ash, mercury, or climate change, the past remains a vital key to our future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-94263-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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Ancient graveyard reveals that rhinos once lived in 'super-herds'

Twelve million years ago, vast herds of rhinoceroses grazed the...

In 1962, environmentalist Rachel Carson galvanized public concern with her book Silent Spring, which warned of the reproductive dangers posed by DDT - particularly to birds like the bald eagle. Now, six decades later, scientists are sounding the alarm again, and this time the focus is on mercury contamination. 



Once more, birds are the primary concern - specifically, penguins living on the icy fringes of Antarctica.



“With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mercury-emissions-from-human-activities-are-declining/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mercury</a>, there’s an analogy to DDT,” said John Reinfelder, professor of environmental sciences at <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rutgers University</a> and co-author of a new study.&nbsp;



“In the 1960s, we were discovering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-legacy-decades-old-ddt-found-in-deep-sea-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DDT</a> in remote places where it wasn’t being used. It’s a similar story today with mercury. There are no human sources near the Southern Ocean, but because of long-distance transport through the atmosphere, it has the potential to accumulate in penguins.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-reach-of-mercury-contamination">Global reach of mercury contamination</h2>



Mercury is a potent neurotoxin that builds up in the food chain, especially in aquatic ecosystems. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steller-sea-lions-threatened-by-rising-mercury-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fish-eating animals</a> - including penguins - are at high risk. Chronic exposure can impair reproduction and damage the nervous system. In high enough doses, mercury contamination is lethal.



To understand how far mercury has traveled - and how much has made it into remote food chains - Reinfelder and Rutgers postdoctoral researcher Philip Sontag analyzed feathers from three penguin species collected on Anvers Island in the West Antarctic Peninsula.&nbsp;



The feathers, taken during the 2010–2011 breeding season, were gathered by William Fraser of the <a href="http://holtzmanwildlifefoundation.org/project/polar-oceans-research-group" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polar Oceans Research Group</a>. Due to agricultural safety regulations, the samples remained in storage for over a decade before they could be analyzed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-contamination-in-penguins">Mercury contamination in penguins</h2>



The team measured not only mercury concentrations, but the isotopic signatures of carbon-13 and nitrogen-15 in the feathers. 



These isotopes offer important clues: carbon-13 reveals where a penguin has been feeding, while nitrogen-15 indicates its position in the food chain. Together, these data points help pinpoint both the source and degree of mercury exposure.



Adelie and gentoo penguins showed relatively low mercury levels - among the lowest recorded in Southern Ocean penguins. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinstrap-penguins-take-over-10000-micro-sleeps-per-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinstrap penguins</a>, however, stood out with significantly higher levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-more-about-penguin-ecology">Learning more about penguin ecology</h2>



Sontag believes their feeding behavior explains the difference in mercury contamination among penguin species. 



Unlike the other two species, chinstraps tend to migrate to lower latitudes during the winter, where mercury levels are higher.



“These data give us a way to learn not only about mercury accumulation, but about penguin ecology more broadly,” Reinfelder said.



The finding is also notable because it’s the first study to identify carbon-13 - not nitrogen-15 - as the stronger predictor of mercury levels in penguins across the Southern Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-contamination-lingers">Mercury contamination lingers</h2>



Although mercury emissions from coal-fired power plants have decreased thanks to global efforts like the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/minamata-convention-mercury" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Minamata Convention on Mercury</a> - signed by 140 countries in 2013 - mercury is still being released into the environment, especially through small-scale gold mining.&nbsp;



In many developing regions, miners use elemental mercury to extract gold from ore. This releases over 1,000 tons of the toxin each year into air, water, and soil.



A recent <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2401950121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> found that atmospheric mercury levels dropped by 10% from 2005 to 2020, a promising trend largely attributed to the decline of coal-burning power stations. But mercury already in the environment can linger, circulating through the ocean’s vast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weakening-ocean-currents-could-cost-trillions-of-dollars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">currents</a> and entering food webs in even the most isolated regions of the planet.



“Just like DDT in the 1960s, the scientific community today is focused on monitoring mercury,” Reinfelder said. “Are we going to see a decrease in levels in the fish that people and animals eat? That's the hope.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguins-as-pollution-sentinels">Penguins as pollution sentinels</h2>



For researchers, penguins are more than charismatic wildlife - they are living indicators of global pollution including that of mercury contamination. Their feathers provide a snapshot of the environments they’ve traveled through and the toxins they’ve absorbed.



Sontag and Reinfelder’s findings add a new layer to our understanding of how pollutants like mercury travel through ecosystems. By linking penguin foraging behaviors with their mercury burden, the study offers both a warning and a call to action.



“Before this study, we didn't know that penguins migrating farther north had higher exposures to mercury,” Reinfelder noted.



In a world still grappling with the consequences of industrial pollution, these birds are once again showing us what’s at stake.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S004896972405304X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of the Total Environment</a>.



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Penguins are threatened by mercury contamination

In 1962, environmentalist Rachel Carson galvanized public concern with her...

Dinosaurs might not have been on the verge of extinction before an asteroid wiped them out 66 million years ago.&nbsp;



New research led by scientists at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University College London</a>&nbsp;(UCL) challenges the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-case-of-the-two-clawed-dinosaur-duonychus-tsogtbaatari/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> species gradually declined. Instead of a real drop in biodiversity, the study suggests that gaps in the fossil record might better explain this lack of specimens.



These findings question a decades-old assumption that dinosaurs were dwindling even before the catastrophic impact that ended the Cretaceous period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reexamining-dinosaur-extinction">Reexamining dinosaur extinction</h2>



The team studied more than 8,000 dinosaur fossils from North America. They focused on the last 18 million years before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-chicxulub-caused-dinosaurs-extinction-event-traced-to-origin-kuiper-belt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> hit. This is a window from 84 to 66 million years ago.



At first glance, the fossils show a steady drop in dinosaur diversity starting about 75 million years ago. The researchers believe this trend is misleading.



“It’s been a subject of debate for more than 30 years," said lead author Chris Dean from UCL’s Department of Earth Sciences.



"Were dinosaurs doomed and already on their way out before the asteroid hit? We analyzed the fossil record and found that the quality of the record of four groups of dinosaurs gets worse during the final 6 million years prior to the asteroid.”



In other words, the apparent drop in species may not reflect what was really happening before the sudden dinosaur extinction event. 



Instead, it may simply be that fossils from that time are harder to locate. Natural geological changes might have reduced where and how fossils could be preserved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digging-into-the-data">Digging into the data</h2>



The researchers studied four major groups of dinosaurs: the Ankylosauridae (club-tailed armored herbivores), Ceratopsidae (like the iconic Triceratops), Hadrosauridae (duck-billed plant eaters), and Tyrannosauridae (apex predators like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T. rex</a>).



Using occupancy modeling (a method borrowed from ecology), they mapped where these dinosaurs likely lived across ancient North America. 



The experts broke the region into a grid and estimated the number of grid squares each group probably occupied at different points during the last 18 million years of the Cretaceous.



What they found was surprising. While the raw fossil data suggested fewer species, the modeling indicated that the dinosaur habitat range stayed largely consistent. 



This means that dinosaurs probably weren’t dying off, but that we are just not finding as many of their fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fewer-rocks-fewer-clues">Fewer rocks, fewer clues</h2>



So why is the record so patchy near the end of the Cretaceous? The team argued it mostly comes down to geology.&nbsp;



Before the dinosaur extinction, North America experienced significant changes: sea levels fell, a large inland sea vanished, and mountain ranges rose.



As a result of these geologic shifts, much of the sediment that could have preserved fossils from that time is no longer exposed. It is also buried under vegetation, cities, and other obstacles.



This makes it harder for paleontologists to locate fossils from the period just before the asteroid.



“The probability of finding dinosaur fossils decreases, while the likelihood of dinosaurs having lived in these areas at the time is stable,” Dean said. “This shows we can’t take the fossil record at face value.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-dinosaur-group-stood-out">One dinosaur group stood out</h2>



Among the four dinosaur groups, Ceratopsians (the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-with-huge-blade-like-horns-discovered-in-montana/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horned dinosaurs</a>) bucked the trend. They were more likely to be found in later layers of the fossil record. These animals also occupied more areas.



The researchers suggest this might be because Ceratopsians preferred open plains. The landscape was more widespread after the inland sea disappeared, and it was more likely to preserve fossils.



This ecological preference may have given them an edge in fossil preservation –&nbsp;not necessarily survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-extinction-without-an-asteroid">Dinosaur extinction without an asteroid?</h2>



Alessandro Chiarenza, a co-author of the study, said the findings help reframe our understanding of dinosaur extinction.



“If we take the fossil record at face value, we might conclude dinosaurs were already experiencing a decline. But we show that this apparent decline is more likely a result of a reduced sampling window caused by geological changes," noted Chiarenza.



“Dinosaurs were probably not inevitably doomed to extinction at the end of the Mesozoic. If it weren’t for that asteroid, they might still share this planet with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>, lizards, and their surviving descendants: birds.”



Thus, the research adds new weight to the idea that the asteroid impact was a cataclysmic fluke. It was not the final blow to an already dying group but the abrupt end to a thriving and diverse reign.



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Image credit: Reconstruction of a late Maastrichtian (~66 million years ago) paleoenvironment in North America, where a floodplain is roamed by dinosaurs like Tyrannosaurus rex, Edmontosaurus annectens and Triceratops prorsus. Davide Bonadonna



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00310-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Dinosaur extinction theories are challenged by new research

Dinosaurs might not have been on the verge of extinction...

When we envision sea turtles cruising through the ocean, we picture their streamlined shells - natural defenses seemingly built for protection.



However, these shells defend more than that. They allow sea turtles to slice through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beating-the-heat-how-sea-turtles-cope-with-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a>, plunge deep into the depths, and survive drastic changes in pressure when surfacing and then diving once more.



Each shell consists of two sections: the carapace above and the plastron below. Both are covered in scutes - tough keratin plates fused to bone



Internally, the architecture is similar to a sandwich: a tough outer shell and a spongy, lightweight interior. This architecture balances between strength with buoyancy while protecting vital organs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-sea-turtle-shells">A closer look at sea turtle shells</h2>



Scientists from <a href="https://www.fau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Atlantic University</a> set out to study what makes sea turtle shells so good at handling the pressures of life underwater. 



While freshwater turtles and land tortoises have been widely studied, marine turtles haven’t received as much attention.



To change that, the team focused on three North Atlantic sea turtle species: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reintroduction-of-green-turtles-has-been-a-success-in-the-cayman-islands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">green turtles</a> (Chelonia mydas), <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loggerhead-turtles-migrate-using-a-secret-thermal-corridor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">loggerheads</a> (Caretta caretta), and Kemp’s ridleys (Lepidochelys kempii). 



The researchers used advanced compression tests and statistical models to explore how these turtles' shells perform at different stages of life - from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">young turtles</a> to full-grown adults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shell-strength-varies-but-toughness-remains">Shell strength varies, but toughness remains</h2>



The research, published in the Journal of Experimental Biology, showed sea turtle shells aren’t merely shields, but dynamic survival tools.



The researchers discovered that the shell’s bone structure maintains a vital balance: it’s flexible enough to absorb shock, but not so floppy as to be prone to damage. This balance enables sea turtles to remain agile in the water while fending off predators.



Surprisingly, each of the three species possesses the same type of shell, but respond in varying ways to pressure.



Green turtles possess the most rigid, powerful shells made from denser bone. Loggerheads, by contrast, have less dense, more elastic shells better adapted to flex without shattering.



These characteristics apparently mirror each species’ respective habitat and particular challenges it confronts. Even more surprising? The toughness of each species’ shell doesn’t change as the turtle grows.



“We believe this variation is likely a result of their evolution and the environments they inhabit,” said Ivana J. Lezcano, first author and doctoral student in the FAU Department of Biological Sciences within the Charles E. Schmidt College of Science. 



“The differences in shell stiffness across these species may be connected to their distinct life histories, with each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> adapting to unique environmental challenges and predation risks.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growth-brings-greater-protection">Growth brings greater protection</h2>



In green turtles and Kemp’s ridleys, shells become stiffer and stronger as the turtles grow, giving them better protection as they age. 



Kemp’s ridleys experience this stiffening earlier in life, likely because they mature quickly and forage in riskier coastal waters.



“What’s fascinating is that their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtles-have-genomes-unlike-any-other-animal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shells</a> evolve to provide more protection over time,” said Lezcano. 



“The stiffness of juvenile green turtle shells may be especially important because their shells lack the protective spines and keels, which young loggerheads and ridleys sport to armor themselves against predators. It’s a dynamic interplay of form and function that ensures these turtles are built for survival.”



Loggerheads stood out for a different reason. Their shells don’t show a clear increase in stiffness as they grow. 



This slower change might be why they spend more time in the open ocean, where threats are fewer, before venturing closer to shore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-shell-flexibility-is-key">Turtle shell flexibility is key</h2>



The researchers also compared sea turtle shells to those of land turtles and found interesting similarities.



In both cases, the internal porous bone layer is key. It helps the shell resist crushing forces while staying light and somewhat flexible.



Study co-author Dr. Jeanette Wyneken is a professor of biological sciences at FAU’s Charles E. Schmidt College of Science.



“The shells of adult sea turtles are surprisingly compliant compared to their land relatives,” said Dr. Wyneken. "But here’s the cool part: while their shells become stronger over time, they don’t become completely rigid like the shells of land turtles. 



"This flexibility is key - because it enables them to ‘flex the shell’ under pressure, which is crucial for navigating the harsh and varying conditions of underwater environments.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-through-evolution">Fine-tuning through evolution</h2>



The researchers believe their work sheds light on why sea turtles have lasted so long in the wild. 



Dr. Marianne Porter is an associate professor in the FAU Department of Biological Sciences and co-author of the study.



“Our study provides new insights into why sea turtles have thrived over time. Their shells are adapted to their aquatic lifestyle, and stiff enough to defend against predators while being tough enough to absorb shock," said Dr. Porter.



"This remarkable balance of strength and flexibility has allowed them to survive in the ocean for millions of years - an example of evolution shaping species in an environment.”



From the outside, a sea turtle’s shell looks simple. But inside, it’s a smart design honed by nature - built to keep these ocean travelers safe, swift, and strong.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article-abstract/228/7/jeb249959/367637/Using-the-axial-skeleton-as-armor-mechanical?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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Nature's armor: The hidden strength of sea turtle shells

When we envision sea turtles cruising through the ocean, we...

On April 8, 2024, millions across North America paused to watch a rare and awe-inspiring celestial event. A group of scientists was there, prepared to track bird behavior during the total solar eclipse.



The researchers discovered that birds fell unusually quiet. This behavior, however, only occurred in areas where the sun was almost completely obscured.



The research was led by scientists from <a href="https://www.loggerhead.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Loggerhead Instruments</a> and the K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics at the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>.



The experts analyzed data from 344 Haikubox devices (small, community-powered acoustic monitors spread across the continent). This was the first large-scale study to use the Haikubox network for scientific analysis. 



A neural network detected changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird vocalizations</a> while controlling for human interference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-birds-go-silent">Did birds go silent?</h2>



“Anecdotal evidence has long suggested that birds fall silent or exhibit nighttime <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-behavior-productivity-being-directly-impacted-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> during a total solar eclipse,” said Dr. David Mann, lead author of the study and researcher at Loggerhead Instruments.



“Our study shows that, on average, birds do get quiet during and just after totality, but we also learned that this behavior is strongly linked to the degree of darkness experienced."



The findings confirmed that birds generally reduced their vocal activity during totality - but only in areas where the eclipse brought more than 99% obscuration. This threshold made all the difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-reactions-to-the-eclipse-varied">Bird reactions to the eclipse varied </h2>



Interestingly, not all birds responded the same way. Even birds of the same species behaved differently at different locations. 



For example, black-capped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chickadees-are-genetically-inclined-to-have-a-remarkable-memory/">chickadees</a> in New York remained silent well after totality. The same birds in Vermont became more vocal during and just after the darkest moment.



Other examples were just as varied. Some American robins in Kentucky continued singing through the eclipse.



In contrast, pine siskins in Maine fell completely silent. These site-to-site variations left researchers with more questions than answers.



“The variability in bird responses and site differences was fascinating,” said Dr. Mann. "We really don’t know why birds had such different responses to the total darkness during the eclipse." 



"Despite examining factors like temperature, cloud cover, and wind speed, we found no significant relationship with changes in vocalization rates." 



"This strongly suggests that the sudden total darkness and associated changes in wind and temperature were the primary drivers of the observed behavioral shifts.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-human-noise-out-of-the-data">Keeping human noise out of the data</h2>



One key feature of the study was its effort to isolate the human factor. Haikubox data that may have been influenced by people nearby was adjusted accordingly.



This helped ensure the birds’ behavior was truly in response to the eclipse and not to excited human activity.



“Our first, quick look at Haikubox data just a few hours after the eclipse showed a large dip in bird vocalizations around the time of peak totality,” said Dr. Mann.



“When we dove deeper into the data and removed any sites where humans may have influenced the birds’ behaviors, we found a much more complicated story. People were pretty excited about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/total-solar-eclipse-captured-from-one-million-miles-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">total solar eclipse</a>, and their celebrations likely affected the birds’ reactions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-nature-using-sound">Monitoring nature using sound</h2>



The Haikubox platform is built on the idea that everyday people can help monitor the natural world using sound. 



Each device records local bird vocalizations and uploads them to a central database. It’s a non-intrusive way to gather wildlife behavior data at scale, and it doesn't require a team of observers in the field.



“In a time when technology often pulls us away from the natural world, Haikubox does the opposite - it fosters a deeper connection to it. By combining AI technology with a love for the environment, Haikubox helps people engage with nature in a modern and educational way,” noted Dr. Mann.



This passive acoustic monitoring allows scientists to study how animals respond to natural events across large areas - without disrupting them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-bird-behavior">Learning from bird behavior</h2>



Beyond eclipses, the study may have broader implications for understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-and-evolution-shape-the-unique-sounds-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> react to sudden changes in light.



“Our findings can inform future research on the impacts of light pollution and sudden changes in light levels on bird behavior," noted Dr. Mann.



“Furthermore, it proves that when we combine the power of community science with clever technology, we can learn amazing things about wildlife without disturbing them, which may inform future continental-scale studies."



The researchers hope this will inspire more people to get involved in community science. More participants also means expanding the listening network.



“Passive acoustic monitoring is a terrific tool for gathering data about animal behavior, and regular folks play an important role in widening our listening network,” said Dr. Mann.



“Putting a Haikubox in your yard helps us add to the already 1 billion acoustic recordings we’ve gathered. Our community is enabling tomorrow’s scientific discoveries.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-94901-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Darkness at noon: What the 2024 eclipse revealed about bird behavior

On April 8, 2024, millions across North America paused to...

Casual observers often overlook sea slugs, yet some species hide astonishing traits that challenge our expectations. One remarkable example is Elysia chlorotica, a small sea slug that produces energy from sunlight.



“It’s unique; it’s controversial; it’s elusive; it never eats,” said Dr. Patrick Krug of California State University in Los Angeles (<a href="https://www.calstate.edu/attend/campuses/los-angeles" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSU</a>). This slinky slug steals tiny green structures from inside algal cells and uses them to produce energy from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clouds-have-become-less-reflective-making-global-warming-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunlight</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-slugs-living-on-sunlight">Sea slugs living on sunlight</h2>



All plants contain chloroplasts that convert sunlight into energy. Most animals depend on regular meals to survive. However, by retaining <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chloroplast" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chloroplasts</a> from algal cells, Elysia chlorotica can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-cells-capable-of-photosynthesis-created-for-the-first-time/">photosynthesize</a> for months without typical feeding.



“We demonstrated that a nuclear gene of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrm1525" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygenic photosynthesis</a>, psbO, is expressed in the sea slug,” wrote Mary E. Rumpho, a biochemist involved in a 2008 <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0804968105" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>. 



Researchers have shown that these stolen chloroplasts keep running inside the slug, even though vital genes usually reside in the original algal cells.&nbsp;



Probing deeper into this bizarre fusion of plant-like capabilities and animal physiology may help experts see how genes could move between species. That possibility intrigues many in the scientific community because it suggests a hidden path for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-broke-records-for-450-straight-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-sea-slug-habitats">Shrinking sea slug habitats</h2>



Although these slugs captivate researchers, actually finding them is tricky. Shifting coastlines, development, and habitat changes might be shrinking their marshy homes.



Some specialists note that high tide fluctuations and coastal erosion can wipe out the algae on which these creatures depend. Others point out that a combination of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-ocean-warming-in-2024-is-a-warning-for-our-planet/">warming waters</a> and pollution could intensify threats to their survival.



Only a handful of scientists have tried to unravel these secrets, and many have since retired or pivoted to other projects. As the number of experts declines, so does the knowledge pipeline for these unusual mollusks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-photosynthesis-in-sea-slugs">Mysteries of photosynthesis in sea slugs </h2>



The biggest mystery is how the sea slug’s own cells refrain from attacking foreign chloroplasts. Animals typically react to invaders, yet this species tolerates them in ways not fully understood.



Another question concerns the slug’s ability to deal with the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1808645/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">free oxygen radicals</a> generated through photosynthesis. Normally, this process is toxic to animal tissue, but these leaf-like wanderers seem to sidestep the damage.



Experiments have hinted that certain <a href="https://www.immunology.org/public-information/what-immunology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immunological</a> tweaks may help the slugs coexist with these solar components. Some researchers suspect molecular signals borrowed from algae might give the slug an edge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dwindling-population-makes-research-difficult">Dwindling population makes research difficult</h2>



Some who once pursued this slug have turned their attention to more readily available species. Collecting enough specimens for robust studies has become increasingly difficult, which limits progress.



The researchers note that raising these sea slugs in the lab is challenging. The adults, which usually live less than a year, require attentive care to reproduce. Their eggs hatch into free-swimming larvae that feed on various types of algae. 



As they mature, however, the young slugs switch to eating Vaucheria litorea - a slow-growing and difficult-to-culture alga.



“They’ll eat it literally faster than we could ever grow it,” said researcher Sidney Pierce, who has studied these animals for decades.



As younger generations of scientists seek <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/licking-rocks-and-zombie-spiders-the-wacky-world-of-ig-nobel-prizes/">research topics</a>, many avoid elusive organisms. Without fresh talent, answers to fundamental questions may never materialize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-reveals-genetic-surprises">DNA reveals genetic surprises</h2>



Genomic research is uncovering interesting details about the slug’s DNA. One draft genome assembly found over 24,000 protein-coding genes, suggesting that the genome is larger than expected.



Scientists are investigating whether the slug has captured additional algal genes that help maintain stolen chloroplasts. If confirmed, these conclusions would offer a template for understanding genetic transfers across species.



Such discoveries might even point to new approaches in biotechnology, where harnessing photosynthesis in novel settings could be a game-changer. But these sampling efforts hinge on keeping the slug’s population stable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viable-solutions-going-forward">Viable solutions going forward</h2>



In addition to yielding biological insights, the slug’s weird synergy with algae may inform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-mussels-are-ideal-for-ecosystem-restoration/">ecological restoration</a>. If we comprehend how this animal adapts to shifting coastal conditions, we might refine habitat protection strategies.



Some suggest that mapping the slug’s distribution and monitoring water quality could reveal its true population status. Others envision <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/citizen-science-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citizen science programs</a> that inspire local communities to document sightings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-sun-loving-sea-slugs">Secrets of sun-loving sea slugs </h2>



Many experts see the value in this sea slug’s rare talent to convert sunlight into energy. They believe that more comprehensive studies could spark exciting breakthroughs. 



If scientists persevere, the synergy between animals and plants might reveal more about life’s creative potential.



Even though the path ahead looks challenging, there is hope that future teams will unlock more secrets about this sun-loving creature. Each fresh observation could demonstrate how life can seemingly bend the rules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Environmental groups may collaborate with academic institutions to fund targeted surveys. This would ensure that these elusive sea slugs are not overlooked in shifting habitats.



Support from diverse disciplines, including molecular biology, marine ecology, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-leaks-conservation-efforts-may-shift-harm-elsewhere/">conservation policy</a>, might unite to keep Elysia chlorotica alive for generations.



Scientists remain optimistic about new fieldwork opportunities. Additional synergy and collaboration across scientific networks could generate crucial momentum.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0804968105" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Some sea slugs use sunlight for energy, just like plants

Casual observers often overlook sea slugs, yet some species hide...

Climate change is pushing pest insects and mites into new territories.&nbsp;Many pests are migrating from the equator to cooler regions that used to keep them at bay.



Global trade networks are also playing a big part in this shuffle. Ports and shipping channels create pathways for invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> to arrive in places that once seemed too distant to worry about.



Professor Dan Bebber from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> is part of a research team that includes experts from the University of Hebei and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. 



The researchers are calling for swift action to protect key staple crops, including wheat and maize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warmer-climates-help-pests-multiply">Warmer climates help pests multiply</h2>



Temperatures are going up in regions that had cooler climates. This creates conditions where more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> and mites can survive winters and breed more often.



More generations in a year mean bigger populations. More bugs mean higher odds that pests will find, eat, and damage vital food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-practices-weaken-pest-control">Farming practices weaken pest control</h2>



Intensive agricultural <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2021/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practices</a> can decrease biodiversity. When you have fewer predators around, pests multiply freely.



<a href="https://geopard.tech/blog/disadvantages-and-benefits-of-monocropping-in-the-context-of-the-environment/#:~:text=Monocrop%20agriculture%20is%20about%20sowing,field%2C%20commonly%20known%20as%20polyculture." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monocrops</a>, irrigation, and fertilizers support bigger yields, but these methods also give pests reliable food and shelter. This shift weakens the natural checks and balances once provided by a richer variety of species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-pests-invade-cooler-regions">Tropical pests invade cooler regions</h2>



Tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-are-more-vulnerable-to-climate-change-than-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> are advancing into temperate zones. Cold air once put a stop to major swarms, but warm spells that last longer allow insects to stay active.



High latitudes are especially vulnerable. Wheat, rice, and soybean fields in these areas can become prime feeding grounds for new and old invaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-accelerates-invasion">Trade accelerates invasion</h2>



Globalization of trade networks is fueling pest invasions worldwide, with damage surpassing $423 billion in <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/wtr24_e/wtr24_e.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2019</a>.



Goods move around in a matter of days. That opens doors for species to hitch rides in shipping containers, seed batches, and any organic packaging not strictly monitored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pests-and-climate-risks-threaten-food">Pests and climate risks threaten food </h2>



“About 40% of global crop production is currently lost to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-effect-in-reverse-climate-change-turns-havens-into-traps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a> and diseases, creating a major challenge for global food security,” said co-author Professor Dan Bebber. Farmers already struggling with unpredictable weather are on edge with each new pest report.



Beyond economic impacts, these losses can aggravate hunger in vulnerable regions. Reduced output raises prices, and entire communities face shortages of staple crops like rice or maize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-extremes-trigger-pest-outbreaks">Climate extremes trigger pest outbreaks</h2>



Periods of drought or heatwaves can set off surprising outbreaks. Plants under stress become easy targets, since <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/neurotoxin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a> that some pests produce can flourish in warm, dry conditions.



In certain cases, intense rainfall might wash smaller pests away. Still, overall shifts in humidity and temperature can boost pest populations that prefer wet fields over parched ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-push-for-better-pest-tracking">Scientists push for better pest tracking</h2>



Researchers see promise in pest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasshopper-size-changes-in-response-to-shifting-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monitoring</a>. Early-warning systems can track insects as they migrate north and uphill. Predictive models can also factor in shifting climates to pinpoint future hot zones. 



“We need better pest monitoring, predictive models, and climate-smart management strategies to safeguard staple crops such as wheat, rice, maize and soybean from increasing pest risks,” said Bebber.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmland-changes-can-reduce-infestations">Farmland changes can reduce infestations</h2>



Many experts suggest landscape diversity and planting non-crop species near fields. These habitats can support natural enemies of pests, like ladybugs for aphids.



Strategies that add conservation biocontrol might help growers reduce pesticides. This lowers the risk of insects developing resistance and cuts down on harmful chemicals reaching waterways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-needed-for-climate-driven-pests">Action needed for climate-driven pests</h2>



Cooperative efforts across borders could limit the entry of new pests. Tighter inspection of exports and imports can help identify and quarantine risky arrivals.



Teams focused on integrated pest management can set protocols in regions at highest risk. That plan might combine crop rotation, beneficial insects, and more resilient plant varieties.



The agricultural world is shifting. As pest insects spread to cooler regions, farmland faces challenges nobody expected even a few decades ago.



Innovation in planting decisions, pest prediction, and trade rules can bring hope. Action now can keep dinner tables stocked and protect farmers from devastating infestations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-025-00652-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Pests are moving to cooler regions due to climate change

Climate change is pushing pest insects and mites into new...

In the final era of the Cretaceous, giant reptiles were not the only ones navigating a changing planet. Tiny fossils suggest that many small mammals embraced ground-based living long before the arrival of the asteroid that ended the dinosaur age.



Researchers say these creatures were already exploring terrestrial spaces several million years ahead of that cosmic event. 



This challenges the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-the-cultural-legacy-of-wild-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> only moved down from the trees to the ground after dinosaurs were out of the picture.



<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Christine-Janis-450fb945-9d7d-4004-a540-2524be359b3e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Christine Janis</a> from the University of Bristol’s <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/earthsciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Earth Sciences</a> has contributed to this idea. She and her team analyzed the ends of small mammal limbs and found structures suited to movement on solid ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-before-the-dinosaurs-died">Before the dinosaurs died</h2>



The Maastrichtian Age was the last chapter of the Late Cretaceous, running from about 72 to 66 million years ago. 



During this time, Earth looked very different from today - sea levels were high, and warm shallow seas covered large parts of the continents. 



Dinosaurs still ruled the land, with massive herbivores like Triceratops and duck-billed hadrosaurs grazing in herds, while predators like Tyrannosaurus rex stalked them. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-extinction-influenced-fruit-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flowering plants</a> had spread widely by this point, shaping new ecosystems, and early birds and mammals were quietly evolving in the background.



But beneath the surface, change was brewing. Volcanic activity in what's now India was ramping up, pumping gases into the atmosphere. The climate started to shift, and ecosystems became more fragile.



Then came the asteroid. It triggered wildfires, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate chaos</a>, and the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event that wiped out around 75% of all species, including the non-avian dinosaurs. 



Thankfully, mammals were part of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-led-to-the-emergence-of-ant-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surviving group</a>, which is the reason that we're all here today and able to read this article.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-helped-mammals-move-to-ground">Flowers helped mammals move to ground</h2>



Mammals were not just contending with large reptiles. They also inhabited landscapes that were rapidly filling with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">angiosperms</a>, or flowering plants, that provided rich understory habitats in which to live.



“The vegetational habitat was more important for the course of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982206002454">Cretaceous mammalian evolution</a> than any influence from dinosaurs,” said Professor Janis. 



This idea emphasizes how expanded ground-level plant cover created new opportunities for smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-new-plants-reshaped-habitats">How new plants reshaped habitats</h2>



Beneath prehistoric canopies, modestly sized creatures needed spaces to hide, and diverse food sources to keep them going. 



Old forests dominated by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/gymnosperm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gymnosperms</a> had provided fewer ground-based feeding options, but flowering plants added more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-mixodectes-pungens-prehistoric-mammal-and-relative-of-primates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variety</a>.



Experts link the diversification of flowering plants to changes in habitat structure. The vegetation supported denser undergrowth at lower levels, which let many small mammals roam freely without competing for the treetops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fossil-fragments-matter">Why fossil fragments matter</h2>



Most early studies of mammal locomotion relied on full or partial skeletons. Scientists had a hard time finding enough complete specimens to reconstruct how prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-molecule-tells-starfish-and-humans-when-to-stop-eating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> moved around.



By examining partial bones, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/epiphysis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epiphyses</a>, researchers overcame that hurdle. Subtle features on these limb ends can hint at whether an animal spent more time on the ground or clinging to branches.



Some epiphyses revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal</a> limbs were built for sturdy footing rather than gripping bark.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mammals_first-ground-dwellers_Dryolestes_Credit-James-Brown_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mammals_first-ground-dwellers_Dryolestes_Credit-James-Brown_1s.webp" alt="Dryolestes, a Late Jurassic relative of the Cretaceous therians. Credit: Artist James Brown. Pamela Gill" class="wp-image-1964794"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dryolestes, a Late Jurassic relative of the Cretaceous therians. Click imaeg to enlarge. Credit: Artist James Brown. Pamela Gill</figcaption></figure>



Prior thinking painted a picture of mostly arboreal lifestyles, but these fossils suggest that a gradual transition to the ground began sooner than once believed.



This method let scientists track a broader range of species. They no longer had to rely on the rare jackpot of finding an intact skeleton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ground-living-mammals-fared-better">Ground-living mammals fared better</h2>



Experts have suggested that non-arboreal species were more likely to endure the impact that devastated life at the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0458" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">K-Pg boundary</a>. 



This event may have dealt a harsher blow to treetop animals, as forests took a serious hit.



Many <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/therian" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therian groups</a>, which include marsupials and placentals, showed signs of a terrestrial lifestyle long before disaster struck. 



Researchers propose that ground-based behaviors opened new diets and protective nooks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-evolved-features-suited-for-ground">Mammals evolved features suited for ground</h2>



In Western North America, there is a rich record of small fossils that span the late Cretaceous and earliest Paleogene periods. 



By comparing these remains with modern-day mammals of similar size, scientists noticed a slow but steady upswing in the presence of terrestrial forms.



Bone shapes from different intervals, such as the <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/89230" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Judithian</a> and <a href="https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/6/n4/nmg_v6_n4_p72.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lancian</a>, reflect shifts in locomotion strategies. By the dawn of the Paleogene, ground-adapted features appeared more commonly than once imagined.



Observations of these ancient bone fragments suggest that mammals responded to plant-driven changes by easing out of the treetops and onto solid ground. 



Ecology and environment often act in tandem, and this scenario might be a prime example.



Before the asteroid struck, these animals had been fine-tuning a flexible approach to living. That choice may have helped them weather the harsh aftermath of an altered planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Some scientists plan to explore whether similar patterns can be found in other regions. 



There is also an interest in refining techniques that deduce locomotion strategies from small bones, so that scientists can determine whether these terrestrial traits show up worldwide.



Future work may confirm whether this early move to the ground played a big role in mammal survival. For now, these small fossils highlight how living things can shift gears in response to changes in habitat availability. 



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pala.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



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How mammals survived the asteroid impact that killed the dinosaurs

In the final era of the Cretaceous, giant reptiles were...

Romulus and Remus are the names on everyone’s lips right now. These large, pale-furred canines, described by some as dire wolf lookalikes, have been heralded as living pieces of prehistory. 



But some scientists say the hype is running far ahead of the facts.



<a href="https://tamu.academia.edu/AngelaPerri" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Angela Perri</a> from the Department of Archaeology at <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> is urging caution about what these animals truly represent. 



The pups in question may carry a handful of edits derived from ancient dire wolf DNA, but some researchers argue that’s not enough to call them real dire wolves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dire-wolves-were-not-true-wolves">Dire wolves were not true wolves</h2>



The dire <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00072-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolf</a> was a formidable carnivore that roamed parts of North and South America, eventually vanishing more than 10,000 years ago. 



A 2021 <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03082-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> suggested it shared a common ancestor with wolves nearly 5.7 million years ago, which means <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04824-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern gray wolves</a> and dire wolves might be far less related than many believed.



Questions swirl around the label “wolf” itself. That older research hints that dire wolves were possibly closer to a giant form of coyote than to present-day gray wolves; challenging the idea that a few visual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-inspire-a-safer-method-of-editing-human-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a> can define an animal’s species or evolutionary place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-edited-pups-resemble-legends">Gene-edited pups resemble legends</h2>



Scientists at <a href="https://colossal.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colossal Biosciences</a> used genetic editing to produce large canines resembling the old legends. 



They extracted cells from gray wolves, modified certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-modification-can-create-better-tomatoes-eggplants-but-should-we-do-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a>, then implanted the resulting embryos into dog surrogates.



Romulus and Remus are big, display lighter fur, and exhibit some behaviors many associate with wild wolves. 



Yet a growing chorus of experts wonders if these animals can truly fit the category of a species that split from living canids so long ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-question-dire-wolf-claims">Scientists question dire wolf claims</h2>



Some observers claim the entire project creates a spectacle rather than a legitimate conservation tool. They see the repeated references to popular culture as a clever publicity move more than a scientific milestone.



Others question whether the presence of just 20 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modified genes</a> is enough to replicate all the key traits that made dire wolves unique. 



One scientist famously asked if tinkering with a few genetic differences in a chimpanzee could ever make it human.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edited-pups-aren-t-dire-wolves">Edited pups aren’t dire wolves</h2>



Colossal’s announcement triggered debate over what it means to bring back a species. The company's pups may look the part, but leading experts argue they fall short of true <a href="https://colossal.com/de-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">de-extinction</a>. 



According to <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7484015/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paleogenomic</a> data, the real dire wolf was so genetically distinct it may not have been a wolf at all - belonging instead to a now-extinct American lineage far removed from modern canids.



This raises serious doubts about whether editing a few dozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boosting-crop-colors-with-gene-editing-can-improve-weed-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> can recreate an organism with such a unique evolutionary history. 



The physical similarities between gray wolves and dire wolves may come down to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/convergent-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convergent evolution</a>, not close ancestry.



Without addressing the deeper <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3233720/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genomic divergence</a>, the result may be more of a hybrid impersonation than a faithful revival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-new-animals-raises-concerns">Making new animals raises concerns</h2>



Beyond taxonomy, the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3078015/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ethics</a> of creating new animals in the lab weigh heavily on critics. Cloning and genetic editing can lead to unpredictable results, including suffering for both offspring and surrogates. 



Even with no miscarriages reported in this case, concerns remain about scaling the process, especially if it’s applied to more complex or sensitive species like elephants.



There’s also the matter of consent and quality of life. Romulus, Remus, and Khaleesi may be healthy now, but their entire lives will be monitored, confined, and shaped by humans. 



As more animals are created using similar methods, society will need to grapple with what responsibilities come with reviving dire wolf-like creatures that never asked to return.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-ecosystems-may-not-cope">Modern ecosystems may not cope</h2>



Raising a handful of designer canines in an enclosure might be more of a display than an ecological intervention. 



The real dire wolf thrived in ancient environments that no longer exist. Releasing them into today’s ecosystems could cause more disruption than restoration.



Predators need large, stable territories and abundant prey. It’s unclear how modern habitats would handle a canine unlike current wolf species in size and hunting style. 



Even in controlled reserves, their natural instincts might clash with confined, human-managed spaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-vs-resurrecting">Preserving vs resurrecting</h2>



Some conservationists push back on “bringing back” lost creatures like the dire wolf when existing species face urgent threats. 



Many large predators are on the brink right now, which raises priorities about saving them first.



“We are an evolutionary force at this point,” stated <a href="https://colossal.com/team/beth-shapiro-ph-d/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beth Shapiro</a>, Colossal’s chief science officer, pointing to the importance of innovative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/novel-gene-editing-tool-analyzes-sperm-health-in-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetics</a>. 



She sees these methods as tools for protecting endangered populations rather than only a means of revival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-commercial-angle">The commercial angle</h2>



Colossal Biosciences is valued at over ten billion dollars, and it’s branching into other genetic ventures. Observers note that money-making spinoffs could overshadow concerns about animal welfare or ecological impacts.



Related startups have tried to harness genetic advances to solve modern problems such as plastic breakdown or livestock breeding. 



Critics say that resurrecting extinct species feels like a flashy sideshow that might distract from immediate biodiversity issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-risks-outpacing-ethics">Science risks outpacing ethics</h2>



Skeptics acknowledge that advanced cloning or gene editing methods can sometimes boost endangered species by broadening the gene pool. But they also point out that no species is restored in a vacuum.



Legal, ecological, and ethical hurdles arise if these animals ever leave controlled facilities. Modern landscapes differ dramatically from ancient times, and artificially created predators might not fit comfortably into today’s ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-gene-edited-species-unclear">Future of gene-edited species unclear</h2>



The question of how to manage animals engineered from partial ancient genes remains a knotty one. 



Colossal’s approach might evolve as more data emerges and more voices join the conversation. But for now, the line between innovation and overreach remains blurry.



Scientists like Angela Perri emphasize the need for deeper DNA analysis, more rigorous peer review, and a realistic look at ecological dynamics. 



Only then can we decide if a newly minted wolf-like pup is truly close to the original dire wolf that once reigned.



Until then, calling it a resurrection might be more fiction than fact.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03082-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Scientists: No, those are definitely not 'resurrected' dire wolves

Romulus and Remus are the names on everyone’s lips right...

Skylines keep climbing, roads stretch farther, and forests turn into parking lots. Urbanization is everywhere, sweeping across continents and replacing natural habitats with steel, glass, and asphalt. 



As cities expand, animals and plants must either adapt or disappear. Among these quiet struggles for survival, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> provide one of the most visible signs of how city life changes the natural world.



Urban ecology has emerged to study these impacts. This field focuses on how animals adjust to city life and how their behaviours, appearances, and chances of survival shift. 



While we already know that urban noise affects how birds sing and communicate, questions remain about how cities might also shape something more subtle and striking: their feathers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-colors-matter-for-city-survival">Bird colors matter for city survival</h2>



Birds don’t just wear colors for show. Plumage color plays many roles in survival. It helps regulate body heat, provides camouflage from predators, and signals strength or attractiveness to potential mates.



In natural habitats, colors evolve slowly through generations. But in urban areas, the rules change quickly.



Cities are warmer than rural areas. They have different backgrounds - grey walls, dark roads, and neon lights. They also have fewer predators and more artificial lighting at night. This creates a unique environment that may favour certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> colours over others.



That’s where the question arises: are city birds coloured differently from their countryside counterparts? A group of scientists decided to find out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-data-from-hundreds-of-bird-species">Data from hundreds of bird species</h2>



A research team led by Bart Kempenaers at the <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a> and the <a href="https://www.ugr.es/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Granada</a> took on this question. 



The researchers used a global dataset that included the abundance of over 1200 bird species across habitats with different urbanization levels. They combined this with detailed information on each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>’ plumage colour.



The goal was simple but powerful: could plumage color predict which birds do well in cities? The results revealed clear patterns.



The researchers discovered that birds that succeed in urban areas tend to be less brown than those that don't.



"Brown shades are more common in natural environments than in cities. We suspect that brown birds are at a disadvantage in a rather grey city. The predominant colors of a city and the lack of suitable habitats can therefore determine which bird species are successful there," explained Kaspar Delhey, one of the lead authors of the study.



Urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> seem to shed their earthy tones and adopt colors that fit - or even stand out - against the urban backdrop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colorful-birds-do-better-in-cities">Colorful birds do better in cities</h2>



The findings went further. Not only do city <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> avoid brown, but they often display more elaborate and striking plumage, especially among females. This trend runs counter to what might be expected in the wild, where standing out can attract predators.



Cities, however, are relatively safe. With fewer predators lurking in the shadows, birds no longer need to hide as much. As a result, colors that once would have been risky may now help with recognition, mating, or dominance within species.



This supports a new understanding of urban wildlife: cities don’t just change numbers - they change traits. The environment influences how birds look, and colour becomes more than just decoration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cities-have-fewer-birds-but-more-variety">Cities have fewer birds but more variety</h2>



Earlier studies had suggested that cities reduce the diversity of colors in bird populations. With fewer species around, people assumed the range of colors would also shrink. But this research turned that idea on its head.



"There are fewer species in urban areas than in rural areas. When we take this into account, the bird communities in cities actually have greater color diversity," said Juan Diego Ibáñez-Álamo, first author of the study.



So, even though there may be fewer types of birds, the ones that remain or thrive in cities bring a wide range of colors with them. This makes the visual landscape of urban birdlife surprisingly rich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-life-changes-how-birds-evolve">City life changes how birds evolve</h2>



This study offers more than just colourful observations. It highlights a deeper reality — cities can influence the course of evolution. Traits that were once neutral or even harmful may become beneficial in urban settings.



Birds with more vivid plumage now have an edge in places once considered unsuitable for wildlife. This shift affects not only how birds look but how they behave, reproduce, and interact with one another.



While this research focused on birds, it opens the door to a broader question: do other animals also change their appearance to cope with urban living? That remains to be explored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-more-can-cities-teach-us">What more can cities teach us?</h2>



Urban areas are expanding faster than ever. As we build more, we reshape ecosystems in ways we still don’t fully understand. This study provides one important piece of the puzzle. It shows that city life selects for color in birds, influencing not just which species survive, but how they look while doing so.



Future research will need to explore how widespread this pattern is. Does it apply only to birds? Or will we find similar patterns among insects, reptiles, or mammals?



For now, the message is clear. In the grey world of concrete and steel, color still matters - and in some cases, it matters even more.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.70106" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>.



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Birds living in cities are usually more colorful and less brown

Skylines keep climbing, roads stretch farther, and forests turn into...

They sleep at our feet, wag their tails when we return, and bring joy to our lives. Dogs have earned the title of "man's best friend" for good reason. Across the globe, over a billion domestic dogs share our homes, parks, and neighborhoods. But this growing presence brings with it a hidden toll on the wildlife and the environment.



A new study by Professor Bill Bateman and Dr. Lauren Gilson from <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> sheds light on a neglected problem: the environmental impact of pet dogs. While cats have long been studied for their destructive effect on biodiversity, dogs have largely escaped scrutiny. That is starting to change.



The research, published in the journal Pacific Conservation Biology, makes a clear argument. The presence of pet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> - even the most pampered, leashed ones - can disturb ecosystems, spread disease, and accelerate environmental degradation. In many cases, the harm begins before we even notice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pet-dogs-instinctively-harm-wildlife">Pet dogs instinctively harm wildlife</h2>



Dogs are the world’s most common large carnivores. Despite centuries of domestication, they retain instincts from their wolf ancestors. This means many still chase, harass, or kill other animals when given the chance. Owners often assume their dog is harmless, especially if it stays on a leash. The research, however, reveals otherwise.



“Dogs are incredibly important to people’s lives and their roles range from providing companionship to contributing to conservation efforts as detection <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>,” said Professor Bateman.



But dogs’ impact on nature can be vast. A study in Queensland found that 9.2% of wildlife admissions to rehabilitation centers were due to dog attacks, with nearly three-quarters of those animals dying.



In Tasmania, modeling shows that off-leash dogs have caused repeated collapses of Little Penguin colonies. Between 1980 and 2020, dog attacks accounted for 91% of all reported penguin deaths in these colonies.



These are not isolated incidents. Across the globe, from South Africa to the Galápagos Islands, owned dogs have attacked penguins, plovers, and other vulnerable species. Even the most playful dog can have deadly consequences in the wrong place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-animals-avoid-dogs">Wild animals avoid dogs</h2>



Disturbance doesn’t require physical contact. Wildlife often perceives dogs as predators, regardless of their behavior. Just the presence - or the scent - of a dog can disrupt nesting, feeding, and movement patterns in birds and mammals.



“Studies have found that animals like deer, foxes and bobcats in the US are less active or completely avoid areas where dogs are regularly walked, even in the absence of the dogs,” said Professor Bateman.



A single dog walking through a beach can cause shorebirds to abandon their nests. In Western Australia, endangered Fairy Tern chicks have been trampled or scattered by off-leash dogs.



Breeding Kentish Plovers in Spain were flushed from their nests nearly every time a dog appeared. Plovers responded far more strongly to humans with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-99-of-dogs-in-the-u-s-have-a-behavior-problem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> than to humans alone.



In northern Australia, migratory birds like Sand Plovers and Knots spend their winters resting. When disturbed by dogs, their energy use jumps by 7.5% a day. These birds travel thousands of kilometers every year. Even a few extra energy costs can mean the difference between survival and death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-owners-ignore-protection-rules">Dog owners ignore protection rules</h2>



One might assume the solution is simple - leash your dog. Yet, compliance remains alarmingly low. Studies from Australia, the United States, and Europe show that fewer than a quarter of owners leash their dogs in sensitive areas. Even when signs are posted or rules enforced, many dog owners flout them.



“Many owners simply don’t realise the environmental damage dogs can cause, from disturbing wildlife to polluting ecosystems,” said Professor Bateman.



In some cases, this disregard turns confrontational. One researcher was threatened with violence when asking beachgoers not to walk dogs in a protected wetland. Elsewhere, online footage shows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-a-dog-might-be-the-easiest-way-to-reduce-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> chasing birds from mudflats or damaging dune vegetation.



Owners often believe their personal actions won’t matter. This mindset, known as the “tragedy of the commons,” leads to shared spaces - like beaches and forests - being slowly damaged by many small actions. Without a sense of shared responsibility, even the best rules fail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-threaten-wildlife-health">Dogs threaten wildlife health</h2>



Dogs also pollute their environment in less visible ways. Each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> produces about 0.2 kilograms of feces and 0.4 liters of urine daily.



Over a 13-year lifespan, that adds up to over a tonne of waste per dog. When left in parks or natural spaces, it alters soil chemistry, spreads disease, and contaminates waterways.



“Dog waste also contributes to pollution in waterways and inhibits plant growth, while wash-off from chemical treatments used to clean and guard dogs from parasites can add toxic compounds to aquatic environments,” noted Professor Bateman.



Flea and tick medications often contain fipronil and other chemicals. When dogs swim or are washed, these toxins enter streams and rivers. They poison aquatic insects and disrupt entire food chains. In some areas, dog urine has become a leading source of nitrogen in water systems.



The danger extends to wildlife health. Dogs can spread parasites such as roundworms and whipworms through their faeces. Zoonotic diseases like rabies and distemper have jumped from pet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-focus-more-when-humans-use-eye-contact-and-gestures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> to lions, hyenas, and wild canids, causing population declines. 



In Italy’s national parks, working dogs have been found carrying parasites harmful to endangered species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-dogs-affects-wildlife-ecosystems">Feeding dogs affects wildlife ecosystems</h2>



The environmental toll of dogs goes beyond behavior and waste. Feeding over a billion dogs every day requires vast resources. Pet food production consumes land, water, and energy, adding to global emissions.



“In addition, the pet food industry, driven by a vast global dog population, has a substantial carbon, land and water footprint,” said Professor Bateman.



Studies estimate that 13.5% of wild forage fish - normally eaten by other marine animals - now goes to pet food. The industry uses the equivalent of nearly twice the UK’s land area and emits greenhouse gases equal to a mid-sized nation.



Despite these costs, few owners are willing to change. Only 12 to 16 percent say they would pay more for sustainable dog food, even as prices continue to rise. This resistance blocks one of the few industry-level solutions available today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-need-for-awareness-and-cooperation">The need for awareness and cooperation</h2>



Dog ownership is not going away. These animals provide emotional support, companionship, and even serve vital roles in conservation. Detection dogs, for example, help find endangered species and monitor ecosystems.



But their rising numbers and poor owner habits threaten the very wildlife we aim to protect.



“Restrictive measures such as banning dogs from sensitive areas are necessary for protecting vulnerable species but they are not a complete solution. We are calling for a collaborative effort between dog owners, conservation groups and policymakers to develop strategies that balance pet ownership with environmental care,” said Professor Bateman.



Solutions must include better education, improved waste management, responsible food choices, and stronger enforcement of leash laws. Dogs can still share our lives, but their presence in nature must be managed with care and awareness.



We owe it to the wild animals who cannot flee forever - and to our own future on a shared planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/PC/PC24071" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific Conservation Biology</a>.



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Pet dogs severely harm wildlife, even when leashed

They sleep at our feet, wag their tails when we...

Birdwatchers and scientists alike have long admired the stunning diversity of bird feathers. Their hues and patterns offer more than just visual delight - they tell stories of evolution, survival, and social cues. Yet beyond what we can see lies a hidden world of light. 



A recent study from <a href="https://drexel.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drexel University</a> and <a href="https://nmu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Michigan University</a> reveals that some birds like owls hold secrets invisible to human eyes. 



The researchers have uncovered fluorescent pigments in the feathers of long-eared owls. These pigments glow only under ultraviolet (UV) light, revealing a new layer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicken-embryos-reveal-secrets-of-early-feather-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complexity</a> in avian plumage. While earlier studies focused on visible coloration, this study dives into traits concealed in darkness.



The discovery doesn’t just show that owls fluoresce - it demonstrates that this trait varies with age, size, and sex. These findings challenge assumptions about bird biology and open up questions about what fluorescence might truly mean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glowing-pigments-in-owl-feathers">Glowing pigments in owl feathers</h2>



The team, led by PhD candidate Emily Griffith, studied 99 long-eared owls captured at the Whitefish Point Bird Observatory in Michigan during the spring of 2020. They collected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-dinosaurs-to-birds-the-mysterious-origin-of-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a> from each bird and used a fluorometer to measure pigment levels.



The pigments in question - mainly coproporphyrin III and protoporphyrin IX - respond to UV light by emitting a visible glow. Normally hidden to the naked eye, this glow can appear pinkish under blacklight. These pigments degrade with time and sun exposure, making them useful for determining a bird’s age.



Griffith and her colleagues extracted the pigments using a specialized chemical process, then measured their fluorescence. They also recorded data on each owl’s weight, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wing</a> length, tail length, and visible plumage color.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-owl-feathers-glow-more">Some owl feathers glow more</h2>



The results showed that age and sex were the strongest predictors of pigment concentration. Older birds had significantly more pigment than younger ones. Likewise, females had more pigment than males.



“We are only beginning to describe fluorescent pigments in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vulture-fossil-reveals-that-volcanic-rock-can-preserve-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and other vertebrates,” said Griffith. “Although describing what species they are present in is important, in order to understand what their function is we need to also describe how they vary within a species like the Long-eared Owl.”



Plumage color, which helps determine an owl’s sex, also matched pigment levels. Darker birds (typically female) showed more fluorescence than lighter ones (typically male). Owls with intermediate coloration fell in between, suggesting a spectrum rather than a binary trait.



Statistical tests confirmed that adult birds consistently had more pigment than juveniles. This trend held regardless of feather type or collection date, reinforcing the idea that pigment concentration reflects biological age and sex.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-size-affects-pigment-levels">Body size affects pigment levels </h2>



The researchers also explored the relationship between body size and pigment levels. They found that weight positively correlated with pigment in males and small females. However, in larger females, this trend disappeared.



This suggests that there may be a saturation point - where adding more size doesn’t result in higher pigment levels. In other words, larger birds may already have as much pigment as their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robopteryx-dinosaur-feather-secrets-revealed-by-a-robot-dinosaur/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a> can hold.



These findings highlight the complexity of traits that appear simple at first glance. Size matters, but only under specific biological conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-purpose-of-pigment">Rethinking the purpose of pigment</h2>



It’s long been thought that bright plumage helps males attract mates. Griffith challenges that narrative.



“Our study shows that female Long-eared Owls have a much higher concentration of these pigments in their feathers, challenging a common misconception that colorful plumage is a ‘male’ trait,” said Griffith. 



“Moreover, this trait doesn't follow a strict binary – the amount of fluorescent pigments in these owls exists on a spectrum where the amount of pigment is related to size, age and sex all together.”



Because males perform courtship flights, one might expect them to have more pigment. Yet the data shows the opposite. That raises questions about whether fluorescence in these owls even serves a visual signaling purpose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pigment-and-heat-retention">Pigment and heat retention </h2>



Rather than attraction, the team suggests a different function for owl feathers: thermal regulation. 



Porphyrins, the class of pigments studied here, are known to absorb and reflect radiation. In bird eggs, protoporphyrin IX helps retain heat.



The researchers believe a similar mechanism might apply to female owls, who spend more time incubating eggs. More pigment could mean better heat retention during cold spring nights.



This theory would explain why females have more pigment. Males, who hunt and move often, wouldn’t benefit as much from this trait.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-why-owl-feathers-glow">Understanding why owl feathers glow</h2>



“So little is known about fluorescent pigments in bird feathers and owls aren’t the only ones with fluorescent pigments,” said Griffith. “So, it’s a really exciting time to be interested in studying bird plumage.”



Their study urges scientists to reconsider how feather traits evolve. Future work could explore how pigment production interacts with other compounds like melanin. It could also look at how environmental factors shape feather chemistry.



If these hidden pigments carry biological meaning, we need better tools to understand them. Questions remain about how quickly they fade, how owls perceive them, and whether they play roles in communication, survival, or both.



The glowing feathers of long-eared owls are not just a scientific curiosity. They are a reminder that much of nature’s beauty lies beyond the spectrum of human vision.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15594491.2024.2444031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Wilson Journal of Ornithology</a>.



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Hidden glow in owl feathers reveals biological differences

Birdwatchers and scientists alike have long admired the stunning diversity...

Earth’s biodiversity can be elusive, and most animal species lie beyond our immediate awareness. Researchers keep shining a light on hidden corners of the planet, eager to pinpoint the creatures we share our world with.



​A new project by scientists from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>, UCL, Dalhousie University, and the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre is tackling this challenge with a fresh simulation. 



The experts want to understand how many terrestrial animals exist and how quickly new species come into being.​



The research was led by Professor James Rosindell, who studies how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-the-cultural-legacy-of-wild-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> originate and spread across land-based habitats. He is based in the Department of Life Sciences at Imperial. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millions-of-animal-species-remain-undiscovered">Millions of animal species remain undiscovered</h2>



The newly developed simulation uses modern ecosystem modeling to estimate the total number of land-dwelling animals, as well as the rate at which they form new species. It suggests there could be anywhere from 1 million to 3 million undiscovered animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venom-beyond-animals-the-toxic-arsenal-of-fungi-plants-and-microbes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Many of these creatures may be too small, too rare, or too remote to be discovered easily. This hidden diversity has significant implications for our broader understanding of life’s complexity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-on-established-theories">Building on established theories</h2>



The team’s approach merges the <a href="https://madingley.github.io/about/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Madingley model</a> - a framework that forecasts organism abundance worldwide - with <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691021287/the-unified-neutral-theory-of-biodiversity-and-biogeography" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutral theory</a>, which explores how species numbers connect to speciation rates and population sizes.



This unification offers a way to account for the presence of unclassified <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> in different ecosystems.



“A key novelty of this study was that we plugged together the Madingley model and neutral theory for the first time,” said Professor Rosindell. 



This combination allowed the researchers to spot patterns that might otherwise remain hidden, offering a window into the subtle dynamics of how species appear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-animals-and-carnivores-evolve-faster">Small animals and carnivores evolve faster</h2>



Smaller-bodied animals often show faster <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/speciation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speciation</a>, the process by which populations split to form new species.



“The two main questions we wanted to answer were how many species of terrestrial animals there are on the planet and how quickly do new species of terrestrial animals evolve,” said Professor Rosindell.



The simulation also suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carnivores</a>, when matched by size to herbivores or omnivores, evolve at a higher rate. This pattern adds another layer of nuance to how diet shapes long-term survival and adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Policymakers often struggle to allocate resources for wildlife protection due to a lack of precise data on species numbers. Understanding which groups evolve fastest or exist in smaller populations can help shape conservation strategies that prioritize those most at risk.



High speciation rates in smaller animals or carnivores do not guarantee resilience, especially if habitats are shrinking due to human activity. 



Protective measures that ignore these rapid-evolving groups might miss potential threats to the broader ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-of-all-life-on-earth">A model of all life on Earth</h2>



The team envisions a future where this model is refined to project biodiversity changes under different climate scenarios. 



“The end result will be a model of all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> on Earth that has the ecological and environmental elements necessary to answer questions around what will happen under different climate change and habitat loss scenarios,” said Professor Rosindell.



Such forecasts may indicate which areas and species will suffer most if temperatures rise or landscapes become fragmented. Conservation plans may then focus on these hotspots before losses become irreversible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study </h2>



Scientific estimates <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggest</a> that a large percentage of Earth’s species remain unrecorded. Identifying these organisms is essential for a more balanced view of how ecosystems function and how we fit into the mix.



Accurate knowledge of undiscovered species counts and speciation rates also helps predict how ecosystems might shift if certain animals disappear. In complex food webs, the loss of a single group can trigger wide-ranging effects across entire habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-global-biodiversity-models">Refining global biodiversity models</h2>



Researchers are expanding their data sources to include genomic studies, <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/citizen-science-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citizen science programs</a>, and collaborations with local communities. These contributions can refine how the Madingley model and other tools forecast global trends in life’s variety.



Some scientists hope to extend these methods to marine environments, polar regions, and mountainous terrains. Even extreme locations could harbor unknown organisms that hold clues to how life endures under tough conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-classifying-new-animal-species">Classifying new animal species </h2>



Determining which discoveries represent undiscovered animal species versus variations of known forms is no small task. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35912942/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Taxonomic disagreements</a>, limited funding, and a shortage of specialists often slow the cataloging process.



Better collaboration between geneticists, ecologists, and local experts might streamline how newly found organisms are documented. Standardizing these efforts will likely improve the accuracy of predictions for how species arise and vanish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-for-biodiversity-research">A new chapter for biodiversity research</h2>



Efforts to map the planet’s living diversity are reaching a turning point, propelled by these integrated models. Detailed forecasts of species formation and decline could empower societies to make more informed decisions about preserving life’s richness.



“The exercise enabled us to estimate the number of terrestrial species of life on Earth, including all the numbers unknown to science, but it has great potential beyond this in future work,” said Professor Rosindell. 



Each refinement of the simulation can reveal new facets of how animal populations take shape.



By focusing on the interplay between ecology and evolution, scientists can spot vulnerabilities before they become crises. This perspective might help protect not just iconic animals, but also the humble creatures that quietly maintain critical processes in soils and forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-charting-tomorrow-s-path">Charting tomorrow’s path</h2>



As climate change and human expansion accelerate, time is running short to prevent irreversible damage to fragile animal species. 



Modeling efforts that highlight hidden diversity can motivate communities and governments to invest in safeguarding lesser-known parts of the natural world.



Although massive in scope, these simulations offer the precision needed to foresee where interventions can make the biggest impact. That knowledge could be the difference between a resilient planet and one where key ecosystems collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-terrestrial-animals">Looking beyond terrestrial animals</h2>



Many experts believe a similar approach could unlock answers about ocean life, which remains largely uncharted at great depths. Merging ecological theories with real-time observations from submarines and remote sensors could uncover countless marine species.



Such an undertaking would offer a broader perspective, connecting land-based knowledge with what lies beneath the waves. A complete vision of Earth’s inhabitants can only emerge by embracing every corner of the planet



This simulation is a step toward seeing the full scope of Earth’s biodiversity. Researchers are hopeful it can help people recognize our shared responsibility for safeguarding the hidden richness that sustains us all.



This endeavor symbolizes a growing momentum in ecological research, where data-driven models inform policy and public awareness. 



The results hint at a deeper story about our planet’s adaptability and the remarkable creatures that keep evolving.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/sysbio/syaf006/8098740?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Systematic Biology</a>.



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Earth may have three million undiscovered animal species

Earth’s biodiversity can be elusive, and most animal species lie...

Microplastics are showing up in more and more places where they were never meant to be. This time, it's inside the organs of sea turtles, including in their reproductive systems.



That’s the troubling conclusion of a new study that examined stranded loggerhead sea turtles and found tiny plastic particles throughout their bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-turtle-bodies-full-of-microplastics">Sea turtle bodies full of microplastics</h2>



The research, conducted by scientists from the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>, focused on 10 turtles that were accidentally caught in fishing nets and later recovered by the <a href="https://www.oceanografic.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oceanogràfic Foundation</a> of Valencia.



The team discovered significant levels of microplastics in male reproductive tissues and found the particles in other major organs in both male and female turtles. 



These included the heart, kidneys, liver, spleen, stomach, intestines, skeletal muscle, subcutaneous fat, and even the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-reach-turtle-fertility-organs">Microplastics reach turtle fertility organs</h2>



This is the first study to offer direct evidence that microplastics can travel from the gut to other parts of the body in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-plastic-items-found-in-deceased-sea-turtles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea turtles</a>.



The findings suggest that these particles don’t just pass through the digestive system - they may end up accumulating in places that are critical to the animals’ health and reproduction.



“Microplastics are a pervasive marine environmental pollutant, on a par with other global threats such as climate change and ozone depletion," said lead author Leah Costello, a Ph.D. researcher at the University of Manchester.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_internal-invasion_illustration_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_internal-invasion_illustration_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1s.webp" alt="Graphical abstract of microplastics invading the internal organs of sea turtles. Credit: Marine Environmental Research (2025)" class="wp-image-1964694"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Graphical abstract of microplastics invading the internal organs of sea turtles. Credit: Marine Environmental Research (2025)</figcaption></figure>



"Our study is the first to show direct evidence of the presence of microplastics in the reproductive and other organs of loggerhead sea turtles.” 



Sea turtles already face many pressures from human activity and although we have been aware that they ingest plastic throughout their range, the finding of microplastics in almost every tissue sample was quite shocking. 



"These findings show that even seemingly healthy individuals could be under physiological stress, impacting the reproductive success of vulnerable and recovering populations," Costello continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scale-and-composition-of-the-pollution">Scale and composition of the pollution</h2>



The analysis found that nearly every tissue sample - 98.8% to be exact - contained foreign microparticles. Around 70% of those were identified as microplastics.



The most common types were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plastic-straws-degrade-faster-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polypropylene</a>, polyester, and polyethylene.



Polypropylene is often used in food packaging, bottle caps, ropes, and personal care products, all of which can end up in the ocean. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disposable-coffee-cups-release-trillions-of-plastic-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polyethylene</a>, the material used in plastic bags, poses a direct threat to turtles that often mistake it for jellyfish and ingest it directly. 



Size-wise, the largest median particles (about 25 microns) were found in the intestines and fat tissue. The smallest particles (around 15 microns) showed up in the stomach and reproductive organs.



Polyester microfibers, shed from clothing, are also a major contributor to marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-found-in-every-aquatic-species-tested/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a>. In a particularly striking finding, the scientists visually confirmed cotton microfibers embedded in heart tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-impact-of-microplastics">Long-term impact of microplastics</h2>



Each year, an estimated 3 million tons of primary microplastics are released into the environment. On top of that, another 5.3 million tons of larger plastics break down into smaller particles over the same time.



Sea turtles, which can retain plastics in their digestive systems for up to four months, may be absorbing these particles into their bloodstream, allowing them to spread to other organs.



The potential health consequences could be serious. Microplastics have already been linked to inflammation in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, and similar effects are suspected in turtles.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_heart-tissue_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_heart-tissue_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1s.webp" alt="Plastic fiber lodged in sea turtle heart. Credit: University of Manchester" class="wp-image-1964692"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Plastic fiber lodged in sea turtle heart. Credit: University of Manchester</figcaption></figure>



“Microplastic accumulation is likely to be associated with organ damage and toxicity in these incredible marine reptiles that can live for 70 years,” said co-author Professor Holly Shiels from the University of Manchester.



“Of particular concern is the impact on reproduction, with implications on growth, development and viability of offspring which could spell trouble for the stability of these already vulnerable sea turtle populations. However, further studies are required to more broadly assess the biological and health impacts of microplastic on sea turtle reproduction," Shiels concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deeper-problem-than-we-realized">Deeper problem than we realized</h2>



The findings raise urgent questions about how plastics are affecting wildlife far beyond the obvious signs of entanglement or ingestion. 



These invisible microplastics could be disrupting key biological systems in turtles and other animals already under threat.



As research continues, what’s clear is that microplastics are not just a surface-level issue. They’re working their way deep into living creatures - sometimes right into the organs that are essential for species survival.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141113625001576?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Environmental Research</a>.



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Microplastics found in 99 percent of tested sea turtles' internal organ tissue

Microplastics are showing up in more and more places where...

Reptiles from diverse habitats display a stunning range of colors, from those that match the glow of a sun-drenched desert to those that camouflage in the cool shadows of a dense jungle. But these patterns are more than skin deep - they reflect a long history of environmental change and adaptation.



Recent findings from researchers at <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> in Sweden reveal that habitat openness, more than any other factor, drives how reptiles evolve their color over millions of years. The results offer a fresh way to understand how species respond to climate shifts, and what may lie ahead as the world warms and dries.



Reptile coloration has fascinated scientists for decades. It’s well known that animals adjust their appearance for camouflage, communication, or thermoregulation. But one big question remained - what explains the global variation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-provide-new-clues-about-the-diets-of-extinct-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptile</a> color across time and space?



The new study, which combines advanced modeling with over 10,000 reptile images, brings us a step closer to answering that question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptiles-and-the-color-habitat-connection">Reptiles and the color-habitat connection</h2>



To investigate, the researchers studied 1,249 species of scaled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-shifts-the-origin-of-lizards-back-35-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> from around the world. They focused on dorsal brightness - how light or dark the animal's back is - since brightness plays a critical role in how animals interact with sunlight.



The team analyzed this trait alongside six key eco-environmental variables: habitat openness, latitude, altitude, body mass, concealment, and activity time.



The researchers found one pattern that held steady across time, space, and species. Reptiles living in open environments, for example deserts, grasslands, and savannas, tended to have brighter, lighter colors. In contrast, reptiles in closed, forested areas were darker.



“Color evolves under the influence of several competing selection forces from different ecological and environmental factors. By identifying the driving forces behind global patterns of color variation, we can gain a deeper understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-take-bigger-risks-when-they-are-hungry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> can adapt to changing environmental conditions,” explained biology researcher Jonathan Goldenberg.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-habitat-openness-matters-most">Why habitat openness matters most</h2>



Among the six variables tested, only habitat openness was consistently linked to reptile color brightness. Latitude and altitude had some influence, but only in species with small body sizes. Even activity patterns - whether species are active by day or night - had little effect.



Instead, the clearest signal came from vegetation density. More open landscapes allowed more sunlight to reach the animals, increasing the need for lighter coloration.



The researchers suggest this might help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-lizard-day-2024-celebrating-our-scaly-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> reflect sunlight and avoid overheating. Bright colors may also play a role in visual communication under open skies, but the link to heat absorption is particularly strong.



Interestingly, subterranean species didn’t follow this trend, which is unsurprising given that light rarely reaches them underground.



“We also discovered that the rate of color brightness evolution probably follows major changes towards a colder and drier climate. This suggests that reptiles have probably adapted their coloration to new habitats in response to changes in the landscape,” said Goldenberg.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-cooling-led-to-lighter-reptile-colors">Global cooling led to lighter reptile colors</h2>



Reptiles have walked the Earth for over 200 million years, and their color patterns tell a story of change. The team found that periods of rapid environmental transformation, especially during global cooling events, coincided with major bursts in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tadpoles-speed-up-their-growth-to-outsmart-a-deadly-virus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of brightness.



Using δ18O - a chemical marker of past temperatures - the study showed that color brightness increased during the Miocene and Pliocene.



These epochs saw large-scale aridification, which led to more open landscapes. As deserts and grasslands expanded, reptiles likely evolved lighter colors as a means of adapting to these new environments.



The data revealed that almost all families followed this trend. After long periods of evolutionary stasis, sudden bursts of change emerged when the climate became colder and drier. 



Exceptions included some early-bright species like those in the families Phrynosomatidae and Varanidae, which may have adapted more rapidly to those conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptation-across-time-and-lineage">Adaptation across time and lineage</h2>



Not all reptile families reacted the same way. Iguanas and geckos grew brighter over time, while snakes in the Elapidae family and lizards in the Teiidae family became darker. These shifts likely reflect local adaptations and different ecological strategies, such as body size or preferred habitat.



Smaller-bodied reptiles showed more sensitivity to variation in temperature and elevation. These reptiles heat and cool faster and therefore experience greater pressure to adapt their color for thermoregulation. Larger species, in contrast, maintain more stable internal temperatures and show less dramatic color changes.



At the family level, some surprising results emerged. In the Phrynosomatidae, smaller species in open areas were darker than those in forests, reversing the usual trend. But as body mass increased, this pattern flipped. 



These complex interactions suggest that color evolution is not only about sunlight exposure but also about how species handle heat exchange.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brighter-colors-new-opportunities">Brighter colors, new opportunities</h2>



The study argues that integumentary color brightness helped reptiles enter new habitats during climate stress. As grasslands and deserts spread, reptiles with lighter skin had an edge. This led to adaptive radiation, where species rapidly diversified to occupy vacant ecological niches.



“Scaled reptiles are the largest extant order of four-limbed animals. The study helps us to understand how climate change and habitat shifts may affect animals’ survival and adaptation in relation to color. This is crucial for predicting the consequences of future climate change,” concluded Goldenberg.



These insights not only enrich our understanding of the past but also serve as a warning. As climate change continues to reshape ecosystems, reptiles may again face pressure to adjust their colors and behaviors. Some will adapt. Others may not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-colors-and-conservation-efforts">Reptile colors and conservation efforts</h2>



The researchers have created a massive database of reptile brightness across space and time. Future studies could use it to explore how individuals from different genera or regions respond to climate extremes.



With many reptiles already under threat from habitat loss and warming, these findings could prove vital for conservation.



Understanding how reptiles use color to cope with their environments offers a new lens on evolution. It also highlights how one environmental factor - habitat openness - can shape life in a particular lineage for generations. 



In a world that is currently growing hotter and more open, the colors of reptiles may once again begin to shift.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57547-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Why reptiles are more colorful in open habitats

Reptiles from diverse habitats display a stunning range of colors,...

In nature, animals, plants, and microbes constantly communicate. They leave signals, detect scents, react to temperature shifts, and interpret the behavior of others. These exchanges, though often invisible, steer their actions. 



A new study now reveals just how central these invisible threads are. Led by Dr. Ulrich Brose of the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>) and Friedrich Schiller University Jena, the research expands what we know about species interactions.



The experts propose that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> operate through a vast information-sharing system - what the researchers call the “Internet of Nature.”



This system goes beyond the visible: it tracks how information, not just matter and energy, flows between species. That information affects behavior, community dynamics, and ecological balance.



The idea could revolutionize ecological theory. The Internet of Nature treats species as signal users and processors, not just eaters, pollinators, or dispersers. In doing so, it opens a fresh view of what nature truly is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-runs-on-network-signals">Nature runs on network signals </h2>



For decades, ecologists have mapped food webs and tracked energy transfer. They watched who eats whom, who carries seeds, who pollinates flowers. 



These patterns created models that explained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-must-reconnect-with-nature-now-to-save-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> roles and energy balance. But something important was missing.



The new paper shows that focusing only on physical links omits a vital layer. Information links - including warnings, cues, and signals - affect when and where species move. They influence what animals do and how communities stay stable or collapse.



“An understanding of processes in natural ecosystems without considering the flow of information through the Internet of Nature would be similar to trying to understand where and why goods are shipped in human societies without taking the Internet into account,” explained first author Uli Brose.



This view adds complexity but also realism. Ecosystems are not only chains of consumption. They are networks of watchers, listeners, and responders, all adapting based on shared information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-types-of-information-signals">Three types of information signals</h2>



The researchers identified three types of information signals in nature. These exist alongside material flows like food, water, or seeds. Each one shows how deeply <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-timing-is-drastically-changing-due-to-extreme-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> rely on signals to interpret their surroundings.



Trophic information links appear in predator-prey interactions. For example, wolves may use tracks or visual signs to find elk. The elk, sensing danger, huddle together or hide in dense areas. Neither behavior involves direct contact, but both come from interpreting cues.



Pure information links occur between species that do not interact directly. Consider a hyena spotting a vulture circling overhead. 



The hyena knows that the bird might have found food. It watches closely and may follow. These silent clues create webs of understanding that guide animals toward opportunities or away from risks.



Environmental information links arise from signals in the environment itself. Temperature, light, or sound can trigger changes. 



Moths fly toward artificial lights. Spiders set webs near lamps. Chameleons adjust their skin to match background hues. These are all examples of organisms responding to the world around them - not to other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-grip-on-co2-is-slipping-what-it-means-for-us-all/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a>, but to the medium they live in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-communication-breaks-down">When communication breaks down</h2>



The idea of combining food webs with signal networks in nature shifts how scientists view ecosystem resilience. When a disturbance - like a wildfire or invasive species - enters a system, information pathways determine how far it spreads. 



They also influence how well <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> respond and recover. Species that share reliable information can avoid danger faster, find resources more easily, or adapt behaviorally. 



When that communication breaks down, confusion spreads. A food web may still exist on paper, but in practice, it falters.



This is why understanding these invisible threads matters. If scientists can map both the material and informational flows in ecosystems, they can better predict how systems change over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-block-nature-s-signals">Human activities block nature’s signals</h2>



One major threat to the Internet of Nature comes from us. Human activities don’t just change habitats - they scramble the channels species use to communicate. Artificial light, industrial sound, and chemical pollution all interfere with signal transmission.



“Road traffic and industrial structures not only pollute the air but also interfere with the vibrational signals that ants, for example, use to coordinate their activities,” noted co-author Dr. Myriam Hirt of iDiv and the University of Jena.



“That is just one example of how human activities can disrupt the vibrational and pheromonal communication essential for insect reproduction, foraging, and social cohesion.”



These disruptions matter because many species rely on subtle vibrations, smells, or light cues to function. Ants, moths, birds, frogs, even microbes interpret environmental signals. 



When those signals become scrambled or blocked, reproduction fails, feeding patterns change, and ecological roles shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-habitats-and-information-pathways">Species' habitats and information pathways</h2>



Conservation efforts often focus on preserving habitats or stopping hunting. While important, this approach does not account for the signal flows that species depend on. 



If a frog’s pond remains but its mating call is masked by engine noise, the pond becomes useless. The researchers suggest a deeper focus on sensory ecology. 



That includes identifying which species send signals, which receive them, how long signals persist, and how far they travel. New tools like audioscapes and vibration maps could help document these patterns.



“Accounting for the internet of nature will shift our perception of how animals, plants, and microbes act in the living world from a concept of passive particle movement as in physics or chemistry to a more realistic emphasis on living beings that produce and use information,” said Brose.



“The consequences of this shift go beyond the ecological theory playground and will have a substantial impact on how we protect not only the species' habitats but also their information pathways through the medium.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-internet-of-nature-can-protect-biodiversity">Internet of Nature can protect biodiversity</h2>



The idea of the Internet of Nature reframes ecosystems. It tells us they are not just groups of species living together, but networks of messengers and interpreters. 



They share not just resources, but strategies and warnings. If we want to protect nature, we must protect its signals. 



That means reducing noise, dimming lights, and restoring natural rhythms. Because in the end, ecosystems thrive not just on what is eaten, but on what is seen, heard, smelled, and felt.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02670-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Nature has its own 'internet' - and we're only beginning to understand it

In nature, animals, plants, and microbes constantly communicate. They leave...

Fiddler crab mating on the bustling mudflats of southern Europe is about sending seismic love signals beneath the surface - quite literally.



In their quest to attract a mate, male crabs produce ground vibrations as part of an elaborate courtship ritual. For the first time, scientists have recorded and analyzed these signals to understand how they communicate in a chaotic and noisy habitat.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> have captured the full courtship display of the European fiddler crab (Afruca tangeri), combining video footage and geophone recordings to listen in on the crabs’ seismic conversations. 



These crabs inhabit the muddy shores of the Iberian Peninsula, where waves, wind, and competing crabs make for a challenging environment to get a message across. 



However, the study reveals that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-invasive-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-mediterranean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crustaceans</a> have developed a clever and consistent way to make themselves heard - and felt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fiddler-crabs-use-vibrations">How fiddler crabs use vibrations</h2>



Male fiddler crabs are known for their oversized claws, which they use to wave at potential mates and generate ground vibrations. These signals are produced by striking the ground with the claw or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crab-shells-could-help-pave-the-way-for-sustainable-electronics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shell</a>, and later by drumming from inside their burrows.



The researchers discovered that fiddler crab mating follows a four-step courtship routine, starting with subtle claw waves, followed by body drops, synchronized movements, and ending with underground drumming if a female shows interest.



As each stage progresses, the energy of the vibrations increases. The recordings, captured with GoPro cameras and precise geophones, allowed the team to measure over 8,000 seismic signals during the courtship routines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seismic-vibrations-reveal-crab-size">Seismic vibrations reveal crab size</h2>



The key question was whether these vibrations serve as honest signals of the male’s size and strength. The results suggest they do. 



The data showed that larger male crabs with bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strawberry-claws-the-hermit-crab-that-sings-underwater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">claws</a> produced more powerful seismic signals, especially during drumming. This means the crabs can’t fake their physical traits – what you vibrate is what you are.



“It appears as though the males cannot, or do not, lie about their physical size,” said Tom Mulder from the Department of Biology at the University of Oxford. 



“Females can rely on the loudness of seismic signals to honestly assess a potential mate’s quality, all without needing to see him.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-meets-marine-dating">Machine learning meets marine dating</h2>



When it comes to fiddler crab mating, the frequency of vibrations stays the same - but other features like rhythm, duration, and loudness change depending on the&nbsp;crab’s demeanor.



This allowed the researchers to classify each action (such as a body drop or an underground drum) by analyzing the vibration patterns.



To test this further, the team used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientific-discoveries-machine-learning/">machine learning</a> to teach a computer how to distinguish between different crab behaviors based solely on these recordings.



The program achieved a 70% accuracy rate, showing strong potential for future applications. The technique could lead to the development of non-invasive monitoring systems for a wide range of animals.



From tracking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-future-of-the-endangered-species-act/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered species</a> across the savannah to identifying crop pests or spotting injured livestock, material-bound vibrations could become a new frontier in remote wildlife observation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vibrations-work-for-the-fiddler-crab">Vibrations work for the fiddler crab</h2>



When it comes to fiddler crabs, relying on seismic signals instead of sound makes perfect sense. Their noisy, open-air environment is difficult to navigate acoustically, but the ground beneath them offers a stable way to communicate.



By altering the strength and tempo of their vibrations, they can get their messages across without saying a word.



“Larger claws have the advantage of overcoming seismic noise so that they can signal to females that are further away, and females will show more interest in them,” explained Dr. Beth Mortimer, also from the Department of Biology.



“However, the advantages are only observed for the percussive signals such as drumming, and fortunately for smaller clawed crabs, these are only part of the courtship routine.”



So, while size matters when it comes to seismic communication, smaller males can still show off through other parts of the ritual. In the unpredictable world of fiddler crab mating, it’s not just about waving your claw - it’s about how hard you drum.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/228/7/jeb249323/367607/Constraints-on-percussive-seismic-signals-in-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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Fiddler crabs use seismic vibrations to attract mates

Fiddler crab mating on the bustling mudflats of southern Europe...

species in Pruvotinidae

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