A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Superbugs, or antibiotic-resistant bacteria, are among the most urgent public health dangers of our time. These bacteria mutate to resist even the most powerful antibiotics.



Recently at a hospital in Nevada, a female patient who was admitted with pneumonia died from sepsis and multiple organ failure. The culprit was a bacteria that had adapted to resist as many as 26 different antibiotics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-possible-solution">A possible solution </h2>



Taking steps in the fight against these deadly pathogens, researchers at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M</a> have discovered something intriguing. 



The experts found that curcumin, the compound that gives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turmeric-supplements-provide-yet-another-health-benefit-according-to-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turmeric</a> its bright yellow color, may be able to reverse antibiotic resistance.



The study revealed that curcumin, when presented to bacteria as a source of food and then triggered by light, causes destructive reactions within these microbes. These reactions eventually kill the bacteria.



The process effectively reduces the number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-viruses-to-combat-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic-resistant</a> strains, consequently making conventional antibiotics useful again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-superbug-era">The superbug era</h2>



Prior to the discovery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotics-for-childhood-infections-are-becoming-ineffective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotics</a>, infectious diseases were the top cause of death and disability globally. The introduction of these wonder drugs added 23 years to the average human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-less-oxygen-could-extend-your-lifespan-by-50-or-more/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifespan</a>.



While the development of new antibiotics has reached a plateau, resistant bacteria have surged - ushering in the superbug era.



Superbugs include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), and certain drug-resistant strains of pneumonia-causing bacteria - all of which are notoriously difficult to treat.



Dr. Vanderlei Bagnato, a professor in the Department of Biomedical Engineering and the senior author of the study, shared his insights.



“When bacteria start becoming resistant to conventional antibiotics, we have what we call an antibiotic catastrophe," said Dr. Bagnato.



"To overcome this challenge, we need alternative ways to either kill the superbugs or find a novel way to modify natural processes within the bacteria so that antibiotics start to act again." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-battling-the-superbugs">Battling the superbugs</h2>



Natural diversity within a bacterial population results in varied behaviors, including differences in antibiotic resistance. If certain strains can withstand antimicrobial drugs and continue to multiply, this diversity can contribute to increased resistance to treatment.



The primary goal of the Texas A&amp;M study was to control this bacterial diversity to manage resistance.



The research team applied a method known as photodynamic inactivation, which uses light and light-sensitive molecules known as photosensitizers to generate reactive oxygen species. These species can annihilate microorganisms by disrupting their metabolic processes. 



In their experiments, curcumin was used as the photosensitizer. The beauty of this approach is that curcumin also doubles as natural food for bacteria.



The team tested this method on strains of Staphylococcus aureus that are resistant to antibiotics such as amoxicillin, erythromycin, and gentamicin.



The bacteria were subjected to multiple light exposure cycles. The team then compared the minimum antibiotic concentration needed to kill the bacteria following light exposure with those not exposed to light. 



“When we have a mixed population of bacteria where some are resistant, we can use photodynamic inactivation to narrow the bacterial distribution, leaving behind strains that are more or less similar in their response to antibiotics. It’s much easier now to predict the precise antibiotic dose needed to remove the infection,” explained Dr. Bagnato.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fight-against-resistance">The fight against resistance</h2>



The researchers are confident that photodynamic inactivation by curcumin would function well as a complement to antibiotics as a treatment for infections that are caused by drug-resistant bacteria.



“Photodynamic inactivation offers a cost-effective treatment option, which is crucial for reducing medical expenses not only in developing countries but also in the United States," said study co-author Dr. Vladislav Yakovlev. 



"It also has potential applications in military medicine, where this technology could be used to treat battlefield wounds and prevent the development and spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antimicrobial-resistance-projected-to-kill-10-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antimicrobial resistance</a>, a significant concern in combat situations."



The results of the study provide renewed hope in the fight against superbugs. By leveraging the potential of a common spice like turmeric, we may gain an advantage in this ongoing battle.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-79743-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Just a pinch of this common spice kills superbugs in lab testing

Superbugs, or antibiotic-resistant bacteria, are among the most urgent public...

Birds and feathers are closely tied together - feathers enable flight, provide insulation, and make courtship displays possible. Yet the origin of these remarkable structures predates birds.



Feathered dinosaurs were first reported in the 1990s, but many mysteries remain about how and when feathers emerged. Did all dinosaurs share a feathered ancestor, or did feathers appear multiple times in different lineages?&nbsp;



A new study co-authored by Paul Barrett and Xu Xing from the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> attempts to consolidate the latest knowledge and move us closer to an answer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feathers-of-the-distant-past">Feathers of the distant past</h2>



Fossil evidence has revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-bird-feathers-contain-traces-of-dinosaur-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a> are not exclusive to modern birds and their immediate relatives. Dinosaurs with feathers existed in the distant past, showing that these structures are much more ancient than once believed.&nbsp;



However, broad questions endure: Are feathers found only in meat-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropods</a> close to birds, or could they have been more widespread across the dinosaur family tree?



“While dozens of feathered dinosaurs have been identified since Sinosauropteryx was first unveiled in the 1990s, they’re mainly meat-eaters that are close relatives of birds,” Barrett explained. 



“Everyone agrees that these dinosaurs had feathers, but there’s little consensus beyond that.”



“To settle these disagreements, we need more fossils and to define what a feather is. If we can sort this out, it could reveal where feathers first came from and whether they predate the dinosaurs themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflicting-theories-on-feather-origins">Conflicting theories on feather origins</h2>



Some scientists propose that feathers originated in a common ancestor of dinosaurs and pterosaurs, suggesting all later descendants inherited the potential to grow feathers - though some lost it over time.&nbsp;



Others argue that pterosaurs did not have true feathers, meaning the structures observed on them might be something else. 



A third viewpoint holds that feathers emerged solely within theropods, the group that includes well-known predators like Velociraptor and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-may-have-had-brains-and-brawn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus</a>.



To resolve these debates, better fossil evidence from earlier time periods is essential. Most known feathered dinosaur fossils date to the Cretaceous, yet feathers may have evolved well before then.&nbsp;



Finding older specimens could clarify whether feathers appeared at the dawn of dinosaur evolution or surfaced in only one branch of the family tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-early-dinosaurs-have-feathers">Did early dinosaurs have feathers?</h2>



Professor Barrett emphasized the importance of discovering prehistoric remains from much earlier geological periods.&nbsp;



“We need to find new sites with fossilized feathers, particularly from the Jurassic and the Triassic,” he said. “The Triassic is especially important, as finding feathered dinosaurs at this early time in dinosaur evolution would suggest that all dinosaurs had an ancestor with feathers.”



“If feathered dinosaurs aren’t found among early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, then it makes it more likely feathers were an innovation among later groups.”



Such discoveries could shift perceptions of the entire dinosaur lineage. Were feathers a universal trait that some species shed over time, or did they evolve independently in separate groups?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-a-true-feather">Defining a "true feather"</h2>



Another challenge paleontologists face involves the definition of a “true feather.” 



Modern bird feathers have distinct chemical and structural characteristics, including growth from a follicle in the skin. Ancient dinosaur feathers may have looked different, reflecting earlier evolutionary stages.



“To identify a true feather from a living bird, we’d look to see what it’s made out of, and its structure,” Barrett explained. “One of the characteristics we have to identify is that the feather grows out of a follicle in the skin.”



“It’s possible, however, that follicles and other modern characteristics might not have been present in all dinosaur feathers. Detailed anatomical work at a microscopic level to compare preserved skin and feathers with examples from living birds could help to resolve this.”



Fossilized skin can also offer important clues. Some specimens display bird-like tissues, hinting that the common ancestor of certain dinosaurs and birds shared these traits.&nbsp;



But other dinosaurs show more reptilian textures, indicating the possibility that feathers evolved separately in multiple lineages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-history-of-feathers">Unraveling the history of feathers</h2>



For the moment, experts remain divided on how feathers took hold in dinosaur evolution. The challenge lies in discovering enough well-preserved fossils from the right time periods and reaching a clear consensus on what counts as a feather.&nbsp;



From tantalizing glimpses in existing fossils to ongoing searches in promising new sites, researchers continue to piece together this ancient puzzle.



Ultimately, answers about the origins of feathers may transform how scientists understand dinosaur evolution - and the emergence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>.&nbsp;



Until then, paleontologists will continue to search the world for the fossils which can finally settle this decades-old debate. 



Each new find has the potential to reshape our perception of the prehistoric world and the ancestors of the birds we see in our skies today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0517" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

From dinosaurs to birds, the origin of feathers remains a mystery

Birds and feathers are closely tied together - feathers enable...

The Amazon rainforest, known as "the lungs of the Earth," faces continuous threats from deforestation. 



The Amazon's unique biodiversity, extensive carbon storage capabilities, and significant role in regulating the Earth's climate highlight the urgent need to fully understand the consequences of deforestation.



Scientists, activists, and global citizens have been increasingly concerned about changes in rainfall patterns. However, emerging research challenges previously held assumptions about rainfall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> in this vital ecosystem.



The concept of a "tipping point" - a threshold beyond which the Amazon could irreversibly degrade into savannah - has dominated environmental discussions. 



But now, recent studies have begun to question the accuracy of this alarming scenario, bringing new insights into the resilience of the region's rainfall patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-the-amazon-rainforest-stable">Is the Amazon rainforest stable?</h2>



Scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology (<a href="https://mpimet.mpg.de/en/homepage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPI-M</a>) have made a significant breakthrough, revealing that the Amazon may sustain its rainfall even in extreme cases of deforestation. 



Published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters, the findings challenge earlier scientific consensus about the region’s vulnerability to rainfall disruption.



Previously, researchers emphasized the critical role of vegetation in maintaining Amazonian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-40-of-climate-critical-amazon-rainforest-is-unprotected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> through evapotranspiration - the process where plants transfer moisture from soil to the atmosphere.



This cycle, scientists warned, would weaken dramatically if widespread deforestation occurred, significantly reducing rainfall and destabilizing the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oversimplified-climate-models">Oversimplified climate models</h2>



These earlier predictions, however, depended heavily on models that oversimplified or overlooked key atmospheric processes. 



Most relied on global climate models that inadequately represented convection, the atmospheric mechanism crucial for rainfall. Alternatively, regional models were unable to account for how large-scale atmospheric circulation might adapt to deforestation.



Such limitations cast doubt on earlier predictions, necessitating a more sophisticated approach to better understand the complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-will-boost-methane-emissions-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-modeling-approach">A new modeling approach</h2>



Experts at MPI-M, including Arim Yoon and Cathy Hohenegger, adopted an advanced approach using the global storm-resolving ICON model.



This model directly resolves atmospheric convection with extraordinary precision. They conducted their simulation globally over three years, operating at an exceptionally detailed resolution of five kilometers, a significant methodological advancement over previous research.



The findings revealed that rainfall in the Amazon isn't predominantly determined by evapotranspiration, as previously believed. Instead, large-scale atmospheric circulation substantially compensates for any loss of moisture due to deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-winds-maintain-moisture-levels">Ocean winds maintain moisture levels</h2>



"The wind at about three kilometers altitude carries enough moisture from the ocean into the region to make up for the decline in evapotranspiration," said Yoon.



The calculations demonstrated little to no change in annual rainfall, even under conditions of complete deforestation, contrasting sharply with earlier findings.



This unexpected resilience suggests that earlier assessments of deforestation impacts may have overstated the Amazon’s vulnerability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-a-more-stable-amazon">Signs of a more stable Amazon </h2>



"Precipitation over land seems more tightly coupled to the large-scale circulation than to evapotranspiration in our global storm-resolving simulation if compared to state-of-the-art climate models currently used in the IPCC assessment reports," noted Hohenegger.



"This fact is exciting as it asks for the revisitation of some of the things we thought we knew about precipitation over land and its sensitivity."



This research shifts scientific understanding towards a more nuanced view of rainfall dynamics in the Amazon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-patterns-and-seasonal-variability">Rainfall patterns and seasonal variability</h2>



Despite the optimistic findings regarding total annual precipitation, significant changes remain in rainfall distribution throughout the year.



"Just using one indicator to assess the future of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a> isn't enough. The details of the rainfall patterns can make a big difference," said Yoon.



Seasonal variability could profoundly impact the ecosystem, agriculture, and communities dependent on predictable rainfall patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-deforestation">Consequences of deforestation </h2>



The MPI-M scientists aim to further refine their analysis by examining whether extreme rainfall events or prolonged droughts might increase in frequency or intensity under conditions of deforestation. 



Understanding these patterns will provide critical insights into the real-world impacts of deforestation on Amazonian ecosystems and human livelihoods.



Although total rainfall might remain stable in the Amazon, deforestation inevitably disrupts ecological balance and climate stability. 



Changes in rainfall distribution, coupled with habitat loss and climate shifts, remain a threat to biodiversity, ecosystem health, and human communities relying on the Amazon.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL110503" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Amazon rainforest may be much more stable than we thought

The Amazon rainforest, known as "the lungs of the Earth,"...

This bright blue creature might look like a single jellyfish drifting on the water, but it is actually a community of specialized polyps all working in unison. This <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/hydrozoa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrozoan</a>, known as the Blue Button jellyfish or Porpita porpita, appears delicate but displays a cunning strategy for survival.



Its float usually measures only a few inches across, yet it hosts an impressive mini-collective where each polyp plays a unique role. 



Some feed, some defend, and others handle reproduction - all of which contribute to the colony’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-jellyfish-day-2024-protecting-the-health-of-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">success</a>.



Marine biologist Dr. Shi from the <a href="https://www.ysfri.ac.cn/ENGLISH.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute</a> has <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39591675/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> notable appearances of these organisms in new locations along coastal regions.



Studies have suggested that changes in ocean temperatures and currents may explain why this small floater is popping up in places where it once was rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-floating-colony-not-a-jellyfish">A floating colony, not a jellyfish</h2>



The upper part of the colony looks like a thin disk that can be a brilliant blue or sometimes greenish-brown. This disk is a gas-filled float that keeps the group on the water’s surface as currents move it around.



Circling beneath the float are hundreds of tentacle-like structures that are actually bundled <a href="https://sussexwildlifetrust.org.uk/news/hydroids-and-bryozoans-the-weird-and-wonderful">polyps</a>. They branch off in different lengths, forming a fringe that does much of the colony’s work.



Some polyps specialize in gathering food from the water. Others focus on warding off would-be predators with stinging cells called nematocysts that are designed to deter an attacker.



This layered teamwork sets Porpita porpita apart from most solitary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-more-than-just-a-snack-for-predatory-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jelly-like creatures</a>. Its structure is so integrated that it can function almost like a single being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-porpita-have-a-mild-sting">Porpita have a mild sting</h2>



Most casual swimmers who brush up against this floating cluster feel little more than a mild irritation. The sting is gentle compared to that of more notorious marine animals, yet those with sensitive skin might notice some redness or itching.



The sting is still a defense that helps the colony survive. Small fish and other drifting animals think twice before nibbling on those tentacles!



Many beachgoers mistake the Blue Button for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comb-jellyfish-can-fuse-with-a-friend-and-become-one-creature-after-injury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jellyfish</a> because of its overall shape and bright hue. Careful observers soon realize, however, that this is a colonial hydrozoan rather than a single organism.



A separate <a href="https://www.lajar.cl/index.php/rlajar/article/view/vol51-issue4-fulltext-3070" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> suggests that sightings along the Mexican Atlantic have increased as more people venture into coastal areas. 



Researchers are using open-access data and field surveys to keep tabs on the spread of the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-but-tough">Tiny but tough</h2>



This group of polyps may look fragile on the surface, yet it handles varied conditions surprisingly well. The float’s gas chamber helps the colony remain buoyant even during moderate waves.



It drifts passively, riding the currents without any directed swimming. Some ocean wanderers break apart easily if disturbed, but Porpita porpita remains intact unless hit by rough surf or beached.



It appears that this species adapts to changing waters by relying on wind and sea flows. Despite its delicate look, the colony endures journeys over wide stretches of ocean.



Scientists have found that population size can fluctuate with seasonal shifts in temperature. During certain months, cooler water encourages healthy growth, while extreme heat might reduce their numbers in shallower areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-porpita-grows-and-reproduces">How Porpita grows and reproduces</h2>



Porpita porpita individuals have both male and female reproductive structures, making them hermaphrodites that are capable of different forms of reproduction. 



Some references describe an intriguing developmental process where larvae transform into floating colonies without a typical polyp stage.



This means new generations can appear if conditions are right, causing occasional clusters to show up unexpectedly on sunny beaches. 



The young start off as tiny forms, then expand into an enchanting blue disk with busy polyps attached.



These polyps may adopt distinct tasks almost immediately. In many cases, protective tentacles appear early, ensuring the colony has a built-in guard system even in its youth.



Studying early developmental stages offers clues about how these colonies adapt to diverse temperatures and salinity levels. More work is underway to map their genetic makeup and clarify potential regional differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



While Porpita porpita itself poses little harm to people, its presence can indicate shifts in local ecology. 



Changes in temperature or currents can carry these creatures beyond their usual routes, raising questions about broader marine health.



They also serve as food for certain sea slugs, snails, and sea turtles, linking them to larger food webs. Observing their distribution can reveal patterns in how smaller marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-invasion-jellyfish-are-moving-north-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> and grazers behave.



Some researchers believe continued sightings of the Blue Button in unfamiliar waters may reflect oceanic warming trends. Analyzing these subtle movements becomes a way to understand broader environmental influences.



Effective monitoring hinges on both academic efforts and everyday beachgoers who spot unusual clusters near shorelines. 



Citizen science projects are increasingly vital for gathering valuable data and strengthening the record of occurrences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-porpita-studies">What's next for Porpita studies?</h2>



Porpita porpita will likely keep surprising those who stroll along the beach and catch sight of a vivid blue disk washed ashore. Although harmless for most, its mild sting and unusual look cause many to marvel at what it really is.



Future investigations will show whether increased frequency of sightings correlates with patterns of warming seas and shifting currents. 



Understanding these drifting colonies may help scientists see how oceans are responding to constant environmental change.



Marine scientists who study the Blue Button view it as a subtle biological indicator of the world’s changing waters. 



They aim to gather more details about its genetic variations and possible global distribution patterns.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

This 'blue button jellyfish' isn't actually a jellyfish, so what is it?

This bright blue creature might look like a single jellyfish...

Throughout history, humanity has chased the elusive promise of eternal youth. From mythical fountains to today's anti-aging creams, the pursuit of staying forever young remains constant. But beneath this superficial search lies a deeper scientific exploration into cellular aging.



Recently, a team of researchers at <a href="https://www.osaka-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osaka University</a> in Japan might have brought us closer to genuinely reversing the aging process at a cellular level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-cellular-aging">Understanding cellular aging</h2>



Our bodies naturally <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age</a> as cells gradually become less active, transitioning into a state known as senescence. Senescent cells are not just older; they are distinctly larger and characterized by thicker stress fibers. 



These stress fibers play a crucial role in how cells move and interact with their surrounding environment. However, why these older cells maintain such an unusually large size has puzzled scientists for years.



"We still don't understand how these senescent cells can maintain their huge size," noted study lead author Pirawan Chantachotikul. "One intriguing clue is that stress fibers are much thicker in senescent cells than in young cells, suggesting that proteins within these fibers help support their size."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promoting-cellular-rejuvenation">Promoting cellular rejuvenation </h2>



In their quest for answers, researchers pinpointed a specific protein, AP2A1 (Adaptor Protein Complex 2, Alpha 1 Subunit), which seems crucial to this cellular phenomenon. 



Found predominantly in senescent cells, particularly within the structural stress fibers, AP2A1 could be the key to understanding cellular aging.



To explore AP2A1’s function, researchers manipulated its presence in cells, observing significant effects. 



"The results were very intriguing," said Shinji Deguchi, senior author of the study. "Suppressing AP2A1 in older cells reversed senescence and promoted cellular rejuvenation, while AP2A1 overexpression in young cells advanced senescence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-collagen-scaffold">Complex collagen scaffold </h2>



Delving further into AP2A1, the researchers identified its close interaction with another vital protein, integrin β1. 



Integrin β1 is known for anchoring cells to their external surroundings, specifically to the extracellular matrix - a complex collagen scaffold providing structural support. 



Both AP2A1 and integrin β1 appear to traverse the stress fibers together, a process critical in cell structure and function.



Integrin β1’s role in strengthening adhesion between cells and their external environment could explain the enlarged and raised structure typical of senescent cells. This interaction likely helps older cells maintain their oversized physical characteristics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-marker-for-cellular-aging">Potential marker for cellular aging</h2>



Given its strong correlation with senescent cells, AP2A1 presents itself as an exciting potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/muscles-defy-aging-with-remarkable-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarker</a> for aging. 



Identifying such markers is crucial in understanding aging at a molecular level and might eventually allow scientists to quantify aging more precisely.



Moreover, AP2A1 is not just a passive marker. Its active involvement in aging processes positions it as a promising target for medical interventions aimed at combating age-related diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-cosmetic-applications">Beyond cosmetic applications</h2>



This research is important beyond just improving how we look as we <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beyond-genetics-the-biggest-factors-that-influence-health-and-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age</a>. It targets the root cause of aging at the cellular level. Diseases linked to aging, such as heart disease, osteoporosis, and some cancers, may improve with therapies targeting proteins like AP2A1. 



If scientists can reverse or slow cellular aging, people might live healthier, longer lives. Instead of treating symptoms after diseases appear, this approach prevents or delays their onset. 



Thus, understanding AP2A1 could lead to significant advances in medicine, benefiting overall human health, increasing lifespan, and enhancing quality of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-forward">Looking forward</h2>



The identification of a cellular process linked directly to aging offers exciting possibilities for future treatments. Current anti-aging methods usually mask aging symptoms rather than addressing their causes.



However, this new cellular discovery targets aging at its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aging-hotspot-found-in-the-brain-may-hold-the-key-to-longevity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roots</a>, potentially reversing the process entirely. While the research is still evolving and requires further studies, its potential impact is significant. 



By understanding and controlling cellular mechanisms like the AP2A1 protein, medicine could effectively reverse aging, not just hide it.



Such advances promise genuine rejuvenation, significantly improving human health and extending lifespan. As science moves forward, these findings could lead to treatments combating various age-related diseases, from osteoporosis to heart disease. 



Though practical applications are not yet available, the groundwork is promising. The ultimate goal is to help people maintain youthfulness at the cellular level, enhancing overall health and longevity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0898656825000294?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cellular Signalling</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists discover a protein that reverses cellular aging

Throughout history, humanity has chased the elusive promise of eternal...

Memory plays a critical role in learning and survival across species. Particularly in primates, social interaction significantly shapes how memory develops and functions. 



Primates, from monkeys to great apes, spend substantial time in social environments, making it crucial for them to observe and learn from others effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions-among-primates">Social interactions among primates</h2>



Primates live closely together in groups. They rely heavily on noticing social signals from others, like facial expressions and gestures.



From birth, primates naturally focus more on interacting with each other than with objects or things.



This strong preference for social interaction helps them develop important skills, especially in how they learn and remember information. 



Paying attention to others is crucial for their brain development and memory formation, influencing how primates learn and adapt throughout life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions-boost-ape-memory">Social interactions boost ape memory</h2>



A team of researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, examined how social interactions affect memory in great apes.



They presented both young and adult apes with videos showing a human hand (social model) or a mechanical claw (non-social model) constructing a tower.



"We found that apes better remembered a tower when they saw a hand building it rather than a mechanical claw. This is because they paid more attention to the actions of a social being rather than a machine," noted Marie Padberg, the first author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attention-improves-social-memory">Attention improves social memory</h2>



To understand this better, the researchers partnered with the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of South Australia</a>. They used artificial intelligence (AI) to analyze regular video recordings of the apes. 



The AI technology measured the apes' heart rates to determine their attention levels during the experiment.



The results showed that apes paid more attention during social demonstrations. Higher attention was directly linked to better memory, showing how closely attention and memory are connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-processing-social-stimuli">Processing social stimuli</h2>



Interestingly, improved memory for social events was evident only in adult apes. Younger apes, including juveniles and infants, did not show memory enhancement when viewing social models. 



This outcome differs from humans, who exhibit superior social memory from infancy. These findings suggest a developmental difference between humans and other apes in processing social stimuli.



Study senior author Daniel Haun is the director of the Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.



"Non-human ape infants and juveniles did not show superior memory for social events. There could be several reasons for this, including the nature of the objects, the complexity of the task, or the duration of the videos," noted Haun.



"Further research is needed to determine whether superior social memory at younger ages is truly a uniquely human phenomenon."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developmental-timing-and-memory">Developmental timing and memory</h2>



This study highlights how important the timing of cognitive development is in primates. It suggests that non-human primates, like apes, might only show improved memory from social interactions as they grow older.



Younger apes do not experience this benefit early in life, unlike human infants who show strong social memory from birth. 



By understanding these differences in developmental timing, scientists can better distinguish how human thinking differs from that of other primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-memory-across-apes">Social memory across apes</h2>



The research took place at the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/comparative-cultural-psychology/studying-non-human-primates/wolfgang-koehler-primate-research-center/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wolfgang Köhler Primate Research Center</a> in Leipzig, Germany. 



The scientists studied 42 great apes, including chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans. These apes ranged in age from as young as 3 months to as old as 47 years.



This study is the first to investigate how social memory develops as apes grow older. The results represent an important step forward in understanding similarities and differences between human and ape psychology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The detailed results are published in the journal Animal Behaviour. They show how paying attention to social interactions helps improve memory in different species.



Future research may explore how the difficulty of tasks, familiarity with objects, and interactions within social groups affect memory. These studies will help scientists understand more clearly how both humans and other primates develop and use social memory.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347225000089?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Social interactions have a surprising influence on memory in great apes

Memory plays a critical role in learning and survival across...

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes which have a tendency to continue on for millions of years. Extinction events are among the strongest forces which not only kill specific life forms but also offer the basis for fresh avenues of evolution. 



A recent study evokes a fascinating image of the process, revealing how the death of the largest dinosaurs indirectly created the fruit-rich habitats which were so important to our primate ancestors.



The research was led by Christopher Doughty, an ecoinformatics professor at <a href="https://nau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-prehistoric-legacy">A prehistoric legacy</h2>



Sauropods, the long-necked, plant-munching dinosaurs of the ancient world, had a massive influence on the world around them. These hulking dinosaurs knocked over trees on a routine basis and munched through tons of plant matter. 



When Sauropods went extinct some 66 million years ago, their loss profoundly changed ecosystems. Forests rebounded and closed up, which decreased the amount of sunlight on the ground and paved the way for an impressive evolutionary shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauropods-and-ecological-change">Sauropods and ecological change</h2>



The extinction of Sauropods enabled trees to evolve without interruptions. The forests became denser, and tree competition for light intensified. 



Trees developed larger fruits and seeds to dominate others, and these provided their offspring with an advantage over others by supplying them with additional energy and greater survival chances in shaded conditions.



"At first glance, the darker forest understory caused by dinosaur extinctions may seem unimportant, but it could have directly led to the evolution of our fruit-eating primate ancestors," said Professor Doughty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dinosaur-fruit-connection">The dinosaur-fruit connection</h2>



Before the dinosaurs went extinct, fruits were scarce, and seeds were small. But with the ecological niche left open by the sauropods, plants evolved immediately. 



Stronger seedlings, with larger seeds, were able to compete for limited sunlight. In addition, fleshy fruits evolved as an incredibly efficient way of enticing animals to scatter seeds and reproduce.



Even though this evolution scenario was previously theorized, no fossil records existed to conform the hypothesis.



To investigate, Professor Doughty and his team developed a cutting-edge model of seed and fruit size evolution after the dinosaurs became extinct. The model precisely replicated fossil records for the last 65 million years and decisively substantiated the hypothesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversal-of-dinosaur-driven-fruit-trends">Reversal of dinosaur-driven fruit trends</h2>



Interestingly, the model also forecasted a future reversal of seed evolutionary patterns. 



Seeds began to shrink about 35 million years ago. This coincided with the appearance of new large mammals that were successful in duplicating, though on a smaller scale, the forest-clearing behavior previously shown by sauropods.



"Our model predicted these animals would open the forest enough that sufficient light began to enter the understory, and larger seeds were no longer successful over smaller seeds," explained Doughty. 



"The evolutionary pressure for seed size to increase began to diminish. Thus, we were able to explain the trends in seed size over time without resorting to external influences such as climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megafauna-extinction-and-ecological-reset">Megafauna extinction and ecological reset</h2>



About 50,000 years ago, large mammals like mammoths went extinct. These animals previously opened forests by knocking down trees and clearing vegetation. Their extinction allowed forests to become dense and dark again. 



With less sunlight reaching the forest floor, plants adapted by producing larger seeds. This highlights how big animals shape their environment, influencing the evolution of plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-as-ecosystem-shapers">Humans as ecosystem shapers </h2>



Modern human activity mimics the prehistoric impacts of the giants. Current selective forest harvesting mimics the prehistoric pressure imposed by dinosaurs on seed size and dispersal.



But if humans stop modifying forest structure and are not substituted by other megafauna, forests will shift back to more dense, dark structures, and this may trigger another evolutionary adjustment towards larger seeds. 



"These results provide a striking example of how large dinosaurs - and their eventual extinction - not only shaped their contemporary environment but also triggered cascading effects on ecosystems for millions of years," said Benjamin Wiebe, an NAU researcher.



"The next time you're eating fruit or pondering, 'why am I here,' consider the impact of the dinosaur extinctions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/pala.70002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How dinosaur extinction influenced fruit evolution

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes...

Unhealthy,Products.,Food,Bad,For,Figure,,Skin,,Heart,And,Teeth.

Most dietary programs focus on weight loss or meeting U.S. nutrition guidelines. These guidelines do not mention ultra-processed foods (UPFs), even though they are linked to serious health risks. 



Chips, candy, and other mass-produced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-lets-you-check-how-processed-your-food-is-grocerydb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">packaged foods</a> often replace natural ingredients with additives. Studies show eating UPFs increases the risk of diseases and early death.



Despite these risks, no major dietary programs focus on reducing UPF intake. 



To address this gap, researchers from <a href="https://drexel.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drexel University</a> designed an intervention. The goal was to help people eat fewer ultra-processed foods using multiple strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-ultra-processed-foods-the-basics">Understanding ultra-processed foods - the basics</h2>



Ultra-processed foods (UPFs) are the heavily modified, lab-created stuff you find in most grocery store aisles - think packaged snacks, sugary cereals, instant noodles, and even some protein bars. 



They go through multiple industrial processes, packed with additives like preservatives, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweetener-neotame-has-shocking-effects-on-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial flavors</a>, emulsifiers, and loads of sugar or refined oils. 



These foods are designed to be super convenient, hyper-palatable, and have a long shelf life. 



But here’s the catch: they often lack real nutrition and can mess with your metabolism, gut health, and even brain chemistry.



Studies link them to everything from obesity and diabetes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweetener-erythritol-sugar-substitute-linked-to-blood-clots-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart disease</a> and even mental health issues.



The problem is, ultra-processed foods are everywhere, and they’re marketed as quick, tasty, and sometimes even "healthy" options. 



But because they’re engineered for taste and texture, they can be addictive, making it easy to overeat without feeling full. 



Most importantly, their ingredient lists often look more like a chemistry experiment than actual food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-ultra-processed-food-intake">Reducing ultra-processed food intake</h2>



The Drexel University program went beyond education. It included mindfulness strategies to handle cravings, one-on-one meal planning, and household involvement.



The researchers also provided financial support to help participants buy healthier foods, which can be expensive.



The two-month intervention involved 14 adults with overweight or obesity who ate at least two UPF items daily. On average, participants cut their UPF intake by nearly half.



“Reducing UPF intake can be extremely difficult, because the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ultra-processed-foods-make-our-bodies-age-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a> industry wants us to be hooked on UPFs,” said lead author Dr. Charlotte Hagerman.



“The industry designs UPFs to be ultra-delicious, convenient, cheap, and constantly present in the U.S. - even if not directly in front of us, then on our TVs, phones, and roadside signs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promising-results-from-the-intervention">Promising results from the intervention</h2>



Despite the small sample size, the results of the trial were encouraging.



By the end of the program, participants had nearly halved their UPF <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-ultra-processed-foods-makes-your-muscles-weaker-and-more-fragile/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intake</a>, measured both in calories and total items consumed. They also reduced their daily calorie intake by more than 600 calories. 



Sugar consumption declined by 50 percent, while saturated fat intake dropped by 37 percent. Sodium intake also saw a significant decrease of 28 percent. On average, participants lost 7.7 pounds over the two-month period.



“Interestingly, participants did not have meaningful increases in their fruit and vegetable consumption, suggesting that if we want to improve dietary intake more holistically, we may need to more strongly encourage people to eat these foods,” said Hagerman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-intervention-worked">How the intervention worked</h2>



Participants met weekly with health behavior coaches in both group and individual sessions. 



They learned how to identify UPFs, cope with cravings, and improve their home food environment. Each participant received a $100 grocery store gift card to support healthier purchases.



To track progress, the participants completed detailed food intake reports. They documented everything they ate on selected weekdays and weekends using a specialized assessment tool. 



The researchers classified foods as UPFs or non-UPFs, consulting experts when needed to avoid bias.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-benefits-of-cutting-upfs">Psychological benefits of cutting UPFs</h2>



Beyond physical health, the participants noticed mental and emotional benefits. Many reported feeling better overall, with improvements in mood and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ultra-processed-foods-are-harmful-to-nearly-every-part-of-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy</a>.



Since UPFs can trigger addiction-like behaviors, reducing intake may help regulate emotions and improve mental clarity. Cutting back on UPFs also seemed to help participants feel more in control of their eating habits, making it easier to maintain a healthier diet.



By addressing both the physical and psychological aspects of food choices, the program helped participants develop a healthier relationship with eating. This could be crucial for long-term success in maintaining dietary changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-research">Next steps for research</h2>



“The findings suggest that people can reduce their ultra-processed food intake, if given the proper tools, and that they will be enthusiastic about interventions designed for this purpose,” said Hagerman. 



“The results also suggest that reducing UPF intake will lead to meaningful health improvements – such as weight loss and better mood – in as short as eight weeks.”



The research team plans to expand the study. Future work will test the intervention on a larger sample and evaluate which strategies are most effective. The researchers also want to see if the program works across different populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



This study highlights the need for better public awareness and policies to reduce UPF consumption. Since UPFs dominate the food supply, long-term solutions should address accessibility and affordability of healthier alternatives. 



Education, financial incentives, and community-based programs could help more people reduce their UPF intake. As research continues, these findings may shape new approaches to improving public health through better nutrition.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/osp4.70029" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Obesity Science &amp; Practice</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What happens when you remove processed foods from your diet? Doctors found out

Most dietary programs focus on weight loss or meeting U.S....

Gas,Methane,Bubbles,Frozen,In,Winter,Ice,Of,Lake,Baikal,

These frozen bubbles of methane gas are eerily beautiful, but don't let appearances fool you. Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas that is often overshadowed by carbon dioxide in discussions on climate change, even though the impact of methane is far more serious.



The effects of industrial pollution, car emissions, deforestation and agriculture are usually central when we consider the forces driving climate change. 



However, researchers have now uncovered an unexpected and significant source of methane emissions, hidden beneath the icy landscapes of the Arctic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-is-a-potent-climate-driver">Methane is a potent climate driver</h2>



As powerhouse greenhouse gas, methane doesn’t get as much attention as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a>. However, it’s way more potent - about 80 times more effective at trapping heat in the atmosphere over 20 years. 



Methane comes from natural sources like wetlands and termites, but human activities crank up emissions big time. 



Livestock, landfills, and oil and gas operations release massive amounts of methane into the air. Cows, for example, burp out methane as they digest food (yep, cow burps are a real climate problem). 



Meanwhile, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-methane-emissions-threaten-earths-habitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaks from fossil fuel</a> extraction and pipelines quietly pump methane into the atmosphere, making the issue even worse.



The problem? Methane doesn’t stick around as long as CO₂ - only about 12 years - but in that short time, it does serious damage. 



Cutting methane emissions could quickly slow global warming, making it one of the fastest ways to fight climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-methane-leaks-from-glaciers">Investigating methane leaks from glaciers</h2>



Gabrielle Kleber and Leonard Magerl, postdoctoral researchers from <a href="https://ic3.uit.no/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UiT</a>, The Arctic University of Norway’s iC3 (Centre for Ice, Cryosphere, Carbon, and Climate), have discovered that Arctic glaciers are not as innocent as they may seem.



Beneath their icy veneer, these glaciers are leaking substantial amounts of methane into the atmosphere. 



This revelation stems from studies conducted at Vallåkrabreen, a small valley glacier that is situated in central Svalbard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-and-methane-levels">Glaciers and methane levels</h2>



The researchers measured methane levels in groundwater springs and the melt river that drains from the glacier. The findings were remarkable.



The methane levels in the melt river were found to be up to 800 times higher than the equilibrium level in the atmosphere, hitting a peak concentration of 3,170 nanomolar early in the melt season.



"We expected to see some methane in the meltwater, but the concentrations we measured were surprisingly high," explained Gabrielle, highlighting the unexpected magnitude of the problem.



"Our isotopic analysis showed that this methane is geologic in origin and is released as the glacier retreats and glacial meltwater flushes through fractures in the rock." 



Interestingly, the source of this methane was not microbial activity beneath the ice, which had been suspected in research in other glacial settings.



Instead, the methane originated from ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/knipovich-ridge-new-hydrothermal-field-arctic-intense-geological-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geological formations</a>, and had been trapped in the region for millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-and-glacial-fracking">Methane and "glacial fracking"</h2>



The further the researchers ventured into their investigation, the more they discovered about the role of glaciers in methane emissions. 



The scientists have likened the process to a natural form of fracking, coining the term "glacial fracking" to describe this phenomenon, whereby the glaciers essentially act as colossal covers that bury methane under the ground. 



However, as they melt, the water flushes the gas through cracks in the bedrock, ushering the methane above ground and into the atmosphere.



This process is not limited to just one glacier. 



The researchers estimated that similar mechanisms could be in effect at hundreds of other glaciers across Svalbard, with over 1,400 land-terminating glaciers situated on the archipelago, many of which overlie methane-rich bedrock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-feedback-loop">Climate feedback loop</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond Svalbard as well, to the broader Arctic region and, indeed, the whole planet.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-warming-four-times-faster-than-global-average/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic is experiencing warming</a> at a rate four times the global average, and its glaciers are retreating at an alarming pace.



As they shrink, more methane could be released, setting up what scientists call a positive feedback loop, where warming accelerates glacial melting, setting free more methane, which then intensifies warming and further melting.



"Methane is a much more powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> than carbon dioxide over short timescales. Even though these emissions are seasonal, they could add up as more glaciers retreat," warned the research team, emphasizing the potential global climate repercussions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-glaciers-and-methane">What's next for glaciers and methane?</h2>



These findings highlight the importance of understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-waters-are-emitting-more-carbon-as-they-continue-to-warm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic carbon cycle</a> and the impact climate change has on it. 



Future research will aim to reassess methane budgets in the Arctic, incorporating glacial emissions alongside permafrost thaw and wetland methane fluxes. 



While this study represents a significant first step, more research is needed in order to discern the full scale of the problem.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/22/659/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biogeosciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Massive new source of leaking methane gas emissions discovered

These frozen bubbles of methane gas are eerily beautiful, but...

It seems unthinkable that anything could live after tens of thousands of years in hibernation. The discovery of a tiny creature in the Siberian permafrost has sparked conversations about how resilient life can be.



In a recent breakthrough, researchers determined that a worm which had been frozen for about 46,000 years had survived and remained alive. 



Dr. Philipp Schiffer, a group leader in the <a href="https://zoologie.uni-koeln.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Zoology</a> at the University of Cologne, and his colleagues, have been studying how this creature managed to survive well beyond its usual lifespan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-environment-in-siberian-permafrost">Extreme environment in Siberian permafrost</h2>



Siberia has vast stretches of permafrost, which is soil or sediment that remains frozen for at least two consecutive years. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-is-no-longer-permanent-arctic-communities-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frozen ground</a> can extend hundreds of feet below the surface in certain regions, with the cold temperatures preserving anything trapped within its layers.



Conditions in these areas can be challenging for people, but the permafrost forms perfect vaults for preserving animal remains. Thick ice and frigid temperatures keep organic material fresh enough to study thousands of years later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-life-on-pause">Putting life on pause</h2>



The resurrected worm belongs to a genus known for its ability to enter cryptobiosis, which is a biological strategy where life appears to stop under cold conditions. 



No major metabolic activity occurs in this state, and organisms can endure severe environmental conditions that would normally be lethal.



Biologists have documented cryptobiosis in other creatures, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-bear-tardigrade-fossils-reveal-how-they-survived-several-mass-extinction-events/">tardigrades</a> and certain brine shrimp. The animals halt their usual body functions until they can return to an environment that can support growth and reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-frozen-worm">Significance of the frozen worm</h2>



Experts identified the newly studied nematode as Panagrolaimus kolymaensis, a species not previously described in scientific literature. 



Radiocarbon dating showed that the sample was tens of thousands of years old, indicating that this worm spent most of its existence in suspended animation under frozen sediment.



It was retrieved at a depth of about 40 yards (37 meters). This position helped it stay protected in that intense cold, and gave it a chance to be resurrected in modern laboratories, where it resumed normal activity and even produced offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-survival-strategies">Unique survival strategies</h2>



According to the researchers, nematodes of this variety usually live for only one or two months. The worm that reawakened in the lab outlived that window by tapping into cryptobiotic powers that are still under investigation.



Special molecules may stabilize cells in these worms, keeping them intact despite extreme dryness or temperature shifts. Similar molecules have been found in other organisms that are known to survive dehydration and freezing.



“No one had thought that this process could last millennia, 40,000 years, or even longer. It is simply amazing that life can begin again after so long, in the state between life and death,” said Dr. Schiffer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-of-the-frozen-worm">Genetics of the frozen worm </h2>



The experts used genome sequencing to confirm that this worm was something different. Its lineage seems to share parts of the genetic toolkit for cryptobiosis with Caenorhabditis elegans, a nematode species that is commonly used in lab research.



Similar stasis has been observed in tardigrades, often called water bears. A 2017 NASA <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/podcasts/houston-we-have-a-podcast/water-bears-in-space/">study</a> noted their capacity to withstand harsh space conditions, suggesting these tiny beings have defense systems against extreme radiation and severe temperature swings.



Certain seeds can also remain viable for years in cold storage and then germinate when conditions improve. Yet the nematode’s frozen stretch lasted far longer than the typical lifetime for most preserved biological samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cryptobiosis-in-extreme-environments">Cryptobiosis in extreme environments</h2>



Scientists who focus on deserts, polar regions, and even other planets may look for parallels in cryptobiotic organisms. Environments like the Atacama Desert, known for its dryness, already harbor small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-new-forms-of-life-inside-humans-rna-carriers-obelisks/">life forms</a> that have evolved impressive strategies to handle scarce moisture.



Conditions on Mars and icy moons around Saturn are less welcoming. However, knowledge of how simple creatures cheat time might lead to ideas about extraterrestrial survival or more efficient preservation methods for samples on Earth.



Cryptobiosis involves shutting down vital processes without losing structural integrity. Genetic pathways that enable such suspension might have applications in food preservation or even organ transplants.



If scientists isolate the genes that protect cells against freezing, future technologies could incorporate them into strategies for stabilizing delicate tissues. Biomedical researchers are always searching for ways to minimize damage from cold storage or dehydration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-legacy-of-the-frozen-worm">The legacy of the frozen worm</h2>



The original specimen has died, but its offspring remain alive in controlled conditions. This provides more opportunities for tests on how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/nematodes/">nematodes</a> handle rehydration, changes in temperature, and prolonged hibernation.



Genetic comparisons with other species may shed light on whether these traits developed once in nematode history or evolved in multiple lineages separately. Either way, the results challenge the idea that living things cannot pause for millennia.



Experts see the next research steps involving experiments that identify proteins or sugars that replace water in the worm’s cells during dormancy. They could also investigate new forms of cryptobiosis in other deep-freeze environments, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stability-of-antarctica-is-threatened-by-submarine-canyons/">Antarctic glaciers</a>.



Evolutionary biologists might expand research into older permafrost samples. If more ancient specimens are discovered, scientists may gain a better understanding of how life on Earth endures in these harsh and extreme conditions.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1010798" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Genetics</a>.



Image Credit: Shatilovich et al, 2023, PLOS Genetics



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Frozen worm comes back to life after 46,000 years

It seems unthinkable that anything could live after tens of...

Nature’s fury is most vividly displayed in hurricanes - powerful storms that can devastate coastal communities. As climate patterns shift and environmental changes accelerate, these storms pose an increasing threat.



Effective forecasting and preparedness remain critical tools to safeguard vulnerable populations, infrastructure, and economies from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-next-big-solar-storm-could-plunge-us-into-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">devastating impacts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurricane-activity-is-set-to-increase">Hurricane activity is set to increase</h2>



A recent study from the University of Reading concludes that hurricanes will strengthen and become more frequent in the Atlantic and the eastern Pacific within the next decade.



The coasts of North and Central America, which have already experienced severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricane-helene-a-glimpse-into-the-future-of-natural-disasters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather conditions</a>, must prepare to face more dangers. This means that accurate long-term forecasts are essential for timely precautionary measures.



Using sophisticated forecasting computer programs developed by the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Met Office</a>, scientists were able to successfully predict hurricane activity ten years ahead. The findings indicate tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic would be over twice that of the 1970s.



At the same time, hurricane counts in the eastern Pacific would increase by over a third, leading to a dramatic surge in storm threats to coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storm-energy-will-double">Storm energy will double</h2>



Apart from frequency, the researchers indicated an increase in the total storm energy predicted. Storm energy, with consideration to frequency, intensity, and hurricane duration, captures the full view of hurricane risks. 



The experts predict that storm energy in the North Atlantic will double compared to the 1970s, creating more powerful and devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-amplified-hurricane-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a>.



Paul-Arthur Monerie, the lead scientist at the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>'s National Centre for Atmospheric Science, emphasized the value of enhanced forecasting.



"Until now, hurricane predictions have been like trying to see through a dense fog as we could only make out what was directly ahead of us," he noted.



"Better forecasting clears that fog away, revealing patterns years into the future. This advancement gives coastal communities precious time to prepare. Our study shows hurricane activity is set to increase through 2030, giving everyone more time to prepare and protect themselves."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warmer-oceans-fuel-hurricane-activity">Warmer oceans fuel hurricane activity</h2>



The researchers approached the study in a direct fashion by monitoring specific hurricanes through climate model simulations.



Previous long-range hurricane prediction relied on indirect measures like sea surface temperature or atmospheric pressure trends. Real-time storm monitoring maximizes precision and offers valuable data regarding impending hurricane <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-cities-are-increasingly-vulnerable-to-hurricanes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



Higher ocean surface temperatures, particularly in the Atlantic, are driving the increase in hurricane activity. Higher temperatures provide the additional energy needed for storms to form and intensify.



With warmer ocean water, the hurricanes intensify faster and produce more powerful and destructive storms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-winds-and-coastal-infrastructure">Changing winds and coastal infrastructure</h2>



Another important factor in the projected rise in hurricane activity is changing atmospheric wind patterns. Variations in wind speed and direction at different altitudes of the atmosphere are conducive to the formation and strengthening of hurricanes.



Changes in the atmosphere are governed by natural climate variability and longer-term climate trends associated with global warming.



The projected increase in hurricane activity poses catastrophic threats to coastal infrastructure. Greater storm intensity and frequency have the potential to result in widespread damage to homes, roads, power lines, and critical services.



Planned infrastructure adaptation, including resilient building techniques and enhanced drainage, will increasingly play a vital role in reducing future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-hurricanes-are-intensifying-faster-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storm effects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emergency-management-strategies">Emergency management strategies </h2>



Societies exposed to heightened hurricane threats need to enhance their emergency management strategies. 



This involves well-established evacuation procedures, strong emergency communication systems, and comprehensive public education campaigns.



Proper management and preparedness can significantly minimize casualties and economic losses despite heightened hurricane threats. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-immediate-action">Call for immediate action</h2>



The research offers valuable information to communities to inform planning. Long-term forecasts enable communities to establish metrics for improving resilience and reducing damage.



Integrating science research into community planning enables local governments to manage and reduce hurricane hazards. 



With the urgent forecasts, governments, policymakers, and communities should take immediate action. Investments must be made in disaster preparedness, climate resilience, and adaptation.



With reliable forecasting now serving as unmistakable warning, communities have a rare opportunity to anticipate and prepare to safeguard themselves from increasingly menacing hurricane and storm threats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-025-00919-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Climate and Atmospheric Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How hurricane activity will change over the next decade

Nature’s fury is most vividly displayed in hurricanes - powerful...

A newly identified version of a gene in the human genome appears to have influenced our capacity for complex speech, distinguishing our species from close relatives like Neanderthals and Denisovans.&nbsp;



This finding could help explain why Homo sapiens alone developed sophisticated language, an ability that underpins much of our culture and technology.



A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rockefeller University</a> has pinpointed a particular protein variant - found only in modern humans - that alters vocalization.&nbsp;



When introduced into mice, this version of a gene called NOVA1 changed the ultrasonic calls the animals produce, hinting at its potential role in the evolutionary roots of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human speech</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-behind-complex-speech">Genetics behind complex speech</h2>



Modern humans have long been known to possess numerous adaptations in their anatomy and nervous system that enable speech, including specialized vocal tracts and brain regions devoted to language processing. Yet the genetics behind this capacity remains poorly understood.&nbsp;



One candidate gene, FOXP2, has been linked to speech and language disorders in people, but evidence suggests <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-evolution-was-more-complex-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> also possessed the same FOXP2 variant - leaving open questions about what truly sets humans apart.



The team behind the current study focused on NOVA1, first identified in the early 1990s for its essential contribution to brain function.&nbsp;



“Such changes may have played important roles in the acquisition of characteristics that have contributed to the emergence, expansion, and survival of Homo sapiens,” said first author Yoko Tajima, a postdoctoral associate at Rockefeller University.&nbsp;



Researchers have found that variants of NOVA1 are associated with language and motor difficulties, underlining the gene’s profound influence on neural development.



Unlike the versions of NOVA1 that appear in other mammals, birds, and even archaic humans, the form carried by modern humans contains a single amino acid substitution referred to as I197V. This difference, though seemingly small, may have had outsized consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprising-twist-nbsp">A surprising twist&nbsp;</h2>



To explore the functional impact of I197V, scientists used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR editing</a> to replace the standard NOVA1 gene in mice with the human-specific variant. They then examined how this change altered the animals’ brain activity.&nbsp;



Initially, there was no detectable shift in the genes responsible for motor control or overall neural development - implying the mice developed normally in most respects.



Soon, however, a critical clue emerged: many of the transcripts affected by the human NOVA1 variant were tied to vocalization.&nbsp;



Study leader Robert B. Darnell is head of the Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology at Rockefeller.&nbsp;



“We found that when we ‘transliterated’ the squeaks made by mice with the human-specific I197V variant, they were different from those of the wild-type mice. Some of the ‘letters’ had changed,” said Darnell. “It was one of those really surprising moments in science.”



When the team tested how adult male mice “spoke” to female mice during mating attempts, they discovered that the engineered mice produced distinct vocal patterns.&nbsp;



“They ‘talked’ differently to the female mice,” Darnell noted. “One can imagine how such changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baleen-whales-cannot-escape-human-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocalization</a> could have a profound impact on evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-archaic-humans-and-complex-speech">Archaic humans and complex speech</h2>



To determine whether this genetic alteration was unique to Homo sapiens, the researchers compared modern human NOVA1 to the genomes of Neanderthals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-denisovan-species-humans-lived-undisturbed-tibetan-plateau-160000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Denisovans</a>, human relatives who lived tens of thousands of years ago.&nbsp;



Both archaic lineages possessed the older NOVA1 form seen in other species - lacking the I197V substitution. A further check of over 650,000 modern human genomes revealed that nearly everyone carries the I197V version of NOVA1, solidifying its status as a widespread and defining feature of our species.



“This gene is part of a sweeping evolutionary change in early modern humans and hints at potential ancient origins of spoken language,” Darnell said. “NOVA1 may be a bona fide human ‘language gene,’ though certainly it’s only one of many human-specific genetic changes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While NOVA1’s impact on speech is not yet fully understood, these findings open important research paths. Future work could examine how this human-specific variant contributes to developmental disorders, including those affecting language.&nbsp;



“Our discovery could have clinical relevance in many ways, ranging from developmental disorders to neurodegenerative disease,” Darnell said.



NOVA1’s neural pathways might help explain why some conditions prevent speech or hamper vocal communication.&nbsp;



The gene has been associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-diagnoses-have-almost-tripled-in-the-us-over-the-past-ten-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autism</a> spectrum disorder, and earlier studies from the same group reported a patient with mutations in NOVA1 who presented speech delays, among other neurological issues. Investigating how I197V influences brain circuitry could yield insights into such disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-and-human-uniqueness">Language and human uniqueness</h2>



The capacity for complex speech, coupled with advanced cognitive functions, has propelled humans to remarkable achievements - from passing down knowledge orally to building global civilizations. 



This study highlights that our linguistic edge may be rooted in subtle but pivotal genetic differences - differences that evolved after our lineage diverged from archaic humans.



Though the NOVA1 variant alone does not explain why humans can speak while other hominids could not, it highlights one of the many genetic innovations underlying our species’ linguistic abilities.&nbsp;



With further work, scientists hope to piece together more of the molecular puzzle behind language, offering a glimpse into what truly made Homo sapiens the world’s great storytellers.



The study is published in the journal Nature Communications.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-oncology at The Rockefeller University



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How did humans start talking? Scientists may have found the answer

A newly identified version of a gene in the human...

Fossils newly unearthed in southeastern Australia have upended long-held assumptions about dinosaur evolution, revealing the world’s oldest known megaraptorid and the first confirmed evidence of carcharodontosaurs on the continent.&nbsp;



These discoveries paint a vivid picture of an unusual predator hierarchy that once roamed the region during the Early Cretaceous, adding a crucial piece to the puzzle of dinosaur history.



The research was carried out by a team led by <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/research-institute/">Museums Victoria Research Institute</a> and <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a> PhD student Jake Kotevski.&nbsp;



The study focused on five <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/">theropod</a> fossils found along Victoria’s coastline. They were collected in the upper Strzelecki (Bass Coast, dating back roughly 121.4–118 million years) and the Eumeralla Formation (Otway Coast, about 113–108 million years old).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-thriving-in-australia-nbsp">Dinosaurs thriving in Australia&nbsp;</h2>



The newly studied remains suggest an unexpected arrangement of carnivorous dinosaurs. They indicate that large megaraptorids - measuring between six and seven meters long - coexisted alongside smaller carcharodontosaurs that reached only two to four meters in length, as well as the agile, meter-long unenlagiines (nicknamed “southern raptors”). 



This stands in stark contrast to better-known ecosystems where carcharodontosaurs typically surpassed other predatory dinosaurs in size.



“The discovery of carcharodontosaurs in Australia is groundbreaking,” Kotevski said. “It’s fascinating to see how Victoria’s predator hierarchy diverged from South America, where carcharodontosaurs reached <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>-like sizes up to 13 metres, towering over megaraptorids. Here, the roles were reversed, highlighting the uniqueness of Australia’s Cretaceous ecosystem.”



Two of the newly identified fossils rank among the earliest megaraptorids known worldwide, prompting experts to reconsider their evolutionary timeline.&nbsp;



Because these megaraptorids thrived in Australia at such an early date, they may have played a more pivotal role in Gondwanan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/">predator</a> communities than previously recognized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-clues-about-dinosaur-migration-nbsp">New clues about dinosaur migration&nbsp;</h2>



According to Dr. Thomas Rich, senior curator of vertebrate palaeontology at Museums Victoria Research Institute, the fossils also hint at broader patterns of dinosaur dispersal in the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



He noted that the findings not only expand Australia’s theropod fossil record but offer compelling evidence of faunal interchange between Australia and South America through Antarctica during the Early Cretaceous.&nbsp;



“The findings also challenge previous assumptions about body-size hierarchies in Gondwanan predator ecosystems highlighting Victoria’s unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/">Cretaceous</a> fauna,” xplained Dr. Rich.



These links to other Gondwanan regions bolster the theory that dinosaurs and other animals migrated between connected landmasses before shifting continents isolated certain populations.&nbsp;



Over time, such isolation could have led to distinct paths of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/">evolutionary development</a>, explaining why Australian megaraptorids, rather than carcharodontosaurs, occupied the apex predator niche.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-museum-collections">Significance of museum collections </h2>



Beyond revealing hidden chapters of Australia’s dinosaur history, the study demonstrates the significance of museum collections in fueling new scientific breakthroughs. 



Researchers often depend on carefully preserved fossils that can remain unclassified for decades, awaiting fresh analytical methods or new comparative specimens before their true importance is revealed.



“Museum collections are crucial to advancing our understanding of prehistoric life,” said Tim Ziegler, the vertebrate palaeontology collection manager at Museums Victoria Research Institute.&nbsp;



“Specimens preserved in the State Collection for decades - unidentifiable until now - are providing new insights into the evolution of dinosaur ecosystems.”



The project also illustrates a longstanding tradition of mentorship, continuity, and collaboration among palaeontologists. Senior curator Dr. Rich, at Museums Victoria since 1974, has worked with multiple generations of researchers.&nbsp;



These efforts culminate in cutting-edge studies like Kotevski’s PhD research, forming a chain of inquiry that steadily advances what we know about ancient life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volunteers-in-the-field">Volunteers in the field</h2>



Three of the fossils in this study were first identified between 2022 and 2023 by a Museums Victoria volunteer, Melissa Lowery, demonstrating the critical role that community members play in paleontology.&nbsp;



With an eye for intriguing shapes and textures, volunteers often detect clues that lead to major discoveries.



Kotevski and his colleagues continue to search for additional remains at key sites, including the location where the large megaraptorid was found.&nbsp;



These expeditions form part of the long-running <a href="http://dinosaurdreaming.monash.edu/">Dinosaur Dreaming project</a>, responsible for uncovering over 10,000 fossils - from dinosaurs and birds to mammals and marine reptiles - since it began.&nbsp;



Each new bone or tooth refines scientists’ understanding of the richly varied ecosystems that existed on Australia’s ancient coastlines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-of-cretaceous-australia">Dinosaurs of Cretaceous Australia</h2>



Unusual for reversing the roles typically observed in other continents, Victoria’s predator lineage helps paleontologists envision a world where megaraptorids reigned supreme while smaller carcharodontosaurs prowled in their shadow.&nbsp;



By confirming that early megaraptorids inhabited the region and that carcharodontosaurs were present yet less dominant, these fossils challenge orthodox views on predator size hierarchies and evolutionary pathways within Gondwana.



As fieldwork continues, each new fragment of bone has the potential to reshape our perspective on how dinosaurs spread across the prehistoric southern supercontinent, adapted to different environments, and carved out ecological niches.&nbsp;



Together, the fossils detail a singular evolutionary story that sets Cretaceous Australia apart, forever changing how we see the era’s predatory power dynamics - and offering fresh directions for future discoveries.



Image Credit: Artwork by Jonathan Metzger. Source: Museums Victoria



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fossils discovered in Australia rewrite dinosaur history

Fossils newly unearthed in southeastern Australia have upended long-held assumptions...

Male fruit flies buzzing around in a small, contained arena sounds like a pretty ordinary science experiment. Yet one group of researchers noticed something unusual about how some of them reacted to a spinning disk.



They observed that while many flies stayed away from the disk, a select few hopped onto it and stayed for surprising amounts of time. 



<a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/2253355" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Wolf Huetteroth</a> from the <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leipzig</a> notes that these findings could open new questions about how body awareness develops in living creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-with-purpose">Flies spin with purpose</h2>



Many people think of fruit flies as tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> flitting around fruit bowls. Yet a recent study suggests that they might show optional behavior patterns that fit the definition of play. This observation challenges old assumptions about insects.



“Using several carousels, we generated and analyzed a total of around seven years of film data,” says Dr. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tilman-Triphan" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tilman Triphan</a>, the first author of the study. 



Researchers used several rotating platforms placed under a thin glass cover. Some flies dashed to the edge, but others returned to the carousel again and again.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-preferences">Individual preferences</h2>



A fraction of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> sought the disk and rode it in repeated sessions. Those individuals spent extended periods on the spinner, while their peers avoided it altogether. The behavior looked deliberate, rather than forced or random.



One aspect was the difference in how these seekers got onto the spinning surface. 



“However, we were able to distinguish whether the flies had deliberately walked onto the carousel or jumped onto it in an uncoordinated way. This allowed us to show that unplanned visits to the carousel were rather atypical for the playing flies,” says co-author <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/our-staff/f/clara-ferreira/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Clara H. Ferreira</a>, an assistant Professor at <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northumbria University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-value-of-body-sense">Possible value of body sense</h2>



The repeated interaction with the moving disk seems to involve <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00048.2011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proprioceptive feedback</a>, which refers to the body’s sense of position and motion.



If some flies are actively seeking the extra sensation, it might be fulfilling a hidden benefit. This is reminiscent of how certain mammals, like <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9861614/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a>, engage in rough-and-tumble routines that refine their coordination.



Some insects ended up swapping mealtime for more spins on the carousel. That trade-off hints at a possible reward gained from the turning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-develop-waxy-coating-to-withstand-warmer-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motion</a>. 



The interesting part is that these insects showed no direct advantage other than what seems to be playful amusement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-by-choice-not-force">Flies spin by choice, not force</h2>



Natural curiosity is often observed in higher animals, but insects rarely get credit for it. 



Here, the setting was calm, with continuous observation over days to capture genuine conduct. There were no artificial triggers that forced the flies onto the disk.



The team set up the environment to ensure no threat forced the flies to remain. If the spinning platform caused anxiety, they could easily walk away. 



Instead, some made a personal choice to return. This self-directed action adds weight to the suggestion of a real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-are-more-vulnerable-to-climate-change-than-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">playful attitude</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-it-matter-for-humans">Why does it matter for humans?</h2>



“This could help us to find out how we humans also develop efficient self-awareness of our bodies,” says Huetteroth. 



The clue lies in how the spinning motion may sharpen the brain’s ability to map physical space. Because the flies appear to seek out extra movement, they might be training themselves to adapt and respond to unexpected motion.



Similar responses appear in many species that enjoy roller coasters or spinning rides. Researchers believe the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-brain-connects-unrelated-concepts-through-reasoning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain learns</a> from these experiences, reinforcing internal models of balance and orientation.



If a small insect displays a version of this, it might show that the drive to engage in such activity evolved long ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-despite-easy-alternatives">Flies spin despite easy alternatives</h2>



The flies had easy access to food and water. They also had corners to rest without interruption. Despite these calmer options, some crawled over for a spin. 



That behavior did not enhance survival, which points toward a motivational factor besides hunger or fear.



Scientists have used <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5787388/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">open-field tests</a> to measure caution or stress in animals. 



Usually, creatures stay near edges when anxious. The carousel-seeking flies, however, went to the center and stayed. This breaks usual fear-driven patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



So far, scientists have only glimpsed how fruit flies pick between exploration, feeding, and spinning. The genetic tools available in fruit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemicals-are-changing-insects-in-subtle-yet-deadly-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> might shine more light on the neural wiring behind this playful bent. 



Perhaps targeted genetic studies will uncover exactly which circuits reward them for spinning.



In time, deeper understanding could reveal ways that controlled motion shapes a creature’s internal map. 



That concept might prove relevant to other animals, including humans learning how to handle complex movement or interactive environments.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00055-7?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225000557%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Flies like to play and have fun like other animals, according to a fascinating new study

Male fruit flies buzzing around in a small, contained arena...

Animals are not just wandering around aimlessly. They’re rearranging dirt, redirecting water, and influencing ecosystems in ways that scientists once considered impossible. 



New research reveals that animals of all shapes and sizes make surprising contributions to landscape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-losing-the-battle-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formation</a>. The sheer variety of these living movers and shakers has never been so carefully documented.



According to Professor Gemma Harvey, a geography specialist at Queen Mary University of London, this comprehensive look at animals as engineers changes how we view habitat dynamics.



Professor Harvey worked alongside collaborators in an effort to pinpoint exactly where and how these organisms move sediment, build structures, or alter waterways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-reshaping-landscapes">Animals reshaping landscapes </h2>



Scientists first noticed <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-abstract/38/11/753/294302?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beaver dams</a> having a major impact on river flow and wetland formation decades ago. They observed notable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-a-mix-of-habitats-are-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a> in water chemistry, fish populations, and flood patterns.



Since then, additional discoveries have spotlighted unexpected players like ants, <a href="https://gorongosa.org/hippos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippos</a>, and a wide range of fish species. Each creature modifies its surroundings in a specific way by shifting soil, building mounds, or even rerouting stream channels.



The research team gathered data on 603 distinct species, genera, or families that measurably change the earth’s surface.



The experts calculated that at least 76,000 gigajoules of energy are channeled into shaping landscapes every year, putting these activities on par with enormous flood events.



This figure is almost certainly on the lower side, because many regions such as tropical zones remain understudied. Many of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> are home to countless organisms that have yet to be fully documented.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-insects">A closer look at insects</h2>



Termites stand out for constructing intricate networks of mounds, sometimes visible over large distances. Their excavation and relocation of soil alter drainage, create microhabitats, and may even influence plant growth patterns.



<a href="https://portal.nifa.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/1022904-environmental-dynamics-of-ecosystem-engineering-ants-and-their-modifications-of-soil-structure.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ants</a> also manipulate their environment with small yet frequent digs that reshape the topsoil. This has implications for water infiltration and nutrient cycling - two factors that determine how plants thrive or struggle. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-and-flowing-waters">Fish and flowing waters</h2>



Salmon rearrange the gravel in streams when they prepare spawning sites, creating areas known as redds. This digging changes sediment composition, oxygen flow, and even nutrient distribution.



Other fish, such as certain species of catfish, disturb riverbeds while feeding or nesting. The effects can ripple out, sometimes encouraging different plants and invertebrates to settle in the newly created pockets of calm or fast water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-animals-could-disrupt-landscapes">Losing animals could disrupt landscapes</h2>



The study reveals that nearly 30% of these identified species are rare, <a href="https://www.iberdrola.com/sustainability/endemic-species" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endemic</a>, or threatened. If these animals disappear, their unique ways of moving earth and water could disappear along with them.



Environmental groups often focus on big predators or charismatic mammals, but these natural shapers deserve attention too. A collapse in their activities might lead to significant shifts in erosion, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-different-habitats-greatly-increase-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> formation, and nutrient flow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-for-restoration">Strategies for restoration</h2>



Projects that introduce or protect earth-moving species are gaining momentum, especially in places grappling with flooding and soil erosion. By giving these organisms room to be productive, communities might tap into a natural way to slow down water or stabilize fragile ground.



Conservationists have looked at <a href="https://rewildingeurope.com/what-is-rewilding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rewilding</a> efforts involving beavers in various U.S. states. The results hint that their dam-building can help recharge aquifers and keep precious water from draining away too quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-animal-landscapes-from-above">Viewing animal landscapes from above</h2>



Advanced satellite <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07459-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> has opened our eyes to the large-scale patterns created by species like termites. Their sprawling mounds can sometimes stretch for hundreds of miles, forming patchwork landscapes that affect everything from water runoff to vegetation growth.



High-resolution imagery also shows how animals alter terrain in desert regions and mountainous areas. Such observations confirm that our planet’s architecture is shaped by claws, mandibles, and hooves as much as by wind or rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthier-landscapes-for-the-future">Healthier landscapes for the future</h2>



Conserving these animal-engineered systems may become a critical part of climate resilience strategies. They offer a low-cost way to manage floods, maintain fertile soils, and preserve the diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-caps-may-only-exist-because-of-unusual-climate-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> that humans rely on.



Studies suggest that reintroducing certain species or encouraging their return could be more effective than large-scale engineering fixes. There is growing optimism that these surprising architects might help us secure healthier landscapes for the future.



“This research shows that the role of animals in shaping Earth’s landscapes is much more significant that previously recognized,” noted Professor Harvey.



Experts suspect that losing certain species might disrupt vital processes, including how wetlands form and how soils develop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed </h2>



Large-scale community engagement could encourage solutions that blend nature’s own building crews into restoration projects. Whether it’s constructing wetlands or improving soil quality, allowing animals to continue their ancient routines might cut costs and preserve biodiversity.



Some regions have already embraced these approaches, but further research is needed to confirm their long-term viability. More insights will likely emerge as technology helps us keep an eye on these ecosystem architects from space.



Moving ahead, scientists aim to map more species that churn soil, channel water, or shape habitats in overlooked corners of the planet. These efforts may add fresh scientific insights that see animals not only for their beauty, but also for their indispensable role in steadily shaping our world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2415104122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Animals secretly reshape landscapes in powerful ways

Animals are not just wandering around aimlessly. They’re rearranging dirt,...

Blue whales, the largest creatures on Earth, remain remarkably elusive despite their immense size. One of the most intriguing mysteries about them is their reproductive cycle.



Only two blue whale births have ever been recorded in human history - both decades ago. This is puzzling, considering that the global blue whale population is estimated at between 10,000 and 25,000 individuals, and they give birth every two to three years.



With so many births expected over time, why have so few been documented? Sightings of calves remain significantly low, raising concerns among marine biologists.



A University of Washington study may explain why blue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-predicts-whale-movements-to-reduce-deadly-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> calves are rarely seen. The researchers analyzed long-term data and historical records to explore this mystery.



The findings suggest that blue whale calves are out there - but scientists may not be looking in the right place at the right time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-sightings-of-blue-whale-calves">Rare sightings of blue whale calves</h2>



Blue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-whales-use-songs-to-hide-from-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> calves are rarely seen, even though pregnancies are common. They are sometimes spotted with their mothers, but far fewer pairs are recorded than expected. 



Many theories have attempted to explain this mystery. Some scientists have speculated that blue whale calves have low survival rates. Others have proposed that many pregnancies do not reach full term. 



Another theory suggests that mother and calf pairs avoid areas where researchers typically conduct studies. Each of these possibilities has been considered, but none fully explains why calves are so rarely observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-theory-emerges">A new theory emerges</h2>



Trevor Branch, a professor of aquatic and fishery sciences at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>, analyzed multiple hypotheses to determine why so few blue whale calves are sighted. His research points to a simple but often overlooked factor: the seasonal timing of field studies.



Most blue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale research</a> takes place in the summer months when these massive creatures gather in feeding grounds to consume krill. However, blue whale births occur in fall and winter, when they migrate to warmer waters. 



By the time researchers return to their usual study areas in summer, the calves have already grown and separated from their mothers, making them much harder to identify.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-migration-patterns">Seasonal migration patterns </h2>



Blue whales follow a well-established migratory pattern. During the summer, they travel to colder waters to feed on dense populations of krill. 



Locations such as the California coast serve as primary feeding grounds. However, when it is time to give birth, they move toward warmer waters, such as the Gulf of California and the eastern tropical Pacific.



Calves remain with their mothers for about seven months after birth. By the time they return to feeding areas in the summer, they are already independent and no longer travel alongside their mothers. 



This could explain why researchers, who focus on summer feeding grounds, rarely encounter mother-calf pairs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-blue-whale-calves">Observations of blue whale calves </h2>



Pregnancy rates among different blue whale populations range from 33% to 50% annually. However, recorded sightings of mother-calf pairs make up only about 3.1% of all blue whale observations.



This gap has raised concerns about the health of blue whale populations. Some researchers feared that the species might be experiencing high calf mortality or declining birth rates, but the new findings suggest that this may not be the case. 



"My conceptual model can explain the mystery of the missing calves: Blue whales produce calves, or give birth, shortly after departing their summer feeding grounds, and wean their calves seven months later, just before they return,” explained Professor Branch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-blue-whale-populations">Monitoring blue whale populations </h2>



Professor Branch analyzed long-term field studies and whaling records. He found more blue whale calves in wintering regions than in summer feeding areas. This suggests calves are born and raised in places that are rarely studied.



Branch is now coordinating a large-scale collaboration to gather data across different months and locations. His goal is to confirm this pattern by tracking calf sightings and estimating their size throughout the year. 



If successful, this study could reshape how scientists monitor and protect blue whale populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-hopeful-outlook-for-blue-whales">A hopeful outlook for blue whales</h2>



Instead of indicating a population crisis, the low sightings of blue whale calves could be a result of research bias. If scientists shift their focus to winter and spring habitats, they may discover that more calves exist than previously thought.



"This new idea provides an alternative explanation for why some blue whale populations appear to produce very few calves: It's not a failure of calf production, it's because fieldwork in those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-poop-is-a-natural-fertilizer-that-keeps-the-ocean-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> is understandably concentrated in easily accessible summer feeding areas," noted Professor Branch.



The findings highlight the importance of adjusting research methods to account for seasonal migration patterns.



If researchers focus more on wintering regions, they may gain a better understanding of blue whale reproduction and calf survival rates.



This study, supported in part by the <a href="https://iwc.int/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Whaling Commission</a>, could change how scientists study blue whales. Expanding research beyond summer feeding areas may reveal more about their births and improve their protection.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/esr/v56/p53-67/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endangered Species Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why blue whale calves are rarely seen in the wild

Blue whales, the largest creatures on Earth, remain remarkably elusive...

The persistence of certain toxic chemicals in the environment has emerged as a modern threat. Among them, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) pose a severe menace to wildlife and humans, infiltrating and accumulating in our systems over time. 



New research suggests a particularly high concentration of these chemicals in migratory birds, contributing to alarmingly high levels of these substances in our environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pfas-a-lasting-threat-to-birds">PFAS: A lasting threat to birds</h2>



PFAS, known as "forever chemicals" due to their resilience, are synthetic substances found in countless industrial and consumer products - from non-stick cookware to waterproof clothing, food packaging, and firefighting foams. 



Due to their non-degradable nature, these compounds persist in the environment and infiltrate living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-navigate-using-clues-from-earths-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a>.



These chemical contaminants not only exist in the air we breathe and the food we consume, but are also present in human blood. 



The accumulation of PFAS can lead to serious health implications such as liver damage, immune system suppression, endocrine disruption, reduced fertility, and various forms of cancer.



Despite increasing awareness, their pervasive use makes complete avoidance nearly impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pfas-pollution-spreading-in-birds">PFAS pollution spreading in birds</h2>



Recent studies have shown more alarming levels of PFAS in different ecosystems, particularly in birds migrating long distances. 



“The biggest increase is in the livers of wading birds. We found up to 180 times more PFAS than previously,” noted Junjie Zhang, a postdoctoral fellow formerly affiliated with the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.ntnu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NTNU</a>).



This discovery indicates that our previous understanding of contamination levels significantly underestimated the actual situation.



Animals, particularly migratory birds, ingest PFAS through their diet and drinking water. As these birds rely on various habitats during their journeys, they are likely to consume polluted food sources, thereby ingesting these toxic substances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-bird-and-seafood-contamination">Analyzing bird and seafood contamination</h2>



Recently, Zhang's team analyzed samples from migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and the shellfish they consume. The goal was to learn more about how PFAS infiltrate the ecosystem.



The samples were collected from the East Asian-Australian Flyway, which is a critical migratory route for millions of shorebirds.



The results of the analysis indicated that shellfish living in polluted waters absorb these chemicals. Birds then ingest the shellfish, leading to an accumulation of toxins within their bodies, which they carry across continents, spreading contamination further.



A significant development in the recent study is the successful use of the Total Oxidizable Precursor (TOP) assay. This advanced detection method, developed by co-author Lara Cioni, allows scientists to identify PFAS compounds previously difficult to identify.



“The TOP results show a significant increase in several types of harmful substances in all of the samples,” noted Zhang.



With studies like these, we are gaining insights into the hidden sources of contamination and how they are impacting our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-further-research">Urgent need for further research</h2>



Given the unknown sources of contamination and the alarming rate at which these substances are infiltrating our ecosystems, further research is crucial. 



As these chemicals also find their way into seafood, humans, particularly those relying on seafood, could be at severe risk.



“We need to find out more about the sources, but also about the effects PFAS have on wading birds, other animals and humans,” said Professor Veerle Jaspers of NTNU’s Department of Biology.



The PFAS issue is not isolated to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>; it is a global human health crisis. The rising levels discovered in migratory birds emphasize the urgency for immediate action. The fact that birds carry these chemicals across the globe means that no region is immune to this threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-populations-of-shorebirds">Declining populations of shorebirds </h2>



The researchers noted that shorebirds are under threat worldwide and are particularly threatened in the East Asian Australian Flyway, where many species are declining by up to 8% per year.



"The causes for these population declines can be diverse including habitat loss, habitat alterations, climate change but also pollution along the East Asian Australian Flyway, especially in coastal China, has been suggested to play a role," wrote the experts.



"The coast of China is the most important replenishing area for shorebirds in the EAAF where they are feeding on the tidal mudflats on a diet of shellfish and other benthic invertebrates." 



"At the same time, this coastline is heavily impacted by mollusc aquaculture&nbsp;and industry, resulting in environmental contamination including PFAS."



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389425001013?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Hazardous Materials</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Migratory birds reveal alarming new clues about the spread of PFAS

The persistence of certain toxic chemicals in the environment has...

In many parts of the world, traditional landscapes once dominated by wild herbivores are undergoing dramatic changes.&nbsp;Livestock grazing has replaced native grazers, leading to shifts in soil composition, plant diversity, and the delicate balance of predator-prey interactions. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-have-an-unexpected-role-in-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transformations</a> are often subtle, unfolding over years, but their consequences can be far-reaching.



A long-term study in the Spiti valley of the Himalayas sheds light on how this shift is affecting ground-dwelling arthropods, including spiders, ticks, and mites. 



The findings reveal a concerning trend - spider populations are dwindling while disease-carrying organisms such as ticks and mites are thriving. 



These changes have direct implications for biodiversity, ecological stability, and even human health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-livestock-grazing-the-basics">Global livestock grazing - the basics</h2>



The expansion of livestock grazing areas has been reshaping landscapes around the world for decades. As global demand for meat and dairy products grows, ranchers and agribusinesses clear more land for cattle, sheep, and other grazing animals. 



In places like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a>, vast stretches of trees are cut down to create pastures, contributing to deforestation and habitat loss. 



Grasslands, savannas, and even arid regions are also being converted into grazing land, often at the cost of native ecosystems. 



Some regions are turning to regenerative grazing techniques, which involve rotating animals across different pastures to mimic natural grazing patterns and allow the land to recover. 



Others are exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-based-food-production-would-have-extremely-positive-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based</a> alternatives and lab-grown meat to reduce pressure on the planet. 



The challenge is balancing food production with environmental sustainability, and as global appetites grow, finding solutions becomes even more urgent.



While livestock farming plays a major role in feeding the world, its rapid expansion raises a multitude of concerns, many of which we will discuss in this article.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-in-livestock-grazed-areas">Spiders in livestock-grazed areas</h2>



The researchers found that livestock-grazed areas had fewer spiders but more grasshoppers, ticks, and mites. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-arachnid-evolution-the-surprising-history-of-spiders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiders</a> play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance by controlling insect populations.



Study co-author Sumanta Bagchi is an associate professor at the Centre for Ecological Sciences (<a href="https://ces.iisc.ac.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CES</a>), Indian Institute of Science (IISc).



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiders</a> are predators; their ecological roles are similar to wolves, lions, and tigers. A low abundance of spiders can release grasshoppers from predator control, and lead to many downstream changes in an ecosystem. Together, these effects alter material and energy flow,” explained Bagchi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-replacing-wild-herbivores-with-livestock">Replacing wild herbivores with livestock</h2>



Bagchi and his team have studied livestock’s impact on Spiti valley <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-supplements-reduce-methane-in-grazing-cattle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> for over 15 years. They note that wild herbivores like yak and ibex once thrived globally but are now confined to protected areas. Elsewhere, domesticated animals dominate.



For the study, the researchers tracked over 25,000 arthropods from 88 taxa, including spiders, ticks, mites, bees, wasps, and grasshoppers. 



They monitored fenced plots with either wild or domestic grazers and analyzed soil moisture, pH, and vegetation biomass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupting-arthropod-habitats">Disrupting arthropod habitats</h2>



Shamik Roy, former PhD student at CES and co-first author, pointed out that arthropods have long-established ties with native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-grasslands-bring-more-peace-to-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grazers</a>.



“Vegetation and soil biotic and abiotic variables are intertwined in complex ways that we are still unravelling. Arthropods heavily depend on them for food and home, an association developed over centuries with native grazers in the ecosystem,” noted Roy.



Replacing these grazers disrupts arthropod populations. The study found that spiders declined in livestock-grazed areas, while ticks and mites flourished. 



The reasons behind spider declines are unclear, but reduced prey availability and vegetation changes may contribute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-disease-carrying-arthropods">Increasing disease-carrying arthropods</h2>



Pronoy Baidya, former PhD student at CES and co-first author, highlights a concerning trend. 



“One of the most surprising observations was the massive difference in tick and mite abundance between native grazers and livestock,” Baidya said.



Eighty percent of cattle worldwide carry ticks, which poses risks to both animals and humans. “This is a major concern for zoonotic diseases and One Health,” said Baidya.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-livestock-grazing-and-vegetation">Livestock grazing and vegetation</h2>



Livestock grazing affects vegetation structure and soil health in complex ways. The study revealed that areas with domestic grazers had different plant compositions compared to those with native herbivores. 



Changes in plant types influence arthropod diversity and alter food availability for different species.



Soil conditions, including moisture and pH levels, also shift under livestock grazing. These changes impact microbial communities, further influencing the ecosystem. 



Healthy soil supports diverse vegetation, which in turn sustains a balanced arthropod population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-land-management">Conservation and land management</h2>



To mitigate these effects, the researchers suggest reintroducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-succession-animal-herbivore-mass-migration-serengeti/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native</a> herbivores and monitoring vector-borne diseases. Conservation policies should focus on balancing livestock grazing and preserving ecosystems.



“Currently, most of the commons are rather mismanaged, allowing people from villages to unsustainably utilise these commons for their livelihoods, and in the process denying the local herbivores their grazing areas,” said Baidya.



“Our study will hopefully be an example which may nudge governments to take serious steps for freeing up the commons first and then starting proper ecological restoration of these lands.”



Restoring wild herbivores and managing grazing lands could help rebuild ecosystems and reduce disease risks. 



These changes require action to protect biodiversity and maintain ecological balance. Sustainable land-use practices and better management of grazing areas can prevent further ecological disruption.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.3091" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Applications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Livestock grazing is changing soil, plants, and insect populations

In many parts of the world, traditional landscapes once dominated...

While sexual reproduction is the predominant strategy among animals, some species have evolved the ability to reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis. In these species, females can produce offspring without mating.&nbsp;



However, even in predominantly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-asexual-ants-maintain-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asexual species</a>, rare males occasionally appear. What remains unclear is whether these males retain reproductive functions or if they are merely evolutionary remnants. 



Understanding this question could provide crucial insights into the evolution and persistence of reproductive strategies in nature.



A new study, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4522" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>, addresses this mystery by examining the rare males of Ramulus mikado, a species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stick-and-leaf-insects-have-all-evolved-the-same-basic-body-parts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stick insect</a> in Japan where parthenogenetic reproduction is the norm. 



The research was led by assistant professor Tomonari Nozaki from the <a href="https://www.nibb.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute for Basic Biology</a>, professor Kenji Suetsugu from <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>, and associate professor Shingo Kaneko from <a href="https://english.adb.fukushima-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fukushima University</a>.



The results provide compelling evidence that these males, despite their mating attempts, have completely lost their reproductive function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-males-with-no-reproductive-function">Males with no reproductive function </h2>



The researchers closely studied the behavior and physiology of these rare males and found that, although they actively engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-trick-their-way-into-mating-by-removing-testosterone-from-their-bodies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating</a> with females, they did not contribute genetically to the next generation. 



Genetic analysis confirmed that no male-derived genes were passed on to the offspring, indicating that these males are effectively sterile.



The findings revealed that, although the males display typical stick insect morphology and mating behaviors, they do not produce functional sperm. This means that sexual reproduction cannot be restored in the species, even in the presence of males.&nbsp;



Interestingly, female reproductive organs associated with sexual reproduction showed signs of degeneration, further suggesting that the species has been evolving without sexual reproduction for a long time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-rare-males-to-study">Finding rare males to study</h2>



One of the major hurdles in conducting this study was obtaining specimens of these rare males.



“In fact, we have never personally encountered a male R. mikado in the wild, despite extensive field collections of stick insects across Japan,” Suetsugu said. “To overcome this, our research team collaborated with museums and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-gain-a-stronger-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citizen science</a> groups, successfully collecting seven males over four years.”



The collected males were then observed in controlled conditions, where their mating behavior was recorded. Additionally, researchers conducted detailed morphological and histological analyses to examine their reproductive anatomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-reproductive-traits-in-males">Loss of reproductive traits in males</h2>



The study raises important questions about the long-term evolutionary trajectory of asexual species.



“Surprisingly, the rare males of this stick insect have completely lost their reproductive function,” Kaneko remarked.



“Unlike female sexual traits, the loss of male sexual traits is generally thought to take an extremely long time. In many other species, even rare males often retain their reproductive capabilities.”&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that R. mikado has relied solely on parthenogenesis for such an extended period that even neutral mutations have accumulated, leading to the complete loss of male reproductive traits.”



This suggests that once a species becomes fully dependent on parthenogenesis, the re-emergence of sexual reproduction may become impossible. Over time, genetic changes accumulate that further reinforce the asexual mode of reproduction, making the reversal to sexual reproduction unlikely.



“This study demonstrates that parthenogenesis in R. mikado has become irreversible. Although asexual reproduction is often considered evolutionarily short-lived due to the lack of genetic recombination, our previous research estimated that this species has persisted for hundreds of thousands of years," said Nozaki.



"How has R. mikado managed to survive for such a long time? This remains an intriguing mystery for future research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-viability-of-asexual-reproduction">Long-term viability of asexual reproduction</h2>



Biologists have long debated the evolutionary fate of asexual organisms. Many studies suggest that asexual reproduction, while advantageous in the short term, can be an evolutionary dead end due to the absence of genetic recombination.&nbsp;



Without recombination, harmful mutations can accumulate, and the population may struggle to adapt to environmental changes or resist emerging pathogens.



Yet, the persistence of R. mikado challenges this assumption. If this stick insect species has survived for hundreds of thousands of years without sexual reproduction, it raises the question of what mechanisms allow it to maintain<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> genetic diversity</a> and adaptability. 



One possibility is rare genetic mutations that provide variation even in the absence of recombination. Another explanation could be environmental stability, where selective pressures have remained relatively constant, reducing the need for genetic diversity.&nbsp;



There is also the potential for cryptic mechanisms of genetic exchange, such as occasional hybridization events with related species - though no evidence of this has been found in R. mikado.



These possibilities open new avenues for research into the sustainability of asexual reproduction in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The study on R. mikado is part of a broader effort to understand how parthenogenetic species evolve and persist. Future research may focus on identifying the genetic changes responsible for male sterility and exploring whether other parthenogenetic stick insect species have undergone similar irreversible transitions.



Additionally, scientists are interested in investigating how R. mikado avoids the pitfalls associated with asexual reproduction, such as genetic stagnation and vulnerability to environmental shifts. Comparative studies with other stick insect species, both sexual and asexual, could provide valuable insights into these evolutionary dynamics.



By continuing to study rare cases like R. mikado, researchers hope to unravel the complexities of reproductive evolution and better understand the forces shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in nature.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some male insects have lost the ability to reproduce but still have sex

While sexual reproduction is the predominant strategy among animals, some...

Evolution has shaped life on Earth for billions of years. Organisms adapt to their surroundings, developing traits that help them survive. From bacteria resisting antibiotics to viruses mutating to evade vaccines, evolution is always at work. 



But what if evolution itself could change over time?



A new study from the University of Michigan (U-M) explores this very idea. The research suggests that evolution does not just happen - it improves itself. 



The ability to evolve, known as "evolvability," might be something that organisms can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance over generations</a>.



Luis Zaman, an evolutionary biologist at <a href="https://umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U-M</a> and the study’s lead author, finds this concept fascinating. 



"Life is really, really good at solving problems. If you look around, there's so much diversity in life, and that all these things come from a common ancestor seems really surprising to me," said Zaman. 



"Why is evolution so seemingly creative? It seems like maybe that ability is something that evolved itself."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-and-the-potential-to-adapt">Evolution and the potential to adapt</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary theories</a> focus on how mutations increase an organism’s fitness in its environment. A beneficial mutation gives an organism a survival advantage, helping it pass those traits to future generations. 



However, evolvability is different. It does not focus on immediate fitness. Instead, it increases an organism’s potential to adapt to new challenges in the future.



"This forward-looking feature of evolvability makes it contentious. We think it's important. We know it happens. Why it happens and when it happens is something we're less clear about," Zaman explained.



"We were trying to figure out: Can we see the evolution of evolvability in a more realistic computational model?"



To answer this question, the researchers designed an experiment to simulate evolution. They wanted to explore whether populations could develop an improved ability to evolve when faced with changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-model-to-test-evolution">Building a model to test evolution</h2>



To test their hypothesis, the researchers built a computational model using logic functions. They compared the model to a population that could only consume certain types of berries. 



In one environment, red berries were beneficial, while blue berries were toxic. In another, the roles reversed. A population could only thrive in one of these two conditions at a time.



They ran two different scenarios. In one, the environment remained stable, meaning a population only had to adapt once. 



In another, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment changed regularly</a>, forcing the population to shift between eating red and blue berries.



The goal was to observe how populations adapted under these different conditions and whether their ability to evolve improved over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-change-boosts-evolvability">Environmental change boosts evolvability</h2>



The results revealed something remarkable. Populations exposed to shifting environments showed a significant increase in evolvability. 



Instead of becoming specialists in one condition, they developed traits that allowed them to survive in both.



Mutations increased a thousandfold in populations that had to switch between eating red and blue berries. 



This meant that organisms were not just adapting to their current surroundings - they were also developing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability to adapt</a> to future changes more efficiently.



The key takeaway was that exposure to varying conditions could push populations to evolve in a way that made them better at evolving itself. 



This supports the idea that evolvability is not just a byproduct of evolution but a trait that natural selection can shape over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-mutational-neighborhoods">Role of mutational neighborhoods</h2>



The researchers used a computational system called Avida to simulate evolutionary processes. This system allowed them to track how populations changed in response to fluctuating environments.



"You can think of the evolved computer programs as pathways of multiple genes made up of computer codes," said Zaman. "Each time the environment fluctuates, this pathway needs to be reconfigured to eat the new berries."



Mutational neighborhoods played a crucial role in this process. These neighborhoods represent genetic variations that allow populations to shift their survival strategies. 



Instead of relying on entirely new mutations, organisms could modify existing genetic pathways to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-both-predictable-and-random/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt</a> more quickly.



By studying these genetic shifts, the researchers gained deeper insights into how organisms adjust to unpredictable environments. Rather than starting from scratch each time, populations could "learn" how to evolve more efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-time-on-evolvability">Impact of time on evolvability</h2>



The researchers also investigated how the timing of environmental changes influenced evolvability. 



They tested three different scenarios: one where environments changed every generation, one where they changed every ten generations, and another where they changed every hundred generations.



The results showed that when environments changed too quickly, populations struggled to develop evolvability. 



However, even long cycle periods - hundreds of generations - could lead to significant improvements in an organism’s ability to adapt.



"Once a population has achieved this evolvability, it seems like it didn't get erased by future evolution," Zaman said.



This suggests that once evolution improves its ability to evolve, that trait does not disappear. Instead, it becomes a permanent feature, shaping how future generations adapt to their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-way-of-thinking-about-evolution">New way of thinking about evolution</h2>



This study challenges the traditional view of evolution as a purely reactive process. Instead, it suggests that evolution can refine itself over time, becoming more efficient in adapting to changing environments.



If evolvability can evolve, it raises new questions about how life has <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-walking-ecosystems-and-microbes-rule-their-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">persisted and diversified</a> over billions of years. 



Organisms that develop a greater capacity for adaptation may have a long-term advantage over those that rely solely on immediate survival traits.



By demonstrating that evolution itself can evolve, this research opens new possibilities for understanding the complexity of life. 



It suggests that the ability to change and improve is not just a random occurrence but a fundamental aspect of how life progresses.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2413930121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Evolution itself is found to be evolving as life constantly learns to adapt

Evolution has shaped life on Earth for billions of years....

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by the Wallace Line, had such different wildlife. They saw tigers and elephants on one side, while marsupials lived just a short boat ride away.



Dr. Penny Van Oosterzee, an ecological researcher at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a>, has studied these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> for years. She sees them as a reminder of how physical barriers can split habitats even when they sit close by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-separates-species">The Wallace Line separates species</h2>



The Wallace Line runs through Southeast Asia, marking where Asian species give way to Australian species. 



It crosses narrow waters between Borneo and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok, which lie only about 15 miles apart.



Even though it is not an official border, it acts like one for many animals. Flocks of Asian birds thrive on one side, but groups of Australian cockatoos stay on the other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-invisible-fence">An invisible fence </h2>



A deep ocean trench, known as the Makassar Strait, is key to this puzzle. During past ice ages, many islands were connected by land bridges when sea levels dropped.



Yet that submerged gap never vanished here, so animals could not simply wander across. Highly specialized species remained where they could find food, avoid predators, and keep up their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-development-shows-how-evolution-had-many-options-to-choose-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival strategies</a>.



Even birds, which can fly, tend to stay within their familiar habitats because of differences in climate and food availability. The Wallace Line, in many ways, acts like an invisible fence shaped by nature’s own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolving-evolution-how-life-learns-to-adapt-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">design</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-makassar-strait-the-basics">Understanding the Makassar Strait - the basics</h2>



The Makassar Strait is a narrow stretch of water that runs between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. 



It connects the Celebes Sea in the north to the Java Sea in the south, making it a key passage for ships traveling between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 



The strait isn’t just a busy maritime route - it’s also home to some incredible marine life. 



Strong ocean currents flow through, bringing nutrient-rich waters that support vibrant coral reefs, fish, and even deep-sea creatures. 



It’s a hotspot for divers and researchers alike, offering a glimpse into Indonesia’s rich underwater biodiversity.



The region is also a key focus for climate change research, as rising sea levels and shifting currents affect both marine ecosystems and coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-shaped-evolution">The Wallace Line shaped evolution</h2>



This unique divide helped shape some early ideas about how species change over time. It sparked thoughts on biogeography, the study of how plants and animals are distributed across the planet.



When Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/1800s/natural-selection-charles-darwin-alfred-russel-wallace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wrote</a> about natural selection in the mid-1800s, they each pointed to real-world examples of animals adapting to local conditions. 



The stark difference between these islands stood out to Wallace.



His observations supported the idea that species do not appear randomly but evolve based on their environment. 



The Wallace Line became one of the strongest cases for how geographic barriers can drive the formation of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-perspective">A different perspective</h2>



There are debates over the geographic accuracy of the line. Researchers have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/130/1/225/5802023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">called</a> for the boundary line to be redrawn.&nbsp;



“We suggest that Wallace’s Line be redrawn such that the landmass is placed on the Australasian side of this fundamental biogeographical boundary,” wrote Jason Ali and colleagues from the University of Hong Kong.



Shifting a line on a map may seem simple, but it shows how active science can be. As more research appears, definitions can move, and old ideas can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-and-human-history">The Wallace Line and human history</h2>



The idea of a boundary extends to humans and not only wildlife. The racial and political effects of the line have been studied at length.&nbsp;



“The difference between these two people had already been noticed by early European travelers, together with the difference in flora and fauna,” noted Fenneke Sysling from the University of Utrecht in The Netherlands.



Many decades ago, claims emerged that certain groups east of the line shared traits with Papuans, while those west of the line fit the Malay category. 



Debates around these claims have carried into modern times, highlighting how complex human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-borders-and-human-evolution">Geographic borders and human evolution</h2>



Various projects track bird populations, insects, and even marsupials (kangaroo) to see how borders and evolution link together. 



Shallow seas no longer block human travel, yet animals remain bound by their own quirks.



Scientists ask whether climate changes or habitat loss might shift wildlife distributions in the future. Updates on these studies add another layer of intrigue to a line first drawn in the 19th century.



The Wallace Line demonstrates how subtle geographic forces can create stark contrasts in living things. It also reminds us that physical distance is not always the main factor - evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> and chance play major roles.



With all of the debates and shifting perspectives, one thing is clear: the planet holds more surprises than any single line can capture.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The Wallace Line: A natural border line that no species will cross

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by the...

Large birds, the closest relatives of dinosaurs, have demonstrated their intelligence by solving physical challenges to access food. Scientists have now shown that emus and rheas, part of the palaeognath group, can tackle complex tasks.



Despite their reputation for lacking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a>, emus successfully developed a new technique to obtain food. They aligned a hole with a food chamber and adjusted its position efficiently in 90% of trials.



A male rhea not only used this method but also invented another - rotating a central bolt until the task collapsed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-crows-and-parrots">Beyond crows and parrots</h2>



Dr. Fay Clark, from Bristol’s <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/psychology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Psychological Science</a>, emphasized the importance of expanding avian research beyond commonly studied species.



“A large body of research shows that crows and parrots are effective problem-solvers, and while scientists have recently taken interest in other birds like gulls and birds of prey, all of these birds belong to the same phylogenetic group, Neognathae," noted Dr. Clark.



“The problem? The more we study the same species repeatedly, the more we create an ‘echo chamber’ of knowledge and create a false impression that other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> are less ‘intelligent’ but in reality they haven’t been studied to the same level.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-limits-of-palaeognaths">Cognitive limits of palaeognaths</h2>



Dr. Clark's research involved three palaeognath species - emus, rheas, and ostriches - at a local zoo.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-brain-evolution-birds-and-mammals-took-different-paths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> participated in ten test sessions using a rotating wheel that had to be aligned with a hole to receive a food reward. While emus and rheas demonstrated problem-solving abilities, the ostriches in this study did not innovate.



“We classify palaeognath innovation as low level or simplistic – and it is certainly not as complex as the innovation we see in crows and parrots," Dr. Clark explained.



“However, it is still a very important finding. There were no reports of technical innovation in palaeognaths before our study, and there was a prevailing view that they are ‘dumb’ birds."



“Our research suggests that is not true and that technical innovation may have evolved far earlier in birds than previously thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The study's authors plan to extend their research to more bird species, particularly those that have not been traditionally studied in cognitive science. 



A broader sample of birds interacting with the same rotating wheel task could help identify patterns in problem-solving abilities across different evolutionary groups.



Additionally, future research could explore how environmental factors influence intelligence. 



Do birds that face frequent challenges in the wild develop better problem-solving skills? How does social structure impact cognitive development? Answering these questions could deepen our understanding of avian intelligence.



“The more we study palaeognath birds, the more we can understand the broader picture of bird cognition. And because palaeognaths birds are the closest living relatives to dinosaurs, research might shed light on how dinosaurs behaved,” said Dr. Clark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-environment-in-bird-intelligence">Role of environment in bird intelligence</h2>



Bird intelligence does not exist in isolation - it develops in response to environmental challenges. Species that regularly face obstacles in the wild may develop problem-solving skills as a survival strategy.



For instance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-navigate-using-clues-from-earths-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> that forage in unpredictable conditions or compete for scarce resources might be more likely to innovate. 



Emus and rheas, which live in diverse habitats, may benefit from adaptability. Ostriches, however, tend to rely on speed and size rather than problem-solving to escape predators, which could explain their different approach to the task.



By studying birds in different settings, scientists can better understand how environment influences cognitive development. Future research could compare problem-solving abilities between wild and captive birds to see how natural challenges shape intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-bird-intelligence">Rethinking bird intelligence</h2>



The study challenges long-standing assumptions about intelligence in birds. By shifting the focus beyond traditionally studied species, scientists are uncovering new insights into the cognitive abilities of different bird groups. 



Palaeognaths, once thought to be among the least intelligent birds, have now demonstrated problem-solving skills that suggest a more complex picture of avian intelligence.



As research continues, it is likely that more bird species will prove to be capable of innovation and learning. The findings not only reshape how we view bird intelligence but also prompt new discussions about the evolutionary roots of problem-solving behavior. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-88217-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Large flightless birds are more intelligent than we realized

Large birds, the closest relatives of dinosaurs, have demonstrated their...

For centuries, sea turtles have followed the rhythms of the ocean, returning to the same shores where they were born for nesting and to lay their eggs. These ancient creatures, some of which have existed since the time of the dinosaurs, have always relied on nature’s consistency. 



But now, the climate is changing faster than ever, and the turtles must adapt - or risk losing entire generations.



New research offers a glimpse into how these resilient animals are responding. Scientists monitoring green and loggerhead turtles in <a href="https://cyprusturtles.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cyprus</a> have observed a remarkable shift. These turtles are nesting earlier each year, a subtle yet crucial adjustment that could determine the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">future of their species.</a>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shift-in-turtles-nesting-patterns">Shift in turtles nesting patterns</h2>



Temperature plays a crucial role in determining the survival and sex ratio of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-use-earths-magnetic-field-like-an-invisible-map/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea turtle</a> hatchlings. Unlike mammals, sea turtles do not have genetically predetermined sexes at birth. 



Instead, the temperature of the sand where the eggs are incubated decides whether more males or females will hatch. Warmer sand results in a higher number of female hatchlings, while cooler sand leads to more males. 



However, when temperatures rise too much, it can become too hot for the eggs to develop properly, leading to fewer hatchlings surviving.



Another important factor in turtle reproduction is "natal philopatry," a behavior where turtles return to the same beach where they hatched to lay their own eggs. This strong instinct means they may struggle to find new nesting sites even if their birthplace becomes too warm for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-show-signs-of-recovery-but-conservation-issues-remain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">successful hatching</a>.



A research team from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> and the Society for the Protection of Turtles studied nesting patterns over three decades. Their data suggests that if temperatures keep rising at the current rate, loggerhead turtles could face severe reproductive challenges by 2100. 



Without adapting their nesting schedule and laying eggs earlier in the season, they may struggle to produce enough viable offspring to sustain their population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-s-impact-on-turtle-nesting">Temperature’s impact on turtle nesting</h2>



Researchers placed temperature loggers in nests while females were laying eggs. They later retrieved them after the hatchlings emerged. The data indicated that turtles need to adjust their nesting by 0.5 days per year to maintain the current sex ratio and by 0.7 days per year to prevent egg failures.



Fortunately, loggerhead turtles seem to be adapting. The study shows they have already been nesting 0.78 days earlier per year since 1993. This shift has helped maintain hatching success, at least for now.



“This is a bit of good news, as we’ve shown that these turtles are responding to the elevated temperatures brought about by climate change by shifting to cooler months to nest," Professor Annette Broderick explained.



"There is no guarantee that they carry on doing this though – it’s very much dependent on how much the temperature rises, and also what they are eating. If the timing of production in terms of where their food's coming from shifts, then they could start to be disconnected ecologically between where they forage and where they breed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adjusting-the-nesting-schedule">Adjusting the nesting schedule </h2>



The research team also examined over 600 green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> nesting at a beach in North Cyprus. Their study aimed to understand what determines when these turtles start laying eggs each year.



The findings revealed that individual turtles adjust their nesting schedule based on sea temperature. 



For every 1°C rise in ocean temperature, they nested 6.47 days earlier. Temperature alone accounted for about 30% of this advancement. More experienced females and those laying multiple clutches also nested earlier.



“To know if the advancement we see now will continue into the future, it is crucial to understand the combined effects of changes in, for example, the age structure of the population, and how individual turtles respond to environmental change,” noted lead author Mollie Rickwood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-challenges-for-turtle-populations">Future challenges for turtle populations</h2>



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> are currently adapting to temperature changes, long-term survival remains uncertain. Cyprus may eventually become too warm for nesting, though cooler locations in the Mediterranean might provide alternative sites.



“Although our turtles appear to be coping with current rising temperatures, it is unclear how long they may be able to do this before conditions in Cyprus are no longer suitable, but cooler locations in the Mediterranean may become available for them to nest,” said Dr. Damla Beton from the Society for the Protection of Turtles.



The findings were published in Endangered Species Research and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Beating the heat: How sea turtles cope with warming waters

For centuries, sea turtles have followed the rhythms of the...

A rare, nearly complete skull unearthed in the Egyptian desert has led scientists to the identification of a new species of Hyaenodonta - an extinct group of powerful carnivorous mammals that once ruled as apex predators.&nbsp;



The research describes a leopard-sized creature nicknamed Bastetodon after an ancient Egyptian goddess. 



Boasting a robust bite and sharp, slicing teeth, this newly discovered predator would have preyed on primates, early elephants, and other mammals in a forested region that is now desert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bastetodon-predator-ruled-ancient-egypt">Bastetodon predator ruled ancient Egypt</h2>



The fossil was found by a team informally known as the Sallam Lab during an expedition to the Fayum Depression - a famous site for Paleogene fossils in northern Egypt.&nbsp;



Study lead author Shorouq Al-Ashqar is a paleontologist at <a href="https://www.mans.edu.eg/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mansoura University</a> and the <a href="https://www.aucegypt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American University</a> in Cairoù.



“For days, the team meticulously excavated layers of rock dating back around 30 million years,” said Al-Ashqar. Just as we were about to conclude our work, a team member spotted something remarkable - a set of large teeth sticking out of the ground."



His excited shout brought the team together, marking the beginning of an extraordinary discovery: a nearly complete skull of an ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apex carnivore</a>, a dream for any vertebrate paleontologist.



Using the preserved skull, the researchers determined that this apex predator was a member of Hyaenodonta, a group that thrived in African ecosystems well before the appearance of modern cats, dogs, or hyenas.&nbsp;



Despite the name, hyaenodonts were not closely related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-hyena-returns-to-egypt-after-5000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hyenas</a> but formed their own evolutionary lineage of formidable hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruler-of-a-prehistoric-food-chain">Ruler of a prehistoric food chain</h2>



Bastetodon draws its name from Bastet, the cat-headed goddess of protection in ancient Egyptian mythology, underscoring both the fossil’s feline-like snout and its Egyptian origin.&nbsp;



The “-odon” suffix, meaning “tooth,” emphasizes this animal’s defining trait: powerful jaws with slicing teeth designed for capturing and cutting through flesh.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_timeline_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_timeline_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1s.webp" alt="Locality map, stratigraphic column, and reconstruction of Bastetodon syrtos. A, map of Egypt showing the location of the Fayum Depression (rectangle); B, map of the Jebel Qatrani area displaying the distribution of vertebrate fossil quarries and their ages; C, stratigraphic column of the Jebel Qatrani area; D, reconstruction of the head and neck region of the new genus. Credit: Ahmed Morsi" class="wp-image-1960384"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Locality map, stratigraphic column, and reconstruction of Bastetodon syrtos. A, map of Egypt showing the location of the Fayum Depression (rectangle); B, map of the Jebel Qatrani area displaying the distribution of vertebrate fossil quarries and their ages; C, stratigraphic column of the Jebel Qatrani area; D, reconstruction of the head and neck region of the new genus. Credit: Ahmed Morsi</figcaption></figure>



Like the goddess Bastet, which symbolized protection and good health, Bastetodon would likely have ruled the prehistoric food chain in what was then a lush, forested environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-bastetodon-fossils">Revisiting Bastetodon fossils</h2>



Beyond describing Bastetodon, the study also revisits fossils discovered in the same region more than a century ago. 



These lion-sized hyaenodont remains were reclassified under the genus Sekhmetops, named for the lion-headed Egyptian goddess Sekhmet, a deity associated with war and wrath. 



The findings show Bastetodon and Sekhmetops both belonged to an African lineage of hyaenodonts that later spread into Asia, Europe, India, and North America. 



This new evidence challenges older assumptions that placed such fossils with hyaenodont groups from Europe.



The symbolic link between Bastet and Sekhmet in ancient Egyptian lore is mirrored in these two genera of apex predators. 



The researchers noted that by 18 million years ago, some related hyaenodonts evolved into the largest mammalian carnivores of their time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-predators-in-egypt-nbsp">Ancient predators in Egypt&nbsp;</h2>



The Fayum Depression, now an arid desert, once hosted a flourishing tropical habitat teeming with mammalian life. 



Its rock layers, dating from the Eocene through the Oligocene, capture a 15-million-year window during which global climates shifted from warmer to cooler conditions. 



The hyaenodonts thrived in this dynamic part of Egypt, feeding on the abundant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivores</a> and smaller predators.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_skull-diagram_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_skull-diagram_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1s.webp" alt="Cranium of Bastetodon syrtos. A, C, E, the paratype (MUVP 634) cranium of Bastetodon syrtos in A, dorsal; C, ventral; and E, left lateral view. B, D, F, cranial bones defined and identified on MUVP 634 in B, dorsal; D, ventral; and F, left lateral view. Credit: Ahmed Morsi" class="wp-image-1960382"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cranium of Bastetodon syrtos. A, C, E, the paratype (MUVP 634) cranium of Bastetodon syrtos in A, dorsal; C, ventral; and E, left lateral view. B, D, F, cranial bones defined and identified on MUVP 634 in B, dorsal; D, ventral; and F, left lateral view. Credit: Ahmed Morsi</figcaption></figure>



Over time, tectonic events in Africa allowed modern types of carnivores - cats, dogs, and hyenas - to move in, while changing environments diminished prey for specialized hunters like Bastetodon.&nbsp;



Eventually, hyaenodonts disappeared, leaving newer predators to dominate the evolving African ecosystems.



“The discovery of Bastetodon is a significant achievement in understanding the diversity and evolution of hyaenodonts and their global distribution,” Al-Ashqar noted. 



“We are eager to continue our research to unravel the intricate relationships between these ancient predators and their environments over time and across continents.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-predators-to-modern-carnivores-nbsp">Prehistoric predators to modern carnivores&nbsp;</h2>



“The Fayum is one of the most important fossil areas in Africa,” said study co-author Matt Borths, curator of fossils at the <a href="https://lemur.duke.edu/discover/dlcmnh/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke Lemur Center Museum of Natural History</a>.&nbsp;



“Without it, we would know very little about the origins of African ecosystems and the evolution of African mammals like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinct-elephant-fossils-reveal-early-evidence-of-animal-butchery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a>, primates, and hyaenodonts."



Paleontologists have been working in the Fayum for over a century, but the Sallam Lab demonstrated there is more to discover in this remarkable region.



Over the decades, research in Fayum has contributed major findings about early elephants, early primates, and now, additional hyaenodont species.&nbsp;



Each new fossil further clarifies the interplay between climatic shifts and the rise - or extinction - of ancient mammals.&nbsp;



Researchers plan to continue unearthing fossils and refining the complex narrative of how prehistoric African predators adapted, diversified, and eventually gave way to modern carnivores.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2024.2442472" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Fearsome' predator was once king of the ancient Egyptian forests, then mysteriously vanished

A rare, nearly complete skull unearthed in the Egyptian desert...

Scientists have developed an AI-powered modeling method that mimics how birds produce songs, similar to how large language models like ChatGPT generate human sentences.&nbsp;



By training on birdsong recordings, the model successfully recreates sequences of Bengalese <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finch-beaks-and-bird-songs-a-new-story-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">finch</a> songs, revealing important insights into how birds structure their vocalizations.&nbsp;



The research, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0522-24.2024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Neuroscience</a>, could enhance understanding of the neurobiology behind language processing and how humans and animals form complex vocal patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birdsongs-and-human-language">Birdsongs and human language</h2>



Both birds and humans arrange their vocal expressions in structured ways. In human speech, words follow specific grammatical rules, while birds sing in organized syllabic patterns.



“Although much simpler, the sequences of a bird’s song syllables are organized in a similar way to human language, so birds provide a good model to explore the neurobiology of language,” said Dezhe Jin, an associate professor of physics at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>’s Eberly College of Science and lead author of the study.



One key aspect of both birdsong and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human language</a> is context dependence - where previous sounds influence what comes next. In English, for example, the phrase “flies like” can have different meanings depending on what follows.&nbsp;



For instance, while “time flies like an arrow” is a statement about time, “fruit flies like bananas” is one about insects and food. If we mix these up - “time flies like bananas” - the meaning becomes nonsensical.&nbsp;



The same principle applies to birds: the order of their syllables is not random but follows specific patterns that make their songs recognizable.



“We know from our previous work that the songs of Bengalese finches also have context dependence,” Jin said. “In this study, we developed a new statistical method to better quantify context dependence in individual birds and start to understand how it is wired in the brain.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-training-a-generative-birdsong-model">Training a generative birdsong model</h2>



The research team analyzed previously recorded songs from six Bengalese finches, each of which sings 7 to 15 syllables per sequence. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-monitor-biodiversity-through-animal-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> model, similar to large language models, learns the probability of different syllables appearing in sequences - akin to how ChatGPT predicts words based on past text.



The model is built using Markov models, a method that maps sequences of events by tracking what comes next based on past occurrences. Imagine a flowchart where each syllable leads to a range of possible next syllables, with probabilities assigned to each transition.



“Basic Markov models are quite simple, but they tend to overgeneralize, meaning they might result in sequences that don’t actually exist,” Jin explained.&nbsp;



“Here, we used a specific type of model called a Partially Observable Markov Model that allowed us to incorporate context dependence, adding more connections to what syllables typically go together. The added complexity allows for more accurate models.”



Using their approach, the team generated a range of possible models for each bird’s song, gradually refining them to ensure they only produced sequences that actually exist in the bird’s natural repertoire.&nbsp;



The final models accurately reflected each bird’s real singing patterns while identifying which syllables were context-dependent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-birdsong-model-revealed">What the birdsong model revealed</h2>



The results showed that all six birds displayed context dependence in their songs, meaning they carefully structured their syllable sequences rather than singing randomly. However, the degree of context dependence varied between individuals.



“This could be due to several factors, including aspects of the birds’ brains,” Jin explained. “Or, because these songs are learned, this could be related to the amount of context dependence in their tutor’s songs.”



To explore this further, the researchers studied birds that could not hear their own songs. The results were striking. These birds showed a dramatic reduction in context-dependent syllables, suggesting that auditory feedback is crucial in shaping how birds refine their songs.



This finding supports the idea that birds listen to themselves and adjust their vocal patterns based on what they hear, much like how humans refine speech and grammar while learning a language.



“The birds are listening to themselves and adjusting their song based on what they hear, and the related machinery in the brain likely plays a role in context dependence,” Jin said.&nbsp;



“In the future, we would also like to map neuron states to specific syllables. Our study suggests that, even when a bird is singing the same syllable, different sets of neurons might be active.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-applications-of-the-research">Broader applications of the research </h2>



The researchers emphasize that this new AI-based modeling technique could be applied not just to birdsong, but to other animal vocalizations and behavioral patterns.



“We actually used this method with the English language and were able to generate text that is mostly grammatical,” Jin said. “Of course, we’re not trying to create a new generative language model, but it is interesting that the same kind of model can handle both birdsong and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-songs-share-very-similar-patterns-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human language</a>.”



This suggests that the neural mechanisms behind birdsong and human language may share deeper similarities than previously thought.&nbsp;



Some philosophers argue that human grammar is a uniquely complex feature of cognition, but this study raises questions about how truly unique human language is if birds follow similar rules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-human-language-and-communication">Understanding human language and communication </h2>



This research opens up new possibilities for understanding how brains - both bird and human - encode language and communication. In the future, scientists hope to map neuronal activity during song production to see which brain circuits control context dependence.



The experts would also like to apply AI models to other vocal species - such as whales, dolphins, and primates - to identify common patterns in communication.



Furthermore, the goal is to develop better speech-related AI systems based on how real biological brains organize vocalization sequences.



Ultimately, this work bridges the gap between neuroscience, AI, and linguistics, offering new clues about how brains generate structured communication across species.&nbsp;



As AI technology continues to evolve, models trained on birdsongs could help us better understand how our own brains process language and adapt speech over time.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

AI-generated birdsongs may shed new light on human language

Scientists have developed an AI-powered modeling method that mimics how...

For decades, scientists believed that arachnids, a group that includes spiders, scorpions, mites, and horseshoe crabs, made a single transition from water to land. This long-standing view shaped evolutionary biology, influencing how researchers classified and studied these creatures. 



However, a new study presents a different picture, suggesting that this transition happened multiple times rather than once.



The research also highlights the role of whole-genome duplication in shaping key traits in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australias-deadliest-spider-is-actually-three-different-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> and scorpions, particularly silk production and venom synthesis. These genetic changes may have played a crucial role in their evolutionary success. 



By challenging traditional ideas, this study reshapes the way we understand chelicerate evolution and provides new directions for future research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-details-about-arachnid-evolution">New details about arachnid evolution</h2>



Dr. Efrat Gavish-Regev from The National Natural History Collections at <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hebrew University</a> of Jerusalem and Professor Prashant P. Sharma from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin</a> have taken a fresh approach to chelicerate evolution. 



Their review explores how molecular phylogenetics, evolutionary developmental biology, and genomic research have transformed our understanding of these arthropods.



Traditionally, arachnids were classified as a monophyletic terrestrial group, meaning they descended from a single land-dwelling ancestor. However, recent phylogenomic studies challenge this notion. 



The studies indicate that horseshoe crabs are not a separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slingshot-spiders-listen-for-the-right-moment-to-launch-their-webs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineage</a> but are actually nested within the arachnid group.



This suggests that arachnids did not evolve from a single land colonization event. Instead, different arachnid groups may have independently <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fungus-gibellula-attenboroughii-infects-and-controls-spiders-turning-them-into-zombies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapted</a> to life on land at different points in their evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arachnid-groups-evolved-independently">Arachnid groups evolved independently </h2>



“The idea that all arachnids share a single terrestrial ancestor has been widely accepted for decades, but the latest molecular evidence and a different interposition of some homologies points to a more complex scenario,” said Dr. Gavish-Regev.



“Instead of a straightforward transition from water to land, our research suggests that different arachnid groups may have independently adapted to terrestrial life at different points in their evolutionary history.”



This revelation raises important questions about how these adaptations occurred. If multiple groups of arachnids transitioned to land separately, then different environmental pressures and genetic changes must have influenced their evolution. 



Some species may have gradually developed adaptations for land, while others may have made more sudden transitions. This multi-event hypothesis challenges existing evolutionary models and forces scientists to rethink how arachnids adapted to terrestrial life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-whole-genome-duplication">Role of whole-genome duplication</h2>



One of the key findings of this study is the role of whole-genome duplication in arachnid evolution. This process, where an organism duplicates its entire genetic code, is a powerful driver of evolutionary change. 



By having extra copies of genes, species can experiment with new traits while retaining essential functions.



In spiders and scorpions, whole-genome duplication may have played a direct role in the evolution of important characteristics like silk production and venom synthesis. 



These traits have been crucial to the survival and diversification of arachnids, allowing them to hunt, defend themselves, and adapt to different environments. 



Without whole-genome duplication, the vast diversity of spiders and scorpions seen today might not have been possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-evolutionary-changes-in-arachnids">Key evolutionary changes in arachnids</h2>



“Arachnoid evolution has been shaped by a number of factors, including gene duplications that likely played a role in the development of key traits,” explained Professor Sharma.



“By combining phylogenetic research with new gene-editing tools, we are now in a position to explore these evolutionary changes in greater detail than ever before.”



With modern genetic research tools, scientists can now examine the effects of whole-genome duplication more closely. By studying these genetic changes, they can trace how certain genes evolved and what role they played in shaping arachnid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>. 



This research not only improves our understanding of evolutionary biology but also provides insights into how genes influence the development of complex traits across different species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancements-in-chelicerate-phylogeny">Advancements in chelicerate phylogeny</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary relationships between different chelicerate species has been a long-standing challenge. 



Some relationships remain unresolved, but advances in genomic techniques are beginning to provide more clarity. As more high-quality genomic data becomes available, researchers expect to answer some of the remaining questions about arachnid evolution.



By mapping out the evolutionary tree of chelicerates, scientists can better understand how different species are related and how their traits evolved. This has broader implications for studying the diversity of life and the mechanisms that drive adaptation in different environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This research has significance beyond evolutionary biology. Understanding arachnid evolution has practical applications in various fields, including pest management, biomedicine, and bio-inspired materials.



By studying how certain traits evolved, scientists can develop new approaches to pest control, design medical treatments based on venom components, and create materials inspired by spider silk.



A growing body of genetic data continues to shape scientific understanding of evolutionary history. As new studies build on these findings, researchers will gain an even clearer picture of how arachnids adapted to their environments.



These discoveries could lead to new breakthroughs in biology, genetics, and even biotechnology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-research-on-arachnids">Evolutionary research on arachnids</h2>



While this study provides valuable insights, it also opens up many new questions. 



If arachnids transitioned to land multiple times, what environmental factors drove these changes? Were there specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic mechanisms</a> that made the transition easier for some groups? How do these findings compare to other arthropod lineages that also moved from water to land?



Future research will likely explore these questions using even more advanced genomic tools. As genetic sequencing technology improves, scientists will be able to examine ancient evolutionary events with greater precision. 



This will help refine evolutionary models and improve our understanding of how life adapts to new environments.



The journey of arachnids from water to land is more complex than previously thought. By revising traditional evolutionary models, this study lays the foundation for new discoveries in evolutionary biology. As more data emerges, the fascinating story of arachnid evolution will continue to unfold.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-022024-011250" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annual Review of Entomology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rethinking arachnid evolution: The surprising history of spiders

For decades, scientists believed that arachnids, a group that includes...

Does your dog ignore your gestures when it matters most? Many owners find that simple commands and gestures sometimes fall flat, especially when distractions creep into the picture.



Researchers have been testing how to capture a dog’s interest using high-tech gear that tracks eye movement. Dr. Christoph Voelter from the <a href="https://www.vetmeduni.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Veterinary Medicine</a> in Vienna led a team that has pinpointed a powerful combination for guiding a dog’s focus. 



“The owner’s gaze and gesture are useful separately, but combined they are stronger,” said Dr. Voelter, lead author of the study. 



His group designed special headgear to pinpoint precisely where dogs look under different conditions, and were able to shed light on what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-learn-better-with-praise-and-petting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> really respond to and why that matters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-understand-human-gestures">How dogs understand human gestures</h2>



Most people believe their pets can read basic cues, but scientists have been keen to explore how dogs interpret our gestures.



<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2765" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> in Austria tested multiple breeds of dogs that were fitted with helmets that tracked eye movements in real time. They found that dogs locked onto a target most reliably when a person simultaneously stared and pointed at the same object.



The findings line up with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11926681/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">previous work</a> suggesting that domesticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-personality-algorithm-will-improve-work-and-home-placement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> have learned to follow specific signals through centuries of living with humans. 



In many cultures, pointing is used every day to show a pet where to go or what to do. Gaze, however, has not always been seen as a strong indicator on its own.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pointing-works-better-with-eye-contact">Pointing works better with eye contact</h2>



Pointing by itself can guide a dog in the right direction. However, the new research noted that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-breed-does-not-define-performance-and-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> don’t always follow the point unless the human also looks directly at the object. Eye contact that is focused on the target seems to cement the dog’s understanding.



Fake throws - a playful tease that many owners try - were not nearly as successful. Eye trackers showed that dogs glanced toward the direction of the pretend toss but consistently failed to pick the correct spot.



This suggests that dogs need more than a big motion; they rely on precise visual hints to zero in on what you want them to see.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-through-ostensive-cues">Focus through ostensive cues</h2>



Ostensive signals, such as calling the dog’s name or making clear eye contact, often signal that communication is about to happen.



Dogs appear to respond better when they sense we are talking to them directly. Adding a gesture, like pointing, clarifies the message. When pointing is paired with a gaze toward the object, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewards-of-dog-ownership-outweigh-the-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> show increased attention and are more likely to do what we ask.



Researchers in other <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982211013935">studies</a> have observed that dogs can follow a human’s gaze, though not as reliably as they follow a pointed hand. This difference might be rooted in what dogs experienced while growing up. 



The more exposure they have to humans who use combined signals, the more these dogs will interpret eye contact and pointing as meaningful directions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-tracking-reveals-how-dogs-focus">Eye-tracking reveals how dogs focus </h2>



Cutting-edge technology that straps onto a dog’s head may sound strange, but it gives valuable insight. It captures where a dog’s gaze lands within fractions of a second. If you think of it as a GPS for a dog’s eyes, you can see which parts of a person’s face or body the dog is looking at.



The researchers noticed that when dogs saw a scientist point and look, their line of sight jumped quickly between the pointing hand, the person’s face, and the correct object. This pattern did not appear when the scientist only pretended to throw a ball.



In this scenario, the dogs glanced in the broad direction but often missed the hidden treat, which backs up the idea that precise cues matter more than just big movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-open-questions-and-next-steps">Open questions and next steps</h2>



“Is it for them more like an imperative directive to go somewhere? Or do they understand it more in a communicative way?” Dr. Voelter hopes to explore these ideas further.



New research is looking at whether dogs also learn and memorize things better when people speak to them and give them pointed gestures at the same time.



Some experts think these insights could apply to practical training. If a dog trainer or veterinarian knows that eye contact plus gestures work best, they might incorporate both cues for faster results. 



Many owners might not realize that a clear gaze cue can be the extra push that turns a confused dog into a confident companion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-dog-bond-in-everyday-life">Human-dog bond in everyday life</h2>



Taking a step beyond tricks, the new study highlights just how much dogs pay attention to facial and body movements.



Many owners use a baby voice or wave their hands wildly to get attention, but the study suggests that clarity is key. A calm, purposeful look at the object while pointing may be more convincing than chaotic movements.



Behavioral experts say the results might help older dogs or rescue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-simple-technique-instantly-reduces-heat-stress-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> adjust to new homes. Clear signals could reduce stress, since the dog understands exactly what’s being indicated, rather than random commotion that leaves them guessing. 



This approach also benefits people who rely on service dogs, where precise communication is crucial.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2765" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists learn how to make dogs 'pay attention' and focus more on what their humans want

Does your dog ignore your gestures when it matters most?...

Bird populations depend on a stable food supply, especially during breeding seasons when their energy needs are highest. Insect-eating birds rely on various prey, but moths play a particularly important role in some regions. 



A recent study explored how fluctuations in moth abundance influence bird populations across Finland. Researchers found that this relationship varies by region, with northern areas showing a stronger connection between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moth-makes-its-flat-wings-appear-3d-to-trick-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moth numbers</a> and bird abundance.



By analyzing long-term data, scientists uncovered patterns that highlight how changes in insect populations might affect bird survival and reproduction. 



These findings provide valuable insights into broader ecological dynamics, reinforcing concerns about the cascading effects of insect declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-season-moths-and-bird-abundance">Early-season moths and bird abundance</h2>



The study revealed a clear link between birds that depend on caterpillars and the abundance of moths that overwinter as eggs or adults. 



These early-season moths provide a crucial food source for many resident and long-distance migratory forest birds during their breeding period. 



The strongest connection was observed in the north-boreal zone, where early-season moth populations had a noticeable impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-defense-against-the-invasive-spongy-moth-is-fading/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird numbers</a>.



Birds in these regions rely heavily on insect prey during spring, and any fluctuations in moth populations can significantly influence bird abundance. 



The results suggest that if insect populations decline, birds that rely on these food sources could face serious challenges.



The study emphasizes how environmental conditions shape species interactions, reinforcing the idea that changes in one part of the ecosystem can have far-reaching effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-birds-depend-more-on-moths">Northern birds depend more on moths</h2>



One of the key findings of the study was the regional variation in the moth-bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationship</a>. 



While a strong connection was evident in the north, the same dependency was not found in southern and central Finland. Researchers believe that environmental differences explain this pattern.



“The reason why moth abundance affected bird abundance only in northern Finland is that, in the north, bird breeding seasons are short, food webs are relatively simple, and temporal moth abundance fluctuations from year to year are naturally strong," explained Mahtab Yazdanian, the lead author and a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.oulu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oulu</a>.



"Therefore, abundance changes of a particular group of insect prey more likely reflect in bird abundance in northern Finland than in central or southern Finland." 



In other words, birds in the north are more reliant on moth preys compared to birds in the central and southern regions of Finland.



This explanation highlights how ecological conditions shape species interactions. In the north, birds have fewer alternative food sources, and their breeding seasons are tightly linked to the availability of moths. 



As a result, any fluctuations in moth numbers directly affect bird populations, making them more vulnerable to environmental changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-moth-connection">Bird-moth connection</h2>



One of the most valuable aspects of the study was its use of long-term monitoring data. Spanning 26 years, the dataset provided a unique opportunity to examine patterns that might not be visible in short-term studies.



“This study highlights the value of long-term monitoring programmes. We are fortunate in Finland to have detailed abundance data for both moths and birds, which our study combines in full for the first time,” explained Tuomas Kankaanpää, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Oulu.



Long-term datasets are rare in ecological research, yet they are essential for understanding complex interactions in natural ecosystems. 



Without sustained monitoring efforts, it would be nearly impossible to detect gradual shifts in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-moths-develop-smaller-wings-survive-light-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> populations or identify key factors influencing their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-food-webs">Complexity of food webs</h2>



The study also sheds light on the challenges of studying ecosystem dynamics. Understanding how fluctuations in insect populations influence birds is difficult because natural environments are shaped by multiple interacting factors.



“Complexities in the ecosystem, the food web, and the insect populations' fluctuations have cascading effects on higher trophic levels like birds that are really difficult to systematically study in nature, where everything affects everything,” Yazdanian commented.



Finland’s exceptional long-term monitoring programs provided valuable data on nearly 80 bird species and 400 moth species dating back to 1993. 



These datasets allow researchers to track ecological changes over time, offering insights that would otherwise be impossible to obtain.



The study highlights how detailed monitoring can help identify critical patterns in species interactions, ultimately contributing to better conservation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-and-conservation-efforts">Future research and conservation efforts</h2>



The study’s findings highlight the urgent need for continued research on how insect declines affect bird populations. 



Insect populations worldwide face threats from habitat loss, climate change, and pollution, and it is essential to understand how these changes impact animals that are at higher levels in the food web.



Ongoing research at the University of Oulu aims to pinpoint which moth species are most important as food sources for different bird species. 



Advances in DNA meta-barcoding technology are helping researchers analyze bird diets more accurately. 



By identifying multiple species from mixed samples, scientists can gain a deeper understanding of the specific relationships between birds and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-moving-north-and-breeding-earlier-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-strategies">Conservation strategies</h2>



The results of this study have significant implications for conservation efforts. Declining insect populations not only threaten biodiversity but also disrupt entire food webs. 



By considering the entire food web, conservation strategies can be more effective in protecting bird populations. 



Supporting insect diversity through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-we-failing-the-worlds-most-threatened-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat conservation</a> and sustainable land-use practices will help maintain the delicate balance between species.



Protecting natural ecosystems requires a comprehensive approach that takes into account both the direct and indirect effects of environmental change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-collaborative-research-effort">A collaborative research effort</h2>



The study was led by the University of Oulu and brought together experts from multiple institutions.



Their combined expertise played a crucial role in uncovering new insights into the relationship between moths and birds.



As researchers continue to investigate these complex ecological interactions, studies like this will provide valuable knowledge for conservation efforts. 



Understanding the intricate connections between species helps ensure that both birds and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moths-may-struggle-to-move-in-response-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> prey can thrive in a rapidly changing world.



-----



The study was led by the University of Oulu and multiple institutions, including the Finnish Environment Institute (<a href="https://www.syke.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SYKE</a>), Finnish Museum of Natural History (<a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en/luomus/visit-us/natural-history-museum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUOMUS</a>), <a href="https://www.ulapland.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lapland</a>, and <a href="https://www.vub.be/nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Brussel</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.14467" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Birds communities struggle as moth populations decline

Bird populations depend on a stable food supply, especially during...

Bird evolution has taken a remarkable turn with the discovery of two ancient fossils from a species named Baminornis zhenghensis, which lived in what is now southeast China's Fujian Province.



Dated to approximately 149 million years ago, these Jurassic-era fossils provide crucial insights into the early diversification of birds. 



The fossils were unearthed by a team of scientists from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology <a href="http://english.ivpp.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(IVPP)</a> of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which is a leading institution in paleontological research.



Spearheading the study was Professor Wang Min, whose work continues to reshape our understanding of avian ancestry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-evolution-theory-the-basics">Bird evolution theory - the basics</h2>



The current leading theory on bird evolution says that modern birds evolved from small, feathered theropod dinosaurs - yep, the same group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T. rex</a>.



Scientists believe that around 150 million years ago, some of these dinosaurs developed feathers not just for warmth but also for gliding and eventually powered flight. 



The famous Archaeopteryx, often called the "first bird," had both dinosaur-like traits (teeth, claws, and a long bony tail) and bird-like features (feathers and wings). 



Over millions of years, these early birds became lighter, developed better flying skills, and adapted to different environments, eventually giving rise to the diverse bird species we see today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-shadows-of-archaeopteryx">From the shadows of Archaeopteryx</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeopteryx</a>, despite its feathered wings, bears close resemblance to non-avialan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-going-strong-when-the-deadly-asteroid-struck/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>.



Notably, this is due to its distinctively long reptilian tail - a vivid departure from the short-tailed morphology observed in modern and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-known-bird-footprints-discovered-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous birds</a>.



Reflecting on the classification of Archaeopteryx, recent studies have placed it as a deinonychosaurian dinosaur, a sister group to birds.



This brings up an intriguing question: Do we have any definitive records of Jurassic birds?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-baminornis-zhenghensis">Meet Baminornis zhenghensis</h2>



This is where the new discovery steps in. Among the two fossils found in Fujian Province, the team named one Baminornis zhenghensis. 



This fossil exhibits an exclusive set of features: the shoulder and pelvic girdles resemble ornithothoracine birds, and there is an early-stage hand structure similar to that found in non-avialan dinosaurs.



Perhaps a standout feature of Baminornis zhenghensis is its short tail that ends in a compound bone called the pygostyle, a feature that is also prominent in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-bird-skulls-retain-some-dinosaur-traits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contemporary birds</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-evolution_Baminornis-zhenghensis-species_timeline-pushed-back_credit-Zhao-Chuang_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-evolution_Baminornis-zhenghensis-species_timeline-pushed-back_credit-Zhao-Chuang_1s.webp" alt="Life reconstruction of the Jurassic bird Baminornis zhenghensis from the Zhenghe Fauna. Credit: Zhao Chuang" class="wp-image-1960254"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Life reconstruction of the Jurassic bird Baminornis zhenghensis from the Zhenghe Fauna. Credit: Zhao Chuang</figcaption></figure>



"Previously, the oldest record of short-tailed birds is from the Early Cretaceous. Baminornis zhenghensis is the sole Jurassic and the oldest short-tailed bird yet discovered, pushing back the appearance of this derived bird feature by nearly 20 million years," Prof. Wang stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-a-large-gap-in-bird-evolution">Bridging a large gap in bird evolution</h2>



What makes this discovery so intriguing? 



These fossils present compelling evidence that birds began diversifying much earlier than previously thought.



Typically, Earth's most diverse group of terrestrial vertebrates - birds, are believed to have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/">diversified </a>during the Jurassic period. 



But the details of this diversification were shrouded in mystery due to a significant shortage of tangible fossil records.



Until now, the only widely accepted Jurassic bird was Archaeopteryx.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baminornis-zhenghensis-an-early-bird">Baminornis zhenghensis: An early bird</h2>



To fully understand the positioning of Baminornis zhenghensis in the bird evolution tree, the research team utilized several investigative methods.



The results indicated that this bird had evolved from Archaeopteryx, making it one of the oldest birds ever found.



"If we take a step back, and reconsider the phylogenetic uncertainty of Archaeopteryx, we do not doubt that Baminornis zhenghensis is the true Jurassic bird," Dr. Zhou Zhonghe, a co-author of the study, stated confidently 



The second fossil is far from complete and consists solely of a furcula (a bone in the chest of birds). 



Despite its poor preservation, the team remains hopeful that it might help in establishing the evolutionary link between non-avialan and avialan theropods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The researchers revealed that the results of the analyses support that this furcula belonged to a member of the Ornithuromorpha, a diverse set of Cretaceous birds.



Yet, given its preserved state, they refrained from naming a new species based on this single bone.



In conclusion, this discovery, might not have answered all the questions regarding bird evolution, but it surely has opened up a new arena for possibilities and future discoveries. 



Supporting the importance of fossils in piecing together the past, these artifacts from the Jurassic era have given us a glimpse into the true evolutionary journey of birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baminornis-zhenghensis-and-bird-evolution">Baminornis zhenghensis and bird evolution</h2>



The discovery of Baminornis zhenghensis provides compelling evidence that bird evolution was already well underway by the late Jurassic period.



By bridging a crucial gap in the fossil record, these newly unearthed fossils reshape our understanding of how early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-have-adapted-to-human-activities-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds diversified and adapted</a>. 



Scientists believe that such findings will continue to refine the evolutionary timeline, revealing more about the structural transformations that led to modern avian species. 



Future excavations may yet unveil more missing pieces in the intricate puzzle of bird evolution.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08410-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bird evolution timeline pushed back at least 20 million years by new discovery

Bird evolution has taken a remarkable turn with the discovery...

Monarch butterflies are among the most studied insects in the world due to their impressive seasonal journeys across North America. Yet, their populations face mounting challenges as climate change alters the landscapes they rely on.



Harlan Radcliff is an amateur butterfly enthusiast. For over 17 years, he dedicated his lunch breaks to observing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-face-steep-decline-in-the-western-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monarchs</a> at Camp Dodge, a military installation in Iowa.



What started as a personal passion turned into an invaluable scientific record. His meticulous notes allowed researchers to analyze how climate variations are affecting monarch migration patterns in the 21st century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-record-of-monarch-activity">Long-term record of monarch activity</h2>



Between April and November, from 2003 to 2019, Radcliff carefully recorded the dates, times, locations, and numbers of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-new-forests-to-assist-monarch-butterfly-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> he spotted. 



He had no idea at the time that his efforts would one day shape a significant scientific study. His dataset provided a rare long-term record of monarch activity in the heart of their summer breeding range.



Professor Diane Debinski, head of Montana State University’s <a href="https://www.montana.edu/ecology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ecology</a>, led a research team that used Radcliff’s observations to study monarch migration.



Funded by the <a href="https://www.defense.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a>, the study was part of a broader effort to understand how climate change is affecting butterfly species on military lands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-monarch-migration">Climate change and monarch migration</h2>



Monarch butterflies are unique in their migration patterns. Eastern monarchs travel between Mexico and the U.S., spending summers east of the Rocky Mountains. Western monarchs winter in California and migrate west of the Rockies during the summer.



The study aimed to examine the phenology of Camp Dodge’s monarchs. This involved looking at the timing of key events in their life cycle, such as arrival, departure, and peak abundance. 



Changes in these timings can affect their survival, reproductive success, and overall population health.



“We wanted to look at phenology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-shift-to-winter-breeding-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> and test whether it was shifting, and if it was, to ask how that might affect the viability of the populations over the long term,” explained Professor Debinski.



The team also analyzed the phenology of milkweed, the monarchs’ primary host plant. Monarch caterpillars rely on milkweed for survival, making it essential to understand whether its growing season was shifting in sync with butterfly migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-phenological-shifts-in-monarchs">Testing phenological shifts in monarchs</h2>



The researchers conducted fieldwork in 2020 to test whether monarch arrival times had changed over the years. 



They placed monarch eggs on milkweed plants at different intervals - some two weeks earlier than historical records, some at the expected time, and others two weeks later. This approach helped them determine whether changes in migration timing had consequences for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-monarch-butterflies-vanishing-in-the-winter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies' development</a>.



The initial hypothesis was that monarchs would arrive earlier due to climate change, mirroring patterns observed in other species. However, the data revealed something unexpected. 



The timing of monarch arrival remained consistent from 2003 to 2019, but their fall departure was delayed. By 2019, monarchs were staying at Camp Dodge about nine days longer than they had in 2003.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-of-a-longer-fall-season">Risks of a longer fall season </h2>



The shift in fall departure raised important questions about the effects of climate change on monarchs. Interestingly, milkweed also showed a similar pattern, blooming later into the season.



“What we saw was that milkweed herbarium specimens were collected later over time, indicating that they were blooming longer over time, and monarchs were in the field as adults longer over time, which means that the fall season was actually indicating a change,” noted Professor Debinski.



While a longer fall season might seem beneficial, it carries potential risks. Butterflies staying in the field longer could be exposed to more predators and parasites. 



Additionally, a longer growing season might create a “development trap,” where monarchs begin a phase of their life cycle too late to complete it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shifts-may-help-or-harm-monarchs">Climate shifts may help or harm monarchs</h2>



A development trap occurs when environmental changes encourage butterflies to lay eggs late in the season, but those eggs fail to develop into adults before winter arrives. This could lead to increased mortality rates, reducing overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-may-be-added-to-the-endangered-species-list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> numbers.



The field experiment confirmed that a shift in monarch timing could have costly effects. The researchers observed that early-season larval survival was highest when egg hatching matched historical monarch arrivals. 



However, when eggs were placed on milkweed two weeks earlier than usual, survival rates dropped. 



These findings highlight the delicate balance monarchs must maintain with their environment. Even small changes in climate and plant growth cycles can disrupt their lifecycle, potentially leading to population declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-monarch-population-changes">Tracking monarch population changes</h2>



Although Radcliff has since passed away, his careful documentation provided an essential foundation for this research. 



His records allowed scientists to track monarch population changes at Camp Dodge over nearly two decades. The study confirmed that monarch populations declined between 2003 and 2019, reflecting broader trends observed by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a>.



“Discussions about phenology often exclude migratory butterflies, because they experience climates in multiple places,” said Professor Debinski.



“Our research showed that even migratory species can show shifts in phenology. The more information we have about phenology, population sizes and population growth rates, the better we will be able to conserve monarch butterflies and many other species of conservation concern.”



This research serves as a reminder of the importance of long-term ecological data. Without Radcliff’s commitment to documenting monarchs year after year, scientists might have missed these critical trends. 



As climate change continues to shape ecosystems, studies like this one will help conservationists understand how best to protect the iconic monarch butterflies for future generations.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2656.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Monarch butterflies are delaying their migration in a warmer climate

Monarch butterflies are among the most studied insects in the...

Toxins can give valuable insights into how molecules interact with biological targets, helping scientists design safer and more effective compounds.



Whether for life-saving drugs, species control, or agriculture, understanding a molecule’s precise targets is crucial for ensuring its safe and effective use.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute</a> in Israel have developed an innovative AI-powered pipeline to predict how natural toxins interact with proteins. 



By combining artificial intelligence with traditional research methods, they are unlocking new possibilities in ecological studies and drug development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-a-deadly-snail-toxin">Secrets of a deadly snail toxin</h2>



The journey of these scientists kicked off from an unlikely source - a toxin from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cone-snail-venom-could-be-used-to-produce-painkillers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cone snail</a> (Conus striatus) that affects both insects and fish. This protein is composed of 60 amino acids and is shot into the prey by the snail using a sharp barb.



Dr. Izhar Karbat and Dr. Eitan Reuveny set out to investigate how the cone snail toxin Conkunitzin-S1 (Cs1) works to immobilize fish, despite not affecting mammals or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mollusks-evolution-shishania-aculeata-spiny-armor-no-shells-500-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mollusks</a>.



The experts found that Cs1 blocks potassium channels that are central to cell function in fruit flies and other insects. However, the molecular target of this toxin in fish remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-to-ai-for-answers">Turning to AI for answers</h2>



Unable to pinpoint the target of the Conkunitzin toxin using traditional methods, the scientists turned to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-proves-very-useful-to-doctors-when-diagnosing-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a>.



“Three years ago, we tried our best tools at the time to find the target of the Conkunitzin toxin, and we failed because the tools were not good enough. And then came a big revolution in structural biology driven by artificial intelligence,” said Karbat.



This presented an invaluable tool for their research, which enabled the experts to use a two-pronged approach to identify the fish potassium channels that were most vulnerable to Cs1.



They harnessed the power of AlphaFold, an AI program, to predict how the toxin might bind to different fish potassium channels. 



Next, the researchers developed another AI model, ET3, to analyze how water molecules navigate around these channels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-pinpoints-the-toxin-s-true-targets">AI pinpoints the toxin’s true targets</h2>



By leveraging ET3 to analyze a broad range of fish potassium channels - beyond what was previously possible - the experts identified the exact channels targeted by Cs1 and how the toxin disrupts their function.



Essentially, if potassium channels act as tiny doors regulating ion flow in and out of cells, Cs1 functions like a lock that jams those doors shut.



“Using molecular dynamics and the new AI-driven structural tools, we were able to find the small subset of channels in fish which bind our toxins with high affinity and are probably the real target of the cone snail,” said Dr. Karbat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-precise-targets-for-new-drugs">Identifying precise targets for new drugs </h2>



Beyond unraveling the mystery of Cs1’s impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, the researchers see broader applications for their AI-powered approach. 



“This new pipeline offers exciting opportunities and future prospects with ecological studies, to study real chemical interactions in real ecological systems,” said Dr. Karbat.



Additionally, the same methodology could be applied to drug development, helping to identify precise targets for new drugs while avoiding unintended interactions.



“If you develop a drug that would activate a channel in the human brain, you wouldn’t want the same drug to affect a channel in the human heart and cause a heart attack,” noted Dr. Karbat.



“The power of this pipeline is that we can concentrate on a target, or any molecule that we are interested in, and find its match,” added Dr. Reuveny, emphasizing the effectiveness of this approach. .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-ai-s-role-in-molecular-research">Expanding AI’s role in molecular research</h2>



The success of this AI-powered pipeline extends far beyond the study of cone snail toxins. 



The ability to predict molecular interactions accurately could transform the way scientists approach drug discovery, environmental toxicology, and even disease treatment.



One of the most promising applications lies in developing highly specific drugs that target only the intended receptors, thus minimizing side effects. By refining molecular targeting, AI can help create treatments that are both safer and more effective.



Additionally, this approach could be used to study natural toxins other than Cs1, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-snail-venom-possible-key-to-improving-diabetes-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a> components from other marine creatures, snakes, scorpions or even plants.



Understanding how these compounds interact with biological systems could inspire new medical treatments, from pain relief to antimicrobial drugs.



The research also holds promise for ecological conservation. By mapping how toxins influence different species, scientists can better predict how environmental changes or chemical pollutants may affect ecosystems.



As AI continues to revolutionize molecular biology, tools like AlphaFold and ET3 will likely become standard in many areas of research, bridging the gap between computational predictions and real-world biological interactions.



The work will be presented at the <a href="https://www.biophysics.org/2025meeting/program/">69th Biophysical Society </a>Annual Meeting in Los Angeles.



Image Credit: Courtesy of Eitan Reuveny and Izhar Karbat.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cone snail toxin has inspired a breakthrough in drug discovery

Toxins can give valuable insights into how molecules interact with...

Across Kenya, grasslands serve as a crucial lifeline for both local communities and wildlife, from elephants and giraffes to hyenas. However, climate-driven drought is drying out these habitats, forcing animals and people to vie for diminishing resources - and fueling conflict.&nbsp;



Now, new research shows that restoring more grassland significantly reduces clashes and boosts safety for everyone.



“Grassland restoration is playing a role in reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wildlife-overlap-is-rapidly-rising-across-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-wildlife conflicts</a>, social conflicts and the overall feeling of insecurity in Chyulu Hills, Kenya,” said study leader Camila Donatti, a scientist at Conservation International.&nbsp;



“Grasslands maintain 60% of the livestock produced in Kenya and support 70% of all the wildlife that is found outside protected areas, so people, livestock, and wildlife rely on those grasslands for their survival and live in close proximity. This means this system is ideal for studying the connections between grassland restoration and peace and security.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-droughts-escalate-competition-for-resources">Droughts escalate competition for resources</h2>



With the climate crisis intensifying, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a> have grown more severe, reducing vegetation and leaving less food for both livestock and wildlife.&nbsp;



In Chyulu Hills, researchers surveyed 1,567 households and found that 89% faced some form of conflict with wildlife, while 32% experienced social disputes with other residents. The area is predicted to suffer even more pronounced droughts in the next 30 years, further imperiling resources and livelihoods.



“Grasslands prevent soil erosion while supporting agriculture and livestock grazing, which sustain the livelihoods of pastoralists and farmers in Kenya,” explained Maureen Mwanzia, formerly with Conservation International Kenya and now a statistician at the World Health Organization.&nbsp;



“Additionally, they support rich biodiversity. Beyond their ecological functions, grasslands hold cultural significance and offer tourism and recreation opportunities, making their protection and restoration essential for both environmental and human well-being.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-conflicts-in-restored-grasslands-nbsp">Tracking conflicts in restored grasslands&nbsp;</h2>



Beginning in October 2021, 11,000 hectares of grassland in the Chyulu Hills were earmarked for rehabilitation. 



From September 2022 to October 2023, researchers interviewed local households near these restored sites to understand the scale of human-wildlife interactions, such as crop raids and livestock attacks. The team also wanted to document social tensions, like disagreements over land use.



“Of the total households interviewed, 23% had at least one member experiencing non-lethal attacks by wildlife,” Donatti said. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-elephant-conflict-will-escalate-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elephants</a>, giraffes, lions, spotted hyenas, and buffalos were the most likely species to be involved.”&nbsp;



Conflicts often spiked during the rainy season, when predators sometimes turn to livestock and herbivores stray into ripening fields.



However, the study revealed that households near larger restored grassland areas encountered fewer wildlife conflicts, though overall conflict levels stayed relatively flat across time. Researchers attribute this to the still-limited size of restored grasslands compared with animals’ broad ranges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restored-grassland-reduces-community-disputes">Restored grassland reduces community disputes</h2>



Besides curbing wildlife clashes, restored grassland appeared to lower social conflicts and a sense of insecurity within local populations. 



Over the study period, people’s perceptions of safety generally improved where more habitat restoration was underway - though women-led households reported more social conflict and uncertainty than male-led households.



“However, we only have 16 months of data,” Donatti cautioned. “Tracking conflicts should continue in the area to understand long-term patterns.”&nbsp;



“Additionally, the information we requested from household members relates to the conflicts and mitigation strategies we have previously identified; other conflicts and strategies may have been happening in the area.”



“Finally, household surveys do not properly capture retaliatory measures on wildlife. These should be assessed using a different methodology.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-large-scale-grassland-restoration-nbsp">Potential of large-scale grassland restoration&nbsp;</h2>



Based on these findings, Mwanzia underscored the potential for large-scale grassland restoration to foster both ecological and social benefits.



“I would like to see the integration of grassland restoration into national and international environmental and development strategies, with dedicated funding and resources,” said Mwanzia.&nbsp;



“Policies should address human-wildlife and social conflicts while incorporating gender-sensitive approaches that consider the unique challenges faced by men and women in grassland areas.”



With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-are-racing-to-adapt-to-climate-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a> intensifying and tensions escalating, the study highlights grassland restoration as a nature-based approach that can defuse conflicts, support livestock, and protect wildlife. 



As other regions face similar climate pressures, Kenya’s experience may offer a guide on how bolstering natural habitats can help sustain communities and preserve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-earths-biodiversity-can-be-tracked-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1431316" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Environmental Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Restored grasslands bring more peace to Africa 

Across Kenya, grasslands serve as a crucial lifeline for both...

A new study has revealed that wild fish can recognize and follow specific human divers, distinguishing between individuals based on visual cues such as colors on wetsuits and gear.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that fish, like some other animals, may form differentiated relationships with humans, challenging long-standing assumptions about their cognitive abilities.



The research was conducted by scientists at the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB) in Germany. It builds on years of anecdotal observations from scientific divers who noticed that local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-can-recognize-themselves-in-the-mirror/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> in the Mediterranean would follow and steal food from the same divers, while ignoring others.&nbsp;



“Nobody has ever asked whether wild fish have the capacity, or indeed motivation, to recognize us when we enter their underwater world,” said Maëlan Tomasek, a doctoral student at MPI-AB and the <a href="https://www.uca.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Clermont Auvergne</a>, France.



Now, the researchers have confirmed that fish do recognize individual humans - and more than that, they remember which ones provide rewards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-fish-learn-to-identify-divers">Wild fish learn to identify divers</h2>



The study took place at a research site eight meters underwater in the Mediterranean Sea, where fish have become accustomed to the presence of scientists. Unlike lab experiments, the tests were conducted in the open sea, meaning fish were free to participate or leave at any time.



Katinka Soller, a bachelor student at MPI-AB and co-first author of the study, designed the training phase to test whether wild fish could learn to follow an individual diver. Wearing a bright red vest, she swam a set 50-meter route while feeding the fish.&nbsp;



Over time, she gradually removed the red vest, concealed the food, and eventually wore only standard dive gear - yet the fish continued to follow her, anticipating a reward.



Two species of seabream were particularly eager participants. “Once I entered the water, it was a matter of seconds before I would see them swimming towards me, seemingly coming out of nowhere,” Soller said.&nbsp;



She soon recognized certain individuals who returned day after day and even gave them names, such as “Bernie” and “Alfie.”



After 12 days of training, about 20 fish were consistently following Soller on her swims, proving that they had learned to associate her with food. This set the stage for the next phase of the experiment: testing whether they could distinguish her from another diver.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-presenting-fish-with-a-second-diver-nbsp">Presenting fish with a second diver&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate whether the fish were following Soller specifically or simply any diver, the researchers introduced a second diver, Tomasek, who had different-colored gear.&nbsp;



The two divers started at the same point and swam in opposite directions. On the first day, the fish split evenly between them, unsure of whom to follow. "You could see them struggling to decide who to chase,” Soller said.



However, only Soller provided <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-show-distinct-personalities-when-foraging-for-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a>. By the second day, the fish overwhelmingly chose to follow her instead of Tomasek. To confirm that they were actively learning to recognize the divers, the researchers focused on six individual fish, four of which showed strong learning patterns over the experiment.



“This is a cool result because it shows that fish were not simply following Katinka out of habit or because other fish were there,” Tomasek explained. “They were conscious of both divers, testing each one, and learning that Katinka produced the reward at the end of the swim.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fish-recognize-human-divers">How fish recognize human divers</h2>



To further investigate what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-cues-initiate-the-brains-decision-to-cooperate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual cues</a> the fish were using to distinguish between divers, the team repeated the test - this time with both divers wearing identical wetsuits and fins. With no distinguishing features, the fish could no longer tell them apart.



For the researchers, this was strong evidence that the fish were associating specific colors or patterns on the divers' gear with food.&nbsp;



“Almost all fish have color vision, so it is not surprising that the seabream learned to associate the correct diver based on patches of color on the body,” Tomasek said.



This ability is similar to how human divers recognize one another underwater. “Faces are distorted by diving masks, so we usually rely on differences between wetsuits, fins, or other parts of the gear to recognize each other,” Soller noted.&nbsp;



With more time, the researchers believe the fish might have learned to recognize subtler details, such as hand shapes or body movements.



“We already observed them approaching our faces and scrutinizing our bodies,” Soller added. “It was like they were studying us, not the other way around.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-and-human-recognition">Fish and human recognition</h2>



This study supports anecdotal accounts of animals recognizing individual humans but goes further by providing controlled experimental evidence in a completely natural environment.&nbsp;



The ability to distinguish specific people suggests that fish may have more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-sizes-itself-up-in-a-mirror-before-going-into-combat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive abilities</a> than previously thought.



If wild fish can learn to recognize and follow certain individuals, it raises the possibility that pet fish - or even fish in other natural environments - use similar strategies to identify familiar humans.&nbsp;



Finding that wild fish can quickly learn to use specific cues to recognize individual divers suggests that many other fish species - our pets included - are able to recognize certain patterns to identify us.



Senior author Alex Jordan, who leads a research group at MPI-AB, finds the results unsurprising.&nbsp;



“It doesn’t come as a shock to me that these animals, which navigate a complex world and interact with myriad different species every minute, can recognize humans based on visual cues,” said Jordan.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“I suppose the most surprising thing is that we would be surprised they can. It suggests we might underestimate the capacities of our underwater cousins.”



Tomasek noted that it might be strange to think about humans sharing a bond with an animal like a fish that sits so far from us on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-group-of-snakes-has-a-new-evolutionary-tree/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary tree</a>, that we don’t intuitively understand.&nbsp;



“But human-animal relationships can overcome millions of years of evolutionary distance if we bother to pay attention. Now we know that they see us, it’s time for us to see them.”&nbsp;



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0558" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wild fish and human divers: An unexpected bond

A new study has revealed that wild fish can recognize...

species in Neritopsidae

News coming your way