A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

One of the biggest contributors to the microplastics pollution scourge is the wear and tear from motor vehicle tires on roadways. But what about bikes?



And more specifically, what about mountain bikes that are often ridden directly through forests and along trails?



A team of scientists at the <a href="https://www.uni-bayreuth.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bayreuth</a> decided to look into this question. They carried out the first real-world study that measures how much tire material mountain bikes leave behind as they roll through nature.



Their goal? To understand how even environmentally friendly forms of transportation might be adding to the microplastic problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-tire-microplastics-the-basics">Understanding tire microplastics - the basics</h2>



Every time a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brake-pad-copper-emissions-are-worse-than-diesel-exhaust-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">car hits the road</a>, its tires wear down bit by bit - and that wear releases microplastics into the environment. 



Tires are made from a mix of synthetic rubber, plastic polymers, and chemical additives, and as they roll, tiny particles get scraped off and tossed into the air, soil, and water. 



These microplastics from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tire-particles-must-be-recognized-as-a-distinct-environmental-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tire particles</a> can settle along roadsides, wash into storm drains, or get carried by the wind, eventually finding their way into rivers, oceans, and even the air we breathe.



The problem is bigger than most people realize. In fact, microplastic pollution from tires is one of the largest sources of microplastics in the environment - even more than what comes from plastic bags or bottles. 



These particles don’t break down easily, and once they’re out there, they can harm aquatic life, contaminate food chains, and possibly impact human health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-bike-tires-also-shed-microplastics">Mountain bike tires also shed microplastics</h2>



The research team designed a straightforward but revealing experiment. Nine mountain bikers received brand-new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tire-particles-must-be-recognized-as-a-distinct-environmental-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tires</a> and were asked to ride as they normally would. 



Their routes were recorded using GPS, and the tires were weighed in the lab at regular intervals to measure how much rubber had been worn away.



The results showed that mountain bike tires shed about 3.5 grams of material per 100 kilometers. That adds up to as much as 88 grams per bike per year.



While that may sound like a lot, it’s only a small piece of the bigger picture. Tire wear from cars and trucks releases around 11 grams of microplastic per 100 kilometers. 



In Germany, this accounts for more than half of all road-related microplastic emissions and over a third of total <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-is-everywhere-even-in-newborns-and-getting-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic pollution</a> in the country. Compared to that, mountain biking contributes less than 1%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-500-kilometers-matter-more">The first 500 kilometers matter more</h2>



The researchers also discovered that the first few hundred kilometers on new tires caused more abrasion than subsequent journeys.



This is likely because the outer edges of the tires wear down quickly at first, and small manufacturing residues - like the tiny rubber “hairs” found on new tires - get rubbed off quickly.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mountain-bikes_tires_microplastics-pollution-source_graphic_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mountain-bikes_tires_microplastics-pollution-source_graphic_1s.webp" alt="Graphic illustration showing how mountain bikes contribute to microplastics pollution. Credit: Science of The Total Environment (2025)." class="wp-image-1964766"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Graphic illustration showing how mountain bikes contribute to microplastics pollution. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Science of The Total Environment (2025).</figcaption></figure>



“Our study provides the first reliable data on the amount of tire abrasion from mountain bikes under real-world conditions," said doctoral researcher Fabian Sommer. 



"The results show that while mountain bike tires release microplastics directly into nature, the amount is significantly lower compared to motorized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-costs-electric-vehicle-tires-emit-20-more-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicles</a>. This highlights another advantage of cycling as a sustainable mode of transport.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-bikes-may-also-add-microplastics">Other bikes may also add microplastics</h2>



The research team isn’t stopping with mountain bikes. They’ve already launched a follow-up study to compare tire abrasion rates across different types of bicycles, including road bikes, gravel bikes, and electric mountain bikes.



They’re also working with the laboratory of Professor Dr. Christian Laforsch, from the <a href="https://www.sfb-mikroplastik.uni-bayreuth.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Collaborative Research Center 1357 Microplastics</a>, to analyze environmental samples. 



This collaboration will help paint a fuller picture of how microplastics from bike tires interact with the natural world.



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/benefits-of-mountain-biking-far-outweigh-the-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biking</a> remains a greener alternative to driving, this research shows that even our cleanest habits leave marks. 



Understanding those marks is a step toward making better choices - and maybe building better tires in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-microplastics-still-matter">Why microplastics still matter</h2>



Even though mountain bikes contribute far less to microplastic pollution than motor vehicles, they still play a role in the broader environmental picture. 



The real issue is that microplastics are showing up in places they shouldn’t be - soils, rivers, oceans, and even inside our bodies. And they don’t break down. Once released, they linger in the environment, often for decades.



That’s why every bit of data matters. Understanding how much microplastic comes from different sources - whether it’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/car-tires-shed-pollutants-that-are-especially-toxic-for-humans-and-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cars</a>, clothes, shoes, or bike tires - helps build a clearer picture of where these particles come from and how we might reduce them.



It also helps inform smarter design choices, like new tire materials, better manufacturing practices, or improved trail planning, to protect the places we love to ride.



This study may be about bikes, but it’s also about something bigger: learning how our everyday habits connect to the growing web of microplastic pollution all around us.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969725006060?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Car tires are a big source of microplastics pollution, but what about mountain bikes?

One of the biggest contributors to the microplastics pollution scourge...

Multi-colored,Pastel,Manicure,Combined,Tone,On,Tone,With,A,Striped

Picture this: you’re at home, relaxing, and giving yourself a fresh manicure with bright pink nails that shimmer with sparkles or are maybe even embedded with a computer chip.



When you're done showing them off for the week, you melt them down and start over - no waste, no guilt. That’s the idea behind Bio-e-Nails.



A team of researchers at the University of Colorado Boulder’s <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/atlas/academics/grad/ctd-ci?gad_source=1&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjwhr6_BhD4ARIsAH1YdjCyr6N7P0vH1CNwX8lu2leCWD20cxeurZXvJczxf58DWB9fdDuon1MaAn2lEALw_wcB" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ATLAS Institute</a> has created a biodegradable, customizable press-on nail that could redefine how we think about beauty and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-urgent-plea-sustainable-climate-solutions-save-earth-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainability</a>.



The nails are made from simple, natural materials, like algae and shellfish shells, and are easy to create at home using basic craft tools and ingredients from your local store.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-kind-of-nail">A new kind of nail</h2>



Bio-e-Nails are colorful, fun, and designed to be reused. 



Whether you love long, glittery nails or short, vibrant ones, these can be made to match your exact style - and then remade again when you're ready for a change.



“With Bio-e-Nails, there can be a second life, a third life, a fourth life,” said Lázaro Vásquez, a doctoral student at ATLAS. 



“The material can be remelted and reshaped into new objects. You can make a new nail, for sure, but also a coaster for your coffee cup.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-biodegradable-nails-are-a-big-deal">Why biodegradable nails are a big deal</h2>



<a href="https://www.eldylazaro.com/?portfolio=bio-e-nails" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bio-e-Nails</a> were first presented at the 2025 Tangible, Embedded and Embodied Interaction (TEI) conference in France.



The concept grew from a class project into a research collaboration that brought together students and faculty interested in sustainable design.



“Sustainability goes beyond merely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-production-must-be-phased-out-to-stop-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">replacing plastic</a> with a substitute material,” said Mirela Alistar, assistant professor at ATLAS and the Department of Computer Science. 



“Both the designer and the user also need to change their mindset. That type of change, which considers the entire lifecycle of the wearable, is what we are tackling through our research in the Living Matter Lab.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nails-with-a-purpose">Nails with a purpose</h2>



For many, visiting a nail salon is more than just pampering - it’s self-expression.



“[Nails] can be a reflection of your personality,” Vásquez said. “They represent something that comes from you.”



But traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-household-products-expose-people-to-dangerous-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nail products</a> often contain chemicals like methyl methacrylate, which can be harmful to both workers and clients. 



The booming $700 million press-on nail industry also generates a surprising amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-waste-grows-relentlessly-as-recycling-falls-short/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic waste</a>.



Alistar pointed out the hidden cost of all this beauty: “We’re not used to thinking of nails as a waste material because they're so small, but they add up.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-make-biodegradable-nails-at-home">How to make biodegradable nails at home</h2>



To make Bio-e-Nails, you start with one of two key ingredients: agar or chitosan. 



Agar, derived from algae, is often used as a vegan substitute for gelatin. Chitosan, on the other hand, comes from seashells and is widely used in supplements.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/bio-e-nails_biodegradable-fingernails_reusable_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/bio-e-nails_biodegradable-fingernails_reusable_1s.webp" alt="Bio-e-Nails come in all shapes and colors. Credit: Living Matter Lab" class="wp-image-1964780"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Bio-e-Nails come in all shapes and colors. Credit: Living Matter Lab</figcaption></figure>



If you're using chitosan, the process is simple. Mix it with vinegar and water, heat and cool it in a water bath, and pour it into a mold shaped like your favorite nail. 



After a couple of days, peel the film off, trim the edges, and you’re ready. The agar version is equally easy.



Then, it’s time to get creative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fully-custom-and-even-smart">Fully custom and even smart</h2>



You can mix in food coloring for vibrant shades, or add glitter and tiny crystals to match your mood or outfit. 



The nails can even go high-tech. The team experimented with embedding small computer chips into the nails. 



These can be programmed to interact with your smartphone, like showing your emergency contact or pulling up directions when tapped.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-don-t-toss-them-reshape-and-reuse-them">Don't toss them, reshape and reuse them</h2>



Bio-e-Nails are meant for short-term wear - perfect for a party or weekend event. And when you're done? Don’t toss them. 



Reuse the material, reshape it into your next look, or even turn it into something completely different.



“Composting should be the last alternative. We want to keep the materials in use as long as we can,” explained Vásquez.



“In biodesign, it’s not just about replacing traditional materials with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-future-of-plastic-biodegradable-durable-and-even-edible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodegradable</a> ones - it’s about rethinking the entire design process, considering the life cycle of the material and eventual products, and how they can stay in circulation and be transformed before they ever return to nature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



With Bio-e-Nails, beauty isn’t just skin deep - it’s a way to rethink how we care for ourselves and the planet. From your fingertips to your compost bin - or your next set of nails - it’s all connected.



Details of the study were <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3689050.3704426">presented</a> at the 2025 Tangible, Embedded and Embodied Interaction Conference.



<a href="https://youtu.be/SJGLC6OofmY" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Watch a video demonstration by clicking here...</a>



The full study <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3689050.3704426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">is published here...</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Biodegradable fingernails? Yes, and you can make them at home and reuse

Picture this: you’re at home, relaxing, and giving yourself a...

In the final era of the Cretaceous, giant reptiles were not the only ones navigating a changing planet. Tiny fossils suggest that many small mammals embraced ground-based living long before the arrival of the asteroid that ended the dinosaur age.



Researchers say these creatures were already exploring terrestrial spaces several million years ahead of that cosmic event. 



This challenges the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-the-cultural-legacy-of-wild-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> only moved down from the trees to the ground after dinosaurs were out of the picture.



<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Christine-Janis-450fb945-9d7d-4004-a540-2524be359b3e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Christine Janis</a> from the University of Bristol’s <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/earthsciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Earth Sciences</a> has contributed to this idea. She and her team analyzed the ends of small mammal limbs and found structures suited to movement on solid ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-before-the-dinosaurs-died">Before the dinosaurs died</h2>



The Maastrichtian Age was the last chapter of the Late Cretaceous, running from about 72 to 66 million years ago. 



During this time, Earth looked very different from today - sea levels were high, and warm shallow seas covered large parts of the continents. 



Dinosaurs still ruled the land, with massive herbivores like Triceratops and duck-billed hadrosaurs grazing in herds, while predators like Tyrannosaurus rex stalked them. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-extinction-influenced-fruit-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flowering plants</a> had spread widely by this point, shaping new ecosystems, and early birds and mammals were quietly evolving in the background.



But beneath the surface, change was brewing. Volcanic activity in what's now India was ramping up, pumping gases into the atmosphere. The climate started to shift, and ecosystems became more fragile.



Then came the asteroid. It triggered wildfires, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate chaos</a>, and the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event that wiped out around 75% of all species, including the non-avian dinosaurs. 



Thankfully, mammals were part of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-led-to-the-emergence-of-ant-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surviving group</a>, which is the reason that we're all here today and able to read this article.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-helped-mammals-move-to-ground">Flowers helped mammals move to ground</h2>



Mammals were not just contending with large reptiles. They also inhabited landscapes that were rapidly filling with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">angiosperms</a>, or flowering plants, that provided rich understory habitats in which to live.



“The vegetational habitat was more important for the course of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982206002454">Cretaceous mammalian evolution</a> than any influence from dinosaurs,” said Professor Janis. 



This idea emphasizes how expanded ground-level plant cover created new opportunities for smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-new-plants-reshaped-habitats">How new plants reshaped habitats</h2>



Beneath prehistoric canopies, modestly sized creatures needed spaces to hide, and diverse food sources to keep them going. 



Old forests dominated by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/gymnosperm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gymnosperms</a> had provided fewer ground-based feeding options, but flowering plants added more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-mixodectes-pungens-prehistoric-mammal-and-relative-of-primates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variety</a>.



Experts link the diversification of flowering plants to changes in habitat structure. The vegetation supported denser undergrowth at lower levels, which let many small mammals roam freely without competing for the treetops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fossil-fragments-matter">Why fossil fragments matter</h2>



Most early studies of mammal locomotion relied on full or partial skeletons. Scientists had a hard time finding enough complete specimens to reconstruct how prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-molecule-tells-starfish-and-humans-when-to-stop-eating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> moved around.



By examining partial bones, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/epiphysis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epiphyses</a>, researchers overcame that hurdle. Subtle features on these limb ends can hint at whether an animal spent more time on the ground or clinging to branches.



Some epiphyses revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal</a> limbs were built for sturdy footing rather than gripping bark.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mammals_first-ground-dwellers_Dryolestes_Credit-James-Brown_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mammals_first-ground-dwellers_Dryolestes_Credit-James-Brown_1s.webp" alt="Dryolestes, a Late Jurassic relative of the Cretaceous therians. Credit: Artist James Brown. Pamela Gill" class="wp-image-1964794"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dryolestes, a Late Jurassic relative of the Cretaceous therians. Click imaeg to enlarge. Credit: Artist James Brown. Pamela Gill</figcaption></figure>



Prior thinking painted a picture of mostly arboreal lifestyles, but these fossils suggest that a gradual transition to the ground began sooner than once believed.



This method let scientists track a broader range of species. They no longer had to rely on the rare jackpot of finding an intact skeleton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ground-living-mammals-fared-better">Ground-living mammals fared better</h2>



Experts have suggested that non-arboreal species were more likely to endure the impact that devastated life at the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0458" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">K-Pg boundary</a>. 



This event may have dealt a harsher blow to treetop animals, as forests took a serious hit.



Many <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/therian" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therian groups</a>, which include marsupials and placentals, showed signs of a terrestrial lifestyle long before disaster struck. 



Researchers propose that ground-based behaviors opened new diets and protective nooks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-evolved-features-suited-for-ground">Mammals evolved features suited for ground</h2>



In Western North America, there is a rich record of small fossils that span the late Cretaceous and earliest Paleogene periods. 



By comparing these remains with modern-day mammals of similar size, scientists noticed a slow but steady upswing in the presence of terrestrial forms.



Bone shapes from different intervals, such as the <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/89230" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Judithian</a> and <a href="https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/6/n4/nmg_v6_n4_p72.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lancian</a>, reflect shifts in locomotion strategies. By the dawn of the Paleogene, ground-adapted features appeared more commonly than once imagined.



Observations of these ancient bone fragments suggest that mammals responded to plant-driven changes by easing out of the treetops and onto solid ground. 



Ecology and environment often act in tandem, and this scenario might be a prime example.



Before the asteroid struck, these animals had been fine-tuning a flexible approach to living. That choice may have helped them weather the harsh aftermath of an altered planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Some scientists plan to explore whether similar patterns can be found in other regions. 



There is also an interest in refining techniques that deduce locomotion strategies from small bones, so that scientists can determine whether these terrestrial traits show up worldwide.



Future work may confirm whether this early move to the ground played a big role in mammal survival. For now, these small fossils highlight how living things can shift gears in response to changes in habitat availability. 



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pala.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mammals survived the asteroid impact that killed the dinosaurs, now we know how they did it

In the final era of the Cretaceous, giant reptiles were...

In July 2022, powerful thunderstorms pummeled the central United States, bringing extreme flooding to the St. Louis metropolitan area and then dumping vast amounts of water on eastern Kentucky. 



St. Louis set a new benchmark for daily rainfall, with a gauge at Lambert International Airport recording 8.64 inches of precipitation. 



Though media reports labeled it a 1-in-1,000-year event, a new study from <a href="https://washu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a> suggests otherwise. 



Researchers led by assistant professor Bronwen Konecky analyzed the storm’s intensity using a fresh approach that blends real-world measurements with climate model data. 



The team found that this extreme rainfall was more likely a 1-in-500-year storm - still significant, but not as rare as early estimates suggested.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-record-breaking-deluge">A record-breaking deluge</h2>



The downpour in St. Louis, which occurred on July 26, caused extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shorter-storms-bigger-impact-rising-flood-risks-in-a-warmer-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">floods</a> that claimed two lives and led to more than $1 billion in damages. It was the most expensive flood disaster in the nation that year.



Eastern Kentucky saw a similarly devastating impact only two days later. Preliminary coverage described the rainfall as having a 0.1% chance of happening in any given year, hence the “1,000-year” label.



But the Washington University researchers discovered that official frequency estimates carry huge error bars - potentially up to 7 inches of rainfall in some cases - which complicates claims that the storm was a once-in-a-millennium event. 



Instead, they say a storm of that magnitude is more likely on the order of a 1-in-500-year scenario for St. Louis and closer to a 1-in-300-year event for eastern Kentucky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-estimates-are-so-uncertain">Why estimates are so uncertain</h2>



Alexander Thompson, first author on the study and a recent PhD graduate, explains that short observation records are partly to blame. 



Rain gauges have only been recording data in some U.S. locations for about a century, and the coverage of these stations varies widely. Some areas have robust data, while others are spotty or have large historical gaps.



With such limited sets of observations, scientists must rely heavily on statistical methods to guess the likelihood of big <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-increases-as-a-direct-result-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> events. But if the data only covers a few decades, it will show a broad range of possible return periods for any major storm.



The term “return period” is how scientists express the probable timing of an event. A 1-in-500-year storm has a 0.2% chance of occurring in any given year, whereas a 1-in-1,000-year storm has a 0.1% chance. 



As global warming intensifies, storms with these high return periods could become more frequent in many regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fresh-blend-of-data-and-models">A fresh blend of data and models</h2>



Because standard measurements produce such wide error ranges, Thompson and Konecky - both paleoclimatologists by training - turned to an unusual strategy. 



The experts combined traditional rain gauge data from the late 20th and early 21st centuries with outputs from a large set of climate model simulations known as the Last Millennium Ensemble.



These simulations span back to the year 850 and run forward to 2100, covering both past and projected future climates.



“The late 20th and early 21st century is a unique period of time when we have weather station data that overlap with climate model simulations,” Konecky said. 



“We used that period of overlap to figure out how to come up with a blended data set that reflects the reality of the station data, but with the long-term statistics of the climate model simulations.” 



This blended dataset allowed the researchers to recast the July 2022 storm in historical context.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-risk-of-extreme-storms">Future risk of extreme storms</h2>



The results show the 24-hour rainfall that drenched St. Louis has a likely return period of around 530 years, while the eastern Kentucky event clocks in at about 280 years.



 In real terms, that means these extreme storms, though unusual, are more probable than the initial 1-in-1,000-year assessments indicated.



Moreover, the data suggest that such events will become even more common in decades ahead as global warming accelerates.



For communities like St. Louis, where basement flooding turned into a major crisis last year, this conclusion carries an urgent message. “Extreme storms and flooding aren’t going away,” Konecky said. “St. Louis needs to be ready.”&nbsp;



The same holds for other cities facing similar precipitation extremes. Planning decisions on stormwater systems, road design, and new construction all hinge on understanding how often severe rainstorms could happen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-extreme-storms">A new era of extreme storms</h2>



With more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intense storms</a> looming, adaptation becomes critical. The researchers noted that economic losses from extreme floods continue to soar, and preparing now can save both money and lives.



"There’s an explosion of research into new and better ways to analyze these kinds of events,” Thompson said, adding that emerging methods - like the one used in this study - will help refine how we talk about storm frequency.



In the meantime, the takeaway is that an extreme storm like the one that slammed St. Louis is already too frequent for comfort - and only likely to get more so. 



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> reshapes historical weather patterns, societies must lean on better data, climate models, and proactive infrastructure planning to help keep damage in check.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/configurable/content/journals$002fclim$002f38$002f4$002fJCLI-D-24-0098.1.xml?t:ac=journals%24002fclim%24002f38%24002f4%24002fJCLI-D-24-0098.1.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Climate</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Once in a thousand years? Extreme storms are becoming much more frequent

In July 2022, powerful thunderstorms pummeled the central United States,...

The world leaves marks on every child - some visible, many hidden deep within the brain. The early environment, filled with relationships, stressors, and lessons to be learned, quietly molds neural connections long before school begins.



Scientists have suspected that childhood experiences influence cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-human-brain-create-retrieve-memories-engram-cells-connections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">performance</a>, but new research goes a step further. It shows how childhood experiences alter the brain’s structure itself.



Researchers from Mass General Brigham have discovered that the quality of white matter - the brain’s communication wiring - is shaped by early adversity and predicts how well children perform later in life.



The study emphasizes not only the risks of harsh environments but also the power of resilience. In particular, it explores how white matter might act as the bridge between life experience and mental ability during adolescence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-connections-and-childhood-experiences">Brain connections and childhood experiences</h2>



White matter allows the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-poisoning-triggers-lifelong-changes-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> to function as a connected whole. These myelinated nerve fiber tracts transmit information between regions quickly and efficiently.



Unlike gray matter, which is tied to localized brain functions, white matter enables coordination across networks. That coordination becomes essential for skills like language, problem-solving, and emotional regulation.



“White matter is likely also a key mediator of this link, given that communication along myelinated fiber tracts drives the maturation of brain regions and the emergence of cognition," noted the researchers.



White matter continues to develop throughout childhood and adolescence. It is sensitive to the quality of early experiences. That means adversity - or support - can change how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-training-shields-the-aging-brain-from-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain connections</a> evolve. 



This study explores that link in greater detail than ever before, using a nationally representative cohort.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-communication-system">The brain's communication system</h2>



To investigate these effects, the researchers turned to the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, a large-scale project that is funded by the <a href="https://www.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institutes of Health</a>.



This ongoing study includes data from over 9,000 children, around half of them girls, with an average age of 9.5 years. It spans 21 research sites across the country that collect information on brain structure, behavior, mental health, and life circumstances.



In this analysis, the team focused on several categories of early-life conditions. These included prenatal risks, interpersonal adversity, economic hardship, and neighborhood disadvantage. 



The experts also looked at positive factors - such as warm parenting and supportive communities - that could protect children from long-term harm.



The researchers used diffusion MRI scans to measure two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-brains-are-more-organized-and-adaptable-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aspects</a> of white matter in the brain: fractional anisotropy (FA), which captures the microstructural quality of the fibers, and streamline count, which estimates the strength of the brain's wiring.



These measures offer a detailed view of how well the brain's communication system is developing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-childhood-experiences-rewire-the-brain">Childhood experiences rewire the brain </h2>



The results were clear. Children who experienced a range of adversities showed lower levels of FA and streamline count across the whole brain. 



This reduction was not confined to a few tracts but affected widespread regions, especially those linked to math skills and receptive language. These structural differences in white matter were linked to lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-rewires-the-brain-to-strengthen-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive</a> performance later in adolescence.



“The aspects of white matter that show a relationship with our early life environment are much more pervasive throughout the brain than we’d thought," said lead author Sofia Carozza. 



"Instead of being just one or two tracts that are important for cognition, the whole brain is related to the adversities that someone might experience early in life.” 



This insight deepens our understanding of how childhood challenges don’t just influence mood or learning indirectly. They may physically change how the brain develops, altering how information is processed, retained, and recalled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-interpersonal-resilience">The role of interpersonal resilience</h2>



The study did not stop at risk. It also examined resilience - particularly the interpersonal kind. Children who had supportive relationships, cohesive communities, and consistent parenting showed signs of protection.



These children had stronger white matter and better cognitive outcomes, even when exposed to adversity.



“We are all embedded in an environment, and features of that environment, such as our relationships, home life, neighborhood, or material circumstances can shape how our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-brain-pathways-identified-as-being-unique-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains</a> and bodies grow, which in turn affects what we can do with them,” said Carozza.



“We should work to make sure that more people can have those stable, healthy home lives that the brain expects, especially in childhood.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-matter-and-early-brain-growth">White matter and early brain growth</h2>



The findings support a white matter-based account of brain development, in which early experiences shape how different parts of the brain communicate. This connectivity, in turn, supports the development of skills like reasoning, memory, and language.



The results also echo leading developmental theories that view white matter as central to early brain growth, and as more influential than changes in individual gray matter regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognition-follows-connectivity">Cognition follows connectivity</h2>



White matter integrity turned out to be a partial mediator between early adversity and later cognitive abilities. Adverse childhood experiences didn’t just coincide with lower scores - they changed children’s brains in a way that made learning more difficult. 



Children who scored lower in mental arithmetic and receptive language also had lower FA values in related white matter tracts.



“The richness of a child’s early-life environment robustly predicts later cognitive abilities,” noted the researchers. “Our results also point to the protective role of interpersonal resilience factors.”



This relationship between environment, white matter, and cognition offers a more complete picture of child development. It shows that adversity and support can leave measurable footprints in the brain, and that these footprints shape future learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adverse-childhood-experiences">Adverse childhood experiences </h2>



While the findings are powerful, the study does have limits. It’s based on observational data and cannot prove a direct link.



The brain scans were collected at a single point in time, offering only a snapshot. Future research should track these children over the years, and gathering multiple brain scans to better understand how adversity unfolds throughout development.



Even with those caveats, this work adds weight to calls for early-life support programs. Stable homes, nurturing adults, and strong communities may help children not just feel safer - but think better and live fuller lives.



The study was led by Sofia Carozza, Ph.D., and Amar Dhand, M.D., Ph.D., of Brigham and Women’s Hospital, which is part of the <a href="https://www.massgeneralbrigham.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mass General Brigham</a> system.



Other authors include Isaiah Kletenik, Duncan Astle, and Lee Schwamm. Their combined expertise in neurology, cognitive science, and public health shaped a study that bridges biology and human experience.



The study was published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409985122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Childhood experiences trigger lasting changes in brain structure

The world leaves marks on every child - some visible,...

Archaeologists working in western El Salvador have uncovered a group of ancient puppet-like figurines. Estimated to be around 2,400 years old, they oddly resemble modern toy dolls.



Experts say the objects once had movable heads attached by string, which makes them different from typical clay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-played-a-spiritual-role-in-prehistoric-cave-art/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sculptures</a> found in the region.



<a href="https://uw.academia.edu/JanSzymanski" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Jan Szymański</a> and <a href="https://www.archeologia.uw.edu.pl/en/emplyees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Gabriela Prejs</a> from the <a href="https://en.uw.edu.pl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Warsaw</a> led the team that <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/of-puppets-and-puppeteers-preclassic-clay-figurines-from-san-isidro-el-salvador/A6E2C8408DEAB88D1EBE4BCFDC1FCBAA" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unearthed</a> the five figurines at the site of San Isidro. Each piece has distinctive features, including one that shows a male figure with possible facial tattoos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-puppets-with-movable-heads">Ancient puppets with movable heads</h2>



Two of these puppets are only a few inches tall, while three measure about a foot. They each have open mouths, and the larger ones have detachable heads with small holes through the neck and skull, which would allow a cord to pass through the center.



Researchers found them near the top of a pyramidal structure, and they believe the figurines may have been part of the way people celebrated important events. 



One big clue is that these objects were grouped together as though they were still in use, instead of being found as just random <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-isnt-just-ancient-history-its-happening-right-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fragments</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-people-used-puppets-in-rituals">Ancient people used puppets in rituals</h2>



“They are clay actors,” said Dr. Szymański. When held at certain angles, these figures can appear almost alive, sparking curiosity about how people in that society used them during ritual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scenes</a>.



Performers could have threaded string through their detachable heads so the pieces could be adjusted in a hand or placed in a staged setting. 



Some historians suggest they were part of ceremonies involving symbolic story re-enactments or even tributes to powerful leaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-puppets-matter">Why these puppets matter</h2>



The idea that these were used like small puppets is “super provocative,” said <a href="https://art.utexas.edu/people/julia-guernsey" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julia Guernsey</a> from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>. 



Her perspective aligns with the notion that speech or chanting may have been represented by the figurines’ open mouths during performances.



This set of artifacts is only the second known group of its kind found in a secure spot, and it is the first that includes a male figure with facial markings. 



The presence of a male puppet adds another layer to what we know about how gender might have been represented in these roles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-challenges-global-connections">Local challenges, global connections</h2>



El Salvador’s ancient history is often overshadowed by the famous cultures from neighboring areas, particularly the Mayan and other well-known <a href="https://www.arizonamuseumofnaturalhistory.org/explore-the-museum/exhibitions/cultures-of-the-ancient-americas/mesoamerica#:~:text=Mesoamerica%20is%20that%20area%20defined,ecological%2C%20linguistic%20and%20cultural%20diversity." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesoamerican</a> sites.



Archaeological digs are also tricky because of past volcanic eruptions that buried settlements, and the high population density that currently limits excavation.



In spite of these hurdles, the recent discovery suggests this region had more robust cultural ties than once assumed. 



Jade pendants found nearby resemble <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-what-ancient-farmers-were-eating-5000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artifacts</a> from distant spots in Central America, potentially indicating that ideas were shared beyond local borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expressions-that-changed-with-each-glance">Expressions that changed with each glance</h2>



Open mouths appear on all five figurines, so they might have signaled speech or song. 



One puppet even has its hands raised close to the chin, which could hint at a missing object that might have been part of an ancient ceremony.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-puppets_resemble-modern-toys_credit-PASI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-puppets_resemble-modern-toys_credit-PASI_1s.webp" alt="Five figurines from the San Isidro deposit. Oddly, they somehow resemble modern toy dolls. Scale in centimeters. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI" class="wp-image-1964733"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Five figurines from the San Isidro deposit. Oddly, they somehow resemble modern toy dolls. Scale in centimeters. Click image to enlarge. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI</figcaption></figure>



Dr. Szymański believes the facial expressions, that changed depending on how the viewer held the pieces, could have created a theatrical effect. 



That flair for drama might have allowed ancient audiences to interpret these shapes and movements in multiple ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-ritual-uses">Possible ritual uses</h2>



Some archaeologists propose that puppets like these were used to recreate certain events, whether real or imagined. 



In Mesoamerican thought, repeating actions as performances sometimes held the same force as the original happenings.



A king commissioning a self-portrait might have believed the representation actually carried his presence, thus extending his influence. These puppets may have worked along similar lines, offering a way to echo authority or spiritual beliefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-barriers-of-cultural-backwardness">Breaking barriers of “cultural backwardness”</h2>



“This discovery contradicts the prevailing notion about El Salvador’s cultural backwardness,” said Dr. Szymański. 



These figurines tell us about lively networks, proving local societies could trade ideas and objects with places as far away as modern-day Panama.



Many of these connections are clear from similar art styles, patterns, and materials found throughout Central America. 



Shared rituals and puppet-like artifacts unite ancient communities that thrived along trade routes that stretched hundreds of miles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-hidden-stories">A window into hidden stories</h2>



Specialists have long struggled with the incomplete data on <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-El-Salvador" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pre-Columbian El Salvador</a>. The items at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/San-Isidro-Argentina" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">San Isidro</a> add to a small but growing collection that provides a richer narrative of how people lived and worshipped.



Some see the figurines as a link to unknown legends, or as signposts of everyday life that vanished under layers of ash and soil. 



By studying them, researchers hope to better understand the flow of cultural practices that bound different regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-performances-with-puppets">Ancient performances with puppets</h2>



When archaeologists talk about puppetry, they picture dynamic scenes: heads swiveling, mouths opening, arms twisting. 



Each ancient puppet could have played a unique role in telling a story, and the male figure’s face might also have told a personal story through body art.



Puppets are not common in the record of Mesoamerican archaeology, so these items stand out. Early forms of theater, dance, or ceremonial display might have come together around them, giving us one more dimension of ancient creativity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-perspectives-on-power">Shifting perspectives on power</h2>



Some clay pieces from past excavations were linked to grand rulers. Others suggest more community-centered activities that united townspeople in shared ceremonies.



These figurines fit somewhere on that spectrum. Their location high on a pyramid points to importance, but their design also hints at broader participation by many members of society.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-plays-might-have-featured-puppets">Ancient plays might have featured puppets</h2>



Puppeteers might have stood in small gatherings or on open plazas where the rest of the community could watch. The movements and expressions of the figurines may have aligned with prayers, songs, or messages of leadership.



It’s possible these puppets were used repeatedly in various scenes until someone decided to bury them in a final event. That closure could have marked a transition of power or a farewell to a deity or ancestor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-afterlife-of-ancient-puppets">Tracing the afterlife of ancient puppets</h2>



Fragments from other <a href="https://bolinasmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bolinas</a> figurines have been found in older digs in Guatemala, El Salvador, and neighboring countries. 



This consistency in style and design shows how certain ideas and materials circulated among people who had plenty of contact, rather than living in isolation.



Small details like earspools and intricate tattoos distinguish each figurine from the next. These touches remind us that individuality existed even in seemingly uniform objects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reflecting-on-what-remains">Reflecting on what remains</h2>



The male puppet’s facial markings strike some researchers as evidence of personal identity. Symbols etched onto clay may connect to real tattoos on living people, or they might indicate supernatural figures who controlled certain rites.



Long before Spanish colonists arrived, indigenous groups here had their own systems of art, performance, and storytelling. Each puppet may represent a different voice in that vibrant chorus, showing that ancient Salvadorans had cultural depth worth celebrating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-toward-future-research">Looking toward future research</h2>



Scholars hope more discoveries will emerge from the region’s hidden layers. They also want to compare newly uncovered objects with artifacts from farther south, bridging gaps in Mesoamerican and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867421002294" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Isthmo-Colombian archaeology</a>.



Bits and pieces of figurines have surfaced before, but finding a complete set offers a fresh chance to ask new questions. 



Researchers see this as a step toward revealing how widespread puppet traditions once were in Central America.



The study was published in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/of-puppets-and-puppeteers-preclassic-clay-figurines-from-san-isidro-el-salvador/A6E2C8408DEAB88D1EBE4BCFDC1FCBAA" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antiquity</a>.



Image Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ancient clay puppets discovered that 'resemble modern toy dolls' with movable heads

Archaeologists working in western El Salvador have uncovered a group...

They’re everywhere - in oceans, soil, food, human blood, and even Antarctic snow. Trillions of micro- and nanoplastics, many smaller than a virus, are floating through the environment, too tiny to be seen and nearly impossible to eliminate.



A new study reveals exactly how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-could-help-remove-nanoplastics-from-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic shards</a> are formed and why so many end up where they shouldn’t - inside living cells, where they can potentially alter DNA and pose serious risks to human health.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.engineering.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia Engineering</a>, led by Sanat Kumar, a professor of chemical engineering, have now uncovered the molecular mechanism behind the formation of these particles. 



The findings explain how most common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-changing-the-entire-earth-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastics</a> shed nanoscopic pieces into the environment - not just when they’re burned or crushed, but slowly and quietly, just by sitting out in the open.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-nanoplastics-the-basics">Understanding nanoplastics - the basics</h2>



Nanoplastics are extremely small plastic particles, typically less than 1 micrometer in size. 



Unlike microplastics, which are still visible under a microscope, nanoplastics are so tiny they can cross biological barriers - entering cells, tissues, and even the brain in some cases. 



Their size and ability to travel within living organisms make them especially concerning from a health and environmental standpoint.



Due to their microscopic size, they are extremely difficult to remove once they enter the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plastics-lose-their-structure">How plastics lose their structure </h2>



Most plastics used today - roughly 75% - are made of semicrystalline <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-polymers-that-are-considered-safe-release-harmful-toxins/">polymers</a>. These materials have a layered structure that makes them strong, flexible, and long-lasting. Under a microscope, they look like stacks of alternating hard and soft materials.



The hard layers consist of tightly ordered crystals, while the soft ones are more like a jumbled mass. These soft layers act like glue, holding the tougher crystalline sections together. 



This delicate balance gives plastic its unique strength - but also its fragility.



Kumar and his team found that the soft layers degrade first, especially when exposed to environmental conditions like heat, light, and moisture. 



"What we show in the new study is how easily those soft connectors break even under quiescent conditions such as in a landfill,” he explained. 



Once the soft layers give out, the hard crystalline pieces no longer hold anything in place - and they scatter into the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-nanoplastics-shed">How nanoplastics shed</h2>



When these crystalline fragments break loose, they become micro- or nanoplastics. These particles don’t break down easily. 



In fact, they can linger in the environment for centuries. Worse, their tiny size allows them to travel through the air, water, and even the human body.



Some of the smallest nanoplastics are small enough to pass through the membranes of human cells. 



“These pieces float around, and some end up in human bodies,” Kumar said. “The smallest pieces pass through cells and into the nucleus, where they can start messing with DNA.” 



Because of their shape and persistence, these fragments may behave similarly to asbestos. This disturbing trend is raising concerns about their potential links to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-linked-to-health-issues-including-cancer-and-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a>, heart disease, and other long-term health problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-materials-that-shed-fewer-nanoplastics">Materials that shed fewer nanoplastics </h2>



One solution, Kumar suggests, lies in engineering better plastics. The team’s findings indicate that reinforcing soft layers of semicrystalline polymers makes them more resilient. 



Engineers could design materials that shed fewer nanoplastics over time.



"Focus needs to be placed on this point, to reduce the amount of micro- and nanoplastics created by normal polymer degradation," said Kumar.



Changing the composition of these layers wouldn’t necessarily mean sacrificing plastic's strength or flexibility, but it could significantly slow down the breakdown process that leads to harmful shedding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Today, only about 2% of plastic gets recycled. For many companies, it’s simply cheaper to throw it away. But Kumar argues that this way of thinking doesn’t take into account the hidden health costs of pollution. 



“If you just throw plastic into the environment, it creates micro- and nanoplastics that look like they are going to cause health problems,” said Kumar. 



Reframing the issue could make a compelling case for additional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-scientists-are-using-air-to-recycle-plastic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recycling</a> investments. The medical costs for diseases linked to nanoplastics are staggering. 



The financial impact is stark when we consider cancer and cardiovascular issues. “Maybe it’s actually cheaper to recycle,” Kumar argued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-and-safer-plastics">Smarter and safer plastics</h2>



This new understanding of how nanoplastics form opens the door to smarter, safer plastic design. Modern research is reinforcing the urgency of this global plastic crisis. 



Humans can reduce these harmful particles with innovative waste management solutions and increased recycling.



The Columbia team’s findings serve as a sobering reminder that the plastics we rely on daily - from food packaging to water bottles - don’t disappear when we throw them away. 



Plastics quietly degrade into invisible particles, which can travel into our bodies and the broader ecosystem, with consequences we are only beginning to understand.



“If you think about it that way, suddenly the cost of inaction doesn’t seem so low,” Kumar concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58233-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How does everyday plastic turn into dangerous micro and nanoplastics? Scientists found out

They’re everywhere - in oceans, soil, food, human blood, and...

Urban trees have become popular guinea pigs for studying how climate change might affect plant life in the future. Predicting these effects is complex as there are numerous variables - shifting temperatures, rainfall, soil conditions, and genetics.



To simplify the task, many researchers compare plants growing in cities with those in nearby rural areas. The idea is that cities form heat islands, where concrete and buildings trap warmth, raising local temperatures by a few degrees.



These spots offer a natural glimpse into how plants might respond in a warmer world. But recent research from scientists at <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> and <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> suggests this common method may be giving us a false sense of security - at least when it comes to forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-trees-could-hide-climate-risks">City trees could hide climate risks</h2>



City trees, it turns out, aren’t telling the whole story. While comparing urban and rural plant life seems straightforward, the researchers found that the trees growing in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-the-best-option-to-reduce-the-urban-heat-island-effect/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban heat islands</a> often have less genetic diversity than their rural counterparts.



This hidden difference changes the way they respond to heat. In fact, it might be masking the full impact of climate change. 



“The appeal of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-urban-heat-experts-plan-to-cool-a-desert-city-by-4-5c/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban temperature</a> gradients is, well, it's already there,” said David Des Marais, one of the researchers. “We can't look into the future, so why don't we look across space, comparing rural and urban areas?”



The data is readily available, which has made this approach popular among ecologists. 



But even though they knew the method wasn’t perfect - differences in soil nutrients such as nitrogen were already a known issue - researchers still saw urban trees as a useful stand-in to test the possible effects of future conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-vs-rural-trees-genetic-mismatch">City vs. rural trees: Genetic mismatch</h2>



This latest study took a different approach. Instead of just comparing how trees grow in the city and the countryside, the researchers looked at their genetics as well.



Specifically, they focused on red oaks in and around Cambridge, Massachusetts, and in the Harvard Forest in rural central Massachusetts. 



The project actually began during the pandemic. With travel limited, the researchers started studying trees close to home.



Over three years, they gathered temperature data, tracked when trees began to leaf out in spring, and analyzed the trees’ genomes. What they discovered was surprising.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/city-trees_red-oak-genotypes_respond-differently-heat_credit-PNAS_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/city-trees_red-oak-genotypes_respond-differently-heat_credit-PNAS_1s.webp" alt="Meghan Blumstein studied red oak genotypes across New England, concentrating on trees that were within reach in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She then collaborated with people doing research at the Harvard Forest, a research forest in rural central Massachusetts. Credit: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2025)" class="wp-image-1964704"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Meghan Blumstein studied red oak genotypes across New England, concentrating on trees that were within reach in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She then collaborated with people doing research at the Harvard Forest, a research forest in rural central Massachusetts. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2025)</figcaption></figure>



“So, lo and behold, you think you're only letting one variable change in your model, which is the temperature difference from an urban to a rural setting,” Des Marais explained. “But in fact, it looks like there was also a genotypic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> that was not being accounted for.”



Urban red oaks were genetically different from rural red oaks. And those genetic differences made city trees more resistant to warmer temperatures. 



As a result, urban trees didn’t show the same level of sensitivity to heat that rural trees did. 



Because of this, previous studies comparing plant responses in cities and rural areas may have underestimated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-forests-are-being-transformed-by-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how forests will react to global warming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-this-affects-climate-predictions">How this affects climate predictions</h2>



“Initially, we saw these results and we were sort of like, oh, this is a bad thing,” Des Marais said. “Ecologists are getting this heat island effect wrong, which is true.” But there’s an upside: the problem is fixable.



“It's not that much more work, because sequencing genomes is so cheap and so straightforward. Now, if someone wants to look at an urban-rural gradient and make these kinds of predictions, well, that's fine. You just have to add some information about the genomes,” explained Marais.



The lack of genetic diversity in urban trees actually makes sense. For decades, growers have selected varieties that can survive harsh city conditions, including poor soil, pollution, and inconsistent drainage. 



Over time, this trial-and-error approach has narrowed the genetic pool of city trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-global-assessments">What this means for global assessments</h2>



The implications are bigger than a few city parks. These urban-to-rural comparisons are part of the toolset used by organizations, including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>), to make global predictions.



“When the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) releases its regular reports on the status of the climate, one of the tools the IPCC has to predict future responses to climate change with respect to temperature are these urban-to-rural gradients.”



“If these results are generally true beyond red oaks, this suggests that the urban heat island approach to studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-genetics-research-just-got-a-lot-easier-with-a-simple-trick/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant response to temperature</a> is under predicting how strong that response is.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-way-forward">A better way forward</h2>



This study doesn’t throw out the idea of using urban environments to study climate change. It just asks researchers to look a little deeper. 



Adding a genetic lens to these comparisons could make future predictions more accurate - and help us better prepare our forests for the changes ahead. 



As climate pressures increase, getting these predictions right could be the difference between a thriving forest and one in decline.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2408564122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

City trees might be misleading us about climate change impact

Urban trees have become popular guinea pigs for studying how...

Microplastics are showing up in more and more places where they were never meant to be. This time, it's inside the organs of sea turtles, including in their reproductive systems.



That’s the troubling conclusion of a new study that examined stranded loggerhead sea turtles and found tiny plastic particles throughout their bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-turtle-bodies-full-of-microplastics">Sea turtle bodies full of microplastics</h2>



The research, conducted by scientists from the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>, focused on 10 turtles that were accidentally caught in fishing nets and later recovered by the <a href="https://www.oceanografic.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oceanogràfic Foundation</a> of Valencia.



The team discovered significant levels of microplastics in male reproductive tissues and found the particles in other major organs in both male and female turtles. 



These included the heart, kidneys, liver, spleen, stomach, intestines, skeletal muscle, subcutaneous fat, and even the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-reach-turtle-fertility-organs">Microplastics reach turtle fertility organs</h2>



This is the first study to offer direct evidence that microplastics can travel from the gut to other parts of the body in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-plastic-items-found-in-deceased-sea-turtles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea turtles</a>.



The findings suggest that these particles don’t just pass through the digestive system - they may end up accumulating in places that are critical to the animals’ health and reproduction.



“Microplastics are a pervasive marine environmental pollutant, on a par with other global threats such as climate change and ozone depletion," said lead author Leah Costello, a Ph.D. researcher at the University of Manchester.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_internal-invasion_illustration_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_internal-invasion_illustration_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1s.webp" alt="Graphical abstract of microplastics invading the internal organs of sea turtles. Credit: Marine Environmental Research (2025)" class="wp-image-1964694"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Graphical abstract of microplastics invading the internal organs of sea turtles. Credit: Marine Environmental Research (2025)</figcaption></figure>



"Our study is the first to show direct evidence of the presence of microplastics in the reproductive and other organs of loggerhead sea turtles.” 



Sea turtles already face many pressures from human activity and although we have been aware that they ingest plastic throughout their range, the finding of microplastics in almost every tissue sample was quite shocking. 



"These findings show that even seemingly healthy individuals could be under physiological stress, impacting the reproductive success of vulnerable and recovering populations," Costello continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scale-and-composition-of-the-pollution">Scale and composition of the pollution</h2>



The analysis found that nearly every tissue sample - 98.8% to be exact - contained foreign microparticles. Around 70% of those were identified as microplastics.



The most common types were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plastic-straws-degrade-faster-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polypropylene</a>, polyester, and polyethylene.



Polypropylene is often used in food packaging, bottle caps, ropes, and personal care products, all of which can end up in the ocean. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disposable-coffee-cups-release-trillions-of-plastic-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polyethylene</a>, the material used in plastic bags, poses a direct threat to turtles that often mistake it for jellyfish and ingest it directly. 



Size-wise, the largest median particles (about 25 microns) were found in the intestines and fat tissue. The smallest particles (around 15 microns) showed up in the stomach and reproductive organs.



Polyester microfibers, shed from clothing, are also a major contributor to marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-found-in-every-aquatic-species-tested/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a>. In a particularly striking finding, the scientists visually confirmed cotton microfibers embedded in heart tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-impact-of-microplastics">Long-term impact of microplastics</h2>



Each year, an estimated 3 million tons of primary microplastics are released into the environment. On top of that, another 5.3 million tons of larger plastics break down into smaller particles over the same time.



Sea turtles, which can retain plastics in their digestive systems for up to four months, may be absorbing these particles into their bloodstream, allowing them to spread to other organs.



The potential health consequences could be serious. Microplastics have already been linked to inflammation in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, and similar effects are suspected in turtles.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_heart-tissue_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_heart-tissue_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1s.webp" alt="Plastic fiber lodged in sea turtle heart. Credit: University of Manchester" class="wp-image-1964692"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Plastic fiber lodged in sea turtle heart. Credit: University of Manchester</figcaption></figure>



“Microplastic accumulation is likely to be associated with organ damage and toxicity in these incredible marine reptiles that can live for 70 years,” said co-author Professor Holly Shiels from the University of Manchester.



“Of particular concern is the impact on reproduction, with implications on growth, development and viability of offspring which could spell trouble for the stability of these already vulnerable sea turtle populations. However, further studies are required to more broadly assess the biological and health impacts of microplastic on sea turtle reproduction," Shiels concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deeper-problem-than-we-realized">Deeper problem than we realized</h2>



The findings raise urgent questions about how plastics are affecting wildlife far beyond the obvious signs of entanglement or ingestion. 



These invisible microplastics could be disrupting key biological systems in turtles and other animals already under threat.



As research continues, what’s clear is that microplastics are not just a surface-level issue. They’re working their way deep into living creatures - sometimes right into the organs that are essential for species survival.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141113625001576?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Environmental Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Microplastics found in 99 percent of tested sea turtles' internal organ tissue

Microplastics are showing up in more and more places where...

Reptiles from diverse habitats display a stunning range of colors, from those that match the glow of a sun-drenched desert to those that camouflage in the cool shadows of a dense jungle. But these patterns are more than skin deep - they reflect a long history of environmental change and adaptation.



Recent findings from researchers at <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> in Sweden reveal that habitat openness, more than any other factor, drives how reptiles evolve their color over millions of years. The results offer a fresh way to understand how species respond to climate shifts, and what may lie ahead as the world warms and dries.



Reptile coloration has fascinated scientists for decades. It’s well known that animals adjust their appearance for camouflage, communication, or thermoregulation. But one big question remained - what explains the global variation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-provide-new-clues-about-the-diets-of-extinct-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptile</a> color across time and space?



The new study, which combines advanced modeling with over 10,000 reptile images, brings us a step closer to answering that question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptiles-and-the-color-habitat-connection">Reptiles and the color-habitat connection</h2>



To investigate, the researchers studied 1,249 species of scaled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-shifts-the-origin-of-lizards-back-35-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> from around the world. They focused on dorsal brightness - how light or dark the animal's back is - since brightness plays a critical role in how animals interact with sunlight.



The team analyzed this trait alongside six key eco-environmental variables: habitat openness, latitude, altitude, body mass, concealment, and activity time.



The researchers found one pattern that held steady across time, space, and species. Reptiles living in open environments, for example deserts, grasslands, and savannas, tended to have brighter, lighter colors. In contrast, reptiles in closed, forested areas were darker.



“Color evolves under the influence of several competing selection forces from different ecological and environmental factors. By identifying the driving forces behind global patterns of color variation, we can gain a deeper understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-take-bigger-risks-when-they-are-hungry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> can adapt to changing environmental conditions,” explained biology researcher Jonathan Goldenberg.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-habitat-openness-matters-most">Why habitat openness matters most</h2>



Among the six variables tested, only habitat openness was consistently linked to reptile color brightness. Latitude and altitude had some influence, but only in species with small body sizes. Even activity patterns - whether species are active by day or night - had little effect.



Instead, the clearest signal came from vegetation density. More open landscapes allowed more sunlight to reach the animals, increasing the need for lighter coloration.



The researchers suggest this might help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-lizard-day-2024-celebrating-our-scaly-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> reflect sunlight and avoid overheating. Bright colors may also play a role in visual communication under open skies, but the link to heat absorption is particularly strong.



Interestingly, subterranean species didn’t follow this trend, which is unsurprising given that light rarely reaches them underground.



“We also discovered that the rate of color brightness evolution probably follows major changes towards a colder and drier climate. This suggests that reptiles have probably adapted their coloration to new habitats in response to changes in the landscape,” said Goldenberg.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-cooling-led-to-lighter-reptile-colors">Global cooling led to lighter reptile colors</h2>



Reptiles have walked the Earth for over 200 million years, and their color patterns tell a story of change. The team found that periods of rapid environmental transformation, especially during global cooling events, coincided with major bursts in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tadpoles-speed-up-their-growth-to-outsmart-a-deadly-virus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of brightness.



Using δ18O - a chemical marker of past temperatures - the study showed that color brightness increased during the Miocene and Pliocene.



These epochs saw large-scale aridification, which led to more open landscapes. As deserts and grasslands expanded, reptiles likely evolved lighter colors as a means of adapting to these new environments.



The data revealed that almost all families followed this trend. After long periods of evolutionary stasis, sudden bursts of change emerged when the climate became colder and drier. 



Exceptions included some early-bright species like those in the families Phrynosomatidae and Varanidae, which may have adapted more rapidly to those conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptation-across-time-and-lineage">Adaptation across time and lineage</h2>



Not all reptile families reacted the same way. Iguanas and geckos grew brighter over time, while snakes in the Elapidae family and lizards in the Teiidae family became darker. These shifts likely reflect local adaptations and different ecological strategies, such as body size or preferred habitat.



Smaller-bodied reptiles showed more sensitivity to variation in temperature and elevation. These reptiles heat and cool faster and therefore experience greater pressure to adapt their color for thermoregulation. Larger species, in contrast, maintain more stable internal temperatures and show less dramatic color changes.



At the family level, some surprising results emerged. In the Phrynosomatidae, smaller species in open areas were darker than those in forests, reversing the usual trend. But as body mass increased, this pattern flipped. 



These complex interactions suggest that color evolution is not only about sunlight exposure but also about how species handle heat exchange.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brighter-colors-new-opportunities">Brighter colors, new opportunities</h2>



The study argues that integumentary color brightness helped reptiles enter new habitats during climate stress. As grasslands and deserts spread, reptiles with lighter skin had an edge. This led to adaptive radiation, where species rapidly diversified to occupy vacant ecological niches.



“Scaled reptiles are the largest extant order of four-limbed animals. The study helps us to understand how climate change and habitat shifts may affect animals’ survival and adaptation in relation to color. This is crucial for predicting the consequences of future climate change,” concluded Goldenberg.



These insights not only enrich our understanding of the past but also serve as a warning. As climate change continues to reshape ecosystems, reptiles may again face pressure to adjust their colors and behaviors. Some will adapt. Others may not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-colors-and-conservation-efforts">Reptile colors and conservation efforts</h2>



The researchers have created a massive database of reptile brightness across space and time. Future studies could use it to explore how individuals from different genera or regions respond to climate extremes.



With many reptiles already under threat from habitat loss and warming, these findings could prove vital for conservation.



Understanding how reptiles use color to cope with their environments offers a new lens on evolution. It also highlights how one environmental factor - habitat openness - can shape life in a particular lineage for generations. 



In a world that is currently growing hotter and more open, the colors of reptiles may once again begin to shift.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57547-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why reptiles are more colorful in open habitats

Reptiles from diverse habitats display a stunning range of colors,...

Cells are the building blocks of life, acting like tiny power stations that keep the body functioning. However, sometimes the DNA within parts of the cell known as mitochondria becomes damaged, which can lead to serious diseases.



Professor Pla-Martín from the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at <a href="https://www.hhu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf</a> is leading a research team that studies how cells remove or "recycle" damaged mitochondria.



In collaboration with cell biologist Dr. Parisa Kakanj from the <a href="https://uni-koeln.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cologne</a>, the researchers have gained new insights into <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr6415" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cell recycling and repair mechanisms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mitochondria-influence-everyday-life">How mitochondria influence everyday life</h2>



Mitochondria are vital for survival because they turn food into fuel. Through a series of chemical reactions, mitochondria break down glucose into an energy molecule known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which powers all the body's systems.



Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is distinct from the cell's nuclear DNA and is inherited exclusively from the mother. When mtDNA is damaged, it can cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/">heart disease</a>, Alzheimer's, type 2 diabetes, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Parkinson's. 



Professor Pla-Martín's research team has identified a specialized system that locates and recycles damaged mtDNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cells-recycle-damaged-mitochondria">Cells recycle damaged mitochondria</h2>



The researchers focused on protein complexes called retromers. These cell parts contain digestive enzymes, which remove mutated genetic material. This reduction of faulty mtDNA results in greater cellular health. 



“We have identified a previously unknown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-single-cells-to-complex-life-was-cooperation-the-first-step/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellular</a> pathway, which is important for mitochondrial health and thus for the natural defenses of our cells. By understanding this mechanism, we can explain how mitochondrial damage can trigger diseases like Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s,” said Professor Pla-Martín.



This discovery demonstrates that the body has a targeted way of dealing with flawed <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Mitochondrial-DNA" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mtDNA</a> instead of sacrificing whole mitochondria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fruit-flies-matter">Why fruit flies matter</h2>



Early findings in human cells were supported by work in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369702111701134" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drosophila model</a>. The fruit flies allowed researchers to observe how boosted levels of certain proteins accelerated the removal of defective gene fragments.



“Using Drosophila allowed us to confirm our initial findings in human cells and demonstrate clear improvements in mitochondrial health. This opens up exciting possibilities for therapeutic strategies for treating mitochondrial diseases and age-related conditions,” said Dr. Kakanj.



The results of these experiments demonstrate how clearing unwanted segments can restore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-build-their-cell-walls-is-seen-by-scientists-for-the-first-time-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">balance</a> and reduce the risk of health problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-age-related-challenges">A window into age-related challenges</h2>



Cells can suffer mutations and damage more often as they age. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn3896" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> now see that swift cleanup of damaged mitochondria might reduce the risk of conditions that frequently appear with advancing years.



This specialized clearance relies on key proteins that identify faulty spots, break them off, and direct them into compartments with enzymes. Clearing out faulty sections preserves the remainder and helps keep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biological-breakthrough-cells-can-learn-like-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> stable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-youth-health-and-damaged-mitochondria">Youth, health, and damaged mitochondria </h2>



Experts note that focusing on smaller mitochondrial fragments spares the larger structure and saves energy. This targeted approach avoids a more significant crisis inside cells.



The research also sheds light on how specific therapies might someday target or enhance these cleanup processes. Knowing which molecules rev up the recycling system could lead to strategies that keep aging tissues healthier for longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-for-medical-advances">Hope for medical advances</h2>



Each newly discovered step prompts more questions about preventing damage before it hits a tipping point. The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn3896" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retromer’s role</a> in monitoring troublesome genetic spots encourages talk of future drugs that tap into nature’s existing tools.



Lab teams are investigating ways to control how quickly these power hubs respond when they sense errors. The ultimate goal is to reduce stress on vulnerable tissues, including brain regions that are sensitive to energy shortages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-solutions-to-limit-cell-damage">Innovative solutions to limit cell damage</h2>



The results of the research suggest that harnessing this protective cellular mechanism may be an effective way to manage diseases without resorting to drastic interventions. 



Small tweaks to cell maintenance might help the body handle damaged mitochondria before it piles up. If researchers can strengthen this pathway, better approaches to diagnosis, treatment, and even prevention could follow. 



The experts remain optimistic about transforming these insights into practical solutions for patients.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr6415" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists learn how cells manage to keep their mitochondria healthy

Cells are the building blocks of life, acting like tiny...

A recent experiment has shown that certain lichen species can remain metabolically active in an environment similar to that found on Mars. The study challenges assumptions that Mars is entirely inhospitable, highlighting the life's adaptability under extreme conditions.



This research, published in the open-access journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/imafungus.16.145477">IMA Fungus</a>, demonstrates that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-trees-help-the-endangered-wolf-lichen-survive/">lichens</a> can function despite exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation and other harsh factors that characterize the planet’s surface.&nbsp;



The discovery builds on prior findings suggesting that some microorganisms can endure environments analogous to Mars, but this is the first time the metabolic activity of the fungal component in lichens has been observed under such conditions.&nbsp;



In this study, the focus centered on two lichen species, Diploschistes muscorum and Cetraria aculeata. 



The researchers found that the former was especially able to continue its metabolic processes and resistance mechanisms despite exposure to doses of X-ray radiation and temperatures reflecting extremes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-water-reservoir-discovered-medusae-fossae-formation-two-miles-deep/">Mars</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lichens-accept-the-mars-challenge">Lichens accept the Mars challenge</h2>



Mars has captivated scientists for centuries, primarily because it is the most Earth-like planet in our solar system. 



Yet its thin atmosphere, lack of a global magnetic field, and the resulting bombardment of radiation make the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> an extreme and potentially lethal environment for most known life-forms. 



Temperatures can fluctuate widely, and intense ionizing radiation - particularly during periods of heightened solar activity - is considered a principal threat to any organisms that might attempt to exist there.



Despite these obstacles, researchers have gradually gathered evidence suggesting that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-life-exist-below-the-icy-surface-of-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">terrestrial extremophiles</a> may find ways to cope with the Red Planet’s challenging conditions. 



This latest study takes that line of reasoning one step further, revealing that lichens - a symbiotic partnership between fungi and photosynthetic organisms - have a surprising capacity for survival and metabolic activity in simulated Mars-like conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-lichens-the-basics">Understanding lichens - the basics</h2>



Lichens are remarkable organisms formed through a symbiotic partnership between a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium. 



The fungus provides structure and absorbs moisture and minerals from the environment, while the algal or bacterial partner produces food through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-photosynthesis-could-transform-power-generation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>. 



Together, they create a highly adaptable organism capable of surviving in some of the harshest environments on Earth - from tree bark and rocky cliffs to deserts and polar regions. They don’t require soil to grow and can thrive with minimal resources.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_Cetraria-aculeata-species_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_Cetraria-aculeata-species_1s.webp" alt="Cetraria aculeata is a species of lichen that’s known for its tough, spiny appearance and ability to survive in harsh, nutrient-poor environments. It belongs to the Parmeliaceae family and typically forms dark brown to blackish, bushy mats on soil, moss, or rocks." class="wp-image-1964640"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cetraria aculeata is a species of lichen that’s known for its tough, spiny appearance and ability to survive in harsh, nutrient-poor environments. It belongs to the Parmeliaceae family and typically forms dark brown to blackish, bushy mats on soil, moss, or rocks. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



What makes lichens especially fascinating is their resilience and ecological value. 



Many species grow extremely slowly, sometimes only a few millimeters per year, yet they can live for decades or even centuries. Scientists often study lichens to monitor air quality, as some species are highly sensitive to pollutants. 



Though they may appear simple, lichens play an important role in ecosystems and continue to offer insight into the complexities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exposing-lichens-to-mars-like-conditions">Exposing lichens to Mars-like conditions </h2>



In the new study, scientists exposed Diploschistes muscorum and Cetraria aculeata lichen species to a mixture of factors replicating what might be encountered on Mars. 



These factors included a rarefied atmospheric pressure, temperatures that could dip and rise in short order, a Mars-like gas composition, and X-ray radiation on par with what would be expected over a year of strong solar activity. 



The experts ran this experiment for five hours, then looked at whether the fungal component of the lichen remained metabolically active.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-lichens-survive-on-mars">Could lichens survive on Mars?</h2>



The results indicated that D. muscorum was particularly adept at coping with these trials. According to the team, this species managed to carry out essential biochemical functions despite being subjected to Mars-like conditions. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-fungi-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">fungus</a> also showed clear signs of triggering defense mechanisms to mitigate the harmful effects of ionizing radiation.



“Our study is the first to demonstrate that the metabolism of the fungal partner in lichen symbiosis remained active while being in an environment resembling the surface of Mars," Kaja Skubała, team leader explained. 



"We found that Diploschistes muscorum was able to carry out metabolic processes and activate defense mechanisms effectively."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-radiation-survival">Exploring radiation survival</h2>



Ionizing radiation poses a grave danger for any organism lacking robust protective strategies or the ability to repair damage to cellular components. 



The research team specifically scrutinized whether high levels of X-ray radiation would effectively halt metabolic activity. 



Previous assertions held that a steady stream of intense radiation from the Sun and cosmic sources might render the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-surface-contains-more-organic-matter-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> permanently sterile. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_survival-experiment_illustration_credit-IMA-Fungus_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_survival-experiment_illustration_credit-IMA-Fungus_1s.webp" alt="Experiment arrangement of vacuum chamber with the additional facility, including metal grate with lichens, cooling table, temperature, pressure and humidity sensors, X-ray lamp with the controller, CO2 valve with cylinder, controllers of vacuum chamber, pressure, cooling table, and computer. Credit: IMA Fungus (2025)" class="wp-image-1964642"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Experiment arrangement of vacuum chamber with the additional facility, including metal grate with lichens, cooling table, temperature, pressure and humidity sensors, X-ray lamp with the controller, CO2 valve with cylinder, controllers of vacuum chamber, pressure, cooling table, and computer. Click image to enlarge. Credit: IMA Fungus (2025)</figcaption></figure>



Yet in this experiment, the fungal partner was clearly able to maintain function, offering insight into how certain organisms might defy radiation-related stress.



These findings expand our understanding of biological processes under simulated Martian conditions and reveal how hydrated organisms respond to ionizing radiation - one of the most critical challenges for survival and habitability on Mars. 



Ultimately, this research deepens our knowledge of lichen adaptation and their potential for colonizing extraterrestrial environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



By establishing that lichen fungi can endure - and remain active - amid Mars-like conditions, the study opens new doors for astrobiology. 



It challenges the belief that Mars’s radiation exposure alone is an insurmountable barrier for life, prompting further investigations into how multiple species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extremophiles-and-the-quest-for-alien-life/">extremophiles</a> might cope with the various hazards of the Martian environment.



"The findings call for longer-term studies that examine how chronic exposure to radiation influences lichens and other organisms, as well as how they might adapt or evolve when subjected to such stressors for months or even years," Skubała concluded.



Understanding these processes could be integral not only for unearthing ancient life on Mars (if it ever existed) but also for potentially selecting candidate species that could be used in experimental greenhouses or bio-based life-support systems during future crewed missions to the Red Planet.



-----



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://imafungus.pensoft.net/article/145477/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IMA Fungus</a>.



Image Credit: Cetraria aculeata, a species of lichens, superimposed on Mars. Credit: Lichen: Skubała et al. Design: Pensoft Publishers.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Lichens thrive in Martian simulation, another step towards life on Mars

A recent experiment has shown that certain lichen species can...

Bowhead whales glide under drifting ice and are rarely seen for more than a few precious moments. They support the Arctic ecosystem in ways that still leave many questions open.



Researchers from various institutions have studied these creatures using tracking devices. Their efforts have given fresh insights into how bowhead <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-in-hot-water-will-climate-change-disrupt-their-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> might organize their days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-follow-daily-dive-pattern">Whales follow daily dive pattern</h2>



Researchers <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prresearch/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.033174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">found</a> a 24-hour submersion rhythm in these Arctic giants. 



Part of this pattern involves staying nearer to the surface at night and submerging more deeply in the afternoon, which aligns with prey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-transport-nutrients-across-entire-ocean-basins-in-their-urine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a>.



Evidence also indicates that a couple of whales even stayed in step with each other for long stretches, though they were far apart. The synchronicity suggests these animals may keep in touch across wide distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-and-language-like-patterns">Whales and language-like patterns</h2>



Studies on other whale species highlight a language-like efficiency in their vocalizations. A <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.ads6014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2025 survey</a> of 16 different whales shows that 11 display <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34415939/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Menzerath’s law</a>, sometimes at levels exceeding human speech as noted by <a href="https://masonyoungblood.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mason Youngblood</a>.



In many instances, whales shorten certain sounds as they grow more frequent, revealing a principle akin to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027717301166" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zipf’s law of abbreviation</a>. This suggests these marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-patterns-in-whale-songs-predict-ecosystem-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> may prize concise signaling to save time and energy while in deep waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-in-cold-seas">Social bonds in cold seas</h2>



Communication can help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-predicts-whale-movements-to-reduce-deadly-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> handle long winters, where ice quickly seals over the surface. By fine-tuning vocal signals, they may share feeding updates and coordinate activities.



Some scientists hypothesize that these calls also reflect group identity. Research has <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-80220-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shown</a> that bowhead whales may share complex song structures within clusters of animals, with variability that could help maintain social bonds or signal individual identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-immediate-horizon">Beyond the immediate horizon</h2>



Sound travels more efficiently in water than in air. Unlike land mammals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-poop-is-a-natural-fertilizer-that-keeps-the-ocean-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> make long-distance calls that can hold the group together, preserve social ties, and perhaps alert others to predators or scarce food.



Those bursts of coordinated behavior might be driven by something as simple as a subtle change in sunlight. Or they might be triggered by learned calls that unify individuals across a giant body of water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-the-whale-patterns">Interpreting the whale patterns</h2>



The concept of “<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.ads6014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language-like</a>” efficiency gained traction after observers noticed that more frequent calls become shorter. This aligns with findings in other animals, from songbirds to some dolphins.



Earlier <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7237478/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> in human linguistics showed that pressure to communicate efficiently leads to patterns where common words shrink in length. The same dynamic may appear among bowheads if it delivers benefits for social bonding or survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-patterns-may-show-intelligence">Whale patterns may show intelligence</h2>



Some experts believe that bigger brains in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> might allow them to juggle complex tasks like adjusting calls to remain hidden from predators. Others think the calls mainly track seasonal rhythms.



A few listeners hypothesize that these calls double as an internal group code. The more they chat, the more they refine this code, balancing effort and clarity each day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-studying-hidden-giants">Challenges in studying hidden giants</h2>



Harsh conditions up north force scientists to rely on specialized tags and instruments, which often detach after days or weeks. The partial data leaves questions about how many whales adopt these behaviors.



In addition, tag-based approaches can’t always capture acoustic evidence of calls echoing through the water. To confirm direct exchanges, it’s crucial to record whale sounds around the clock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-new-approaches">Clues from new approaches</h2>



Automated analysis now helps scientists map subtle features in whale calls. One approach uses something called time-delay embedding, which treats each submersion sequence as a system that oscillates based on oxygen need and feeding opportunities.



Another technique relies on sorting out short and long calls while factoring in how frequently certain notes occur. That fine detail offers a glimpse into how whales might structure their signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-to-next">Where to next?</h2>



Additional tagging campaigns could confirm how these animals interact when far apart. Extended acoustic logging might catch continuous call exchanges over several days, tying them to submersion cycles.



With climate warming driving changes in the Arctic, tracking whales becomes urgent. Understanding their day-to-day cycles can reveal how they adapt to thinning ice, shifting predator presence, and new shipping routes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



Bowhead whales remain vital for ocean systems, recycling nutrients across large stretches of frigid water. The more we learn about their daily routines, the clearer it becomes that these mammals might be engaging in subtle social maneuvers.



Many remain optimistic that ongoing research will shine more light on the functions of their calls. This may unlock deeper questions about how they stay connected across miles of cold, silent sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-hope-for-whale-science">Fresh hope for whale science</h2>



Some observers see these findings as a way to improve safeguards. Studying whale calls helps officials design better protected zones or manage ship traffic with minimal disturbance.



As more data surfaces, voices are growing louder to preserve these creatures’ habitats. Protecting them means preserving an entire northern network of relationships and connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glance-at-tomorrow">A glance at tomorrow</h2>



Continued analysis might show that synchronized submersions happen more often than anyone realized. The whales appear to embrace these cycles for strategic feeding and possibly group cohesion.



Work in other regions will test whether the same patterns arise in different populations. If repeated, this will indicate that large whales around the globe rely on similar efficient signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-patterns-spark-global-curiosity">Whale patterns spark global curiosity</h2>



Many scientists now argue that whales and other marine mammals approach language-like complexity in their calls. Observations linking such patterns to big brains, long lifespans, and social groupings may reshape how we see marine life.



Biologists remain cautious about drawing direct parallels to human speech. Still, efficiency laws like Menzerath’s and Zipf’s keep appearing, and nudge us to rethink the uniqueness of linguistic structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-coordinate-more-than-we-knew">Whales coordinate more than we knew</h2>



Research in these frigid waters has uncovered a daily schedule that whales follow, along with surprising signs of unity across distances. The presence of repeated call patterns also raises the possibility of thoughtful coordination.



Whether they do this for mating, security, or general companionship is still uncertain. Yet these insights open a new window into their hidden daily lives.



This study was led by Associate Professor Evgeny A. Podolskiy at the&nbsp;Arctic Research Center, <a href="https://www.arc.hokudai.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokkaido University</a>; Professor Jonas Teilmann at the&nbsp;<a href="https://ecos.au.dk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ecoscience</a>, <a href="https://ecos.au.dk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>; and Professor Mads Peter Heide-Jørgensen at the&nbsp;Department of Birds and Mammals, Greenland Institute of <a href="https://natur.gl/about-us/dpt-mammals-and-birds/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural Resources</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.033174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Bowhead whales somehow dive in synchrony across the ocean regardless of distance

Bowhead whales glide under drifting ice and are rarely seen...

The Isle of Skye is known for its rugged cliffs, sweeping shorelines, and traces of ancient life. It was also once home to massive dinosaurs, roaming and playing and leaving their footprints behind in lagoonal sands.



Thanks to a new discovery, we now know even more about these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric wanderers</a> and the ancient world they inhabited.



A team of researchers, led by Tone Blakesley from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a>, has uncovered a stunning collection of 131 fossilized footprints. 



These tracks, preserved at a site called Prince Charles’s Point, reveal the quiet activity of dinosaurs over 167 million years ago.



For paleontologists, it’s a window into a time and place that is rarely captured in such detail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-footprints-show-ancient-lagoon-life">Dinosaur footprints show ancient lagoon life</h2>



These footprints come from the Middle Jurassic period, a time of significant evolutionary change. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dinosaurs</a> had diversified, and new body plans were emerging across the globe. 



Yet fossil evidence from this era remains rare. The Isle of Skye stands out as one of the few places offering such rich Middle Jurassic traces.



The tracks were left in a subtropical lagoon environment, once filled with shallow water and lined with soft, rippled sand. 



The site is now part of an intertidal zone, where erosion helped expose these long-hidden marks. Wind, tide, and sediment had conspired to protect them for millions of years.



Researchers used drones to document the site in detail, mapping trackways across multiple layers of sediment. Their analysis identified patterns in the size, shape, and direction of the tracks.



The footprints range from 25 to 60 centimeters in length (about 10 to 24 inches), and they fall into distinct types that correspond with different kinds of dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theropods-on-the-move">Theropods on the move</h2>



Many of the footprints belonged to theropods - meat-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> that walked on two legs. These include morphotype-1a, a group of large, tridactyl (three-toed) tracks showing distinct toe pads and claw impressions.



These tracks likely came from Megalosaurus-sized animals, with estimated body lengths of between 5 and 7 meters (about 16 to 23 feet). The spacing between steps suggests slow, deliberate movements.



Smaller tridactyl prints, such as those made by individuals of morphotype-1d, could have come from juvenile theropods or a different species that was smaller.



These prints retain the same general structure as the larger ones but show slight variations in toe angle and pad shape. Researchers believe they could represent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-extinction-influenced-fruit-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early members</a> of the megalosaurid group or other similar carnivores known from U.K. fossils.



What sets this site apart is the abundance of theropod tracks compared to previous Skye discoveries. Their higher frequency suggests they may have preferred this lagoon environment or used it more frequently than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauropods-leave-their-gentle-imprint">Sauropods leave their gentle imprint</h2>



Alongside the sharper, clawed tracks of the theropods are larger, rounder impressions. 



These sauropod footprints resemble massive tyre prints. The animals that made them walked on all fours, leaving both manus (front foot) and pes (rear foot) prints in rhythmic patterns.



The trackways stretch across several meters, sometimes exceeding 12 meters (39 feet) in length. These giants moved slowly and their footfalls were spaced widely apart, indicating their enormous size and weight.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dinosaurs_megalosaurs_sauropods_footprints_graphic_credit-PLoSONE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dinosaurs_megalosaurs_sauropods_footprints_graphic_credit-PLoSONE_1s.webp" alt="Textured orthophotos, outlines, contour maps, and DEMs are respectively represented for: (A-D) PC-TH-4-29, (F-H) PC-TH-4-28, and (I-L) PC-TH-4-26. The tracks likely represent worn surface tracks with morphotype-1a configurations (i.e., longer digit iv than ii) and low ~ 1.2 mesaxony. (M) Selected tracks, indicated by red boxes, in context to the rest of the trackway sequence. Due to present-day erosion, track margin definitions gradually decline across the sequence. Credit: PLoS ONE" class="wp-image-1964552"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Textured orthophotos, outlines, contour maps, and DEMs are respectively represented for: (A-D) PC-TH-4-29, (F-H) PC-TH-4-28, and (I-L) PC-TH-4-26. The tracks likely represent worn surface tracks with morphotype-1a configurations (i.e., longer digit iv than ii) and low ~ 1.2 mesaxony. (M) Selected tracks, indicated by red boxes, in context to the rest of the trackway sequence. Due to present-day erosion, track margin definitions gradually decline across the sequence. Click image to enlarge. Credit: PLoS ONE</figcaption></figure>



The shallow depth of the impressions suggests that the substrate was soft but not waterlogged, which is perfect for preserving such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traces</a>.



Early interpretations of these prints led to debate. Some thought they might be natural depressions or made by fish activity. But the regular spacing and anatomical fit have now confirmed their origin. 



These sauropod tracks likely belong to early neosauropods, such as Cetiosaurus, which is already known from nearby fossil sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-show-dinosaurs-walked-alone">Footprints show dinosaurs walked alone</h2>



One of the most curious aspects of the site is the apparent lack of direction. 



The dinosaurs weren’t marching in herds or following a leader. Instead, their tracks crisscross and overlap, suggesting solitary movement. Researchers describe this as “milling behavior,” where animals walked aimlessly or returned repeatedly to the same location.



The trackways do not show signs of interaction. Theropods and sauropods seem to have passed through at different times. 



This absence of coordinated travel supports a view of dinosaurs as more independent in their behavior, especially in these wetland settings.



The study site also lacks any prints from stegosaurs or ornithopods. This absence may reflect environmental differences or simply a preservation gap. 



The idea that only sauropods and theropods used this lagoon is plausible, but more evidence is needed in order to be sure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-and-ecological-importance">Historical and ecological importance</h2>



The researchers highlight a compelling overlap between historical significance and dinosaur footprints. Prince Charles’s Point is not only a rich fossil bed but also a key location in Scottish history.



“The footprints at Prince Charles's Point provide fascinating insight into the behaviors and environmental distributions of meat-eating theropods and plant-eating, long-necked sauropods during an important time in their evolution,“ Tone Blakesley and colleagues noted.



“On Skye, these dinosaurs clearly preferred shallowly submerged lagoonal environments over subaerially exposed mudflats. Intriguingly, the site also has some historical significance, as a place on Skye where Bonnie Prince Charlie landed and hid during his flight across Scotland following the Battle of Culloden.”



This dual legacy - one of fleeing royalty and ancient reptiles - gives the site a rare kind of depth. The stone remembers more than one kind of footstep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drone-technology-and-sediment-clues">Drone technology and sediment clues</h2>



Drone imaging played a crucial role in documenting the site. It allowed scientists to trace the orientation and depth of trackways from above. 



The aerial view revealed patterns that might have gone unnoticed from ground level. When the patterns were combined with on-site sediment analysis, the team could interpret how these footprints were formed and preserved.



Ripple marks across the site show the influence of water currents. However, dinosaur movements didn’t follow these ripples. That means the animals weren’t swimming or walking along shorelines. 



Instead, they wandered freely, and were unaffected by the flow. This supports the idea that they used the area casually rather than for migration or feeding.



The sediment itself offers more insight. Layers above the footprints contain finer material, suggesting occasional floods or rising tides. These conditions helped seal and protect the prints from erosion, locking their shapes in time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-film-features-the-dinosaur-footprints">Film features the dinosaur footprints </h2>



To bring the discovery to life, Tone Blakesley produced a feature-length documentary. The film explores how the site was found, what the footprints reveal, and why they matter. 



It captures the beauty of the Isle of Skye and the precision of scientific fieldwork. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ERQIEH7Epes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">You can watch the documentary here</a>.



This find doesn't just inform our understanding of dinosaur movement. It adds texture to a global picture of Middle Jurassic life. 



In a period where skeletal fossils remain rare, footprints tell a living story of ancient Scotland - one muddy step at a time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319862" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Footprints reveal ancient playground for giant Jurassic dinosaurs

The Isle of Skye is known for its rugged cliffs,...

Beekeepers across the United States are sounding the alarm. Last year, they lost over 55% of their managed colonies - the highest loss rate recorded since tracking began in 2011.This level of loss is not sustainable.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, working with international partners, have studied a new method that could help beekeepers breed healthier, more resilient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bee colonies</a>. 



The team tested a novel tool called the UBeeO assay, designed to measure bees' natural ability to spot and remove sick or dying young. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-growing-problem-for-beekeepers">A growing problem for beekeepers</h2>



"Beekeepers are losing bees at a rate that they say is unsustainable," said Samantha Alger, director of the Vermont Bee Lab at the University of Vermont and lead author of the study.



"In the '80s, beekeepers lost colonies 10–12% of the time … but now it's like 30–50%. Imagine that happening to someone who's a cattle farmer or a pig farmer every year."



While beekeepers have found ways to keep overall populations steady by raising new bees, it comes at a high cost - both in resources and in risk to wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>.



When pathogens from managed hives spread to native bee populations, the health of entire ecosystems can be affected.



Alger and her team work directly with beekeepers to breed stronger, disease-resistant honey bee colonies. One focus of their efforts is helping beekeepers select for hygienic behavior - the ability of bees to detect and remove unhealthy brood from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smart-sensors-help-beekeepers-monitor-hive-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hive</a>.



"It's definitely more desirable for a beekeeper to have bees that are better adapted at taking care of their diseases themselves, rather than using chemical treatments and interventions to try to reduce these pathogen loads, which, of course, may have negative impacts on the bees," noted Alger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-test-to-measure-bee-colony-hygiene">A test to measure bee colony hygiene</h2>



"Now the trick is, how does a beekeeper identify a colony that is really hygienic? And there's various tests that you can perform for that and this UBeeO is sort of a novel way of testing for it."



The UBeeO tool, developed by researchers at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, simulates the natural cues that honey bees use to detect sick brood. 



Instead of freezing brood cells, as traditional tests do, UBeeO uses synthetic pheromones that mimic the scent of diseased or dying bees.



"UBeeO has been known to identify colonies that are able to better resist <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-gives-up-on-efforts-to-eradicate-varroa-mites-which-are-wiping-out-bee-colonies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Varroa mites</a>, but it had not been used to look at other pests or pathogens," said Alger. "We found this new assay could be used to identify colonies that are resistant to these other stressors."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-bees-take-action">What makes bees take action</h2>



In a typical hive, each egg laid by the queen grows into a larva, which is fed and sealed into a wax cell by nurse bees. 



If something goes wrong - if the larva dies or becomes infected - nurse bees can uncap the cell and remove it. This hygienic behavior helps stop the spread of disease.



"Other folks have identified death pheromones, these compounds that are associated with death," said Kaira Wagoner, a research scientist at UNC Greensboro and co-author of the study.



"The famous biologist E.O. Wilson was one of the first to do this. He found oleic acid was emitted from dead ants. The same thing has been found with bees, and it's just likely a stronger signal - it's growing as the dead brood is basically decomposing in the cell. The signals that are coming out of an unhealthy brood are different and very likely more subtle than those death pheromones."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-more-selective-bee-colony-test">A more selective bee colony test</h2>



Unlike the freeze-kill test that uses liquid nitrogen to create dead brood, the UBeeO test simulates what bees would naturally encounter.



"Rather than using liquid nitrogen to kill the developing pupae or larvae, you are using a blend of synthetic pheromones that mimics the same chemicals that are emitted by dying or diseased brood," explained Alger.



"So rather than testing the bees' ability to identify dead brood, you are testing the bees' ability to identify diseased brood, which means that this test is a little bit more selective and realistic to what bees experience."



Wagoner began developing UBeeO during her doctoral studies and went on to co-found Optera, a company focused on bringing the test to beekeepers. Since becoming available in 2024, the test has been tried in over ten countries.



"It's a really young technology," said Wagoner. "We've now tested it in over 10 different countries, and there are breeding programs in at least five now, so there's a lot more data to come."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-colony-test-scores">Bee colony test scores</h2>



To examine how well UBeeO works, scientists used it in three regions - Vermont, North Carolina, and Australia.



The bee colony test is simple: synthetic pheromones are sprayed onto a patch of brood cells, and after two hours, researchers check how many cells the bees have uncapped.



This response is scored as the UBeeO percentage. Higher scores mean more cells were inspected, which usually indicates better hygienic behavior. 



The results showed that colonies with higher UBeeO scores tended to have lower levels of disease, including fungal infections like chalkbrood and parasites like Varroa mites.



"What we found, at least with this Australian dataset, is they only needed to achieve a 13% response on the UBeeO test to be really pretty resistant to chalkbrood. In contrast, colonies need to achieve a response of 55 or 60% on the UBeeO test to be resistant to mites," explained Wagoner.



"The honey bee responsiveness largely depends on how virulent or how harmful the specific disease is to the brood. Chalkbrood kills the brood, so the bees don't have to be as sensitive to detect it."



The Varroa mite poses a greater challenge. These tiny invaders reproduce inside sealed cells and feed on developing bees. 



If the nurse bees don't intervene, the mites are released into the colony, spreading disease and weakening the hive. By uncapping these cells early, bees can interrupt the mite’s life cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-colonies-without-chemicals">Smarter colonies without chemicals</h2>



Interestingly, the UBeeO test also detected colonies that were more resistant to Vairimorpha (formerly known as Nosema). This is a disease that affects adult bees, not brood. That raises new questions about how hygienic behavior might influence adult bee health.



"In the case of Vairimorpha, what they're doing is kind of the mystery," said Alger. "There might be other behaviors that hygienic colonies are performing aside of what we know."



As researchers continue to explore these questions, the hope is that tools like UBeeO will make it easier for beekeepers to raise stronger, more self-sufficient bees - and reduce their reliance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-beekeeping-is-equally-productive-as-methods-using-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical treatments</a>.



For a profession facing some of the steepest challenges in agriculture today, that help can’t come soon enough.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bee-science/articles/10.3389/frbee.2025.1509871/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Bee Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Science is giving beekeepers a better way to fight colony collapse

Beekeepers across the United States are sounding the alarm. Last...

In spring and summer, gardens explode with floral variety. Yet, watch a bumblebee closely, and you’ll notice something strange. Despite the buffet of colors and scents, the bee often sticks to one flower type per trip. 



It might move from one lavender bloom to another, ignoring daisies right beside them. This selective foraging, called flower constancy, has intrigued naturalists for centuries.



Charles Darwin proposed a simple explanation. He believed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-cause-of-honeybee-mortality-can-be-easily-reduced/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> chose the same flowers again and again because switching would require more memory effort. This idea held weight for a long time. After all, remembering different flower shapes, colors, and nectar rewards does demand mental work. 



But new research from the <a href="https://www.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tsukuba</a> offers a more refined view. It shows that bees don’t just aim to avoid thinking too much. They make smart, strategic choices based on their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bees-choose-flowers">How bees choose flowers</h2>



The study, led by Kentaro Takagi and Kazuharu Ohashi, shows that bees weigh two key costs: how much time it takes to remember a flower and how far they must travel to reach the next one. Their behavior results from balancing these two demands.



"We found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> do not simply avoid memory effort but rather choose a strategy that minimizes the total cost of memory use and travel," explained Professor Shoko Sugiura.



This shifts our understanding away from passive behavior. Flower constancy is not just about bees lacking the mental power to switch. It’s about making the best of what they have - adapting their strategy in real time as flower arrangements change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bees-switch-flowers">Why bees switch flowers </h2>



The researchers tested this theory using artificial flowers in controlled indoor cages. Some flowers had high color contrast - blue and yellow. Others had subtle differences - yellow and golden yellow.



They also varied how flowers were arranged. In some cases, flower types were thoroughly mixed. In others, each type was grouped in clear clusters.



In mixed arrays, bees faced a choice. If they kept visiting only one species, they had to fly farther between flowers. This raised travel time. But if they switched flower types, they had to recall a different memory. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> often chose to switch, especially when flowers looked similar and the memory cost was low.



In this setting, bees behaved like economists. They balanced the time spent flying with the time spent thinking. 



When travel costs went up, they tolerated memory costs. When the mental load increased, they minimized flights. The shift in constancy wasn’t random. It was logical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similar-flowers-make-switching-easier">Similar flowers make switching easier</h2>



One striking observation came from the trials involving subtly different flowers. When bees foraged among yellow and golden yellow blooms, they treated them almost as one type. 



Even though bees can tell these colors apart, the difference wasn’t strong enough to require separate memories. This helped them switch more freely and saved time.



But memory plays a second, subtler role. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-do-not-learn-to-be-cooperative-it-is-in-their-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> visit one flower type repeatedly, they begin to forget the other. The information in short-term memory fades back into long-term storage. This "memory decay" increases the retrieval cost if the bee later wants to switch.



"Pollinators are more flexible than previously assumed. They assess costs and make efficient choices," said Professor Takuya Kameda.



In clustered arrays, this decay worked in favor of constancy. Bees stuck to one type, moved short distances, and avoided memory shifts. But in spaced-out arrays, decay had the opposite effect. By the time a bee reached the next flower, memory had already faded. Switching became easier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-adapting-smartly">Bees adapting smartly</h2>



To test their ideas further, the researchers built a computer model. They simulated bees moving through different flower arrangements. In these simulations, the experts removed memory retrieval costs. The model only considered how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> would behave if they cared only about distance.



The result matched real-world bee behavior in several cases. Especially in arrays with low visual contrast or large spacing, real bees acted like the simulated ones. 



This confirmed that travel distance alone can push bees to switch. Only when flowers were tightly packed and visibly different did memory costs dominate and lead to stronger constancy.



These results challenge the traditional view that flower constancy is just about bees being creatures of habit. It is not about a mental cap. It is a trade-off. The bee calculates, perhaps not consciously, but clearly effectively, the best path through a sea of choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-plants-and-evolution">Why this matters for plants and evolution</h2>



This new understanding has important consequences for plants, too. When bees switch flowers frequently, pollen may land on the wrong species. That’s bad news for reproduction. 



So, many ecologists thought that having flowers look different from neighbors was a strong evolutionary pressure. But the data haven’t always backed that up. Some flower communities are highly diverse. Others are not. Sometimes, co-flowering plants look nearly identical.



The findings from this study explain why. It’s not just about color differences. It’s about spatial layout. If different species grow in patches, bees will stay constant regardless of color. If they grow all mixed up, bees will switch more unless there’s a strong visual cue to stop them.



So, flower constancy isn’t fixed. It’s flexible. And that flexibility changes the selective pressures plants face. 



Mixed communities may need stronger visual traits to keep bee visits clean and efficient. Clustered species may rely more on positioning than petals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-bees-teach-us-about-smart-foraging">What bees teach us about smart foraging</h2>



Ultimately, this research gives us a new way to look at bee intelligence. These insects make highly effective decisions. They don’t act from instinct alone. 



The behavior of bees is shaped by their environment, their memory, and their spatial awareness. They save time and avoid waste. They change plans when the layout changes. That’s not limitation - it’s strategy.



Bees teach us that loyalty to a single flower isn't about habit. It’s a calculated choice in a world full of options.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2435.70008" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Functional Ecology.</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why bees choose the same flowers again and again

In spring and summer, gardens explode with floral variety. Yet,...

Yellowstone National Park is often seen as a showcase of raw, wild nature. But beneath its stunning landscapes lies a subtler drama. Here, wolves, bears, and cougars - three of North America’s top predators - navigate not just the challenge of hunting prey but of sharing space.



They all rely on overlapping food sources, especially large ungulates like elk. What happens when those resources become scarce?



Conventional ecological theory suggests that fewer prey animals should spark more intense competition. Dominant predators like wolves and bears are expected to push out subordinate ones like cougars. 



However, a new study from the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota</a> challenges that assumption. The researchers discovered that it’s not just the abundance of prey that matters - but how big that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predator-found-in-one-of-the-deepest-parts-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cougars-downsize-their-dinner">Cougars downsize their dinner</h2>



Over 23 years of data reveal a strategic shift by Yellowstone’s cougars. As elk numbers declined, predators like cougars began hunting smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/well-built-fences-keep-predators-from-harming-livestock/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> more frequently. 



Mule deer, along with other medium and small species, became more common in cougar diets. The smaller kills come with advantages. They take less time to consume and are less visible, reducing the chance of theft by larger carnivores.



"This work really showcases the complex ways large carnivores make a living," said lead author Jack Rabe, a graduate student in the <a href="https://cfans.umn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Food, Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences</a>.



From 2016 to 2022, 37.6% of cougar kills were deer, compared to just 13.8% during the 1998–2005 period. Elk kills dropped from 74.2% to under 50 percent. 



Cougars increasingly targeted elk calves rather than adults, further reducing handling time. This allowed them to eat more quickly and retreat before wolves or bears arrived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-displacement-and-the-cost-of-being-caught">Displacement and the cost of being caught</h2>



When dominant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakes-use-invisible-colors-to-outsmart-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> arrive at a cougar kill, they often force the cat to flee. That process, known as displacement, has serious consequences. 



Cougars lose over 60% of the carcass when chased off, forcing them to hunt again much sooner. Kill intervals - the time between one successful hunt and the next - shorten from 5.6 days to just over 4.



Despite increasing wolf and bear numbers, displacement rates have actually declined. This runs counter to classic theories. But carcass size provides the missing link. 



Smaller kills are less visible, quicker to consume, and often made in terrain where wolves and bears struggle to follow. That means fewer confrontations and more food retained by the cougar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prey-choice-helps-predators-coexist">Prey choice helps predators coexist </h2>



"We found that shifting cougar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> is likely a key factor in the ecosystem's stability," said Rabe. 



"By opting for smaller prey, cougars reduce the amount of time they spend hunting to make up for kills lost to other carnivores. This allows them to maintain a relatively stable kill-rate, which in turn contributes to the overall balance of the predator-prey dynamics in the park."



This behavior not only protects cougars from losing meals, but also stabilizes their role in the ecosystem. Even though elk populations have fallen, cougars still manage to maintain their kill rates. 



That means they continue controlling deer and smaller ungulate numbers, while reducing risk of direct conflict with larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predators-evolved-the-perfect-fangs-for-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prey-size-controls-predator-conflict">Prey size controls predator conflict</h2>



The study found that carcass size - not prey density - was the strongest predictor of interference. Larger carcasses attracted more wolf and bear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-snails-evolved-defenses-against-invasive-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



 Displacements were 1.67 times more likely with each standard increase in prey size. Yet smaller kills, often weighing under 40 kg (about 88 pounds), drew far less attention.



This means cougars that kill smaller prey lose fewer meals. In turn, they can avoid the energy costs of defending kills or relocating frequently. Even predator-rich areas become manageable if cougars target the right kind of prey. 



The result? Less kleptoparasitism, fewer fights, and more peaceful coexistence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-diets-in-a-crowded-landscape">Evolving diets in a crowded landscape</h2>



Wolves and bears are adapting too. Wolves now hunt bison more often, especially in winter. 



From 1998–2005 to 2016–2022, bison rose from 10% to nearly 50% of the wolf diet. Bison favor open plains, far from the rough terrain preferred by cougars. This shift has reduced overlap between these predators.



Bears, though still frequent visitors in spring and summer, also showed a drop in displacement incidents. The rougher the terrain and the smaller the carcass, the lower the chance of a bear showing up. 



These changes show how prey choice shapes not only predator behavior, but the structure of the entire ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-food-risks-and-reproduction">More than food: Risks and reproduction</h2>



Displacement affects more than just dinner. For cougars, being forced off a kill also carries lethal risks. Though rare, wolf attacks can kill cougars. 



Two radio-collared cougars were killed by wolves between 2016 and 2022, both in terrain with poor escape options. By hunting smaller prey and staying mobile, cougars avoid such danger.



Interestingly, female cougars benefit even more. They kill smaller prey than males and are less likely to be displaced. Because females are crucial for reproduction, this strategy may support cougar population stability over time. 



Smaller prey means smaller meals, but more consistent access - an important tradeoff in a competitive environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-prey-helps-predators-stay-stable">Diverse prey helps predators stay stable</h2>



​This study helps reshape how ecologists understand predator guilds - groups of predators that share space and food sources. The <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone Wolf Project</a>, <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/yellowstone-cougar-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone Cougar Project</a>, and the University of Minnesota team demonstrate that prey diversity supports predator diversity



When ecosystems support a variety of prey sizes and types, predators adapt rather than fight. That flexibility, not aggression, helps maintain balance. Yellowstone offers a real-world case where smart choices by subordinate predators help everyone thrive.



As wolves hunt bison and cougars switch to deer, Yellowstone’s food web becomes more resilient. This insight may prove valuable far beyond the park, especially as predator and prey populations shift around the world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-07779-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cougars hunt smaller prey to avoid conflict with other predators

Yellowstone National Park is often seen as a showcase of...

Questions about the vastness of our world can leave us speechless. How many stars twinkle in our galaxy? How many grains of sand stretch across the Sahara? How many ants roam the Earth?



For a long time, most questions like these seemed unanswerable. Yet, as research methods evolve, and with the emergence of AI and machine learning models, scientists have begun to solve these mysteries that not long ago seemed unsolvable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-seems-to-love-ants">Earth seems to love ants</h2>



Because estimating insect numbers can unlock important ecosystem insights, many experts throughout history have tried to count particular insect species and map their habitats, aiming to understand why these creatures flourish in certain places but remain scarce in others.



Biologists Sabine Nooten and Patrick Schultheiss from <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg</a> have devoted their work in this particular study to one of nature’s most resilient insects - ants.



There are about 22,000 known ant species worldwide. Their success hinges on their social structure, with certain members handling reproduction and others focusing on tasks like caring for offspring, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-specialized-medical-surgeries-on-injured-friends/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing the sick</a>, or gathering food.



Ants have no commander at the helm. They rely on collective activity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-employ-safeguards-social-distancing-to-prevent-spread-of-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">swarm intelligence</a>. Individual neurons in a human brain cannot do much on their own, yet the combined power of those neurons is amazing. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-have-a-communications-system-that-closely-resembles-mental-telepathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ant colonies</a> mirror that principle. They can create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-use-chemical-trails-to-guide-their-friends-to-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intricate trail networks</a>, use their bodies as bridges, and “farm” fungi or aphids. Some colonies even outperform humans in certain cooperative cognition tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-distribution-and-diversity-on-earth">Ant distribution and diversity on Earth</h2>



The study indicates that ants prefer tropical and subtropical climates. In forests, many nest among the leaves on the ground. In arid regions, they bustle across the exposed soil. 



These details help ecologists see how temperature, vegetation, and rainfall might affect ant populations. 



The team hopes to see more work done on factors shaping where ants thrive, especially as temperatures shift around the world.



With such immense numbers, ants bring both positive and negative outcomes. 



They can keep ecosystems healthy by recycling nutrients, and they sometimes form alliances with plants or insects in ways that boost local biodiversity. 



But not all interactions are benign. In certain places, invasive ants like fire ants harm native species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-far-reaching-influence">Far-reaching influence</h2>



Ants carry soil, move seeds, and alter many parts of their surroundings. Per hectare, ants move up to 13 tons of soil mass per year, and this movement can help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-farming-ants-work-hard-to-maintain-healthy-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keep nutrients cycling</a>. 



Their love of seeds means they spread some plants far beyond the mother plant’s reach. 



Scientists note that understanding the number of ants worldwide can help guide future conservation strategies, because it highlights areas that might need special attention to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protect the ecological balance</a>.



In addition to soil turnover, these insects also break down decaying materials, providing valuable services that enrich soil fertility. 



Forest regeneration often benefits from the constant churning of organic matter, and ants are key contributors. Such varied roles mean they hold ecological power disproportionate to their size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-to-count-earth-s-ants">Time to count Earth's ants</h2>



The tireless team of scientists, led by Nooten and Schultheiss, analyzed data from 489 smaller studies on ground-dwelling and tree-dwelling ants to create a large database of their global population. 



This approach offered a structured look at where ants flourish and in what numbers they appear. When they crunched the numbers, they found something remarkable.



“According to our estimates, the global ant population is 20 x 10 to the power of 15 - that is, 20 quadrillion animals. That is a 20 with 15 zeros, which is hard to grasp and appreciate," Nooten explains. 



The combined mass of these insects is also astonishing. 



According to Schultheiss, the total number of ants “exceeds the combined biomass of wild birds and mammals and corresponds to about 20 percent of humanity’s biomass,” a discovery that shows how vital ants can be in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-fill-a-150-year-gap-in-biodiversity-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems everywhere</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-earth-and-climate-change">Ants, Earth, and climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">As climates change</a>, scientists want to see how these creatures will shift their ranges. The research by this group was the first large-scale attempt at a quantitative overview of ant populations, and it points to many open questions about potential challenges. 



While ants have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thrived across continents</a>, altering habitat structures and climate could place pressure on species that are less adaptable.



In some areas, people view ants as pests. Yet these insects, when kept in balance, offer many unseen benefits. 



For instance, their tunnels can help water infiltration in soil. They also serve as prey for various animals, creating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-ants-art-science-sustainable-food-source-ant-cuisine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">links in the food chain</a>. 



Problems usually arise when invasive ants enter habitats and drive out local species that have no defenses against them. Fire ants, for example, can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-hold-a-grudge-against-aggressive-rivals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upend an entire environment</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-left-to-learn">What's left to learn?</h2>



Researchers are enthusiastic about finding methods to analyze trends, such as how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-not-properly-adapting-to-warming-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature extremes</a> might affect ants’ movements. 



Data from global, long-term monitoring can reveal how different species cope with droughts, hurricanes, or shifting seasons. There is also interest in exploring how farmland changes ant presence over time.



Moving forward, the team underscores the importance of refining data on these insects. By revisiting ecosystems that have been studied before, experts can learn whether ants have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-ants-use-earths-magnetic-field-for-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">settled in new zones</a> or left older ones. 



Such targeted work could inform farmers about pest control, point out regions at risk of invasion by harmful ant species, and guide decisions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-ants-make-a-huge-contribution-to-forest-regeneration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat restoration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Ants seldom top the list of creatures people think about. Yet they have an outsized role in shaping our surroundings. 



Their ability to transform habitats, redistribute resources, and affect local biodiversity suggests a need for more research. 



Different species often have specialized tasks, whether caring for aphids or forging trails that other creatures can follow. 



Learning about ant numbers brings these impacts into view, providing clues on how to preserve balance in fragile areas.



It also encourages reflection on how many hidden factors <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-destabilizing-ant-plant-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keep our ecosystems intact</a>. Though small, ants tackle responsibilities that otherwise would need a range of other organisms to manage. 



By studying these insects, scientists glean insights about resilience, adaptability, and the intricate web of life holding everything together.



Ants, often overlooked, deserve a central place in our discussions about the natural world. They shape environments, help distribute seeds, and are more populous than most of us imagined. 



Whether admired for their social complexity or managed for their potential risks, these insects illustrate how even the tiniest creatures can shift large-scale processes.



The full study, “The abundance, biomass, and distribution of ants on Earth,” was published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2201550119" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How many ants live on Earth? The number is staggering

Questions about the vastness of our world can leave us...

Mother,And,Cub,Of,Bonobo.,Green,Natural,Background.,The,Bonobo

Bonobos, our closest relatives, may not speak, but they use something strikingly similar to human language.



A new study from researchers at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> and <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> reveals that wild bonobos use complex vocal combinations. These resemble how humans string words together.



Researchers observed bonobos in the Kokolopori Community Reserve in the Democratic Republic of Congo. They found that bonobo calls follow the rules of compositionality, a core feature of human language.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonobo</a> calls are more than random noises. They are structured, purposeful, and, in some cases, surprisingly complex. This research doesn’t just hint at intelligence. It shows the skeleton of a system that mirrors how we construct meaning from words and phrases.



If correct, this means that the boundary between human and non-human communication is far more blurred than scientists used to think.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-human-language-special">What makes human language special</h2>



One feature of human language stands out - compositionality. This is our ability to string small parts together into meaningful wholes.



For example, a dancer can be blond; a dancer can be bad. In the first case, “blond” adds a trait, while in the second, “bad” modifies how we think about the dancing itself. The latter is more than a label - it’s judgment woven into structure.



Compositionality comes in two forms: trivial and nontrivial. Trivial compositionality occurs when each word keeps its independent meaning. Nontrivial compositionality occurs when the combination reshapes meaning, where one part changes the sense of the other. 



Until now, evidence for nontrivial compositionality in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> other than humans was missing. Some birds and primates showed signs of trivial compositionality. But no study had proven that any non-human species could modify meaning in such layered ways.



This is where the bonobos come in. Their vocal combinations suggest they may not only understand the value of combining sounds - but can manipulate meaning like we do, through structured, nontrivial arrangements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-calls-are-like-human-language">Bonobo calls are like human language</h2>



The researchers collected 700 vocal recordings of the Kokolopori bonobos over time.



Each utterance was annotated with more than 300 contextual features - what the bonobo was doing, who was nearby, what activity the group was engaged in. These features, called FoCs (features of circumstances), offered a way to map meaning.



To analyze the patterns, the team used a framework borrowed from distributional semantics, a linguistic method that typically applies to human languages. It maps meanings by looking at how words appear across similar contexts. Words used in similar situations tend to have related meanings.



Using this method, researchers projected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-thriving-in-salonga-national-park/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo</a> calls into a semantic space. In this space, calls with similar meanings cluster close together. 



This allowed the scientists to examine not just individual calls, but also what combinations formed - and whether those combinations held meaning greater than the sum of their parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-use-rules-similar-to-language">Bonobos use rules similar to language</h2>



The researchers applied a rigorous four-step process to evaluate each combination. First, they checked if individual call types had distinct meanings. 



Then, they assessed whether combinations had meanings that were different from the meanings of their parts. Next, they asked whether a combination’s meaning could be derived from its components.



Finally, they looked for cases where the meaning of the whole was different from simply adding up the parts - which would be evidence of nontrivial compositionality.



“All seven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orphaned-bonobos-can-regain-social-skills-and-empathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo</a> call types that were considered in our analysis combine into four compositional structures, of which three exhibit nontrivial compositionality,” the study's authors report.



This is a major shift. It means that not only are bonobos capable of combining calls meaningfully, but they also do so in ways that mirror the deeper, more abstract structures of human language.



The research found that combinations like High-hoot_Low-hoot, Peep_Whistle, and Peep-yelp_High-hoot all exhibited nontrivial compositionality. One combination, Yelp_Grunt, did not. It retained trivial structure, where the meaning was just the sum of the parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-these-bonobo-calls-might-mean">What these bonobo calls might mean</h2>



Understanding bonobo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peaceful-bonobos-are-actually-more-aggressive-than-chimps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication</a> means more than just identifying call types. It means deciphering the purpose behind each sound. Grunts, for example, seem to signal “look at me,” drawing attention in various social settings like grooming or feeding. 



High-hoots are louder and often used over distance or in tense moments, suggesting “pay attention to me.” Low-hoots emerge during excited moments, such as preparing a nest for the night.



The whistle plays another role entirely - it helps maintain group cohesion, perhaps saying “let’s stay together.” Peeps and yelps, though similar, differ in tone. Peeps are more suggestive - maybe “I’d like to…” - while yelps are firmer and more like commands: “let’s do that.”



Then come the combinations. Peep_Whistle, for example, may mean something like “I’d like us to stay together,” and often appears during sensitive moments such as displays or copulation. 



High-hoot_Low-hoot might signal distress, urging others to pay closer attention. Peep-yelp_High-hoot could be a way to organize group movement, coordinating actions with distant individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-combinations-reveal">What the combinations reveal</h2>



Determining whether a combination was trivial or nontrivial required more than guessing. 



Researchers compared each combination’s meaning against hypothetical “additive” meanings - where A and B’s meanings were just added together. If the real combination strayed significantly from this sum, it was labeled nontrivial.



“For all compositional combinations except Yelp_Grunt, the difference was greater than zero,” the study states. That made Yelp_Grunt the only trivial structure. The other three combinations carried a new kind of meaning. They didn’t just add. They transformed.



This means that in at least three cases, bonobos created new meanings from existing calls. This aligns closely with how humans use language to express ideas. Words shift and adjust each other in context. 



Bonobos, it seems, do this with their own form of language too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-our-evolutionary-past">A window into our evolutionary past</h2>



What do these findings tell us about ourselves? Quite a lot, it turns out.



“Since humans and bonobos had a common ancestor approximately 7 to 13 million years ago, they share many traits by descent, and it appears that compositionality is likely one of them,” said Harvard Professor Martin Surbeck.



“Our study therefore suggests that our ancestors already extensively used compositionality at least 7 million years ago, if not more,” added Simon Townsend.



This positions language not as a sudden leap in human evolution, but as a gradual development. It suggests that the foundations for structured communication were laid long before Homo sapiens arrived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-method-with-wide-possibilities">A method with wide possibilities</h2>



The study also offers a method to understand communication across species. By mapping vocal signals using minimal human judgment and focusing on context, the researchers showed that meaning could be measured more objectively.



“We present a method for reliably inferring the meaning of all the signals of an animal’s repertoire with minimal human judgment,” the authors explain.



This method doesn’t rely on assigning meaning through guesswork. It uses context and data, opening the door to future studies across different groups of animals, from dolphins to elephants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-language-remains-complex">Bonobo language remains complex</h2>



The researchers acknowledge that some utterances remain difficult to interpret. Calls might convey emotional states, not just intentions. Subtle acoustic variations may exist but go unnoticed. Some calls may serve structural roles, like those in birdsong, rather than conveying clear messages.



Also, vocalizations are not the only form of communication. Bonobos combine vocal calls with gestures and facial expressions. These multimodal signals likely shape meaning too. Future studies may show even richer layers of nonverbal language in bonobo society.



Even so, the evidence is strong. Bonobos do not just make noise. They communicate in structured, meaningful ways. They use building blocks. They rearrange, modify, and combine. And in doing so, they remind us that the roots of language run deep.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adv1170" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bonobo communication shares many similarities with human language

Bonobos, our closest relatives, may not speak, but they use...

Modern birds have air-filled cavities in their bones to reduce weight for flight. Interestingly, this feature has also been discovered in dinosaur fossils. 



A new study of alvarezsauridae fossils has identified these same bone features in creatures that roamed the Earth nearly 70 million years ago.



Experts studying these slender dinosaurs uncovered evidence of hollow channels that link to their respiratory systems. 



The results suggest that <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.0160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pneumaticity</a> might have been more common in theropod dinosaurs than previously thought.



This work was led by <a href="https://www.patagonia.com.ar/General+Roca/450_Museo+Patag%C3%B3nico+de+Ciencias+Naturales.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Patagonian Museum of Natural Sciences</a> in Roca, and was founded as a project by the Patagonian Foundation of Natural Sciences. Researchers collaborated across Argentina and China to piece together details of these unusual bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-bones-were-hollow">Dinosaur bones were hollow</h2>



Bird skeletons stand out for their lightweight build. Many have air sacs that extend into bones, helping to manage body temperature, improve respiratory functions, and reduce overall mass.



Scans of these new fossils indicate that such air sacs already existed in some dinosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineages</a>. 



Paleontologists suggest this adaptation might have provided other benefits, particularly in oxygen circulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hollow-bones-helped-dinosaur-breathing">Hollow bones helped dinosaur breathing</h2>



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.284.5423.2137" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have long known that certain dinosaur groups had air pockets in their skeletons. Yet the extent of these cavities in <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/saurischia/theropoda.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropod dinosaurs</a> has been debated.



CT scans of the dinosaur fossil vertebrae uncovered interconnected voids that likely connected to respiratory structures. 



This structural pattern resembles what is seen in living birds, though the ancient dinosaur bones differ in shape and size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-tail-anatomy">Surprising tail anatomy</h2>



One unexpected twist came from the tail region. Internal air spaces showed up as far back as the middle segments, hinting at a more widespread distribution of air pockets than is found in some other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-case-of-the-two-clawed-dinosaur-duonychus-tsogtbaatari/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Specialists in dinosaur fossils and biology have typically focused on the neck and torso regions for signs of air sacs. 



However, seeing as the air sacs extend far into the tail, this raises fresh questions about how these creatures breathed and moved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-random-variability-in-bone-cavities">Random variability in bone cavities</h2>



Another puzzle emerged when the team compared separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specimens</a> of different sizes. They found uneven patterns of diverticula within the same type of vertebrae, suggesting no clear progression of these air pockets.



“This study is an important first step that paves the way for future studies to uncover the extent of pneumatic invasion among alvarezsauridaes, and its macroevolutionary implications,” explained J. G. Meso from The Patagonian Museum of Natural Science.



The authors described this uneven distribution of hollow spaces in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> bones as a seemingly random process that might relate to blood vessel pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-directions-in-dinosaur-research">New directions in dinosaur research</h2>



Scholars comparing these findings to those of other species note that air cavities might show up in surprising places once larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-eggs-found-in-utah-belong-to-multiple-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> datasets are examined.



Some suspect this adaptation appeared in different dinosaur families at various points, rather than following a steady evolutionary path.



With more advanced imaging, experts hope to learn if certain groups gained or lost these hollow spaces over time. This approach could reveal unexpected links between distant branches of the dinosaur family tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-bones-changed-with-evolution">Dinosaur bones changed with evolution</h2>



Lightweight skeletal features might have enhanced efficiency, but no one knows if they aided speed, temperature control, or other factors. 



<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00534.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> of bird flight have shown that reduced bone mass can help modern species, though alvarezsauridaes did not soar.



Further research might clarify whether these air-filled bones played a role in daily activity or growth. Specialists also want to explore how these structures evolved among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-discovered-in-australia-rewrite-dinosaur-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>, scavengers, and other lifestyles within <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/saurischia/coelurosauria.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coelurosaurians</a>.



Scientists remain cautious about comparing ancient air sacs to those of living birds. Different theropod families likely followed various paths to lighten their bones and enhance respiratory function.



Some paleontologists propose that future CT analyses of more fossils could confirm if these features evolved multiple times. Each new discovery brings fresh insights into how dinosaurs thrived in unique environments.



Future research may reveal complex bone cavities in species other than dinosaurs. Ongoing studies will broaden our view of how dinosaurs thrived.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0320121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

First evidence of 'hollow bones' found in dinosaurs, just like modern birds

Modern birds have air-filled cavities in their bones to reduce...

Hummingbird,With,Flower.,Rufous-gaped,Hillstar,,,Urochroa,Bougueri,,On,Ping

The shift into warmer days often brings a renewed interest in the outdoors. Gardens begin to hum with activity as new blooms appear, and the buzz of local pollinators adds a lively backdrop. The excitement of seeing a hummingbird hovering in your yard can brighten any afternoon.



It’s fitting to recognize that these remarkable birds have captured the attention of Dr. Emily Watkins from the <a href="https://www.audubon.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Audubon Society</a>, whose work highlights simple yard enhancements that can welcome them year after year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quick-and-colorful">Quick and colorful</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hummingbirds</a> weigh less than a nickel, yet they are capable of staying airborne in one spot and sometimes even flying backward. 



Their bright feathers reflect brilliant reds, greens, or purples, depending on the angle of the sunlight. This blend of color and agility has made them a favorite subject of conversation among neighbors who compare sightings around the yard.



When they rest, they often vanish into nearby branches or shrubs. These short breaks let them conserve energy before the next <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hummingbirds-deal-with-their-need-for-flight-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">burst of motion</a>. 



A quick appearance at a flower or a feeder can shift moods, spark a moment of joy, and motivate people to experiment with plants that might catch a hummingbird’s eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tough-and-tiny-travelers">Tough and tiny travelers</h2>



Every garden has its own rhythm, but hummingbirds bring an energy that delights the senses. 



Some people notice that these feathered visitors arrive just when the temperature nudges them to plant new flowers or hang fresh feeders. 



This timing often reinforces the feeling that a new season is officially underway.



These birds use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-adjust-their-wings-to-fly-through-very-tiny-spaces/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">incredible amounts of energy</a> with every wingbeat. Some species manage flights of thousands of miles each year, and certain ones even cross the Gulf of Mexico without a break.



Their wings can beat up to 80 times per second, and they may visit hundreds of flowers in a single day. With such intense demands, they require a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">steady supply of nectar</a> and insects. 



Filling your yard with the right kinds of flowers, such as azaleas, will guarantee that they have a steady supply of both.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-azaleas-yards-and-hummingbirds">Azaleas, yards, and hummingbirds</h2>



Azaleas come in many sizes, with some reaching 15 feet tall and others staying closer to the 3 to 6 foot range. 



Their funnel-shaped blooms are well-suited to a hummingbird’s long bill, making them a practical addition for those hoping to attract these birds. 



Beyond nectar, azaleas can draw insects such as aphids and mites, which make up about 80% of a hummingbird’s diet. 



Observers sometimes choose to pair azaleas with other nectar-rich plants, such as bee balm or salvia, to keep a yard filled with buzzing and fluttering activity throughout the growing season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-science-says">What the science says</h2>



Scientists took a close look at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-hummingbird-day-celebrating-natures-aerial-acrobats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbird sightings</a> across the mainland United States. 



They wanted to see if feeders, nectar-laden flowers, native species, or reduced pavement would affect the chances of hosting these tiny visitors. 



Findings showed that homes with a variety of blooms and regular feeders were more likely to spot hummingbirds, especially if those plantings included native flowers. 



Having less asphalt and concrete around also helped.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204619311284" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">This research</a> spanned both urban and rural regions. Results lined up with established advice from conservation groups that highlight the value of planting native species and preserving pockets of natural habitat. 



By following these suggestions, many homeowners find that their outdoor spaces become more inviting to local wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighborhood-hummingbird-havens">Neighborhood hummingbird havens</h2>



Many communities run programs that set aside open spaces for pollinator-friendly growth. Organizers point to hummingbirds as a symbol of how nature can thrive in a suburban or city environment. 



When property owners plant shrubs that offer both nectar and insect life, those choices can provide a more welcoming stopover for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbird-chick-mimics-a-toxic-caterpillar-to-evade-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traveling birds</a>.



In some areas, city councils partner with environmental groups to develop pollinator corridors. These aim to link multiple gardens into a network of habitats. 



Once enough backyards and public spaces join the effort, hummingbirds can move through neighborhoods more easily. Residents, in turn, share a united project that connects them in a positive way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-hummingbird-yard">Creating a hummingbird yard</h2>



To sum it all up, nationwide observations from the National Audubon Society's study confirm that straightforward gardening steps can do a lot for attracting hummingbirds to your yard. 



A clean feeder with fresh sugar water, replaced every few days, is a quick option for those just starting out. 



Azaleas and other native shrubs provide the natural nectar and insects these birds depend on, giving them the variety they need. 



Small efforts add up across the block, strengthening local greenery and helping these visitors refuel during migration or while raising young.



Some people see these actions as part of a broader push for healthier local ecosystems. Planting for pollinators may also balance out land lost to development. 



Local wildlife officials often applaud neighborhood collaborations because they promote a sense of unity and keep colorful creatures thriving close to home.



Observing one dart through sunlit foliage can lift anyone’s spirits, and these moments often spark an even deeper appreciation of the living world around us.



It's that time of year, the hummingbirds are here.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204619311284" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Landscape and Urban Planning</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How to turn your yard into a haven for hummingbirds

The shift into warmer days often brings a renewed interest...

A,Close-up,Photograph,Of,A,Juvenile,St,Andrew's,Cross,Spider

Whether it’s the constant hum of traffic or the repetitive clamor of construction, the noises produced by modern society can obstruct the abilities of spiders and all other animals to send and receive signals that are crucial for their survival.



Studying how animals pick up information can be hard, but web-building spiders give scientists a special chance to look at how external tools (like spider webs) help filter out the noises they don't care about and receive the signals that are important for their survival.



Now, a team of biologists at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln (<a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNL</a>) has published one of the first known studies demonstrating how one group of animals can react to human-made noise by adjusting its own method of sensing sounds. 



In an article published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2025.02.041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, researchers Brandi Pessman and Eileen Hebets show that funnel-weaving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-reveal-how-cave-creatures-lose-their-vision-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> alter how their silk webs transmit vibrations in response to local noise. 



This finding suggests that the spiders might deliberately change web structure to cope with the auditory chaos surrounding them, ensuring they receive vital cues from potential mates, prey, or predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-noise-and-web-adjustments">Spiders, noise, and web adjustments</h2>



Drawing on lab experiments, the study uncovered a particularly unexpected insight: the way a spider’s web conveys vibrations varies depending on whether its architect was collected from a rural or urban area. 



This discrepancy hints at the idea that prior exposure to noise - possibly even inherited across generations - may influence a spider’s malleability when it comes to spinning webs.



“One of the most interesting things that we found is that urban and rural spiders are reacting differently when they're put into a noisy environment,” said Pessman, a postdoctoral researcher in biological sciences and the lead author of the paper. 



“This means that spiders with different experiences with noise - whether they themselves experienced it or their mothers passed it down to them across generations - respond differently.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spider-webs-as-sensory-extensions">Spider webs as sensory extensions</h2>



It has been well documented that animals such as birds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-calls-and-voices-of-frogs-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> can change their calls or the timing of their vocalizations in the face of increased human noise. 



However, little was known about how animals manage to tweak the way they receive acoustic or vibratory signals.



The main challenge is the hidden nature of most animals’ sensory systems, which are located within their bodies. 



But web-building spiders are unique, as their webs function effectively like external sensory extensions that capture vibrations from the environment.



This distinction makes funnel-weaving spiders, also known as Agelenopsis pennsylvanica, an ideal test group. They rely predominantly on vibratory signals for vital information. 



Their webs connect to various surfaces - trees, rocks, or buildings - capable of transmitting the vibratory noise created by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-get-road-rage-when-exposed-to-traffic-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traffic</a>, industrial activities, and more. 



The research team hypothesized that funnel-weaving spiders might be able to reduce the volume of unwanted or irrelevant vibrations caused by human-related noise, which often shares the frequency range these spiders need for effective communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-in-urban-areas">Spiders in urban areas</h2>



Pessman started by collecting a total of 60 funnel-weaving spiders in and around Lincoln, Nebraska - some from city settings and others from out in the countryside. 



In the lab, the spiders were then placed in controlled environments that were either quiet or noisy as they spun webs over four nights.



Upon completion, the researchers introduced test vibrations into those webs, measuring how energy moved across the silk in different conditions.



They observed that spiders from urban areas tended to build webs that lost more energy in short-distance vibrations across a broader set of frequencies when placed under noisy conditions. 



Interpreted practically, these webs essentially “muffled” environmental noise. This may prevent sensory overload, giving the spiders a clearer signal from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> or other relevant vibrations in their immediate vicinity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-that-are-exposed-to-less-noise">Spiders that are exposed to less noise</h2>



Meanwhile, rural spiders assembled their webs in such a way that energy from biologically important long-distance vibrations was preserved. 



This indicates they might be amplifying or enhancing certain frequency ranges to pick out meaningful vibrations above the background noise.



“Rural spiders are not used to as much noise in their environment,” Pessman said. “When they suddenly get a lot of noise, they might try to 'turn up' the volume in their webs or amplify what's coming in to better hear certain signals above the noise.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Given the role of funnel webs as external sensory structures, these findings open a new window into how animals can adjust the way they receive signals, a research area that had remained largely unclear until now. 



The ability to alter web structure in response to different noise environments could prove vital as human-made noise continues to escalate across the planet.



In the future, the team plans to investigate precisely how the spiders are changing their webs - whether they adjust the tension of certain silk lines, vary anchor points, or adopt an entirely new shape to filter or boost specific frequencies. 



High-speed video of the web-building process, combined with digital tracking methods, will let them delve deeper into these construction nuances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-noise-and-spider-webs">Human noise and spider webs</h2>



“This study really highlights the role of receivers in overcoming environmental noise,” said Hebets, who is a professor of biological sciences at UNL. 



“It opens up entirely new avenues of research. For example, are receivers placing themselves at certain locations in the environment where signals are going to receive less attenuation or overlap of noise?”



By revealing that some species can modify their “sensor” for hearing, the team hopes to inspire more research on how other animals cope with rising noise levels. 



The funnels built by these little invertebrates may seem inconsequential to an urban passerby, but as the study shows, each strand of silk can be precisely tuned to help the spider thrive in a clamorous world.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Spiders build their webs differently when the noise in their neighborhood gets too loud

Whether it’s the constant hum of traffic or the repetitive...

<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079404" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-spread-of-butterfly-disease-revealed-in-museum-collections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-make-life-and-death-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a>Every spring, gardens and fields fill the air with rich, floral aromas. But it's more than just a pleasant smell; these plant-released scents play a vital role in the lives of butterflies and moths.



A new <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> study reveals how daily changes in plant aromas influence feeding behaviors among winged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/">insects</a> that belong to the group known as Lepidoptera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-scent-and-insect-diets">Plant scent and insect diets</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, unveils the Salient Aroma Hypothesis.



This new idea proposes that the chemical cues plants release - particularly during the daytime - are instrumental in shaping how specialized, or how flexible, a butterfly or moth becomes in its diet



“This idea provides a new perspective on why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-spread-of-butterfly-disease-revealed-in-museum-collections/">butterflies</a> and moths are picky eaters while others are not,” said Po-An Lin, an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/">National Taiwan University</a>. “It also highlights the critical role of plant volatiles, or scents, in shaping insect-plant interactions and evolutionary adaptations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-picky-eaters-and-their-plant-choice">Picky eaters and their plant choice</h2>



Scientists already knew that many Lepidopterans are surprisingly fussy with their dietary choices.



The insects feed only on specific plant groups that cater to the nutritional or chemical needs of their offspring. Others are the polar opposite, feeding on a broad range of vegetation.



The hypothesis explains these extremes by focusing on how butterflies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-defense-against-the-invasive-spongy-moth-is-fading/">moths</a> use their antennae to detect plant scents. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-scent-and-insect-antennae-size">Plant scent and insect antennae size</h2>



Researchers measured insect antennae on 582 specimens from 94 species and linked size to diet and activity patterns. 



Notably, they found that day-active females in particular had noticeably larger antennae than their nocturnal relatives. This adaptation allows them to detect and process the richer daytime scents in the environment.



“The relationship between antennal size and host plant breadth was very strong,” Felton said. “Larger antennal sizes have been associated with a greater number of sensilla, the sensory structures involved in the sense of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/">smell</a>, thereby increasing the surface area for sensory receptors." 



"The enhanced capacity may be a key adaptation for how certain Lepidoptera have evolved to feed on a limited and specific range of plants."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-cues-and-evolution">Chemical cues and evolution</h2>



The scientists confirmed that most vegetation releases a more varied and abundant blend of volatile compounds during the day, in comparison with the night.



This disparity lines up with the greater complexity observed in the olfactory systems of day-active insects. Daytime feeders use abundant daytime chemical cues to find, identify, and eat the plants that best suit their needs.



“This finding demonstrates how the availability of chemical signals influences the evolution of sensory organs in insects,” Felton said. “It provides a fascinating example of how plants have played a direct role in shaping the evolution of the insects that rely on them.”



The study also traced the evolutionary lineages of butterflies and moths in the Lepidoptera family tree. Researchers mapped species’ daily activity and linked it to host plant preferences to reveal feeding behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-specialization-in-the-daylight">Scent specialization in the daylight</h2>



The outcome is a nuanced picture of insect-plant dynamics. Daytime pollinators, like monarch butterflies, use their large antennae to detect specific plant scents, and this guides them toward a narrow range of host plants. 



“Insect herbivores, such as butterflies and moths, must find the right plants to feed on and, in the case of females, to lay their eggs,” said Professor Lin. “This is a crucial decision because caterpillars depend entirely on the selected plant for survival. 



In contrast, unlike humans, who eat a variety of foods to stay healthy, many insect herbivores specialize in just a few plant species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-diets-in-the-nighttime-quiet">Broader diets in the nighttime quiet</h2>



Nocturnal moths like the Polyphemus, encounter fewer distinct plant aromas in the dark. Without rich scent cues to guide them, these insects are less likely to lock in on a single preferred food source. Their evolutionary solution? Broaden their diet to improve their odds of survival.



By revealing how something as subtle as the timing and volume of plant odors can direct dietary choices, this study expands our understanding of ecological networks.



The research highlights the delicate interplay between insect sensory capabilities and plant chemistry, laying the groundwork for future research into how these relationships shape biodiversity across ecosystems.



----- Like what you read? Subscribe to our newsletter for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



 Check us out on EarthSnap, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and&nbsp;<a href="http://earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>. -----

Scents of survival: How plant aromas shape insect diets

Every spring, gardens and fields fill the air with rich,...

Offshore wind farms are picking up speed around the world. Their expansion is a big part of the push to reduce emissions and respond to the climate crisis. But as this clean energy source expands, so do the concerns about how offshore wind farms might affect marine life.



A new study suggests that the places most suitable for offshore wind energy are often the same places where seabirds and marine mammals go to feed.



The research was conducted by experts at the University of Alicante, in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.umh.es/?lang=EN" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miguel Hernández University of Elche</a>, the University of Murcia, and the Complutense University of Madrid.



The teams findings raise a red flag: without careful planning, wind farms could unintentionally harm some of the ocean’s most vulnerable species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-location-of-offshore-wind-farms">Location of offshore wind farms </h2>



Building <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-turbines-are-displacing-bats-from-their-forest-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turbines</a> at sea may seem less intrusive than building them on land. Some impacts are positive. For example, wind farms often restrict fishing activity, which can create a kind of unofficial sanctuary for marine life. 



However, the negatives can’t be ignored. Turbines introduce underwater noise, disrupt habitats, and increase the risk of collision for birds.



“From the planning stages through to operation, offshore wind turbines can affect wildlife in many ways.” explained Professor Juan Manuel Pérez-García, who has previously researched the impact of onshore wind farms on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/renewable-energy-is-the-latest-threat-to-bird-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird populations</a>.



The study makes one thing clear: it’s not enough to pick windy spots. We need to understand which marine life might be put at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-marine-hotspots">Predicting marine hotspots</h2>



One of the biggest hurdles in offshore development is knowing where wildlife is most active. 



“We can’t monitor every animal in the sea, so we need to estimate where they’re likely to be using mathematical models,” noted Professor Pérez-García.



The team created these estimates by looking at marine food webs. From tiny phytoplankton up to fish and top predators like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-most-endangered-seabirds-are-also-threatened-by-plastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seabirds</a> and marine mammals, the food chain offers clues about where feeding is most likely to occur.



Interestingly, the study found that biomass matters more than biodiversity. “It’s not fish diversity that matters most, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/without-strong-action-global-fish-stocks-could-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomass</a>: having a large amount of available food is more important than having a variety of species,” said Professor Pérez-García.



Some animals eat plankton directly, while others eat the fish that rely on plankton. Either way, food-rich areas are magnets for hungry wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-farms-and-marine-life-hotspots">Wind farms and marine life hotspots</h2>



Using this information, the researchers built global risk maps by layering biodiversity hotspots over wind potential zones. The overlap was striking - especially in the Northern Hemisphere.



In contrast, there appeared to be less overlap in the Southern Hemisphere, though the team warns this could be due to limited data rather than lower risk.



“These risk maps are a key tool to foresee potential conflicts between conservation and energy development,” said Professor Pérez-García. “The goal isn’t to slow down the energy transition, but to make it compatible with biodiversity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-marine-life">Protecting marine life</h2>



One troubling finding is that many of the high-risk zones identified in the study fall outside existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine protected areas</a> (MPAs). This means that, as it stands, many wildlife-rich areas don’t have the legal protection needed to withstand large-scale development.



The researchers recommend expanding MPAs and making them stronger. They also urge governments to build “exclusion zones” where conservation takes priority. 



These decisions, they argue, should be guided by scientific data - not politics or convenience.



“We need to understand what species are doing, where they go, and where their resources are,” noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-tools-and-smarter-planning">Better tools and smarter planning</h2>



Technology can help. For example, attaching GPS trackers to seabirds allows scientists to see where they go, how they fly, and whether they’re avoiding or interacting with wind farms.



Some birds, it turns out, steer clear of the turbines. But scientists now need to dig deeper: are these birds also missing out on food? Could marine mammals be affected in similar ways?



Understanding these patterns will be key to balancing clean energy with ecosystem health.



This research serves as a reminder: renewable energy must also be responsible energy. With better tools and smarter planning, it’s possible to power the future without dimming the lives of the species that call the oceans home.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479724037940" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Environmental Management</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Offshore wind farms threaten marine life hotspots

Offshore wind farms are picking up speed around the world....

An international team of researchers took advantage of a rare chance encounter to explore a massive new expanse of seafloor exposed by the breakup of an Antarctic ice shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea.&nbsp;



On January 13, 2025, an iceberg named A-84 - which was the size of the city of Chicago - broke off from the George VI Ice Shelf, which sits along the Antarctic Peninsula. 



This event uncovered roughly 209 square miles (540 square kilometers) of seafloor that had previously been concealed under floating ice.



The team arrived aboard <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Schmidt Ocean Institute</a>’s R/V Falkor (too) at this newly exposed site on January 25, making them the first to study such a large underwater area that had previously been covered by an ice shelf.&nbsp;



Their effort marks the first large-scale interdisciplinary exploration of geologic, oceanographic, and biological features hidden beneath an extensive floating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-glacier-retreat-in-the-arctic-signals-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> front.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapidly-shifting-expedition-goals">Rapidly shifting expedition goals</h2>



Co-chief scientist Patricia Esquete is a researcher in the <a href="https://www.cesam-la.pt/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Environmental and Marine Studies</a> (CESAM) and the Department of Biology (DBio) at the <a href="https://www.ua.pt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Aveiro</a> in Portugal.&nbsp;



"We seized upon the moment, changed our expedition plan, and went for it so we could look at what was happening in the depths below,” said Esquete.



“We didn’t expect to find such a beautiful, thriving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-environmental-stress-strengthens-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>. Based on the size of the animals, the communities we observed have been there for decades, maybe even hundreds of years.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor-study_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor-study_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="The newly exposed Antarctic seafloor also allowed the team to gather critical data on the past behavior of the ice sheet. The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass over the last few decades due to climate change. Credit: Alex Ingle / Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963228"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The newly exposed Antarctic seafloor also allowed the team to gather critical data on the past behavior of the ice sheet. The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass over the last few decades due to climate change. Credit: Alex Ingle / Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



Originally, the science mission did not include venturing beneath a freshly fractured portion of the ice shelf. 



However, the movement of this newly calved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-iceberg-that-broke-away-from-antarctica-sparks-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg</a> offered a rare opportunity to explore a site that, until recently, had never been examined by any human.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-seafloor-reveals-lush-communities">Antarctic seafloor reveals lush communities</h2>



Using Schmidt Ocean Institute’s remotely operated vehicle, ROV SuBastian, the science team spent eight days surveying the seafloor at depths down to 1,300 meters (4,265 feet).&nbsp;



The experts discovered an unexpectedly rich ecosystem that was teeming with corals, sponges, icefish, giant sea spiders, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> - an indication that marine life can flourish under ice-covered regions of the Antarctic in ways not previously documented.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_octopus-resting_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_octopus-resting_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="An octopus rests on the seafloor 1150 meters deep, in the Bellingshausen Sea off Antarctica, at an area where the shelf break and slope are cut by several underwater gullies. Credit: ROV SuBastian / Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963224"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An octopus rests on the seafloor 1150 meters deep, in the Bellingshausen Sea off Antarctica, at an area where the shelf break and slope are cut by several underwater gullies. Credit: ROV SuBastian / Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



According to the researchers, these observations offer insight into how ecosystems function beneath the Antarctic ice sheet.&nbsp;Such an ecosystem has seldom been accessed. 



Earlier findings, notably by <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a> researchers in 2021, revealed possible bottom-dwelling life beneath ice, but the present study marks the first time an ROV survey has thoroughly documented wide areas of this vibrant seabed.



The experts were surprised by the large biomass and biodiversity in the ecosystem and suspect they have discovered several new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-marine-life-survives-in-darkness">How marine life survives in darkness</h2>



Deep-sea ecosystems generally depend on nutrients trickling down from surface waters. However, these Antarctic seafloors had been buried under ice some 150 meters (nearly 500 feet) thick for centuries.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_Sponge_Anemone_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_Sponge_Anemone_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="A large sponge, a cluster of anemones, and other life is seen nearly 230 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963226"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A large sponge, a cluster of anemones, and other life is seen nearly 230 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



With no direct sunlight, how such abundant organisms manage to feed is still uncertain. The scientists propose that ocean currents under the ice may be funneling essential nutrients to these communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-ice-sheet-behavior">Antarctic ice sheet behavior</h2>



Apart from their ecological discoveries, the international group - which included scientists from Portugal, the United Kingdom, Chile, Germany, Norway, New Zealand, and the United States - examined geological samples to gain knowledge about past changes in the Antarctic ice sheet.



The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass for decades in response to climate change.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_modis-satellite-view_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_modis-satellite-view_NASA_1s.webp" alt="The MODIS Corrected Reflectance satellite imagery showing the iceberg calved from George VI Ice Shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea on 19 January 2025. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963222"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The MODIS Corrected Reflectance satellite imagery showing the iceberg calved from George VI Ice Shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea on 19 January 2025. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



“The ice loss from the Antarctic Ice Sheet is a major contributor to sea level rise worldwide,” said co-chief scientist Sasha Montelli of <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>, who is also a 2019 Schmidt Science Fellow.&nbsp;



“Our work is critical for providing longer-term context of these recent changes, improving our ability to make projections of future change - projections that can inform actionable policies. We will undoubtedly make new discoveries as we continue to analyze this vital data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-samples-from-the-antarctic-seafloor">Samples from the Antarctic seafloor </h2>



During this mission, the team collected both biological and geological samples. 



In addition, they deployed autonomous underwater vehicles, called gliders, to analyze how meltwater from the ice shelf impacts the region’s physical and chemical properties.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/antarctic-iceberg_Solitary-Hydroid_unseen-ecosystem_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/antarctic-iceberg_Solitary-Hydroid_unseen-ecosystem_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="A solitary hydroid drifts in currents approximately 380 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Solitary hydroids are related to corals, jellyfish, and anemones, but do not form colonies. Credit: SOI" class="wp-image-1963895"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A solitary hydroid drifts in currents approximately 380 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Solitary hydroids are related to corals, jellyfish, and anemones, but do not form colonies. Click image to enlarge. Credit: SOI</figcaption></figure>



Preliminary measurements hinted at high biological productivity and strong meltwater flow from the George VI ice shelf, providing further context for how such deep-sea populations may thrive in these surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-part-of-a-larger-global-initiative">Part of a larger global initiative</h2>



The expedition is part of Challenger 150, a global cooperative dedicated to deep-sea biological study, and recognized by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (<a href="https://www.ioc.unesco.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IOC/UNESCO</a>) as an Ocean Decade Action.&nbsp;



This alignment ensures that findings from the George VI Ice Shelf breakage feed into broader international efforts to understand and safeguard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.



“The science team was originally in this remote region to study the seafloor and ecosystem at the interface between ice and sea,” noted Schmidt Ocean Institute’s executive director, Jyotika Virmani.&nbsp;



“Being right there when this iceberg calved from the ice shelf presented a rare scientific opportunity. Serendipitous moments are part of the excitement of research at sea - they offer the chance to be the first to witness the untouched beauty of our world.”



Looking ahead, the researchers plan to continue analyzing the collected data for insights into both ice sheet behavior and the unique marine life that has flourished unseen for centuries beneath the ice.&nbsp;



With accelerating climate change, the study’s findings about species adaptability and the resilience of Antarctic habitats carry implications for future conservation and policy decisions on a global scale.



<a href="https://schmidtocean.photoshelter.com/galleries/C0000QszlkoaNkKU/G0000p4LRtGEAfWo/I0000X_S5KjUr4QU/FKt250110-20250126-IceScanningCollectionAndIcebergViewing-Ingle-0202-jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">See more of the photos taken on this mission by the Schmidt Ocean Institute here...</a>



Images Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ecosystem never seen by humans discovered after iceberg breaks away from Antarctica

An international team of researchers took advantage of a rare...

Human activity is rapidly altering ecosystems, leading to biodiversity loss and the decline of animal cultures. This includes behaviors acquired through social learning - known as cultural behaviors. These are crucial for species adapting to change.



"Cultural behaviors range from the songs of whales to the tool use of primates," said Ammie Kalan of the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Victoria</a>.



"These adaptations to environmental change not only benefit the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, but also provide important insights into the origins of behavior and learning across species. However, shrinking global animal populations pose a challenge to what we can still hope to learn."



Cultural behaviors such as tool use enhance survival. They help species exploit food, water, and mates. These behaviors also shape ecosystems by promoting flexibility and adaptation. But many animals that show these skills face extinction, risking the loss of valuable behavioral insights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-pass-down-a-cultural-legacy">Animals pass down a cultural legacy</h2>



Tool use is one of the most visible cultural traits. Tools create physical artifacts that remain long after the behavior has ended. This makes tool use easier to study than behaviors like communication or play.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> like chimpanzees, capuchins, and macaques, habitual tool use is passed down socially. They use stone tools as hammers and anvils, creating lasting marks on the landscape. These tools often gather in the same spots over generations, forming what researchers call “technological landscapes.”



Tools show how animals teach, learn, and innovate. They also help scientists interpret early human behavior, especially when comparing ancient stone tools with those made by primates today. Some stone flakes made by monkeys even mimic tools once thought exclusive to human ancestors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-tools-complicate-human-history">Animal tools complicate human history</h2>



Recent research has shown that nonhuman primates can produce stone flakes unintentionally. 



These resemble early human tools and challenge long-held views about our ancestors' intelligence. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine animals</a> like otters also use stone anvils, suggesting coastal archaeological finds could be nonhuman.



This overlap forces researchers to refine how they interpret ancient sites. They must now separate human and animal material culture with care. Comparative research across species helps clarify which behaviors are truly human and which are not.



"These uniquely complex creatures are threatened with extinction, highlighting the urgent need to protect and conserve them and their way of life," noted Lydia Luncz of the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/institutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-digital-preservation-matters">Why digital preservation matters</h2>



Removing tools from the wild can damage animal cultures. These objects help pass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-size-and-cancer-risk-surprising-new-details-have-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> from one generation to the next. Instead of removing them, researchers now use digital tools.



Technologies like laser scanning and 3D modeling let scientists record tools without disturbing ecosystems. These digital records are detailed, shareable, and ideal for long-term study. They allow for global collaboration without risking the loss of rare materials.



Some tools are made from vegetation and degrade quickly. Others, like stone, survive longer and create clearer evidence of cultural habits. Digital preservation captures both types and helps maintain a full record of animal behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-cultures-not-just-species">Protecting cultures, not just species</h2>



There’s no global plan to protect animal material culture. Most artifacts survive only if found in protected areas. That’s not enough. To preserve these cultures, animals must have access to the resources they use—like specific stones or plants.



Efforts like the United Nations Convention on Migratory Species (<a href="https://www.cms.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CMS</a>) have started to include cultural protections. They’ve taken steps to preserve behaviors in chimpanzees and sperm whales. These moves show a growing respect for the social knowledge of animals.



Recognizing animal cultures expands how we see conservation. It’s not just about survival. It’s about honoring shared evolutionary stories and keeping the legacy of other species alive. These stories teach us about learning, creativity, and resilience in the natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-cultural-legacy-of-animals">Preserving the cultural legacy of animals</h2>



As ecosystems change, time is running out to record and protect the behaviors of wild animals. Their cultures reflect a rich history shared with us. These are not just curiosities. They are keys to understanding intelligence, adaptation, and social bonds.



Protecting the cultural legacy of animals honors more than science. It honors a living connection between species - one that still shapes the world we all share.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adj3716" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Saving the cultural legacy of wild animals

Human activity is rapidly altering ecosystems, leading to biodiversity loss...

Most people have never seen a civet, let alone heard of one. Yet these elusive, cat-like mammals play an irreplaceable role in the web of life across Africa and Asia. 



On April 4th each year, conservationists, researchers, and animal lovers come together to celebrate World Civet Day - an initiative launched in 2024 by The Civet Project Foundation.



This day marks a turning point for civet awareness. Long overlooked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife conservation</a>, civets now have a voice. Their habitats, behaviors, and unfortunate exploitation are being discussed more widely, pushing them out of the shadows. 



World Civet Day is not just about admiration - it’s about action, compassion, and education.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-of-civets">The world of civets</h2>



Civets are small, nocturnal mammals belonging to the family Viverridae. Their appearances vary by species, but most civets have a long, slender body, masked faces, and ringed tails. Although they look somewhat like cats, civets are more closely related to mongooses and hyenas.



They live in forests, grasslands, and even city outskirts across India, Southeast Asia, and parts of Africa. Civets feed on fruits, insects, and small vertebrates. 



One of their most important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological roles</a> is seed dispersal. By eating fruits and excreting seeds in different areas, civets help maintain forest diversity. They also help control insect populations. In short, civets are silent ecological engineers.



But despite their usefulness to the environment, civets face mounting threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-lurking-in-the-shadows">Threats lurking in the shadows</h2>



The biggest danger to civets comes from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a>. Habitat loss, urban encroachment, and deforestation have taken a toll on their populations. 



Some species, like the Malabar civet, are now critically endangered. Others remain poorly studied, slipping through the cracks of conservation priorities.



Civets have long been forgotten in mainstream conservation. But they are key players in our ecosystems, and we owe them more attention.



Beyond environmental destruction, civets are victims of direct exploitation. One of the most infamous examples is their involvement in the luxury coffee trade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dark-side-of-civet-coffee">The dark side of civet coffee</h2>



Kopi Luwak, or civet coffee, is one of the most expensive coffees in the world. It is made using beans that have passed through a civet’s digestive system. This process supposedly improves the flavor, making the beans smoother and less acidic.



Originally, civet coffee was rare because it relied on beans collected from wild civet droppings. But rising global demand turned this niche product into an industry. 



Today, many civets are captured, caged, and force-fed coffee cherries in cramped and unsanitary conditions. These animals often suffer from malnutrition, stress, and early death.



Ethical concerns are growing louder. Researchers and animal welfare organizations have repeatedly called for bans on caged civet coffee farms. Yet in many countries, the trade continues unchecked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-world-civet-day-stands-for">What World Civet Day stands for</h2>



World Civet Day shines a spotlight on these issues. It urges individuals and institutions to consider the ethical costs of consumerism. More importantly, it gives civets the recognition they deserve as vital members of our shared environment.



The Civet Project, which started the initiative, uses the day to promote awareness through talks, exhibitions, and social media campaigns. Their mission is twofold: to educate people about civets and to advocate for their protection in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-success-stories-offer-hope-for-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild</a> and in captivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-research-and-rescue">Role of research and rescue</h2>



Academic researchers are now giving civets more attention. Studies focus on their diet, territory, reproductive behavior, and role in seed dispersal. 



Conservation organizations partner with zoos and local authorities to rescue civets from illegal captivity and rehabilitate them for return to the wild.



Zoos such as Hoo Zoo and Dinosaur World in the UK hosted educational events for the first World Civet Day, showing the public how civets live and why they matter. Meanwhile, grassroots conservationists are pushing for civet-friendly laws in India, Indonesia, and the Philippines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-help-civets-on-world-civet-day">Help civets on World Civet Day</h2>



World Civet Day is not only for scientists or conservationists. Everyone has a role to play. Choosing not to buy civet coffee can protect animals from cruelty. Supporting eco-tourism helps preserve their natural homes. Sharing facts and updates online spreads <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-using-technology-to-protect-our-natural-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">awareness</a>.



Organizations like&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thecivetproject.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Civet Project</a>&nbsp;work year-round to protect civets. You can follow and support their efforts.



By making ethical choices, raising awareness, and respecting wildlife, you help ensure civets have a safe future. These quiet forest dwellers deserve to thrive in the wild places they help sustain.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World Civet Day 2025 reveals the dark side of a luxury coffee

Most people have never seen a civet, let alone heard...

Staying awake when tired feels like walking through fog. For humans, missed sleep dulls our thinking, slows our reflexes, and clouds our focus. Yet we often push through. In the wild, though, the price of sleep deprivation can mean life or death. 



Animals have evolved strange and clever sleep strategies to manage this. Birds, in particular, display some of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fascinating adaptations</a> in the animal kingdom.



One of their most intriguing tricks is the ability to sleep with one eye open. This behavior lets birds keep half their brain alert while the other half rests deeply. It’s a survival skill. But what happens when even this isn’t enough?



A new study on European jackdaws reveals the limits of this behavior. It shows that, when pushed too far, even birds that sleep with one eye open may give in to full, vulnerable rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-art-of-asymmetric-sleep">The art of asymmetric sleep</h2>



Sleep takes many forms across species. In humans, we move through stages like REM and non-REM sleep in 90-minute cycles. Our brains rest in waves, switching between deep rest and vivid dreams. 



Birds follow a similar pattern but in shorter segments. They rest in bursts, adjusting their rhythm to match their surroundings.



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decoding-evolution-how-birds-can-help-us-prevent-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> go even further by sleeping asymmetrically. This means one half of the brain stays awake while the other half slips into non-REM sleep. 



Ducks often use this trick to remain watchful while still getting rest. The open eye faces out, keeping a lookout for danger. The closed eye faces inward, allowing that side of the brain to recharge.



This type of sleep helps birds navigate dangerous environments. It allows them to remain partially conscious without fully sacrificing rest. But this ability isn’t as powerful as full, deep sleep. It provides protection but not full restoration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-deep-sleep-matters-for-birds">Why deep sleep matters for birds</h2>



Asymmetric sleep helps with safety, but it’s not always enough. Deep non-REM sleep clears waste from the brain and helps consolidate memory. It recharges the system. 



Doing this with only one hemisphere takes longer and isn’t as effective. That’s why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> still need periods of symmetrical sleep, when both brain hemispheres rest at the same time.



Researchers have long wondered how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> decide when to use one sleep type over another. What triggers the shift? When does safety win, and when does the need to recover push past the risk?



The new study on jackdaws brings these questions closer to answers. By observing how these birds recover from sleep loss, scientists uncovered a tipping point. When deprived of sleep, the jackdaws gave up their asymmetric sleep patterns. 



They chose full, deep sleep in both hemispheres, even though it made them more vulnerable to threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exhausted-birds-choose-deep-sleep">Exhausted birds choose deep sleep</h2>



The research, led by scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence and the <a href="https://www.rug.nl/research/gelifes/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences</a>, focused on how jackdaws balance safety and sleep. Other studies have shown that many animals use flexible sleep strategies in tough conditions. 



Great frigatebirds sleep mid-flight using one side of the brain. Mallard ducks sleep with one eye open when they’re at the edge of their group. Northern fur seals also sleep asymmetrically when floating in the ocean.



Humans aren’t so different. On the first night in a new place, one half of our brain often stays more alert than the other. It’s a kind of natural night watch. But unlike birds, we don’t have the ability to fully control this process or keep one eye open at will.



In jackdaws, sleep deprivation shifted the balance. The birds spent more time in deep, symmetrical sleep, especially early in the night. They needed to recover fast, and asymmetric sleep wasn’t enough.



“Sleep is a dangerous part of life for many animals, as it leaves them exposed to all kinds of risks,” noted Niels Rattenborg, group leader at the <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a>.



“Some birds can function surprisingly well on far less sleep than we can, but even that strategy appears to have its limits. We have found that when they’re tired, jackdaws are more likely to sleep deeply – even if that means becoming more vulnerable." 



"Observing how birds navigate the trade-off between vigilance and sleep may help us better understand sleep in general.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-jackdaw-brain">Inside the jackdaw brain</h2>



To explore how the birds managed their sleep after deprivation, researchers tracked nine jackdaws using EEG recordings. These scans measured brain activity during different sleep phases. 



The team wanted to know which parts of the brain rested more deeply, and how that might relate to the bird’s behavior when awake.



Their findings were revealing. Some areas of the brain slept more deeply than others, suggesting that parts that had been more active during the day needed more rest at night. For example, areas linked to vision and decision-making showed stronger sleep signals. The hippocampus, associated with memory, showed less change.



This selective rest could help birds recover without completely losing awareness. But when exhaustion built up, even this wasn’t enough. Deep, full-brain sleep took over. The birds prioritized recovery over safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-strategies-are-shaped-by-evolution">Sleep strategies are shaped by evolution</h2>



“Our findings reveal that even the highly flexible sleep strategies used by jackdaws have limits,” said Peter Meerlo, a group leader at the Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences.



“That tells us something fundamental about sleep: it’s not just a passive state, but a behavior shaped by both evolution and environmental demands."



"The study offers a fresh perspective on how animals balance the need for sleep with the risk of predation or other threats – and could help us better understand how sleep loss affects brain function more broadly, including in humans.”



Sleep isn’t just a biological requirement. It’s a behavior shaped by millions of years of challenge and change. Animals like jackdaws show us the trade-offs involved in survival. They sleep lightly when they can, but give in when they must.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-humans-can-learn-from-jackdaws">What humans can learn from jackdaws</h2>



This research on jackdaws goes beyond bird behavior. It speaks to something shared across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. The need to rest. The limits of endurance. And the invisible costs of staying awake too long.



Even the most flexible sleepers hit a wall. The jackdaws remind us that sleep is not optional. Whether in the trees or in our beds, recovery matters. Our brains, like theirs, have limits – and sometimes, the only way to recover is to truly switch off.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00293-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tired birds sleep more deeply, trading safety for rest

Staying awake when tired feels like walking through fog. For...

Each year, billions of animals migrate in search of better conditions. These journeys shape ecosystems, drive evolution, and challenge individual survival. 



Migration, however, is not a simple instinctual response. It demands a blend of physical traits and behavioral choices. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, even a subtle anatomical difference - like eye size - can influence who migrates and who stays behind.



Recent research from <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> reveals that the European roach (Rutilus rutilus), a common freshwater fish, shows a surprising link between eye structure and migration behavior.



Specifically, roach that migrate between lakes and streams tend to have larger pupils than those who remain year-round in a single habitat. This physical feature helps them see better in murky water and boosts their ability to find food, a vital edge in the energy-intensive act of migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-a-fish-migrate">What makes a fish migrate</h2>



Roach are partial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-fish-species-are-facing-double-trouble/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrants</a>. That means only some individuals in a population leave the lake each winter to enter connected streams. 



The rest stay put, braving seasonal changes in place. This difference in behavior offers researchers a unique lens through which to understand how physical traits affect life strategies.



The research team, led by biologist Kaj Hulthén, tracked more than 2,000 roach across two Danish lakes - Loldrup Sø and Søgård Sø - over several years. 



They photographed the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-freshwater-fish-toward-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, implanted each one with a tiny transponder, and monitored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a> using underwater antennas placed at stream inlets and outlets.



“We started by taking photos of the fishes’ eyes and then followed the migration patterns of 2,000 individual roaches over several years and in two different lakes by using implanted electronic transponders,” said Hulthén, who is a biology researcher at Lund University.



“It was shown that roach that migrated had larger pupils relative to individuals that chose to stay in the lake throughout the year.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-size-matters-for-fish-that-migrate">Eye size matters for fish that migrate</h2>



Larger pupils allow more light into the eye, improving vision in low-light conditions. For roach, this visual boost helps detect tiny prey like zooplankton. Using simulations, the researchers showed that roach with larger pupils could see farther - especially in dim twilight conditions, when many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> feed.



Even a 1-4% increase in pupil diameter led to as much as a 5% increase in the volume of water a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> could visually scan.



That matters because in aquatic environments, visual range often dictates feeding success. These small gains are enough to help migratory roach gather the energy reserves they need before entering food-poor winter streams.



In twilight, detection range for 1 mm prey reached up to 20 cm - enough for practical foraging. The advantage fades under starlight but remains relevant during dusk and dawn, which are key feeding times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-now-to-survive-later">Feeding now to survive later</h2>



Migrating roach face a trade-off. Streams have fewer predators but offer less food. To survive the winter, migrants must build up fat stores beforehand. Larger pupils may be a tool to gather more food before departure and to stay active longer each day by foraging in low light.



This connection between eyesight and feeding has deep evolutionary roots. Eye size reflects both opportunity and cost. Bigger eyes offer better vision, but they require more energy to build and maintain. For a migrating roach, the benefits seem to outweigh the cost.



“The fact that migrating individuals have an improved ability to detect visual objects such as zooplankton indicates strong selection for effective food searches. This is crucial to cover the energy needs that migration requires," said Hulthén.



"These results correspond well with previous research, which showed that migrating roach with insufficient energy reserves run a higher risk of dying in the streams."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-with-big-eyes-are-likely-to-migrate">Fish with big eyes are likely to migrate</h2>



In both study lakes, researchers found a clear pattern: roach with larger relative pupil sizes were more likely to migrate. 



The correlation was strongest in Søgård Sø, where murkier water creates a dimmer visual environment. This suggests that visual demands may vary by location, shaping individual behaviour accordingly.



On average, migrant roach in Søgård Sø had pupils 4.2% larger than residents. In Loldrup Sø, the difference was smaller at 1.1%. While modest, these changes are functionally significant. Larger pupils helped fish see better, especially in the dim light that dominates northern winters.



Roach are planktivores. They feed on small, fast-moving prey that require sharp eyesight to detect. Under experimental conditions, fish given more food before winter were more likely to migrate, did so earlier, and stayed in streams longer. Those with less food died more often. 



This supports the idea that strong visual skills, like those enabled by larger pupils, help fish meet their energy needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-migratory-syndrome-takes-shape">A migratory syndrome takes shape</h2>



The study’s findings contribute to a growing view that migration is not just a behavioral choice. It’s a full-body strategy involving vision, body shape, energy storage, and risk-taking.



Together, these traits form a “migratory syndrome” - a suite of characteristics that help fish survive the challenges of moving between habitats.



The eye, often taken for granted in ecological studies, now appears central to this survival kit. By enhancing foraging efficiency, it helps determine who has the resources to leave and who stays behind.



“Roach play an important role in the ecosystem. By understanding why some individuals migrate and other don’t, we can gain a deeper insight into how fish populations respond to environmental changes, which in turn could affect both fish stocks and the lake dynamics as a whole,” said Hulthén.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-eyes-can-change-shape">Fish eyes can change shape</h2>



Whether these differences in eye morphology are genetic or a response to the environment remains unknown. 



However, past studies show that fish eyes can change shape depending on food availability and predator pressure. That means both nature and nurture could play roles in shaping eye size and which fish migrate.



Interestingly, the benefits of bigger eyes seem to matter most in moderate turbidity. In very clear water, all fish see well. In extremely dark or muddy water, vision may become useless. This window of usefulness hints at why migration-related eye differences show up more clearly in some lakes than others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-size-and-fish-migration">Eye size and fish migration</h2>



Roach migration has ecological ripples beyond the fish themselves. Migrants affect predators, prey, and nutrient cycles. 



Understanding how physical traits like pupil size influence migration choices can help scientists predict how fish populations may respond to environmental change.



In this study, a tiny difference in pupil size revealed a key factor in migratory success. It highlights the tight link between form, function, and behavior.



Eyes, often symbols of awareness and insight, prove once again to be more than just windows to the world—they are tools of survival, helping fish decide whether to stay or go.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.70015" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bigger pupils help migrating fish survive

Each year, billions of animals migrate in search of better...

Insects quietly run the world. They pollinate crops, recycle organic matter, and feed countless animals. Despite their importance, scientists know very little about how most insect species are doing. 



There are about one million known insect species. Yet only 1% - roughly 12,100 species - have been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>). Among these, around 20% face threats of extinction.



Monitoring efforts have mostly focused on butterflies, dragonflies, and bumblebees in North America and Europe. Other regions, especially Africa, Asia, and South America, remain largely unstudied. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global picture</a> of insect health is still blurry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-plan-to-track-insect-declines">Urgent plan to track insect declines</h2>



To address this, scientists from the UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology (<a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UKCEH</a>) and the Zoological Society of London (<a href="https://www.zsl.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZSL</a>) propose a broader method. Their goal is to act quickly before climate change, pollution, land use shifts, and invasive species cause irreversible harm.



The new method integrates several ways of studying insects. It includes long-term tracking of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> and abundance, comparisons across different habitats, structured expert input, and controlled experiments. The researchers believe this mix offers a more complete view than any single approach.



Dr. Rob Cooke is an ecological modeler at UKCEH and joint lead author of the study.



“We need to find out whether insect declines are widespread and what’s causing them. The challenge is like a giant jigsaw puzzle where there are thousands of missing pieces, but we do not have decades to wait to fill these gaps and then act,“ noted Dr. Cook.



“There is a lot of interest in monitoring charismatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-farming-insect-waste-reshapes-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> such as bees and butterflies, but few people care about the supposedly unpleasant insects, even though they too provide benefits for us." 



"For example, earwigs feed on aphids and other garden pests while cockroaches eat decaying material and keep soils healthy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-insect-monitoring-system-that-works">An insect monitoring system that works</h2>



The framework combines time series trends, such as counting how butterfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> shift over a decade. It also uses spatial comparisons to see how insects vary between forests, grasslands, or farms. 



Researchers conduct experiments that test insect responses to threats, like removing pesticides or invasive species from certain areas. When hard data is missing, they gather expert judgments to predict how insects may react to different pressures.



This layered approach lets scientists make more informed decisions while still being open about gaps and uncertainties. It balances speed and precision in a way that single-method studies cannot match.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-for-insect-inclusion">Case for insect inclusion</h2>



“Insects are an incredibly important part of our ecosystems, pollinating around 80% of flowering plant species and vital for 35% of global food production, yet they are undervalued and understudied,“ noted Dr. Charlotte Outhwaite of ZSL’s <a href="https://www.zsl.org/what-we-do/institute-of-zoology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Zoology</a>, joint lead author of the study.



“With a million described species it would take too long to figure what works best for each species. Instead we want to find large-scale actions that benefit the most insects. For this, we need to use all the available information we have.”



To meet this goal, the scientists propose using known responses from well-studied insects to estimate how lesser-known species might respond under similar conditions. This gives policymakers a usable way forward, even if some data is still missing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-phase-of-the-glitrs-project">Next phase of the GLiTRS project</h2>



The new framework will now guide the Global Insect Threat-Response Synthesis (GLiTRS) project. Researchers aim to model insect responses to major threats across many environments. 



By combining all sources of data - field studies, expert insights, and experiments - they hope to build a reliable picture of insect health worldwide. This new framework doesn’t pretend to be perfect.



But it offers something we desperately need: a way to understand insect declines in real time, using every piece of information available. It also shows how science can adapt when faced with complex, global challenges.



Insects have been quietly supporting life on Earth for hundreds of millions of years. Now they need our attention. The question is not whether we care, but whether we will act before it's too late.



The project is backed by the&nbsp;Natural Environment Research Council (<a href="https://www.ukri.org/councils/nerc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NERC</a>). It involves teams from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>, and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq2110" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Very little is known about 99% of all insects on Earth

Insects quietly run the world. They pollinate crops, recycle organic...

A newly discovered species of parasitic wasp that lived alongside dinosaurs nearly 100 million years ago may have evolved a bizarre and highly specialized mechanism to trap other insects and turn them into unsuspecting incubators for its offspring.&nbsp;



Preserved in amber, the wasp appears to have used a Venus flytrap-like structure on its body to grasp potential hosts, offering scientists a fascinating glimpse into prehistoric parasitic behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parasitic-wasp-like-no-other">Parasitic wasp like no other</h2>



The species, Sirenobethylus charybdis, was identified from 16 remarkably preserved specimens found in Cretaceous-period amber from Myanmar’s Kachin region. The research describes a novel grasping appendage located on the abdomen of the female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-find-inside-the-eye-of-a-tiny-wasp-megaphragma-viggianii/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a>.



“When I looked at the first specimen, I noticed this expansion at the tip of the abdomen, and I thought this must be an air bubble. It’s quite often you see air bubbles around specimens in amber,” said Lars Vilhelmsen, study co-author and a curator at the <a href="https://snm.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum of Denmark</a>.&nbsp;



“But then I looked at a few more specimens and then went back to the first one. This was actually part of the animal.”



The structure’s purpose quickly intrigued the research team, especially once they observed its mobility across different specimens. 



"Sometimes the lower flap, as we call it, is open, and sometimes it’s closed,” Vilhelmsen said. “It was clearly a movable structure and something that was used to grasp something.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-wasp-like-a-venus-flytrap">Ancient wasp like a Venus flytrap</h2>



While nothing quite like this structure exists among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stick-and-leaf-insects-have-all-evolved-the-same-basic-body-parts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern insects</a>, the researchers found the best comparison in an entirely different kingdom: the Venus flytrap.&nbsp;



“There’s no way you can know how an insect that died 100 million years ago was living. So you look for analogs in modern insect fauna. Do we have anything among wasps or other groups that looks like this?” Vilhelmsen said.&nbsp;



“And there’s no real analog within insects. We had to go all the way out of the animal kingdom into the plant kingdom to find something that remotely resembled this.”



Although the structure resembles a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/well-built-fences-keep-predators-from-harming-livestock/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a>’s trap, the team believes it was not used to kill. Instead, they propose that the wasp used it to seize other insects just long enough to lay eggs into their bodies.&nbsp;



Once released, the unwitting hosts would carry the wasp larvae, which would eventually consume them from the inside out. According to Vilhelmsen, the likely hosts were flying insects of similar size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-ancient-parasitism">A window into ancient parasitism</h2>



Modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-have-a-new-weapon-to-defend-against-parasitic-wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parasitoid wasps</a> engage in comparable reproductive strategies. For instance, cuckoo wasps lay their eggs in the nests of other species, leaving their offspring to feed on the host’s young.&nbsp;



Yet the unique abdominal trapping mechanism seen in Sirenobethylus charybdis has no true parallel in living insects, adding to its mystery.



The amber in which the fossils were preserved provided an exceptionally detailed view of the wasp’s anatomy. In addition to Sirenobethylus charybdis, other remarkable finds from Myanmar amber have included everything from dinosaur tails and ancient spiders to crab and ant fossils.&nbsp;



The specimen of this wasp was purchased by a fossil collector and later donated to <a href="https://eng.cnu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Capital Normal University</a>’s Key Laboratory of Insect Evolution and Environmental Changes in 2016.



However, the use of Myanmar amber in scientific research has become controversial in recent years due to ethical concerns surrounding the country’s political instability and military conflicts. 



Some paleontologists have called for a halt on studying these specimens until issues around their provenance and trade are resolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speculation-over-the-wasp-s-flytrap">Speculation over the wasp’s flytrap </h2>



The peculiar form and function of Sirenobethylus charybdis has captured the attention of entomologists and paleontologists alike. Phil Barden, an associate professor at the <a href="https://www.njit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Jersey Institute of Technology</a> who studies amber fossils, described the wasp as a “Cretaceous weirdo.”&nbsp;



“This is significant because there are around a million known insect species - even with all of that living diversity, there are still lots of unexpected surprises in the fossil record that are beyond imagination,” he said.



While Barden acknowledges the wasp flytrap hypothesis as “plausible,” he also expressed caution, noting it remains speculative.&nbsp;



“There appears to be clear evidence that the abdominal components would have had range of motion. There are also a number of setae, or hairs, that look to be in the right position to detect hosts and potentially immobilize them.”&nbsp;



Still, Barden suggested alternative possibilities, such as using the structure to sense prey in the soil or even to transport young wasps.



He also questioned why Sirenobethylus charybdis would need such a structure at all when many living parasitoid wasps rely solely on stingers or mouthparts to capture and manipulate hosts. This makes the discovery all the more intriguing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-questions-and-new-possibilities">Unanswered questions and new possibilities</h2>



Vilhelmsen and his team believe a key clue lies in the wasp’s reproductive anatomy. The egg-laying organ, or ovipositor, is located directly adjacent to the clasping structure, supporting the theory that the mechanism was used during reproduction.&nbsp;



Yet all the known specimens are female, so scientists can’t rule out other functions, such as roles in mating.



“This is something unique, something I never expected to see, and something I couldn’t even imagine would be found,” Vilhelmsen said. “It’s a 10 out of 10.”



With every amber discovery, paleontologists inch closer to understanding the rich complexity of ancient ecosystems. And sometimes, as in the case of Sirenobethylus charybdis, they uncover something so strange and unexpected it defies comparison even among the millions of species alive today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-025-02190-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Qiong Wu



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Parasitic wasp had a 'flytrap' for snatching its victims

A newly discovered species of parasitic wasp that lived alongside...

In the waters of Southeast Asia, broadclub cuttlefish have a unique method for surprising unwary crabs. These color-shifting predators blur the line between stealth and spectacle by passing dark stripes down their head and arms during the last few seconds of a hunt.



This discovery comes from a recent study led by Dr. Matteo Santon, an expert in the University of <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bristol’s School of Biological Sciences</a>. The researchers examined a dynamic camouflage tactic that challenges previous ideas about how animals remain hidden while moving.



"Maintaining camouflage while moving is a challenge faced by many predators. Some exploit background motion to hide while hunting, and others may use coloration and behavior to generate motion noise that impairs detection or recognition," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuttlefish-camouflage-distracts-prey">Cuttlefish camouflage distracts prey</h2>



The experts recorded cuttlefish targeting crabs and noticed a striking display that seems to distract the prey’s motion-detection system. They introduced a high-contrast moving pattern that travels down the predator’s body, starting when the cuttlefish is about 3.2 ft from its target.



By harnessing strong downward motion cues, the cuttlefish weaken the usual signals that alert the crab to danger.



“Camouflage has predominantly been studied as an adaptation that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-ocean-buffet-big-fish-are-surprisingly-reliant-on-the-twilight-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> use to hamper their detection or recognition from predators, and almost exclusively focused on still prey as motion tends to disrupt camouflage,” said Dr. Santon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-crabs-miss-cuttlefish-attacks">Why crabs miss cuttlefish attacks</h2>



Most crabs rely on clues like looming shapes to signal an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attack</a> is coming. This approach makes sense when a predator’s silhouette expands as it nears. 



The broadclub cuttlefish undermines that system by overlaying downward stripes, obscuring the expansion cue and sowing confusion in the crab’s visual network.



Stripes seem obvious to our eyes. But to a crab with limited visual resolution, the repetitive downward flow acts like static that clouds the predator’s actual speed and position.



The scientists tested this effect with lab experiments that displayed animated shapes on screens, confirming that the moving pattern often dulled the crabs’ defensive reactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-camouflage-on-the-move">Using camouflage on the move</h2>



“Most cuttlefish rely on stealth to sneak up on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-hunting-fishing-connect-humans-with-nature-or-reinforce-superiority-complex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a>. Due to their fast color-changing skin, these remarkable animals have a wider range of options than most when it comes to camouflage while moving,” said Dr. Martin How, senior author from the University of Bristol.



These <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2008.0270" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">color-changing</a> animals can shift at a moment’s notice to blend with seafloor textures or dazzle potential victims. This flexibility lets them adapt to different conditions, whether they need to hide against coral or outsmart prey with moving stripes.



Broadclub cuttlefish frequently hold their arms out when they mount these final attacks on crabs. This flattened pose reduces the expected radial cues of an oncoming shape. 



The rhythmic stripes flow down the arms, overshadowing any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unlikely-allies-octopuses-cooperate-with-fish-to-catch-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clues</a> that might give away the cuttlefish’s real approach path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-cuttlefish-camouflage">Insights into cuttlefish camouflage </h2>



Some predators blend in by matching seaweed sway or drifting shadows. Others rely on sudden bursts of speed or chaotic patterns that throw off a target’s aim. 



Broadclub cuttlefish have raised the bar by adding a directional motion pattern that contradicts what prey typically expect from an approaching threat.



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sneaky-fish-use-sharks-like-moving-shields-while-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting</a> approach offers new insights into the way motion-based camouflage can evolve in complex habitats. The wide range of cuttlefish skin patterns suggests there may be more to learn about how they choose between different tactics for different targets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-motion-based-camouflage-strategies">Motion-based camouflage strategies</h2>



The researchers speculate that other cephalopods may use comparable tricks. The team has also considered that certain crab species become desensitized to repetitive passing stripes after repeated exposure.



Further research could clarify how widespread these motion-based strategies are among ocean predators that rely on color adaptation.



Field researchers are excited to see if conditions like light levels, water clarity, and the presence of competing predators push cuttlefish to alter their camouflage displays in real time. Such flexibility might shape how prey species respond and whether they can develop new defenses.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr3686" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cuttlefish use camouflage to stalk unsuspecting crabs

In the waters of Southeast Asia, broadclub cuttlefish have a...

Rotting fruit, filled with the smell of fermentation, has long attracted fruit flies by the dozens. These small insects, especially Drosophila melanogaster - commonly known as the vinegar or pomace fly - are regular visitors to compost bins and grocery store produce sections in warm weather. 



But scientists have now uncovered a surprising reason why fruit flies flock to the scent of alcohol: it boosts their mating success.



In a new study, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> investigated the effects on fruit flies and discovered that males who consume alcohol become more attractive to females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-flies-alcohol-and-mating-success">Fruit flies, alcohol, and mating success</h2>



The alcohol, particularly methanol, enhances the production of sex pheromones, which are chemical signals used to attract mates.&nbsp;



“In our experiments, we show a direct and positive effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-americans-now-link-alcohol-consumption-to-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol consumption</a> on the mating success of male flies,” said Ian Keesey, the study’s first author. 



“This in turn makes alcoholic males more attractive to females and ensures a higher mating success rate, whereas the success of drunken male humans with females is likely to be questionable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-attraction-and-danger">Balancing attraction and danger</h2>



While humans are well aware of the risks of excessive alcohol consumption, how it affects insects like the vinegar fly has remained less clear. 



To understand the biological and behavioral effects of alcohol in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a>, the research team focused on how the insects perceive and respond to alcohol-laden environments, particularly the smell of fermenting fruit.



The study found that unpaired male flies showed a greater attraction to alcohol, drawn by the smell of fermentation. 



However, the flies had to walk a fine line: while a low level of alcohol was beneficial - enhancing pheromone production and increasing their chances with females - high concentrations posed serious risks. That’s where the brain’s internal risk assessment system comes into play.



“What is unique about our results is that we found not just one, but three neural circuits that we were able to show actually balance each other in terms of this risk assessment, that is, attraction and aversion,” Keesey explained. 



“This means that the flies have a control mechanism that allows them to get all the benefits of alcohol consumption without risking alcohol intoxication.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-detection-by-fruit-flies">Alcohol detection by fruit flies</h2>



The researchers discovered that alcohol detection in fruit flies is managed by a trio of neural circuits. Two of these respond to ethanol and methanol and promote attraction to the smell, guiding flies to optimal alcohol concentrations where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-shark-mating-behaviors-observed-for-the-first-time-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating</a> benefits are highest.&nbsp;



But when alcohol levels spike - especially methanol, which can be toxic - a third pathway kicks in and triggers a repulsion response. This biological balancing act helps the flies gain advantages from moderate alcohol exposure without succumbing to the dangers of overindulgence.



“That different neural pathways with opposite valence for the same odor are combined to balance attraction and aversion based on physiological state is a rarity,” Keesey noted. 



He conducted the research during his time at the Max Planck Institute and is now an assistant professor at the University of Nebraska at Lincoln.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-brains-to-behavior">From brains to behavior </h2>



To unravel this complex behavioral response, the team combined a wide range of techniques. They used imaging technologies to observe real-time brain activity in fruit flies as they encountered alcohol-laden environments, alongside chemical analyses of odors typically found in decaying fruit. 



Behavioral experiments tracked how flies reacted to different concentrations of alcohol, how attractive they found various smells, and how successful they were in mating.



“The study provides one of the first comprehensive explanations of alcohol attraction in a model organism, from chemistry to ecology and from brain to behavior and vice versa,” said Bill Hansson, who leads the Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology at the Max Planck Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-for-more-than-flies">A model for more than flies</h2>



The findings not only offer insights into fly behavior but also serve as a reminder of the value of understanding animals in their natural context. 



Fruit flies have long been used as model organisms in scientific research, particularly in genetics and neuroscience. Yet this study underscores how ecological factors - like the smell of fermenting fruit in their natural habitats - can shape behavior and even brain function.



“It also shows how important it is to consider the natural behavior and ecology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drunk-animals-may-explain-humans-love-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> models when using them to study physiological and behavioral processes,” noted Hansson.



The research helps explain why fruit flies seem irresistibly drawn to our kitchen compost and overripe bananas. For them, it’s not just the smell of a potential meal - it’s a cue for reproductive opportunity, carefully balanced by a neural system that can tell when enough is enough.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Alcohol makes fruit flies look sexy and boosts mating success

Rotting fruit, filled with the smell of fermentation, has long...

New research has found that most dogs across the United States display at least one behavior that could be problematic.&nbsp;



According to the study, led by Texas A&amp;M’s College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (<a href="https://vetmed.tamu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VMBS</a>), more than 99 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> scored moderate to severe in at least one area. Fear and anxiety, aggression, and attachment behaviors emerged as the most common challenges.



“Overall, 99.12 percent of dogs had at least one response of moderate to severe in an area of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-canine-cognitive-code-everyday-dog-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>,” said study author Bonnie Beaver, a professor in the VMBS’ Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences.&nbsp;



“The majority of responses suggest dogs do not have a lot of problems, and the problem behaviors that do exist are relatively minor. Owners may not see them as issues worth addressing, but almost any dog owner will encounter a behavior that is at least inconvenient.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-dog-aging-project">Insights from the Dog Aging Project</h2>



This research relied on data from the&nbsp;Dog Aging Project&nbsp;(<a href="https://dogagingproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DAP</a>), a large-scale initiative gathering information from tens of thousands of companion&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-owners-ages-and-beliefs-influence-their-pet-food-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog owners</a>. 



The DAP aims to track how dogs age and what helps them lead healthy lives. Participants answer questions about their pets’ health and daily habits, including 28 items related to behavior. Each question has a scoring scale of zero to four, with higher numbers indicating more serious concerns.



“The questions used in the study are not intended to be a diagnosis, and many behaviors overlap into different categories,” Beaver explained. 



“For example, anxiety and separation are often related behaviors, but questions about them were put into separate categories. Dogs may act aggressively out of fear, but again the questions about each were in separate categories. So, a fear-biting dog may not be obvious in the results.”



While the findings suggest most dogs have at least some minor issues, Beaver emphasized that a better understanding of canine behavior could prevent small problems from escalating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problem-behavior-is-often-overlooked">Problem behavior is often overlooked </h2>



Behavior is an essential consideration for anyone who owns or works with dogs. 



“Some studies report that only 50 percent of veterinarians ask questions about behavior during appointments, and owners may not think to ask the veterinarian about something they don’t like. This has to change, so we don’t end up missing half of the problems,” Beaver noted.



The same goes for dog owners who may hesitate to consult a veterinarian unless the behavior is highly disruptive or has become dangerous. 



“For dog owners, it’s important to learn to read your dog’s body language and talk to your local veterinarian if there is any type of behavior happening that bothers you,” Beaver noted. "They can help you identify the cause and find a solution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-owners-tolerate-different-behaviors">Dog owners tolerate different behaviors</h2>



Different owners have different tolerance levels for canine behaviors. What one person considers bothersome might not even register as a concern for someone else.&nbsp;&nbsp;Beaver illustrated this point by recalling a case.&nbsp;



“As an example, I once saw a miniature poodle that came in for a problem with barking. In the patient’s history, I found out that the dog would routinely urinate on a Persian rug, but that behavior didn’t bother the owner as much as the barking,” said Beaver.



To gain a comprehensive picture of a dog’s behaviors, Beaver suggests that veterinarians ask questions in several ways. Appointments may be short, and owners might overlook or forget to mention specific incidents, especially if they happened weeks or months ago.&nbsp;



“Giving owners a questionnaire before asking in-person questions can help give them time to think, which will increase the chance that they tell you about behavior problems,” she noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-dogs-become-dangerous">When dogs become dangerous</h2>



Minor issues are one thing; truly dangerous behaviors raise the stakes considerably. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-you-control-your-dogs-aggression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aggression</a> - whether manifesting as growling, snapping, or biting - can stem from fear, frustration, or defensive instincts. 



“Aggression is a normal behavior in animals and it happens for a reason,” Beaver said. "So, you need to consider why the dog is behaving that way. Is it fearful? Is it being threatened by a little kid getting too close, somebody staring in its eyes, by a bigger dog coming toward it, or by a stranger approaching?"



"As veterinarians, we’ve got to look at the context in which a behavior happens to try and appreciate what might be going on in the animal’s mind.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-problem-behaviors-in-dogs">Recognizing problem behaviors in dogs</h2>



Recognizing fear signs, such as crouching, trembling, or avoidance, can help owners intervene before their dog escalates to aggression. “Animals think. But they probably don’t think like we do," noted Beaver.



In households with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/family-dogs-boost-physical-activity-levels-among-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children</a>, the need for vigilance is even greater. According to Professor Beaver, the people most often bitten are children under the age of 7.



“If you have children and a dog, be sure that they are only together under supervision. Do not allow your kids to climb all over the dog or pull its hair and ears. And teach your kids not to approach a dog - even their own family dog - unless they are with a parent.”



By staying aware of a dog’s emotional signals and seeking help from veterinarians or qualified trainers, owners can address minor concerns early and prevent them from becoming significant problems. 



The hope is that by shining a light on the behavioral patterns present in nearly every dog, both medical professionals and families can work together to foster safer, happier relationships between people and pets.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

More than 99% of dogs in the U.S. have a behavior problem

New research has found that most dogs across the United...

species in Actinocyclidae

News coming your way