A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Yellowstone National Park boasts some of the most iconic geothermal features in the United States. Beneath those colorful hot springs and spewing geysers sits a volcanic system that has captured the attention of geologists for decades.



Recent <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08286-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> discuss how molten material may one day break the surface in a corner of this ancient hotspot. 



According to Ninfa Bennington of the U.S. Geological Survey (<a href="https://www.usgs.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USGS</a>), new instruments revealed four distinct magma bodies beneath Yellowstone, yet only the northeastern one appears poised for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-next-big-volcano-eruption-will-cause-global-chaos-climate-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">far-future activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-s-history-of-massive-eruptions">Yellowstone's history of massive eruptions</h2>



Researchers have long noted three massive eruptions in Yellowstone over roughly two million years. 



Those events left behind giant <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/calderas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calderas</a>, which are vast volcanic depressions formed when large volumes of magma empty and cause the ground to collapse.



Such colossal blasts are uncommon, so experts analyze lingering heat and rock structures to understand how these systems evolve. Each caldera tells a different part of the story, offering clues about what lies below.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-magma-deep-underground">Tracking magma deep underground</h2>



Specialists use <a href="https://epic.earthscope.org/content/instrumentation/magnetotelluric-systems-epic" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetotelluric instruments</a> to detect electrical signals that reveal melted rock under the surface. 



The devices measure conductivity, allowing scientists to map <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magma zones</a> without drilling. This approach pinpoints subterranean areas where molten rock might accumulate.



"We find that rhyolitic melts are stored in segregated regions beneath the caldera," wrote Bennington, the study's lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northeastern-magma-body">Northeastern magma body</h2>



Among the identified <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-trees-predict-volcano-eruptions-when-viewed-from-space-satellites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magma</a> bodies, only the one in Yellowstone's northeast <a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sector</a> is expected to retain enough heat to stay partially molten long-term. 



This discovery refines older ideas that suggested multiple areas could erupt in the distant future.



"We suggest that the locus of future <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/rhyolite" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rhyolitic volcanism</a> has shifted to northeast Yellowstone Caldera," noted Bennington. This statement pinpoints a new center of potential volcanic action in Yellowstone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-yellowstone-compares-to-others">How Yellowstone compares to others</h2>



Yellowstone isn't the only place on Earth with massive magma systems. In Indonesia, <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-supervolcano-what-a-supereruption" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supervolcano</a> Toba erupted about 74,000 years ago, leading to significant global impacts.



Scientists compare Yellowstone with Toba and other large volcanic fields to see how deeply buried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magma</a> behaves over time. 



Each site adds pieces to the broader puzzle of predicting when and how these forces might surface.



Forecasting eruptions is a complex challenge. Experts watch seismic tremors, ground changes, and chemical signals to catch early warnings of magma movement.



Groups like the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone Volcano Observatory</a> share real-time updates to help the public stay informed. They typically see low-level unrest, which doesn't point to any immediate threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-eruption-fears-vs-facts">Yellowstone eruption: Fears vs. facts</h2>



Rumors about sudden cataclysms occasionally circulate. Geologists stress that supervolcano-scale eruptions require specific conditions that rarely align.



Communities near Yellowstone benefit from ongoing research that tracks small shifts in the system. This work helps reduce uncertainty and shows that colossal events happen on geological - not human - timelines.



Continued advances in imaging technology and field observations refine our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of underground processes</a>. 



By mapping details more precisely, researchers can spot temperature and pressure variations that might foreshadow bigger changes.



Experts emphasize that no single method gives a perfect forecast. Instead, multiple tools create a fuller view, improving how we interpret rumblings beneath our feet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-supervolcanoes-erupt">When supervolcanoes erupt</h2>



When a supervolcano erupts, it blasts huge amounts of ash, gas, and lava high into the atmosphere, which then spread across vast regions of the planet. 



This ash can disrupt daily life in many ways by affecting air quality, water supplies, and transportation, to name just a few.



On a global scale, the eruption <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-winters-weakened-the-dinosaurs-before-the-asteroid-hit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cools the Earth's climate</a> by blocking sunlight with thick layers of ash and sulfur dioxide. 



This cooling effect, sometimes called a "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-cooling-not-warming-caused-a-major-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic winter</a>," can lead to shorter growing seasons and widespread crop failures, affecting food supplies around the world. 



The climate shifts and environmental stress might even trigger economic and social disruptions as governments and communities adapt to the new conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Some wonder if the northeastern sector will pose a risk anytime soon. Most geologists say it's a far-off scenario measured in thousands, if not hundreds of thousands, of years.



Still, pinpointing that region offers a step toward more focused hazard assessments. Future drilling or additional surveys may provide clues to how heat flows and magma shifts under Yellowstone's surface.



Each study enhances our understanding of how supervolcanoes work. Comparing data worldwide helps gauge the intervals between major eruptions, giving communities perspective on the pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-volcanic-past-reveals-the-shocking-reality-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geologic change</a>.



Investigations like these highlight how Earth remains active in places we least expect. This hidden energy feeds geysers and hot springs now, and might shape landscapes in ways we can only imagine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-standing-on-a-sleeping-giant">Standing on a sleeping giant</h2>



Millions of visitors roam Yellowstone's trails every year, drawn by dramatic scenery and wildlife. Few realize they're walking above a deep reservoir that, while dormant, still holds potential power.



Researchers remain cautious about definitive forecasts but appreciate this deeper glimpse into where future volcanic eruptions could arise in Yellowstone. 



Lessons learned from this site might guide how we monitor volcanic regions across the globe.



Current measurements reinforce that no sudden explosion is expected soon. The findings merely shine light on the structure of the system and indicate that the northeastern sector might be the stage for the next chapter.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08286-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Yellowstone supervolcano study sparks new debate on where and when it will erupt

Yellowstone National Park boasts some of the most iconic geothermal...

Legends about a boiling, scalding river that roasts anything that falls inside may sound like fiction. Yet nestled in the Peruvian rainforest, a curious waterway <a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/andres_ruzo_the_boiling_river_of_the_amazon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proves</a> these stories are far from mythical.



Its waters can reach 210°F, a temperature that can cause severe burns within seconds. For decades, local communities spoke of a place so hot that small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cold-shocks-in-the-amazon-how-do-wild-animals-respond/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals perish</a> upon touching its surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-boiling-river-in-peru">The "Boiling River" in Peru</h2>



The "Boiling River" is located in the Mayantuyacu region of central Peru. The river’s length is around 4 miles, and it can be up to about 20 feet wide in some sections.



A team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.rileyfortier.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Riley Fortier</a>, a graduate student at the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami</a>, surveyed 70 sites along this tributary. 



"It really provides us a window into the future because the Amazon will get hotter whether we like it or not, so this allows us to understand what increases in temperature will do to the forest composition," said Riley Fortier, lead author on a study of the site published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/gcb.17555" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>, and a graduate student in professor Kenneth Feeley's <a href="https://www.junglebiology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jungle Biology lab</a>.



The team wanted to see how extreme heat shapes the surrounding forest.



By mapping the tree and plant species from cooler upstream areas down to the scalding heart of the river, they discovered a startling drop in biological variety. 



Findings <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/gcb.17555" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">showed</a> an 11% decline in biodiversity for each 1.8°F rise in average temperature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-boiling-river-boils">Why the boiling river boils</h2>



Geoscientists attribute the heat to fault-fed activity, where underground water channels meet Earth’s geothermal energy. 



A fault is a <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-fault-and-what-are-different-types" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large fracture</a> in the crust that provides a direct path for scorching fluid to surge toward the surface.



Researchers believe that rainwater infiltrating sedimentary rock becomes superheated below ground. It then emerges as a system of hot springs converging with the main watercourse, creating a natural cauldron.



“You stick your hand in, and you will see second or third degree burns in a matter of seconds,” said Ruzo, who first measured the river’s peak heat. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-changing-forests">Signs of changing forests</h2>



Many local inhabitants regard the site with deep respect because anything that wanders too close risks a painful encounter.



Certain plants thrive on the fringes, but most large creatures struggle with the sweltering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-microbes-in-amazon-peatlands-help-balance-the-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>. Adaptations are limited for organisms facing water that can reach coffee-brewing temperatures.



"Overall, the tree community is less diverse, so we see fewer species in hotter spots," Fortier said. "And forest composition was also more homogenous in the warmest locations, whereas in cooler forest plots, there was more plant diversity."



Botanical surveys from cooler sections toward the hotter stretches revealed how tree diversity narrows. In place of thick canopies, the research team documented more scrubby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforest-trees-use-rivers-as-highways-for-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a>.



"Over the course of dozens of miles, you might expect to see dramatic changes like that, but in the small sampling area that we had, you typically wouldn't see such a clear change in composition," Fortier added.



Small species adapted to drought-like conditions gained ground as the mercury rose. Larger, slower-growing trees faded away, reflecting how intense heat reshapes even lush ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boiling-rivers-and-future-climate">Boiling rivers and future climate</h2>



Fortier’s data suggest that as worldwide temperatures climb, similar shifts could spread across other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lowland rainforests</a>.



Changes may include declines in species that cannot handle additional heat and a rise in those more comfortable with higher temperatures.



Scientists note that an environment featuring fewer tree varieties will likely support fewer types of animals too. The loss of one group often sends ripples through the entire food web.



The boiling tributary, known locally as <a href="https://shanaytimpishka.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shanay-Timpishka</a>, meaning “boiled with the heat of the sun,” stands as a stark example of what could happen if average temperatures continue to climb. 



Areas that were once rich in wildlife may morph into simpler, drier landscapes. Observers hope that studying this natural hotspot will inspire careful planning to protect sensitive habitats. 



Even though the river is unique, it signals what may lie ahead for places currently seen as safe havens for biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-investigations">Ongoing investigations</h2>



Researchers plan to gather long-term data and explore whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-40-of-climate-critical-amazon-rainforest-is-unprotected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flora and fauna</a> can adapt to persistently higher temperatures. They will also watch for signs of any species shifting to cooler pockets.



Some scientists are examining whether the warming patterns near this location might parallel broader trends in tropical zones. 



They predict that more forests around the globe could face intense thermal stress, forcing communities to adapt or relocate.



Feeley's lab will continue its research of the boiling river, since it is such a unique place that could portend much about our natural world.



"You can't heat a whole forest, at least not artificially, which is one of the coolest aspects of the boiling river," Fortier added.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/gcb.17555" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

One river in the Amazon rainforest is so hot that it literally boils, destroying nearby biodiversity

Legends about a boiling, scalding river that roasts anything that...

Over the past thirty years, astronomers have identified more than 7,000 planets outside of our solar system - a remarkable leap since the first exoplanet discovery in 1995. Yet, researchers estimate that countless more remain undetected in our galaxy alone. 



In this context, a team of scientists has confirmed the existence of a potentially habitable super-Earth named HD 20794 d.&nbsp;



The study represents a key step in exoplanetology’s ongoing shift from merely detecting planets to investigating their features, particularly conditions that might support life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-this-super-earth">Significance of this super-Earth</h2>



Exoplanetary science has advanced significantly since Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz discovered the first planet orbiting a star other than our Sun in 1995. This achievement earned them the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics.&nbsp;



Today, it is broadly accepted that most stars have at least one orbiting planet. Scientists are now concentrating on more nuanced questions, such as identifying characteristics that make a world amenable to life.&nbsp;



In this regard, the confirmation of super-Earth HD 20794 d introduces a planetary system that could allow scientists to test their theories of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary formation</a>, climate models, and the processes tied to biological emergence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hd-20794-d-in-the-habitable-zone">HD 20794 d in the habitable zone</h2>



A super-Earth is a planet that is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-earth-discovered-in-the-habitable-zone-of-its-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger than Earth</a> but smaller than gas giants like Neptune. HD 20794 d occupies a system that includes two other planets, all revolving around a G-type star (similar to our Sun) at a distance of approximately 19.7 light-years.



Study co-author Xavier Dumusque is a senior lecturer and researcher in the Department of Astronomy at the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Geneva</a> (UNIGE)



“HD 20794, around which HD 20794 d orbits, is not an ordinary star,” noted Dumusque. “Its luminosity and proximity makes it an ideal candidate for future telescopes whose mission will be to observe the atmospheres of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a> directly.”



Among the planet’s most intriguing features is its eccentric orbit, causing HD 20794 d to oscillate between the inner edge of its star’s habitable zone at 0.75 astronomical units (AU) and extending outwards to 2 AU.&nbsp;



Such an orbital path could allow for periods in which surface temperatures might be suitable for liquid water, although the planet’s distance from the star varies significantly over the course of its 647-day year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-habitable-zone">Exploring the habitable zone</h2>



In astronomy, the habitable zone describes the span around a star where conditions could permit liquid water to persist. 



For stars like the Sun or HD 20794, this zone typically lies between 0.7 and 1.5 AU, encompassing the orbits of Earth and Mars in our solar system. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="zJchJoKMVx-4277975-12187" type="single"]</div>



HD 20794 d completes its orbit just shy of two Earth years, placing it well within reach of conditions that might harbor life.



According to the researchers, the planet's oscillation into and out of the habitable zone provides an exciting scenario for studying how planetary climates evolve and whether they can sustain liquid water.



If liquid water exists, the planet’s elliptical orbit would likely cause it to freeze at greater distances, then thaw as it approaches the star - offering a natural laboratory to examine how temperature fluctuations affect potential habitability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-we-found-super-earth-hd-20794-d">How we found super-Earth HD 20794 d</h2>



Confirming the discovery of exoplanet HD 20794 d demanded two decades of meticulous observations using the world’s most sophisticated instruments. 



Among them are ESPRESSO and HARPS, high-precision spectrographs that are critical in detecting subtle signals from exoplanets. 



The researchers also used YARARA, an advanced data-reduction algorithm developed at UNIGE, to filter out noise that had previously concealed any signs of the planet.



“We analyzed the data for years, carefully eliminating sources of contamination,” explained Michael Cretignier, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford University</a> and co-author of the paper.&nbsp;



YARARA enabled the team to isolate the signals of HD 20794 d from the background noise. The result is a clearer understanding of the planet’s orbit and an emerging picture of what could be a potentially life-supporting environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Because of its location and the brightness of its star, HD 20794 d stands out as a target for upcoming observational campaigns and missions.&nbsp;



Scientists plan to employ telescopes such as the ANDES spectrograph on ESO’s Extremely Large Telescope (<a href="https://elt.eso.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELT</a>) to probe its atmosphere, looking for biosignatures like oxygen or methane. 



If these molecules are detected, they could indicate biological processes similar to those on Earth.



In the meantime, the Center for Life in the Universe (<a href="https://www.unige.ch/sciences/cvu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CVU</a>) at UNIGE’s Faculty of Science is already investigating this planet’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitable-worlds-new-strategy-to-identify-planets-that-may-host-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitability</a>. 



The experts are integrating diverse scientific disciplines to explore conditions that might allow life to arise and flourish on exoplanets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Exoplanet HD 20794 d offers a revealing case study of a super-Earth occupying a shifting seat at the edge of its star’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-our-galaxys-planets-could-be-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable zone</a>. 



The research expands the horizon of exoplanetary science, reinforcing the notion that the universe may contain abundant worlds capable of supporting life. 



Each exoplanet discovery brings us closer to understanding the processes that give rise to habitable environments.



While multiple barriers remain - most notably, the need for more advanced observation techniques and sustained interdisciplinary collaboration - HD 20794 d stands as a powerful reminder of how far exoplanet exploration has progressed.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202451769" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>,&nbsp;



Video Credit: © Gabriel Pérez Díaz, SMM (IAC)



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

"Super-Earth" found just 20 light-years away is our best chance so far to find alien life

Over the past thirty years, astronomers have identified more than...

The COVID-19 pandemic reshaped nearly every aspect of daily life, leaving no one untouched. While much of the focus has been on how adults adapted to remote work or how school-aged children coped with virtual learning, one group remained largely in the shadows: preschool children. 



These young learners, aged six and under, experienced profound disruptions to their routines as daycare centers closed, playdates vanished, and families retreated into isolation. 



Yet, until recently, little attention was paid to how these changes might have impacted their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-profoundly-impairs-childrens-cognitive-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive and social development</a>.



A recent study by researchers at <a href="https://www.ucmerced.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Merced</a> has now brought this overlooked issue into sharp focus, revealing startling insights into the effects of the pandemic on preschoolers’ social cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-children-s-cognitive-skills-after-pandemic">Children's cognitive skills after pandemic</h2>



Led by Rose Scott, a professor of developmental psychology, the research team stumbled upon their findings almost by accident. They had been collecting data on children’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soy-foods-boost-cognitive-abilities-and-attention-span-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive skills</a> before the pandemic hit. When they resumed testing after lockdowns ended, they noticed something alarming.



“It was remarkable to see the drop in kids’ performance,” said Professor Scott. “On one of the tasks in my lab, children tested before the pandemic could pass at 2 and a half years old. Right after the lockdowns, we were seeing 5-year-olds not passing it.”



This unexpected decline prompted the team to dig deeper, uncovering a significant gap in a key cognitive skill among children aged 3½ to 5½, particularly those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinguishing-thoughts-from-facts">Distinguishing thoughts from facts</h2>



At the heart of the study lies the concept of false-belief understanding - a cornerstone of social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-with-autism-benefit-from-learning-multiple-languages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognition</a>. This skill allows children to recognize that others can hold beliefs different from reality.



False-belief understanding is a crucial step in distinguishing thoughts from facts. It plays a vital role in fostering cooperation, communication, and learning.



For instance, understanding that someone else might not know what you know enables children to navigate social interactions more effectively. Without this ability, tasks like sharing, taking turns, or resolving conflicts become far more challenging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-children-s-abilities">Testing children's abilities</h2>



To assess false-belief understanding, the researchers designed simple yet clever tests involving puppets and toys. 



In one task, children watched as a puppet named Piggy placed a toy in one container and then left the stage. Another puppet appeared and moved the toy to a different container. When Piggy returned, the child was asked where Piggy would look for the toy. 



If the child understood false beliefs, they would say Piggy would check the first container (even though they knew the toy wasn’t there).



Current research shows that false-belief abilities develop significantly during a child’s first five years. Falling behind in this area can lead to struggles with peer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-impacts-brain-development-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships</a> and academic tasks later in life.



“You think about what a child needs to do to interact with others in a classroom. They want to have friends, but have to take other perspectives into consideration to have effective social interactions,” explained Professor Scott.



“Like, ‘I know you want to play this now, but I really want to play this.’ It’s being able to hold those two viewpoints in mind and still interact.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-social-skills">Decline in social skills</h2>



The study included 94 children in the initial group, each given three false-belief tasks. Before the pandemic, 80% of 5-year-olds passed these tests. 



After the lockdowns, the success rate dropped to 63%. For children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, the results were even more concerning - only 51% passed, which is essentially equivalent to random guessing.



To ensure accurate comparisons, the researchers also evaluated the children’s language skills and measured their families’ socioeconomic status based on household income and parental education levels. 



Testing for the first group occurred between August 2019 and March 2020, just before the pandemic took hold. A second group, statistically similar to the first, was tested starting in September 2021.



The results showed a clear trend: children from lower-income households experienced a notable decline in cognitive abilities, while those from higher-income families showed minimal effects from the lockdowns. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-disparity">Why the disparity?</h2>



While the study doesn’t provide a definitive answer, Professor Scott suggested several possibilities.



For families with fewer resources, the stress of financial instability or mental health challenges may have limited opportunities for meaningful parent-child interactions. 



Additionally, children in these households might have spent more time engaging passively with electronic devices - an activity linked to weaker false-belief understanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pandemic-learning-loss">Pandemic learning loss</h2>



Follow-up assessments conducted in 2023 offered little relief. The low scores persisted, indicating that the pandemic’s effects on social cognition may linger longer than anticipated. 



“The low scores in false-belief understanding were still there, persisting like a wave,” noted Professor Scott.



This finding raises important questions about the long-term implications for these children. Will they catch up as they grow older, or will the gaps widen over time? The answers remain unclear, but the persistence of these deficits highlights the need for continued research and intervention.



The study’s findings also highlight the importance of addressing disparities in early childhood development. Children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds already face numerous challenges, and the pandemic appears to have exacerbated these inequities. 



By identifying the specific areas where these children are falling behind, researchers and policymakers can begin to explore targeted strategies to support their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-is-harming-kids-memory-and-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growth and development</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-growing-concern">A growing concern</h2>



In March, Professor Scott presented her team’s findings at a conference in Pasadena, sparking widespread interest. Since the paper’s publication in November, the attention has only grown.



“Every time I talk about this, other people in my field say, ‘Oh, my gosh, this is it. This is what we're seeing in our data,’” said Scott.



In December, a colleague from another university emailed her to express how the UC Merced study clarified patterns they had observed in their own research on post-pandemic social cognition.



Professor Scott believes there may be more data waiting to be explored. “It's just that people haven't had the mindset of looking at kids before school age,” she said.



By shining a light on this overlooked demographic, the study opens the door for further exploration into how early childhood experiences shape cognitive and social development. 



As researchers continue to investigate, one thing is clear: the pandemic’s impact on preschoolers is a story that deserves far more attention than it has received so far.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-children-recover-after-pandemic">Helping children recover after pandemic</h2>



The UC Merced study serves as a wake-up call, urging society to pay closer attention to the youngest members of our communities. 



Early childhood is a critical period for brain development, and disruptions during these formative years can have lasting consequences. 



As schools, daycare centers, and families work to rebuild after the pandemic, it is essential to prioritize the needs of preschool children, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds. By doing so, we can help ensure that all children have the opportunity to thrive, both cognitively and socially, in the years to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-80532-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Key social skills in young children declined after the pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic reshaped nearly every aspect of daily life,...

Mountains can leave us in awe, but they rarely offer easy clues about what lies beneath them. The Tibetan Plateau, often called the "roof of the world," continues to baffle geologists and others curious about Earth’s hidden workings.



Many researchers have tried to figure out why this region keeps rising. One group recently tackled the question by analyzing ambient noise tomography recordings from northern Tibet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-tibetan-plateau-matters">Why the Tibetan Plateau matters</h2>



The research was a collaboration among Dr. Rizheng He of the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Xiaohui Yuan of the Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ), and Dr. Wei Li of the China University of Geosciences.



The experts studied seismic readings that reveal a complex picture of molten material deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-linked-to-nearby-oil-extraction-fracking-sites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beneath the surface</a>.



The Tibetan Plateau was created by the Indian-Eurasian continental collision, which began around 50 million years ago. Some experts view this collision as one of Earth’s major events during the Cenozoic era.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hoh-xil-basin-is-rising">The Hoh-Xil Basin is rising</h2>



This basin in the northern region has caught the attention of scientists because it experienced a noticeable uplift and post-collisional magmatism in the Early Miocene.



Back then, molten rock found its way into shallower levels, hinting at processes below that might still be active today.



Past seismic studies struggled with coverage gaps in this remote area, leaving scientists without a full picture. Recent instrument deployments now shed more light on the vertical push and the patches of magma that might <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquake-activity-will-increase-due-to-glacial-retreat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sit below</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-into-the-crust">Peering into the crust</h2>



The scientists applied ambient noise tomography to map the subsurface. This approach interprets scattered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seismic signals</a> to paint a three-dimensional view of the region’s crust and upper mantle.



The experts discovered areas in the upper mantle where S-wave speeds drop significantly below normal. Such zones suggest the presence of molten or partially molten rock, which could alter how the surface behaves under ongoing tectonic forces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melt-signals-confirmed">Melt signals confirmed</h2>



“This model shows widespread low S-wave velocity anomalies in the northern Tibetan Plateau, requiring the presence of melts. The crustal and mantle melting aligns with exposed young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunken-worlds-discovered-under-the-pacific-ocean-in-earths-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magmatic rocks</a> in the Hoh-Xil Basin,” said Dr. He.



Experts see this melt as a sign that sections of the lithosphere might be thinning or breaking away, allowing heat to concentrate. When heavier parts of the mantle drop off, new magma can flow upward and cause the crust to thicken.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-tibetan-plateau-growth">Redefining Tibetan plateau growth</h2>



Geologically speaking, plateau growth often involves complicated feedbacks between deep rock dynamics and the overlying crust.



Many thought the northward expansion of Tibetan topography happened gradually, but the evidence for relatively quick uplift in the Hoh-Xil Basin raises new questions.



Post-collisional magmatism can change the thickness and temperature of the crust, creating localized pockets of expansion. That process has made the plateau’s northern edge rise at different intervals from the rest of the region, leaving a patchwork of uplift histories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-removal-matters">Why removal matters</h2>



Scientists point to lithospheric mantle removal as a factor that encourages hotter rocks to appear closer to the surface. This results in partial melting, which eventually feeds magmatic growth and pushes the land upward.



A thinner mantle can also help channel molten material more efficiently, potentially intensifying local deformation. That can create zones of weakness, where rock flows more easily under tectonic stress and changes the mountain-building pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-changes-expected">Future changes expected</h2>



Although the plateau sits far from many large cities, any shift in the ground’s shape could influence rivers and ecosystems downstream. People living in nearby valleys depend on these water sources.



Learning about heat and melt distribution helps experts predict how fast the plateau might continue to rise in the decades ahead. 



Ongoing geophysical surveys could reveal more hints of where crustal melting is strongest and where new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/continent-sized-islands-llsvp-found-inside-earth-are-100-times-taller-than-mount-everest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> might emerge.



Researchers sometimes compare data from satellites with on-the-ground measurements. The goal is to pinpoint where new uplifts are likely and how they connect with deep mantle dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seismic-data-and-fieldwork">Seismic data and fieldwork</h2>



Multiple institutions now share seismic data to fill in the knowledge gaps, especially in areas that were once inaccessible. 



Coordination among research teams is essential because each vantage point captures a different piece of the puzzle, ensuring that no corner remains unexplored.



Scientists also rely on geological fieldwork to examine magmatic rocks that formed during earlier uplift phases. Linking those samples with seismic images can tell a richer story about how the region evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-tibetan-plateau-may-change">How the Tibetan Plateau may change </h2>



Studies of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen show that collisions can keep rearranging entire mountain systems for millions of years, creating ongoing shifts in crust and mantle structures.



More results from these advanced seismic arrays may reveal just how dynamic the Earth can be as it continues to mold this rugged corner of Asia.



According to some experts, the plateau’s continued growth might spark renewed magmatic activities. Those events could shape new local fault lines or modify existing ones in ways that surprise us.



Ongoing research in the Hoh-Xil Basin may reveal whether these melting regions shift or expand over time, changing how geologists envision the plateau’s future. Such activity might lead to even more localized uplifts that alter the entire profile of northern Tibet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-map-shows-75-percent-of-the-u-s-at-risk-of-damaging-earthquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seismic</a> imaging in northern Tibet is shedding new light on how molten rock shapes high terrain. Each finding adds another piece to the story of how collisions can reshape entire landscapes.



Researchers will likely keep returning to these high-altitude terrains to refine their models and spot new anomalies.



Many aspects remain uncertain, yet the recognition of partial melting in the crust and mantle highlights the complex way mountains and basins evolve. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/nsr/article/11/9/nwae257/7721616" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Review</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why the 'roof of the world' keeps rising over time

Mountains can leave us in awe, but they rarely offer...

The relationship between alcohol and mental health is complex. Alcohol can contribute to mental health disorders like depression and anxiety, and people with these conditions are also more likely to misuse alcohol.



For decades, the prevailing belief was that individuals with depression and alcohol use disorder (AUD) drank primarily to self-medicate, seeking relief from negative emotions rather than pursuing pleasure. 



However, a recent study from the <a href="https://www.uchicagomedicine.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago Medicine</a> is challenging this assumption. The research reveals that people with AUD and depression experience significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-has-a-hidden-impact-on-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stimulation</a> and pleasure when intoxicated, much like those without depression. 



These findings not only reshape our understanding of alcohol’s effects but also open new doors for treatment strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-responses-to-alcohol">Tracking responses to alcohol</h2>



The study, led by Dr. Andrea King, professor of psychiatry and behavioral neuroscience at UChicago, used innovative methods to track real-time <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-small-amounts-of-alcohol-increase-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responses to alcohol</a> in natural settings.



With the help of smartphone technology, the researchers were able to capture how participants felt during drinking episodes, providing a more accurate picture than traditional lab-based studies.



"We have this folklore that people drink excessively when they're feeling depressed and that it's really about self-medicating," said King. 



"In this study of natural environment drinking and smartphone-based reports of the effects of alcohol in real-time, participants with AUD and a depressive disorder reported feeling acute, sustained positive and rewarding alcohol effects - just like their non-depressed counterparts."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-alcohol-addiction">Redefining alcohol addiction</h2>



The researchers followed 232 participants between the ages of 21 and 35 - a demographic known for higher rates of heavy drinking.



Half of the group met the criteria for AUD in the past year, and these individuals were evenly divided into those who had experienced major depressive disorder and those who had not. 



Participants were excluded if they had suicidal ideations or severe withdrawal symptoms, ensuring safety while maintaining a diverse sample.



Using their smartphones, participants answered questions every half hour during a typical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-alcohol-in-moderation-does-not-prolong-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking episode</a> and a non-drinking episode. The data revealed that alcohol consumption reduced negative feelings, but the effect was small and not specific to depression or AUD status. 



On the other hand, the positive effects of alcohol were significantly higher in individuals with AUD compared to those without AUD. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pleasure-plays-a-key-role">Pleasure plays a key role</h2>



Surprisingly, the pleasurable effects were similar in both depressed and non-depressed individuals with AUD. This challenges the notion that alcohol addiction is solely driven by an attempt to alleviate distress.



"For nearly a decade, our group has been improving methods to use mobile technologies to measure real-time clinically meaningful outcomes in people with AUD and those at risk for alcohol-related problems," said study co-author Dr. Daniel Fridberg.



"These approaches allow us to bridge the gap between the lab and real life and have led to new insights that could one day result in better treatments."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-treatment-for-alcohol-addiction">Rethinking treatment for alcohol addiction</h2>



The implications of these findings are profound, particularly for how AUD and co-occurring depression are treated. Current treatment strategies often focus on reducing stress and alleviating depressive symptoms, assuming that these factors drive excessive drinking. 



However, King argues that this approach addresses only part of the issue. According to her, treatments must also target the heightened feelings of stimulation and reward that both depressed and non-depressed individuals with AUD experience.



"Currently, the focus of treatment is often on resolving stress and symptoms of depression, but that is only addressing one side of the coin if we don't also address the heightened stimulation, liking and wanting more alcohol that occur in both depressed and non-depressed people with AUD," said King. 



Her extensive research on human responses to alcohol underscores the importance of understanding how pleasure and reward pathways contribute to addiction. By broadening the scope of treatment to include these factors, clinicians may develop more effective interventions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-the-dark-side-of-addiction">Challenging the "dark side of addiction"</h2>



The study also calls into question a widely accepted theory about the progression of addiction. 



This theory proposes that repeated heavy drinking leads to changes in the brain's stress and reward systems, causing individuals to shift from drinking for pleasure to drinking to avoid withdrawal and stress. 



While this model has been influential, it does not fully account for the high levels of stimulation and pleasure observed in King’s research.



"As treatment providers, we're taught people with AUD are drinking to self-medicate and feel better," said King. "But what exactly are they feeling? From our study, it seems to be high levels of stimulation and pleasurable effects, with a modest decrease in negative states.” 



King compared these heightened feelings to an accelerator pedal, fueling dependency rather than merely easing discomfort. This perspective suggests that addiction is not solely about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spike-in-alcohol-use-during-the-pandemic-continues-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">escaping pain</a> but also about pursuing intense positive experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-sensitivity-to-alcohol">Long-term sensitivity to alcohol</h2>



King’s next project aims to extend these findings to older adults with long-term AUD. Specifically, she plans to examine whether individuals aged 40 to 65 who have struggled with AUD for decades still experience heightened pleasure when drinking. 



The prevailing theory would predict blunted positive responses and increased tolerance in these individuals, as prolonged exposure to alcohol is thought to dull its enjoyable effects. 



However, King’s previous research raises the possibility that some individuals retain sensitivity to alcohol’s pleasurable effects even after years of heavy drinking.



This upcoming study could provide critical insights into the long-term dynamics of AUD and its interaction with aging. If older <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-moderate-drinking-severely-harms-health-despite-past-studies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinkers</a> with AUD exhibit sustained sensitivity to alcohol’s rewarding effects, it would challenge existing assumptions about tolerance and addiction.



Moreover, it could inform the development of age-specific treatments that address the unique needs of older individuals with AUD.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-for-better-treatments">New insights for better treatments </h2>



One of the most innovative aspects of this research is its use of mobile technology to gather real-time data in natural environments. 



Traditional lab studies often fail to capture the nuances of alcohol consumption in everyday life, where social, emotional, and environmental factors play a significant role. 



By using smartphones to track participants’ experiences, King and her team have created a more comprehensive and accurate picture of how alcohol affects individuals with AUD and depression.



"For nearly a decade, our group has been improving methods to use mobile technologies to measure real-time clinically meaningful outcomes in people with AUD and those at risk for alcohol-related problems," said Fridberg. 



"These approaches allow us to bridge the gap between the lab and real life and have led to new insights that could one day result in better treatments." 



This methodology not only enhances the validity of the findings but also sets a precedent for future research in addiction science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-view-of-alcohol-addiction">Broader view of alcohol addiction</h2>



The University of Chicago Medicine study represents a significant step forward in understanding the complex interplay between alcohol, mental health, and addiction.



By challenging long-held beliefs and offering new perspectives, the research paves the way for more effective treatment approaches. It highlights the need to consider both the pleasurable and negative effects of alcohol when addressing AUD, particularly in individuals with co-occurring depression.



As scientists continue to explore these dynamics, the hope is that treatments will become more personalized and effective. Whether through medication, behavioral therapy, or a combination of approaches, the ultimate goal is to help individuals achieve lasting recovery. 



By focusing on the full spectrum of alcohol’s effects, researchers and clinicians can work together to create a brighter future for those struggling with addiction.



The study is published in the <a href="https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.20240069" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Psychiatry</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Alcohol and depression: Study challenges self-medication theory

The relationship between alcohol and mental health is complex. Alcohol...

In a rapidly urbanizing world, grasslands and other green spaces are steadily disappearing. But what if there was a way to maintain these lush sanctuaries without the tiresome labor and cost? The solution may come from an unexpected source - fire.



Using fire to restore the land may seem paradoxical, yet it’s a practice that is deeply rooted in tradition. For generations, our ancestors relied on fire to sustain ecosystems.



Today, in our quest to balance progress and preservation, we've come full circle, rediscovering this ancient wisdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-can-save-grasslands">Fire can save grasslands</h2>



A group of researchers from <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> in Japan has recently conducted a study that reveals the potential of controlled burning, a labor-saving technique, in preserving disappearing grasslands.



The findings suggest that this method could contribute not only to preserving biodiversity but also to the survival of endangered plant species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burning-has-helped-grasslands-for-centuries">Burning has helped grasslands for centuries</h2>



Grasslands require consistent maintenance. Over centuries, humans have been utilizing techniques such as grazing, mowing, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/controlled-burns-reduce-carbon-emissions-from-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">controlled burning</a> to fend off overbearing forests from encroaching these pastures.



However, with a boom in urbanization and a subsequent decline in rural population, maintaining these green belts has become an increasing challenge.



This is where "prescribed" burning comes in - a technique that deliberately sets controlled fires. While fire may seem destructive, when managed carefully, it can be a vital tool in preserving these threatened ecosystems.



Led by master's student ASADA Airi and ecologist USHIMARU Atushi at Kobe University, the research sheds light on the significance of soil conditions in these fire management practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-s-impact-on-grasslands">Fire’s impact on grasslands </h2>



The study was conducted on a training site of the Japan Self-Defense Forces near Mount Fuji. Here, the team established 100 square-meter plots across the grasslands on four different types of soil.



Each plot's plant biodiversity and various physical and chemical factors were thoroughly studied and compared. 



The most intriguing part of the research revealed that some areas, particularly on young lava flows, were hotspots for endangered species.



The researchers observed that these young lava flows had greater overall species richness, native species richness, and prevalence of endangered species than grasslands on both young and old scoria bedrock.



The team concluded that acidity, soil depth, and rock and stone coverage played pivotal roles in supporting these unique ecosystems, thus enabling the survival of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-plants-are-facing-extinction-in-the-scottish-mountains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare plants</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-helps-balance-ecosystems">Fire helps balance ecosystems</h2>



A key point illuminated by the research is the seemingly perfect balance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-ecosystems-constantly-share-energy-to-achieve-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a> maintains. Acidic soils, which normally make nutrient absorption difficult for plants, help to counterbalance otherwise dominant species.



Controlled burning is a strategy to reset plant growth, allowing these often sidelined species a much-needed chance to thrive.



Ushimaru noted that the study pinpoints environments where managed burning can help support a significant variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-future-of-the-endangered-species-act/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered species</a>.



The findings are a step forward in our understanding of how to best preserve and restore grassland environments and species diversity through properly managed fire.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vital-role-of-grasslands">Vital role of grasslands</h2>



Grasslands are more than just open fields; they are essential ecosystems that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, store carbon, and regulate water cycles. 



Covering nearly 40% of Earth’s land surface, grasslands provide habitat for countless plant and animal species. Their deep-rooted vegetation helps prevent soil erosion, making them critical for maintaining healthy landscapes.



Beyond their ecological value, grasslands play a pivotal role in agriculture and food security. They support livestock grazing, which sustains rural economies, and their rich soils contribute to sustainable farming. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grasslands-support-climate-stability">Grasslands support climate stability</h2>



Additionally, grasslands act as natural buffers against extreme weather, absorbing excess rainfall and reducing the risk of floods and droughts.



However, with increasing urbanization and agricultural expansion, these landscapes are disappearing at an alarming rate. Without proper management, they risk being overrun by forests, invasive species, or completely degraded.



This is where techniques like controlled burning become invaluable, helping to maintain the delicate balance that allows grasslands to flourish.



By recognizing their importance and investing in conservation efforts, we can ensure that grasslands continue to provide essential benefits for both nature and human society.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10629" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Controlled fires can help us save grasslands from disappearing

In a rapidly urbanizing world, grasslands and other green spaces...

Asteroids occasionally wander close to the Earth, raising alarms for scientists who keep their eyes on the sky. These rocky bodies vary in size and trajectory, and some can pose a real risk if they come too close.



Experts recently identified <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/planetarydefense/2025/01/29/nasa-shares-observations-of-recently-identified-near-earth-asteroid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid 2024 YR4</a>, spotted on December 27, 2024, and they note a small chance of it impacting Earth on December 22, 2032. 



It ranges from about 130 feet to 330 feet across, enough to cause severe harm to one region if it collides with our planet.



This assessment is shared by <a href="https://www.iafastro.org/biographie/richard-moissl.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Richard Moissl</a> from ESA’s Planetary Defence Office. His team has been analyzing the object’s path since early January to ensure no important detail slips through the cracks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-assessment-of-asteroid-2024-yr4">Risk assessment of asteroid 2024 YR4</h2>



Astronomers from NASA-funded <a href="https://atlas.fallingstar.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System</a> station in Chile used automated warning systems to learn that this object has about a 1.2% probability of a collision. 



Independent calculations by <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA’s Center for Near-Earth Object Studies</a> match these findings, which helps confirm the current hazard level.



Observers have placed the asteroid at Level 3 on the <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/sentry/torino_scale.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Torino Impact Hazard Scale</a>, meaning it deserves added attention from researchers and everyday folks alike. Once more data rolls in, that probability might drop, which is common in cases like this.



Researchers are also watching the asteroid’s path as it moves farther away from Earth. Its elongated orbit, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/eccentric-orbit" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eccentric</a>, makes it tricky to pin down its exact route.



A body spanning over 130 feet can trigger local destruction if it slams into Earth. Historical <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/maps.13370">records</a> show that objects of this class impact our planet roughly every few thousand years.



A risk above 1% prompts action at national and global levels. If the object is bigger than about 165 feet and could hit within the next five decades, that raises red flags.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-asteroid-2024-yr4">Tracking asteroid 2024 YR4</h2>



The International Asteroid Warning Network (<a href="https://iawn.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IAWN</a>) is a critical group for tracking and studying cosmic debris. They share information across multiple nations and advise policymakers on how to respond if the threat sticks around.



<a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>, which is part of this global network, has begun coordinating more observations to narrow down the asteroid’s path. They gather telescope data and feed it into risk assessment models for better clarity.



Plans are already in place for advanced telescope sessions in the coming months. The European Southern Observatory’s <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Very Large Telescope</a> in Chile will join the effort, capturing highly detailed images before the asteroid fades from view.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-fade-and-comeback">Potential fade and comeback</h2>



Observers know that 2024 YR4 could become too dim to track for several years. If that happens, Earth-based telescopes might not see it again until 2028.



During that dim phase, the asteroid might remain on ESA’s risk list. Once it swings back into a spot suitable for tracking, experts can gather more precise observations.



Any leftover uncertainty will not vanish until measurements confirm it poses no danger. Patience and well-planned follow-up sessions help the scientific community stay vigilant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-is-in-charge-of-this">Who is in charge of this?</h2>



Two groups keep an eye on near-Earth objects that exceed a specific chance of striking Earth. The first, IAWN, coordinates worldwide detection and heads up possible warning strategies.



The second, Space Mission Planning Advisory Group (<a href="https://sdg.esa.int/activity/space-mission-planning-advisory-group-smpag-4311" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMPAG</a>), is chaired by ESA itself. They discuss spacecraft-based measures that might be used to adjust or deflect an asteroid if the odds do not fall to a safe level.



Upcoming meetings in Vienna will review current data on 2024 YR4. If numbers remain above the 1% threshold, SMPAG could advise the UN and outline possible mission scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-asteroids-is-tricky">Tracking asteroids is tricky</h2>



Size and path are only part of the puzzle. The asteroid’s angle relative to Earth means astronomers have to gather data while the object is nearly a straight shot away.



Small shifts can create big differences in long-term projections. This is why repeated tracking throughout the year is vital.



As Earth orbits the Sun and the asteroid edges further away, brightness steadily decreases. New instruments with higher sensitivity are vital to continue refining predictions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-approaches">Collaborative approaches</h2>



ESA and NASA encourage widespread engagement from both professional and amateur observers. Backyard telescopes can supply valuable brightness measurements that contribute to large-scale calculations.



In many prior cases, the risk of impact has fallen to zero after solid data came in. Time and extra sets of eyes have a powerful effect on reducing false alarms.



IAWN’s role in funneling these observations is central to making sure all participants see the same data. Data consistency reduces guesswork and leads to better insights for any future steps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-odds-big-impact">Small odds, big impact</h2>



A probability of around 1.2% might seem low. Yet even a small chance can’t be ignored when dealing with massive space rocks that could threaten populated areas.



Scientists hope that additional observations will cut that percentage closer to zero. Monitoring remains essential until the numbers drop definitively.



Geologic records remind us that impacts have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-chicxulub-caused-dinosaurs-extinction-event-traced-to-origin-kuiper-belt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shaped Earth’s history</a>. A collision of any significant size is rare, but it’s best not to leave things to chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-asteroid-2024-yr4">Preparing for asteroid 2024 YR4</h2>



Astronomers will soon switch to more powerful telescopes to track 2024 YR4 as it dims. They aim to collect enough measurements to refine orbital calculations and ease public concerns.



SMPAG’s meeting next week will focus on next steps if the risk level remains the same. By staying informed and ready, experts can spring into action if needed.



Governments may look to these groups for guidance on how to protect citizens. Meanwhile, curiosity and caution steer each new observation session.



Confidence grows with every updated data point. New angles and vantage points offer a clearer look at what might lie ahead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steady-vigilance">Steady vigilance</h2>



Dr. Moissl and his colleagues stay on alert for any changes in the asteroid’s path. Near-Earth objects can be unpredictable, so preparedness is key.



Many are optimistic that more data will cut down the current uncertainty. However, official procedures are in place in case the threat persists.



People worldwide may not notice the faint object, but scientists are keeping watch. Once it reappears in 2028, fresh observations could settle the question of its impact risk.



Our knowledge of space threats has advanced in recent years. Researchers now respond more quickly and share their findings across borders.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

NASA: Asteroid 2024 YR4 has a chance of hitting Earth in 2032

Asteroids occasionally wander close to the Earth, raising alarms for...

In recent years, cold-water therapy has captured the imagination of wellness enthusiasts, athletes, and researchers alike. From icy plunges in natural bodies of water to brisk cold showers at home, this practice has gained traction as a potential tool for improving health and well-being.



But beyond the hype and anecdotal claims lies a question: does cold-water immersion truly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wim-hof-method-helps-fight-stress-inflammation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deliver on its promises</a>? 



A team of researchers from the University of South Australia (<a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UniSA</a>) set out to answer this by conducting the most comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis of its kind. 



The findings offer a nuanced perspective, shedding light on both the benefits and limitations of this increasingly popular practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-cold-water-therapy">Impact of cold-water therapy</h2>



The researchers analyzed data from 11 studies involving 3,177 participants, examining how cold-water immersion influences stress levels, sleep quality, and overall quality of life.



While the results suggest that cold-water immersion may have positive effects, they also reveal that these benefits are often short-lived and highly context-dependent. 



"Cold-water immersion has been extensively researched and used in sporting contexts to help athletes recover, but despite its growing popularity among health and wellbeing circles, little is known about its effects on the general population," explained UniSA researcher Tara Cain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-term-stress-relief">Short-term stress relief</h2>



One of the key findings of the study was that cold-water immersion could reduce stress levels - but only temporarily.



Participants experienced lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> for approximately 12 hours after exposure. Interestingly, those who incorporated cold showers into their routines reported slight improvements in their quality of life. 



These showers lasted anywhere from 20 to 90 seconds, suggesting that even brief exposure to cold water might have some positive effects. However, the researchers noted that these benefits tended to fade after three months, indicating that consistency might be key to sustaining any gains.



Another intriguing discovery was the impact of regular cold showers on sickness-related absences. One study included in the analysis found that participants who took cold showers regularly experienced a 29% reduction in days missed due to illness. 



While this finding is promising, it raises further questions about the mechanisms behind such outcomes and whether they apply universally or only to specific groups. 



"We also found some links to cold-water immersion and better sleep outcomes, but the data was restricted to males, so its broader application is limited," noted Cain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-cold-water-therapy">Science behind cold-water therapy</h2>



Cold-water immersion involves submerging the body in water with temperatures typically ranging from 10 to 15 degrees Celsius (50 to 59 degrees Fahrenheit). 



For this study, data was included only if participants were immersed at or above chest level for a minimum of 30 seconds. Practices like cold showers, ice baths, and cold plunges were all included in the analysis.



Dr. Ben Singh highlighted an unexpected aspect of the findings: cold-water immersion causes a temporary increase in inflammation.



"At first glance this seems contradictory, as we know that ice baths are regularly used by elite athletes to reduce inflammation and muscle soreness after exercise," said Dr. Singh.



However, the initial spike in inflammation is not necessarily harmful. Instead, it represents the body’s response to cold as a stressor. 



Much like exercise causes short-term muscle damage before leading to stronger muscles, this inflammatory response may help the body adapt and recover over time. This insight could explain why athletes continue to use cold-water therapy despite the temporary rise in inflammation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-should-approach-with-caution">Who should approach with caution?</h2>



While the study suggests potential benefits, it also highlights the need for caution, particularly among individuals with pre-existing health conditions. 



The temporary increase in inflammation, though beneficial in certain contexts, could pose risks for those with chronic illnesses or other medical concerns. 



"Knowing this, people with pre-existing health conditions should take extra care if participating in cold-water immersion experiences as the initial inflammation could have detrimental health impacts," noted Dr. Singh.



The research emphasizes the importance of understanding one’s own body and health status before diving into cold-water practices. For everyday wellness seekers, the findings serve as a reminder that what works for one person may not work for another.



"Whether you are an elite athlete or everyday wellness seeker -- it's important to understand the effects of what you put your body through," said Cain. This personalized approach is crucial when considering any health intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Despite the promising findings, the study also revealed significant gaps in our understanding of cold-water immersion.



For instance, while there are many claims that it can boost immunity and mood, the evidence supporting these assertions remains weak. The researchers noted that more high-quality, long-term studies are needed to determine who benefits most and what the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-less-oxygen-could-extend-your-lifespan-by-50-or-more/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ideal approach</a> might be.



"Right now, there isn't enough high-quality research to say exactly who benefits most or what the ideal approach is to cold-water immersion," said Cain.



The current data is limited in scope, focusing primarily on specific populations and short-term outcomes. Expanding research to include more diverse groups and longer observation periods will be essential to uncovering the full potential of this practice. 



Such studies could provide clearer guidance on how to incorporate cold-water immersion into daily life effectively and safely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-factors-to-consider">Key factors to consider</h2>



For those intrigued by the idea of cold-water therapy, the study offers valuable insights but also calls for a measured approach.



While the practice shows promise in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embracing-stress-mindset-is-actually-a-good-thing-for-athletes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reducing stress</a>, improving sleep, and enhancing quality of life, these effects are often fleeting and vary from person to person. 



Incorporating cold showers or other forms of cold-water exposure into a routine might yield some benefits, but consistency and individual tolerance are key factors to consider.



Ultimately, cold-water therapy is not a magic solution but rather one piece of the larger puzzle of health and well-being. As research continues to evolve, individuals are encouraged to listen to their bodies and consult healthcare professionals when necessary.



Whether you’re an athlete seeking recovery strategies or someone exploring ways to enhance your daily wellness, understanding the science and limitations of cold-water immersion can help you make informed choices.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0317615" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cold-water therapy: Temporary fix or long-term benefits?

In recent years, cold-water therapy has captured the imagination of...

As the global population ages, understanding how social interactions preserve cognitive health has become a pressing concern. 



Dementia - a condition that affects memory, thinking, and behavior - is one of the most feared aspects of growing older. While researchers continue to explore potential treatments, prevention remains a key focus.



A recent study published online in Alzheimer's &amp; Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association sheds light on an intriguing possibility. 



The researchers found that frequent social activity may play a significant role in delaying or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-dementia-is-much-higher-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preventing dementia</a> in older adults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-activity-may-help-prevent-dementia">Social activity may help prevent dementia</h2>



This research not only adds to our understanding of brain health but also offers practical insights into how everyday behaviors can shape aging outcomes.



"This study is a follow up on previous papers from our group showing that social activity is related to less cognitive decline in older adults," noted Dr. Bryan James, associate professor of internal medicine at Rush.



What sets this research apart is its deeper exploration of the connection between social engagement and dementia onset. The results suggest that older adults who remain socially active are less likely to develop dementia compared to their less engaged peers. 



In fact, the least socially active participants developed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preventing-dementia-scientists-say-three-factors-matter-most/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a> an average of five years earlier than those who were more socially engaged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-activity-as-a-protective-factor">Social activity as a protective factor</h2>



The protective effect of social activity appears to be significant. 



According to the study, frequent social engagement is associated with a 38% reduction in dementia risk and a 21% reduction in mild cognitive impairment risk. 



These numbers are not just statistics; they represent real-world implications for individuals and society.



For instance, delaying the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-consumption-may-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">onset of dementia</a> by five years could extend life expectancy by three additional years. 



Economically, this delay could reduce dementia-related costs by 40% over the next three decades, potentially saving approximately $500,000 in lifetime health care expenses per person who would otherwise develop the condition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions-strengthen-brain-connections">Social interactions strengthen brain connections</h2>



The mechanisms behind these findings are still being explored, but researchers believe that social activity strengthens neural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-disruptions-could-signal-the-onset-of-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circuits in the brain</a>. 



Engaging in conversations, participating in group activities, and maintaining relationships require the brain to process complex information. These interactions activate areas of the brain involved in thinking and memory, which may help maintain cognitive function. 



By keeping these neural pathways active, social engagement could make the brain more resilient to age-related changes and the accumulation of harmful proteins linked to dementia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research </h2>



The study drew data from the Rush <a href="https://www.rushu.rush.edu/research-rush-university/departmental-research/rush-alzheimers-disease-center/rush-alzheimers-disease-center-research/epidemiologic-research/memory-aging-project" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Memory and Aging Project</a>, an ongoing longitudinal study that examines common chronic conditions of aging. 



Researchers followed 1,923 dementia-free older adults with an average age of about 80. Over time, 545 participants developed dementia, and 695 developed mild cognitive impairment. 



Each participant underwent yearly evaluations that included detailed medical histories and neuropsychological tests to assess cognitive function. 



Social activity levels were measured using a questionnaire that asked participants how often they engaged in six common social activities during the previous year. These activities included dining out, attending sporting events, volunteering, visiting friends or family, and taking trips.



Cognitive function was evaluated through a comprehensive battery of 21 tests designed to measure various types of memory, perceptual speed, and visuospatial abilities. At the start of the study, none of the participants showed signs of cognitive impairment. 



However, over an average follow-up period of five years, those who were more socially active demonstrated slower rates of cognitive decline. 



Importantly, the analysis accounted for other variables that might influence cognitive health, such as age, physical exercise, and overall health, ensuring that the observed benefits were directly tied to social activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-engagement-to-protect-dementia">Social engagement to protect dementia</h2>



Why does social activity seem to play such a crucial role in preventing cognitive decline? While the exact reasons remain unclear, one theory suggests that social interactions challenge older adults to engage in complex interpersonal exchanges. 



As James noted, this could promote or maintain efficient neural networks in a case of "use it or lose it." Regular social engagement may act as a form of mental exercise, keeping the brain sharp and adaptable. 



Additionally, social activity often involves emotional and psychological benefits, such as reducing feelings of loneliness and depression, which are known risk factors for dementia.



The study’s findings highlight the potential value of social activity as a community-level intervention for reducing dementia risk. Encouraging older adults to stay connected with friends, family, and their communities could have far-reaching benefits. 



Programs that facilitate group activities, volunteer opportunities, or intergenerational interactions may help older adults maintain their cognitive health while also enhancing their quality of life. 



Future research will be essential to determine whether targeted interventions aimed at increasing late-life social activity can effectively delay or prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stop-googling-start-napping-to-reduce-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive decline</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-life-and-brain-health">Social life and brain health</h2>



The study was made possible through the collaborative efforts of several researchers at Rush. 



The research adds to a growing body of evidence supporting the importance of social engagement in aging. By examining the relationship between social activity and cognitive health, these researchers have provided valuable insights that could inform public health strategies and individual lifestyle choices.



The findings also highlight the need for further investigation into the specific ways social activity influences brain health. 



For example, future studies could explore whether certain types of social interactions are more beneficial than others or whether the frequency and intensity of social engagement matter more than the specific activities themselves. 



Such research could help refine recommendations for older adults seeking to protect their cognitive health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-cognitive-function">Preserving cognitive function</h2>



The implications of this study extend beyond the scientific community. 



For individuals, the message is clear: staying socially active is not just about enjoying life - it’s also about preserving cognitive function. 



Whether through joining clubs, attending community events, or simply spending time with loved ones, older adults can take proactive steps to support their brain health.



Families and caregivers can also play a role by encouraging their aging relatives to remain socially engaged and helping them find opportunities to connect with others.



At the community level, there is an opportunity to create environments that foster social interaction among older adults. Local governments, nonprofit organizations, and healthcare providers can work together to develop programs that bring people together. 



From senior centers to intergenerational initiatives, these efforts could help combat the isolation that often accompanies aging. By prioritizing social engagement, communities can empower older adults to live healthier, more fulfilling lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-engagement-and-cognitive-health">Social engagement and cognitive health</h2>



While the study provides compelling evidence of the benefits of social activity, it also raises important questions for future research. 



Can interventions designed to increase social engagement effectively delay or prevent dementia? How do different types of social interactions compare in terms of their impact on cognitive health? 



Answering these questions will require large-scale, long-term studies that track participants over many years.



In the meantime, the findings offer hope and practical guidance for addressing one of the greatest challenges of aging. By emphasizing the importance of social connections, this research reminds us that human interaction is not only a source of joy but also a powerful tool for maintaining brain health. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://alz-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/alz.14316" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's &amp; Dementia</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Social activity may delay the onset of dementia by years

As the global population ages, understanding how social interactions preserve...

In a world where reproductive health is becoming an increasingly important topic, scientists are constantly exploring new ways to address challenges related to fertility. One recent discovery is resveratrol, a natural compound found in common foods like grapes, blueberries, and raspberries.



This polyphenolic compound has long been celebrated for its anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. However, recent research suggests that its potential extends far beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healing-chronic-wounds-with-gold-and-red-wine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">general wellness</a>. 



A systematic review published in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences sheds light on how resveratrol could play a pivotal role in improving female fertility. This discovery opens up exciting possibilities for women seeking natural solutions to enhance their reproductive health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-resveratol-on-female-fertility">Impact of resveratol on female fertility</h2>



The researchers analyzed data from 24 studies, which included a total of 9,563 human participants. Among these, four studies specifically examined the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moderate-wine-consumption-reduces-cardiovascular-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact of resveratrol</a> on the number of matured oocytes. 



Two reported an increase, while the other two found no significant changes. On the other hand, two studies focusing on the quality of matured oocytes showed improvements in women who <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-polyphenols-promote-heart-health-youthful-skin-and-a-healthy-waistline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumed resveratrol</a>. 



These findings point to the compound's potential to enhance reproductive health naturally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-resveratrol-support-fertility">How does resveratrol support fertility?</h2>



One possible explanation for resveratrol's positive effects lies in its ability to reduce oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is known to damage mitochondrial DNA and accelerate cellular aging. 



By protecting against this damage, resveratrol may help preserve the integrity of oocytes and extend ovarian lifespan. Additionally, the compound activates sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), a molecule that tends to decrease in aged oocytes. This activation could slow down cell aging and improve overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wine-production-in-a-warming-world-the-winners-and-losers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive function</a>.



Beyond its effects on oocyte quality, the review also explored resveratrol's potential in addressing specific fertility challenges. 



For instance, it may offer benefits for women dealing with infertility caused by endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), or obesity-related issues. 



By inhibiting pathways involved in androgen production and reducing inflammation, resveratrol could provide a natural approach to managing these conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixed-results-on-miscarriage-rates">Mixed results on miscarriage rates</h2>



While the findings are encouraging, the review also revealed inconsistencies in data related to pregnancy and miscarriage rates. 



Among five studies that examined pregnancy outcomes, two reported an increase in pregnancy rates among women taking resveratrol, two found no difference, and one noted a decrease. 



Interestingly, the same study that observed a decline in pregnancy rates also reported a rise in miscarriage rates. Another study, however, found no significant changes in miscarriage occurrences. 



These mixed results highlight the need for more comprehensive research to fully understand the compound's effects on reproductive outcomes.



Resveratrol is generally regarded as safe when consumed in moderate amounts through diet or supplements, with doses up to five grams per day considered acceptable for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-red-wine-gives-some-people-a-headache/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">short-term use</a>. 



However, the long-term safety of high-dose supplementation remains uncertain, particularly concerning potential risks during pregnancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Lee Smith, professor of public health at Anglia Ruskin University (<a href="https://www.aru.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ARU</a>) and senior author of the paper, emphasized the importance of cautious optimism.



“Our systematic review on resveratrol and female fertility is a comprehensive overview of all current research, and it highlights the compound’s potential to improve reproductive outcomes and possibly pave the way for new, less invasive treatments, using natural substances,” he stated. 



However, Professor Smith also pointed out the limitations of the current evidence.



“Our findings are based on a number of limitations, including the limited number of human studies, the different parameters of each study and the lack of robust data on dosage and side effects, particularly related to birth defects or foetal abnormalities,” Smith explained. 



“There is a need for further clinical trials, involving human participants, in order to translate these promising results into practical recommendations for women looking to improve their fertility, including guidance on the safe and effective dosage of resveratrol.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resveratrol-and-female-fertility">Resveratrol and female fertility</h2>



The potential of resveratrol to support female fertility represents an exciting avenue for future exploration. 



If ongoing and future studies confirm its benefits, this natural compound could offer a less invasive and more accessible option for women seeking to enhance their reproductive health. 



For now, researchers urge patience and continued investigation to ensure that any recommendations are grounded in solid, reliable evidence. As science progresses, resveratrol may emerge as a valuable tool in the journey toward improved fertility.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/23/12792" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Molecular Sciences</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Resveratrol in grapes and wine may naturally boost female fertility

In a world where reproductive health is becoming an increasingly...

The ocean's depths harbor a hidden world of swirling currents that mirror our atmospheric weather patterns. New research has unveiled surprising ways in which atmospheric winds influence ocean eddies, revealing a level of complexity that challenges previous assumptions. 



These eddies, circular currents of water roughly 100 kilometers wide, are integral to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-broke-records-for-450-straight-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean's weather patterns</a>. Much like how winds shape weather on land, these swirling currents play a crucial role in determining the dynamics of the ocean. 



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a> have conducted a detailed study using satellite imagery and high-resolution climate models. The team uncovered interactions between the atmosphere and the ocean that were previously misunderstood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-winds-on-eddies">Impact of winds on eddies</h2>



For years, it was believed that atmospheric winds primarily slowed down <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-vessels-most-industrial-fishing-activity-is-not-publicly-tracked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> eddies. However, this new research offers a fresh perspective.



Study co-author Hussein Aluie is a professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and the Department of Mathematics.



"It's actually more interesting than what people had previously thought. There's a marked asymmetry in how the wind affects these motions, and it depends on the direction they spin," noted Aluie.



This insight highlights the intricate relationship between wind direction and the rotational movement of eddies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-wind-direction">The role of wind direction </h2>



The study reveals that prevailing winds, such as the westerlies and trade winds, interact with ocean eddies in a highly directional manner. 



When these winds move longitudinally across the globe in the same direction as the eddy’s rotation, they energize the eddy, enhancing its strength. 



On the other hand, if the wind moves in the opposite direction to the eddy’s spin, it dampens the motion. This discovery overturns the long-standing belief that atmospheric winds uniformly slow down <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-circumpolar-current-speed-increasing-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceanic movements</a>.



The implications are profound. The research suggests that the interaction between winds and eddies is not a one-size-fits-all phenomenon but rather a nuanced process influenced by alignment and direction.



This understanding opens the door to more accurate modeling of oceanic weather patterns and their interactions with the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-eddies-the-role-of-strain-patterns">Beyond eddies: The role of strain patterns</h2>



While eddies are visually striking and easier to identify, the study also emphasizes the importance of strain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-waves-can-get-much-bigger-taller-than-we-ever-imagined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns in ocean</a> weather systems. Strain refers to the movement that exists between eddies. 



Although these patterns are less obvious to the naked eye, they account for approximately half of the ocean’s kinetic energy. According to Aluie, strain patterns respond to wind influences in ways similar to eddies, making them a critical component of the ocean’s energy dynamics.



Understanding strain patterns is essential for grasping the full scope of energy exchange between the atmosphere and the ocean. 



These patterns, though subtle, play a significant role in shaping the ocean’s overall behavior. By studying both eddies and strain, researchers can develop a more comprehensive picture of how energy flows through the Earth’s systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancing-climate-models">Advancing climate models</h2>



The findings from this study have far-reaching implications for climate science and related industries. 



"The new energy pathways between the atmosphere and the ocean that we discovered can help design better ocean observation systems and improve climate models," noted Shikhar Rai, the first author of the study and a postdoctoral investigator at <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/who-we-are/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a>.



Enhanced predictive capabilities could lead to practical applications in fields such as fisheries management and commercial shipping.



For instance, improved forecasts of ocean weather patterns could help fisheries optimize their operations, ensuring sustainable resource use. 



Similarly, shipping companies could plan more efficient routes, reducing fuel consumption and costs. These advancements highlight the importance of refining our understanding of ocean-atmosphere interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eddies-help-in-energy-transfer">Eddies help in energy transfer</h2>



Looking ahead, Aluie and his team plan to investigate how eddies contribute to the transfer of energy between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-sea-ice-what-record-lows-tell-us-about-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a> and the atmosphere. 



This aspect of the research could provide even deeper insights into the interconnected systems that govern the planet’s climate. By focusing on the mechanical interactions between wind and water, scientists aim to unravel the mechanisms that drive energy exchanges involving eddies on a global scale.



This line of inquiry is particularly relevant in the context of climate change. As the Earth’s climate continues to evolve, understanding how energy moves between different parts of the system becomes increasingly important. 



The findings from this study lay the groundwork for future research that could address some of the most pressing environmental challenges of our time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-in-ocean-science">A new chapter in ocean science</h2>



The research represents a significant leap forward in ocean science. By challenging outdated assumptions and uncovering new dynamics, the researchers have opened the door to a deeper understanding of the forces that shape our planet’s weather and climate systems.



The study not only enhances theoretical knowledge but also offers practical benefits for industries and communities that rely on accurate oceanic predictions.



As scientists continue to explore the complexities of atmospheric and oceanic interactions, the potential for innovation grows. From improving climate models to optimizing industrial practices, the implications of this research are vast. 



With each new discovery, humanity moves closer to unraveling the mysteries of the Earth’s intricate systems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56310-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio photo



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ocean weather is affected by the atmosphere in unexpected ways

The ocean's depths harbor a hidden world of swirling currents...

Sharks and rays have inhabited Earth’s oceans for about 450 million years. These cartilaginous fish have survived five mass extinctions, adapting to environmental changes that wiped out countless other species.



Despite their resilience, modern threats endanger their survival like never before. Overfishing and habitat destruction have placed more than a third of all species at serious risk. Now, climate change introduces another challenge to sharks and rays.



A team of international researchers led by palaeobiologist Manuel A. Staggl from the University of Vienna sought to understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-constantly-reshuffling-earths-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past climate fluctuations</a> affected the biodiversity of sharks and rays. 



They focused on the Jurassic (200-143 million years ago) and Cretaceous (143-66 million years ago) periods, a time when these species thrived in diverse environments. 



By analyzing fossilized teeth and comparing them to climate records, they identified key environmental factors that influenced shark populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-change-shaped-shark-evolution">How climate change shaped shark evolution</h2>



The evolution of sharks and rays has always been closely linked to environmental conditions. During the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, the oceans underwent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">significant changes</a>. 



The expansion of shallow coastal waters created new habitats, while rising global temperatures affected marine ecosystems. These periods saw an explosion in shark and ray diversity, demonstrating their ability to adapt to shifting conditions.



Fossil evidence suggests that the diversity of these species fluctuated with environmental changes. The researchers found that three main factors influenced their survival.



Higher global temperatures and an increase in shallow water areas had a positive effect, allowing sharks and rays to expand into new regions. 



However, a third factor - rising carbon dioxide (CO2) levels - had a clearly negative impact. This discovery sheds new light on how future climate change might affect these species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-co2-and-shark-diversity">Rising CO2 and shark diversity </h2>



One of the most significant findings of the study was the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-fear-climate-change-will-end-the-world-during-their-lifetime/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">negative effect of CO2 concentrations</a> on shark and ray biodiversity. Higher CO2 levels in the ocean have long been suspected to harm marine life, but this study provides clear evidence of its impact.



This is the first time that the negative impact of CO2 in the ocean has been so clearly described. While the exact mechanisms remain unclear, laboratory studies on modern sharks and rays suggest direct physiological consequences.



Increased CO2 can alter their sensory abilities, affecting their ability to navigate and hunt. It can also influence skeletal development during embryonic stages, potentially leading to deformities.



The fossil record confirms that past increases in CO2 levels contributed to the extinction of certain shark and ray species. This suggests that current climate change, driven by human activity, could have similar long-term consequences. If CO2 levels continue to rise, the survival of many species may be at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-opportunities-for-sharks">Climate opportunities for sharks</h2>



Despite the dangers, climate change may not be entirely detrimental to sharks and rays. In previous geological periods, rising sea levels and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-are-largely-unprepared-for-the-effects-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increasing temperatures</a> actually benefited their populations. 



Expanding warm-water regions and the creation of new shallow coastal environments provided ideal conditions for these predators.



"The resulting habitats in shallow seas that cover large continental areas are real biodiversity hotspots; sharks and rays were able to colonize them very quickly and efficiently thanks to their adaptability," explained Staggl.



During the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, temperatures were significantly higher than today, leading to the expansion of the tropics and subtropics. With fewer seasonal changes, marine ecosystems became more stable, supporting a wider range of species.



If similar conditions emerge in the future, some sharks and rays might find new habitats to thrive in. However, the speed of modern climate change presents a unique challenge. 



Unlike past warming events that occurred over millions of years, today’s changes are happening in just decades. This rapid shift could make adaptation difficult, even for a group of species that has survived multiple extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rapidly-changing-world">A rapidly changing world</h2>



Assuming that sharks and rays will simply adapt to climate change would be overly optimistic. 



"The environment is currently changing particularly quickly - unfortunately probably too quickly for the animals and their ecosystems," said Staggl. 



The current rate of warming and ocean acidification may surpass their ability to adjust. Overfishing and habitat destruction further <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-the-world-is-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complicate the situation</a>. 



Many shark species are already struggling due to declining populations, and climate change may add additional stress. Warmer oceans can disrupt food chains, forcing sharks to migrate in search of prey.



Changes in ocean currents and rising acidity levels may also alter their breeding patterns. If these species cannot adapt quickly enough, many could face extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-sharks-from-climate-change">Protecting sharks from climate change</h2>



Urgent action is needed to protect sharks and rays from multiple environmental threats. Conservation efforts must address overfishing, habitat loss, and the growing effects of climate change. 



These predators play a crucial role in maintaining marine ecosystems, and their decline could have widespread consequences.



"Because without the top predators, the ecosystems would collapse," warned Jürgen Kriwet, professor of palaeobiology at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>.



Sharks and rays regulate the balance of ocean life, keeping populations of other marine species in check. Without them, ecosystems could become unstable, affecting biodiversity and fisheries that millions of people depend on.



"By protecting sharks and rays, we are investing directly in the health of our oceans and therefore also in the people and industries that benefit from these ecosystems," said Kriwet.



Preserving these species is not just about maintaining biodiversity - it is about ensuring the stability of marine environments. 



The future of sharks and rays depends on immediate and sustained conservation efforts. Their survival will determine the health of the oceans for generations to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2079-7737/14/2/142" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sharks may benefit from rising temperatures - but not from rising CO2

Sharks and rays have inhabited Earth’s oceans for about 450...

A new study has revealed how sudden cold waves impact insects and mammals in the Amazon rainforest.&nbsp;



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Würzburg</a> documented a rare cold spell in June 2023, during which temperatures plummeted from an average of 23.9°C to just 10.5°C. 



“Climatic conditions in tropical lowland rainforests are generally considered to be constantly warm and organisms are adapted to little fluctuations in temperature,” noted the researchers.



“However, even rainforests deep in the Amazon can be affected by cold waves.”



The team conducted the first comprehensive study on how wild animal communities in the Amazon lowlands respond to drastic temperature shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-cold-in-the-amazon-nbsp">Unexpected cold in the Amazon&nbsp;</h2>



Local field assistants informed the research team that cold spells lasting several days are not uncommon in the Amazon.&nbsp;



In fact, a similar but milder drop to 18°C occurred in 2022. However, the researchers were surprised by the severity and duration of the 2023 event. Recognizing the opportunity, they set out to study its effects on local wildlife.



Until now, studies on cold waves in the Amazon had largely focused on agricultural impacts.&nbsp;



This study marks the first investigation into how these temperature fluctuations affect native insect and mammal populations, shedding light on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-climate-changes-have-drastic-effects-on-tropical-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical species</a> might cope with future climate variations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-wildlife-responded-to-the-cold">How wildlife responded to the cold</h2>



The researchers analyzed biodiversity data collected in 2022, comparing it with data gathered during and after the cold spell. Their study included insect monitoring using traps to measure biomass of flying and ground-dwelling species.



The team also used camera traps to observe the behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decline-of-large-mammals-was-caused-by-humans-not-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large mammals</a>, including jaguars, tapirs, and peccaries.



During cold tolerance experiments, insects were gradually cooled in a thermostat to determine their survival thresholds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-show-resilience-with-one-exception">Insects show resilience, with one exception</h2>



During the cold wave, insect biomass and activity declined sharply, but most species fully recovered in the following months.&nbsp;



The exception was <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dung-beetles-share-their-workload-with-their-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dung beetles</a>, whose populations remained lower even after temperatures returned to normal, suggesting they are more sensitive to cold than other insects.



Cold tolerance tests revealed that while most insects could survive temperatures lower than 10.5°C, about 25% were already near their physiological limits.&nbsp;



These insects lost mobility at just 0.62°C below the recorded cold wave temperatures, meaning even slightly colder events could significantly impact their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-reduced-activity-to-conserve-energy">Mammals reduced activity to conserve energy</h2>



Unlike insects, mammals can regulate their body temperature. However, camera traps revealed a noticeable drop in their activity during the cold spell.&nbsp;



The researchers believe this was a strategy to conserve energy, as maintaining body heat in colder conditions requires greater metabolic effort.



Once temperatures returned to normal, mammal activity levels rebounded. Though the study did not include birds, reptiles, or amphibians, researchers noted subjectively that these groups also appeared less active, contributing to an unusually quiet rainforest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-waves-in-the-amazon">Cold waves in the Amazon</h2>



The study highlights that cold waves - defined as three or more consecutive days of significantly lower temperatures - are a recurring phenomenon in the Amazon.&nbsp;



Between 1980 and 2017, 67 such events were recorded, some lasting up to eight days. These cold spells are typically caused by Antarctic air masses traveling north along the Andes and Brazilian highlands.



With climate change influencing global weather patterns, researchers speculate that these events may become more intense. If temperatures continue to drop beyond the tolerance of certain species, long-term ecological consequences could emerge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-and-conservation-efforts">Future research and conservation efforts</h2>



The study, part of the <a href="https://www.andiv.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANDIV project</a> (Patterns and Drivers of Insect Diversity and Their Microbiome Along a Complete Forest Elevational Gradient in the Peruvian Andes), highlights the need for further research into how climate variability impacts Amazonian ecosystems. 



Supported by the <a href="https://www.dfg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Research Foundation</a> (DFG) and involving scientists from the <a href="https://www.uni-jena.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Jena</a> and <a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LMU Munich</a>, this ongoing project aims to understand how insect biodiversity is shaped by environmental changes.



As global temperatures fluctuate, understanding the resilience of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-amazon-became-a-biodiversity-hotspot/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazonian wildlife</a> to unexpected cold spells will be crucial for predicting how climate change might reshape one of the world’s most diverse ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0591" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cold shocks in the Amazon: How do wild animals respond?

A new study has revealed how sudden cold waves impact...

Our relationship with sheep stretches back over 11,000 years, making them one of humans' oldest animal partners.



Early communities relied on them for meat, protein-rich milk, and warm, water-resistant wool. These animals provided sustenance, clothing, and economic stability, playing a key role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early settlements</a>.



Now, an international team of researchers has uncovered the prehistoric journey of sheep through genetic analysis. 



Led by experts from Trinity College Dublin, <a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LMU Munich</a>, and the Bavarian State Collections of Natural History (<a href="https://snsb.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SNSB</a>), the team examined 118 genomes from archaeological bones.



These samples span 12 millennia and stretch from Mongolia to Ireland, revealing how sheep domestication evolved alongside human societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-sheep-domestication">Early sheep domestication</h2>



The earliest evidence of sheep herding comes from Aşıklı Höyük, a settlement in central Türkiye. 



Genetic analysis suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-and-small-scavengers-benefited-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early herders</a> captured and domesticated wild mouflon in this region over 11,000 years ago. These findings confirm that the origins of sheep domestication lie in the western part of the northern Fertile Crescent.



Sheep played a vital role in these early communities, providing a reliable source of food and raw materials for clothing. 



Domestication marked a turning point, as humans began selectively breeding sheep to enhance desirable traits. This process laid the foundation for future genetic changes that would shape sheep populations across the world.



By 8,000 years ago, early European farmers had begun to make deliberate breeding choices. The study found strong evidence that these farmers were selecting sheep based on coat color. 



This marks the earliest known example of humans actively influencing the biology of another species for aesthetic and practical reasons. Similar patterns appeared in goats, indicating a widespread human interest in shaping animal traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-selection-in-early-sheep">Genetic selection in early sheep</h2>



One of the most significant discoveries in the research was the identification of genetic selection near the “KIT” gene. 



This gene is closely linked to white coat color in many domesticated livestock species. The presence of selection pressure around this gene suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wooden-structure-completely-rewrites-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early farmers</a> preferred lighter-colored sheep, possibly for easier wool processing or aesthetic appeal.



During this period, the genomes of sheep in Europe, Iran, and Central Asia began to diverge. This divergence reflected the growing geographical separation of herding communities. 



However, genetic distinctions between eastern and western sheep did not last long. Farmers and traders facilitated movement between regions, leading to the blending of sheep populations across vast territories.



By 7,000 years ago, as human societies in Mesopotamia expanded, so did the movement of domesticated sheep. Early cities influenced agricultural practices, and sheep populations spread westward within the Fertile Crescent. 



This movement established genetic continuity between regions and contributed to the formation of distinct sheep breeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-human-migrations-on-sheep">Impact of human migrations on sheep</h2>



About 5,000 years ago, another wave of migration reshaped both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/out-of-africa-hominin-migration-timeline-pushed-back-even-further-by-new-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human</a> and sheep populations. 



Pastoralist groups from the Eurasian steppes expanded westward, significantly altering the cultural and genetic makeup of Europe. This migration transformed British ancestry by nearly 90% and introduced the Indo-European language family.



Sheep accompanied these human migrations, reinforcing their role as a key resource for mobile societies. Genetic data from the study suggests that steppe sheep ancestry became widespread in Europe during this period. 



The movement of herders and their livestock shaped agricultural economies, contributing to the development of wool production and dairy farming.



Dr. Kevin Daly, Ad Astra Assistant Professor at <a href="https://www.ucd.ie/agfood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCD School of Agriculture and Food Science</a>, emphasized the scale of this migration and its impact on sheep populations.



"One of our most striking discoveries was a major prehistoric sheep migration from the Eurasian steppes into Europe during the Bronze Age. This parallels what we know about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-early-humans-first-start-wearing-clothes-and-why-parasites-lice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human migrations</a> during the same period, suggesting that when people moved, they brought their flocks with them," he stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expansion-of-sheep-based-economies">Expansion of sheep-based economies</h2>



By the Bronze Age, sheep had become an essential component of human economies. 



The study suggests that steppe-related ancestry accounted for nearly half of the genetic makeup of European sheep at this time. This shift highlights the deep connection between human expansion and livestock management.



Sheep provided more than just food and fiber. The presence of milk-producing genes in ancient sheep populations suggests that early herders exploited dairy products such as milk and cheese. 



This adaptation allowed human populations to sustain themselves more effectively, particularly in regions where agriculture was limited.



The reliance on sheep continued to shape trade networks and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-thrived-on-plant-based-diets-not-meat-alone-780000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">settlement</a> patterns. As civilizations developed, demand for wool increased, leading to further specialization in breeding. This period marked the beginning of structured sheep farming, setting the stage for future agricultural advancements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relationship-between-humans-and-sheep">Relationship between humans and sheep</h2>



Professor Dan Bradley, who led the research, highlighted the evolving relationship between sheep and humans over thousands of years. 



"This research demonstrates how the relationship between humans and sheep has evolved over millennia. From the early days of domestication through to the development of wool as a crucial textile resource, sheep have played a vital role in human cultural and economic development," he said.



The study not only sheds light on the past but also raises questions about the future of sheep breeding. Understanding ancient genetic shifts can help researchers trace the origins of modern sheep breeds and their adaptation to different environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-genetic-studies">Importance of genetic studies</h2>



Professor Joris Peters, co-corresponding author of the study, stressed the need for further investigation into the patterns of sheep dispersal and selection. 



"Our study, while convincingly reconciling morphological and genomic evidence of the geographic origin of domestic sheep, clearly illustrates that further transdisciplinary research is needed to clarify the patterns of dispersal and selection of the many landraces occurring today in Eurasia and Africa," he stated.



Ongoing genetic research will provide deeper insights into how sheep populations have adapted to human needs and environmental changes. Modern sheep farming continues to rely on selective breeding, a practice that began thousands of years ago.



This study demonstrates that the relationship between humans and sheep is one of mutual dependence. From prehistoric herders to modern farmers, sheep have played a crucial role in shaping human civilization. 



As research continues, scientists will uncover even more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-homo-erectus-thrived-in-extreme-desert-landscapes-1-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex history</a> of this enduring partnership.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn2094" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sheep have been intertwined with humans for over 11,000 years

Our relationship with sheep stretches back over 11,000 years, making...

In rural Pennsylvania and New York, researchers have attached tiny QR codes to hundreds of honey bees in an effort to track the insects' foraging habits.&nbsp;



This innovative approach, developed by a team of entomologists and electrical engineers at the <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a>, aims to unravel the mystery of how far <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-do-not-learn-to-be-cooperative-it-is-in-their-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> travel to collect pollen and nectar.&nbsp;



The study marks a significant leap in understanding honey bee ecology and could have implications for organic beekeeping practices.



“This technology is opening up opportunities for biologists to study systems in ways that weren’t previously possible, especially in relation to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-beekeeping-is-equally-productive-as-methods-using-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic beekeeping</a>,” said Margarita López-Uribe, an associate professor of entomology at Penn State.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-in-bee-monitoring">New era in bee monitoring</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/bees_qr-codes_foraging-tracking_credit-Penn-State_1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The QR codes</a>, known as fiduciary tags, are attached to the bees' backs without harming them. These tags, combined with a custom-built imaging system, allow researchers to track the bees as they leave and return to their hives. 



The system records critical data, including each bee's unique ID, the time and date of its movements, direction, and environmental factors such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-are-overheating-bumblebee-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a>.



“In field biology, we usually just look at things with our eyes, but the number of observations we can make as humans will never scale up to what a machine can do,” López-Uribe explained.



The data collected from this automated system offers far greater precision and scalability than traditional methods, which rely on visual observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-organic-beekeeping">Challenges in organic beekeeping</h2>



Organic beekeeping requires keeping hives free from synthetic chemicals and situating them away from polluted areas. 



However, honey bees’ capacity to fly long distances - up to 10 kilometers - complicates the enforcement of these standards.&nbsp;



The team hypothesized that bees typically forage much closer to their hives, often within one kilometer. This study could refine our understanding of these ranges and influence organic certification standards.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-perform-waggle-dance-to-share-the-location-of-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The waggle dance</a> is the best source of information that we have about bee foraging, but that’s based on human observations, with maybe an hour of observations made once a day over two weeks,” López-Uribe said.&nbsp;



“The goal is to understand if that 10-kilometer estimation is biologically accurate. Can we determine exactly how far honey bees travel from their hives?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



To achieve this, the entomologists partnered with electrical engineers to design a cost-effective and solar-powered tracking system. 



Study co-author Julio Urbina, a professor of electrical engineering, emphasized the importance of cross-disciplinary collaboration in the project.



“There wasn’t anything available like this before,” Urbina said. “This paper is the first step moving forward in the right direction, with opportunities to do more - in large part because of the growing synergy across our teams.”



The collaboration required both teams to step out of their comfort zones. Engineers learned to handle and monitor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bees-value-quality-over-quantity-in-flower-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees in the field</a>, while entomologists explored the intricacies of designing automated technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-monitoring-systems-of-the-future">Bee monitoring systems of the future</h2>



“Systems built in the past to monitor bees were developed to run in or near controlled laboratory environments,” said Diego Penaloza-Aponte, a doctoral student in electrical engineering and co-corresponding author on the study.&nbsp;



“Our goal was to develop something that could run in a rural environment, away from the lab, on solar power and to make everything open source. Anyone can use this system and modify it.”



The result was a system that cost under $1,500 per apiary, which includes monitoring equipment for six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-foraging-secrets-discovered">Bee foraging secrets discovered</h2>



Over a single season, the researchers tagged more than 32,000 bees, monitoring them continuously using the automated system. 



Each bee's activity was logged, offering unprecedented insights into their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/">foraging behavior</a>.



“We targeted young bees so we could track their age more accurately, especially when they start to fly and when they stop,” said Robyn Underwood, Penn State Extension educator in apiculture.&nbsp;



“Once the bee was old enough to fly, it would leave the colony and be seen under the camera. In real time, our sensor would read the QR code and capture the bee ID, date, time, direction of movement - leaving or entering the hive - and the temperature.”



Most trips outside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-gentle-tap-on-the-hive-reveals-honeybee-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the hive</a> lasted between one and four minutes, which might involve checking the weather or defecating.&nbsp;



Longer trips, typically under 20 minutes, involved foraging. Interestingly, about 34% of bees spent more than two hours away from the hive, possibly due to extended foraging trips or failure to return.



“We also found that bees are foraging for a lot longer over their lifetimes than initially thought,” Underwood said.&nbsp;



"We’re seeing bees foraging for six weeks, and they don’t start foraging until they are already about two weeks old, so they live a lot longer than we thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loitering-and-waggle-dancing">Loitering and waggle dancing</h2>



The system’s precision revealed unexpected challenges, such as bees loitering near hive entrances and being detected multiple times.&nbsp;



“Turns out, some bees just like hanging out in the entrance, and the camera will read them every time they walk by,” Penaloza-Aponte said. 



“That’s why the programming is so handy. It can cut that outlier data and help make sure we’re tracking what’s actually meaningful.”



The researchers are now collaborating with experts at <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a> to compare their foraging data with decoded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-refine-their-dancing-skills-by-watching-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waggle dances</a>. 



They also plan to expand the study to track other bee species and specific hive members, such as drones and queens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-understanding-of-bee-ecology">Better understanding of bee ecology</h2>



According to the experts, this system is a game-changer for understanding honey bee behavior.



It combines technology and biology in a way that scales up what we can learn and opens the door for discoveries that wouldn’t have been possible otherwise.



By making their system open source and cost-effective, the team hopes to empower scientists and beekeepers to explore new frontiers in bee research and conservation, ensuring the survival of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-pollinators-boost-the-nutritional-value-of-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">essential pollinators</a> in a rapidly changing world.



Image Credit: Provided by Margarita López-Uribe, Robyn Underwood, Julio Urbina, Diego Penaloza-Aponte and team



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What is it like to be a bee? These tiny QR tracking tags helped science find out

In rural Pennsylvania and New York, researchers have attached tiny...

Dinosaurs,In,The,Forest.,This,Is,A,3d,Render,Illustration

The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet has captivated scientists and the public alike for generations. Now, an intriguing new study on fossils suggests we might be looking in the wrong places for their earliest ancestors. 



While we've found countless dinosaur fossils in places like Argentina and Zimbabwe, the very first dinosaurs might have emerged from the steamy equatorial regions of ancient Earth - areas that today make up the Amazon rainforest, Congo basin, and Sahara Desert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gap-in-the-dinosaur-fossil-record">Gap in the dinosaur fossil record</h2>



The oldest known dinosaur fossils date back around 230 million years and have been found in Argentina, Brazil, and Zimbabwe. 



However, the differences between these fossils indicate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> had already been evolving for millions of years before these specimens emerged. This implies an even earlier origin, but direct fossil evidence of this has yet to be found.



The new study, published in the journal Current Biology, addresses this issue by using advanced modeling techniques to account for gaps in the fossil record.



The researchers analyzed fossils, evolutionary trees, and ancient geography to reconstruct the likely emergence of dinosaurs. 



Instead of assuming that fossils have not been found in certain areas because they never existed there, the study treats those regions as simply missing data.



“Dinosaurs are well studied but we still don’t really know where they came from. The fossil record has such large gaps that it can’t be taken at face value,” noted study lead author Joel Heath from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-dinosaurs-and-their-world">First dinosaurs and their world</h2>



According to the study, the earliest dinosaurs likely appeared in western low-latitude Gondwana, a region that was hot and dry, resembling today’s deserts and savannas. This challenges the previous assumption that dinosaurs first evolved in more temperate environments. 



Despite the study’s findings, no fossils from these early dinosaurs have been discovered in the Amazon or central Africa. 



Heath suggests that this is due to a combination of accessibility issues and a lack of focused research in these regions.



The world of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> was vastly different from the one their descendants would later dominate. During the Late Triassic period, dinosaurs were only a minor part of a diverse ecosystem filled with other reptilian creatures. 



These included the ancestors of crocodiles, known as pseudosuchians, some of which grew up to 10 meters (33 feet) long. 



Another major group in this prehistoric world was pterosaurs, the first vertebrates to develop powered flight. These flying reptiles would eventually evolve into species as large as modern fighter jets.



In contrast to their massive successors like Diplodocus or Tyrannosaurus rex, the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> were much smaller, typically the size of a chicken or a medium-sized dog.



They walked on two legs, making them agile hunters and scavengers, and most were likely omnivorous. Their small size and adaptability may have helped them survive in the challenging environments of early Gondwana.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rise-of-dinosaurs">The rise of dinosaurs</h2>



For millions of years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-triassic-fossil-gondwanax-paraisensis-may-rewrite-history-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> remained in the shadow of their reptilian cousins. That changed around 201 million years ago, when a series of massive volcanic eruptions led to the end-Triassic mass extinction. 



This catastrophe wiped out many of the dominant reptile species, creating an ecological vacuum that the surviving dinosaurs quickly filled. 



With their competitors gone, dinosaurs began to spread and diversify, eventually becoming the dominant land animals for the next 135 million years.



The modeling study suggests that dinosaurs and other reptiles may have first evolved in low-latitude Gondwana before spreading outward. 



They expanded southward into what is now Argentina and Zimbabwe, and northward into Laurasia, the northern supercontinent that would later split into Europe, Asia, and North America. 



This idea is supported by fossil evidence showing that some of the dinosaurs’ closest relatives, including early crocodile-like reptiles, were found in northern Laurasia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-link-in-dinosaur-evolution">Missing link in dinosaur evolution</h2>



One of the study’s key findings concerns the evolutionary relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-worlds-best-preserved-psittacosaurus-dinosaurs-die/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early dinosaurs</a> and their close relatives. There is ongoing debate about how different groups of dinosaurs evolved from their reptilian ancestors. 



To address this, the researchers tested their model against three different evolutionary trees. The strongest support for a Gondwanan origin came from a model that classified silesaurids, traditionally seen as distant cousins of dinosaurs, as direct ancestors of ornithischians.



This finding is significant because ornithischians - one of the three major dinosaur groups, which later included the stegosaurs and Triceratops species - are mysteriously absent from the fossil record in the earliest years of dinosaur history.



If silesaurids were indeed their ancestors, this would help fill a major gap in the evolutionary tree and provide a clearer picture of how dinosaurs diversified over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-and-climate-adaptation">Dinosaurs and climate adaptation</h2>



The study also sheds light on how dinosaurs adapted to different climates over millions of years. “Our results suggest early dinosaurs may have been well adapted to hot and arid environments,” noted Professor Philip Mannion, a senior author of the study.



This is particularly evident in sauropods, the group that includes massive plant-eaters like Brontosaurus and Diplodocus. These dinosaurs appear to have retained their preference for warm climates, remaining in lower latitudes throughout their existence.



On the other hand, theropods - the group that includes T. rex and modern birds - and ornithischians seem to have developed the ability to generate their own body heat.



This adaptation allowed them to expand into colder regions, including the polar regions, by the time of the Jurassic period. This shift in climate tolerance may have contributed to their long-term evolutionary success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dinosaur-fossils">Future research on dinosaur fossils</h2>



Despite the study’s compelling findings, direct fossil evidence of the earliest dinosaurs in the Amazon, Congo, or Sahara remains absent. 



Future expeditions to these regions may uncover this elusive evidence that could redefine our understanding of dinosaur origins.



If dinosaurs did originate in equatorial Gondwana, as the study suggests, their earliest ancestors may still lie buried beneath the dense rainforests of the Amazon or the shifting sands of the Sahara. 



These areas remain some of the least-explored fossil sites on Earth, meaning that the missing chapters of dinosaur evolution may still be waiting to be revealed.



As paleontologists continue to refine their understanding of early dinosaur evolution, this study highlights the importance of exploring new frontiers in fossil research. 



The true story of dinosaur origins is still being written, and future discoveries in these regions could change everything we thought we knew about the dawn of the dinosaurs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01722-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Where did dinosaurs come from? Scientists say they figured it out

The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet...

Wandering salamanders, also known as "skydiving salamanders," have fascinated scientists for years with their ability to jump and glide effortlessly through the towering canopies of coastal redwood forests. 



Despite their small size, these amphibians navigate high-altitude branches with precision, sticking their landings and taking off with ease. 



Until recently, the mechanics behind their remarkable acrobatic movement remained a mystery. Now, a new study reveals a surprising answer: blood-powered toes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salamanders-that-control-blood-flow">Salamanders that control blood flow</h2>



Researchers at Washington State University discovered that wandering salamanders (Aneides vagrans) can rapidly control the blood flow in their toe tips.



This ability allows them to grip, detach, and move through their arboreal environment with remarkable efficiency. 



The study not only sheds light on an unknown aspect of salamander physiology but also has potential implications for technological advances in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adhesives</a>, prosthetics, and robotic limbs.



The research team found that salamanders can fill, trap, and drain blood within their toe tips. 



This process helps them fine-tune their attachment and detachment from surfaces, providing the grip necessary for climbing and the release required for efficient movement.



The discovery challenges previous assumptions about the function of the visible red “lakes” of blood in their translucent toes. These structures were long thought to aid in oxygenation, but no scientific evidence supported that claim.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-the-control">Advantages of the control</h2>



The study suggests that controlling blood flow in the toes allows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-salamander-like-beast-gaiasia-jennyae-top-predator-before-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salamanders</a> to adjust pressure asymmetrically.



 This fine-tuned control helps them navigate the irregular surfaces of tree bark. Surprisingly, the blood influx before “toe-off” does not aid in attachment but rather helps the salamanders detach. 



By slightly inflating their toe tips, they reduce the surface area in contact with the bark, minimizing the energy required to let go. This efficiency is crucial when gliding between branches and ensuring safe landings.



“Gecko-inspired adhesives already allow surfaces to be reused without losing stickiness,” said Christian Brown, lead author of the study, and a postdoctoral researcher in integrative physiology and neuroscience at <a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University</a>.



“Understanding salamander toes could lead to similar breakthroughs in attachment technologies.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-documentary-shoot">A documentary shoot</h2>



The origins of this study trace back to an unexpected moment during the filming of the documentary The Americas, which will air on February 23, 2025 on NBC and Peacock.



Brown was assisting on set as a salamander expert when he noticed something unusual through the production team’s high-powered camera lenses.



Just before a wandering salamander took a step, blood appeared to rush into its toe tips. Brown and camera assistant William Goldenberg observed this phenomenon multiple times. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/salamandar-wandering_Aneides-vagrans_hindfoot_suction_blood-flow_credit-WSU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/salamandar-wandering_Aneides-vagrans_hindfoot_suction_blood-flow_credit-WSU_1s.webp" alt="The hindfoot of a live wandering salamander (Aneides vagrans). In the background, blood can be seen filling a toe tip. Photo: William P. Goldenberg/WSU" class="wp-image-1958372"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hindfoot of a live wandering salamander (Aneides vagrans). In the background, blood can be seen filling a toe tip. Photo: William P. Goldenberg/WSU</figcaption></figure>



The repeated occurrence caught their attention. “We looked at each other like, ‘Did you see that?’” Brown related.



Although the documentary team moved on to other subjects, Brown’s curiosity lingered. After filming wrapped, he reached out to Goldenberg and proposed an experiment. 



Using high-resolution film equipment, they would investigate whether salamanders consistently displayed this blood-powered toe mechanism under controlled conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salamanders-regulating-their-blood-flow">Salamanders regulating their blood flow </h2>



The research team conducted detailed video trials and microscopic analysis at Washington State University’s <a href="https://fmic.wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Franceschi Microscopy &amp; Imaging Center</a>. 



Their findings confirmed that wandering salamanders regulate blood flow to each individual toe tip, which allows them to modify grip strength as needed.



This discovery provides insight into how salamanders navigate the complex terrain of the redwood canopy. The ability to release their grip efficiently is particularly significant. 



“If you’re climbing a redwood and have 18 toes gripping bark, being able to detach efficiently without damaging your toe tips makes a huge difference,” Brown said. 



The research suggests that this mechanism plays a crucial role in the salamanders’ ability to thrive in the towering heights of their natural habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-one-species">Implications beyond one species</h2>



While this study focused on&nbsp;Aneides vagrans, the findings could have broader implications. Other salamander species, including aquatic ones, also have vascularized toe structures. 



These structures may serve different purposes depending on the environment, from regulating grip on wet surfaces to enhancing movement across diverse landscapes.



The discovery could also inspire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-pushing-the-u-s-toward-an-unpredictable-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">innovations</a> beyond biology. Scientists studying bioinspired design are particularly interested in nature’s solutions to movement and adhesion problems.



By understanding how salamanders control their grip with blood-powered toe tips, researchers may be able to develop new adhesives and prosthetics that mimic this ability.



Brown and his colleagues plan to expand their research to investigate how similar mechanisms function in other salamander species. 



“This could redefine our understanding of how salamanders move across diverse habitats,” Brown said. The findings could help explain how different species adapt to their environments and refine our knowledge of biomechanics in amphibians.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-salamander-movement">New perspective on salamander movement</h2>



The discovery of blood-powered toes in wandering salamanders challenges previous assumptions about their movement and grip strength. 



As scientists continue to study these remarkable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-and-toads-face-new-risks-as-their-habitats-dry-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>, they may uncover even more secrets hidden within their physiology. 



For now, the ability of wandering salamanders to control their grip with precision remains an intriguing discovery in animal biomechanics.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jmor.70026" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Morphology</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Skydiving' salamanders can fully control blood flow in their toes

Wandering salamanders, also known as "skydiving salamanders," have fascinated scientists...

Hummingbird flower mites are tiny hitchhikers with an electrifying secret. These minuscule arachnids have developed a remarkable survival strategy.



A new study reveals that the mites use static electricity generated by their hummingbird chauffeurs to leap from one flower to another.



The remarkable relationship between the mites and hummingbirds has puzzled researchers for years. 



In particular, scientists have questioned what determines the moment that the mites choose to hop onto or off of a hummingbird. This is a crucial part of the mites' survival, as it enables them to transition from flower to flower for sustenance and reproduction.



After years of speculation and study, researchers may have finally found the answer.



It all started with Carlos Garcia-Robledo, an associate professor in the <a href="https://eeb.uconn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology</a>, who noted that the mites seemingly preferred the first flower that a hummingbird visited. This observation led him to question why the mites were not hopping onto second or third flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-static-electricity-helps-mites-jump">Static electricity helps mites jump</h2>



Initially, the scientific community speculated that some kind of smell signal influenced the mites. However, after conducting experiments, Garcia-Robledo felt there had to be another explanation.



“I knew that it was not maybe the smell that played a major role in this because if you bring the mites to a laboratory, they don’t care much about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flower-smells-like-dead-insects-to-attract-coffin-flies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smells of flowers</a> and so on. I knew it had to be something else,” he said.



The turning point came after Garcia-Robledo read a study about ticks and static electricity. An idea clicked. 



“Maybe something electrostatic was happening there. These mites are so tiny that they live at another level of perception, so of course, even little electric fields are important for them. This could help explain the mystery of how they can be fast enough to hitchhike on this family of birds,” he noted.



Armed with this new idea, Garcia-Robledo collaborated with Konstantine Manser, a Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, and Diego Dierick, a scientist at the <a href="https://tropicalstudies.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Organization for Tropical Studies</a>. The team quickly constructed simple devices to test their theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-mite-s-electric-path">Unveiling the mite's electric path</h2>



To their astonishment, the results were immediate and compelling. The researchers observed that the mites reacted to the static electricity.



“We turned on the device, and instantaneously, they started to respond. That’s how we figured out that they were using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-of-static-electricity-has-finally-been-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">static electricity</a>,” explained Garcia-Robledo.



Further testing revealed that the mites were not just responding to static electricity but to a specific frequency of the electric field. 



“The mites respond to the bouncing of a signal that is associated with the size, geometry, and vibration of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a>, which reach frequencies between 20 and 160 Hz,” noted Garcia-Robledo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-mites-sense-different-signals">Different mites sense different signals</h2>



These discoveries have opened a new chapter in our understanding of hummingbird flower mites.



Each of the 19 mite species at La Selva demonstrates a unique preference for specific flowers and has unique structures in their legs that potentially allow them to detect different electrical frequencies.



“We think that there may be some specificity in the electric signals or different charges for flowers,” noted Garcia-Robledo.



As we continue to unravel the mysteries of hummingbird flower mites, we are reminded of the complex and little-understood ways in which life adapts and thrives.



In these tiny hitchhikers, we find another reflection of the incredible diversity and adaptability of our natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-masters-of-electricity">Masters of electricity</h2>



The ability of hummingbird flower mites to detect and respond to static electricity is probably the result of millions of years of evolutionary fine-tuning.



These tiny arachnids don’t just react to any electric field; they are sensitive to specific frequencies generated by the movement and vibrations of hummingbirds. 



But how did this ability develop, and why is it so crucial to their survival?



Researchers suspect that mites with a heightened sensitivity to electrical fields had an evolutionary advantage. Being able to time their jumps with precision ensures that they reach the right <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-blooming-92-days-earlier-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowers</a>, and minimizes the risk of getting stranded in an unsuitable environment. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research</h2>



Over generations, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> may have favored mites with specialized structures in their legs. As Garcia-Robledo's team observed, these structures seem to help the mites detect and interpret electric signals.



The discovery that mites use electric fields for travel raises broader ecological questions. Could other tiny organisms also exploit similar mechanisms? 



Insects, pollen, or even microbes might interact with electrostatic forces in ways we have yet to fully understand. 



This new perspective challenges researchers to rethink how small-scale biological systems interact with invisible physical forces, and opens the door to discoveries beyond mites and hummingbirds.



While the full extent of electrostatic sensing in nature remains a mystery, one thing is certain - these tiny mites are not just passive passengers. They are finely adapted travelers that use hidden forces to navigate their microscopic world with astonishing precision.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2419214122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hummingbird flower mites use static electricity to travel

Hummingbird flower mites are tiny hitchhikers with an electrifying secret....

Spinosaurus,Attacks,Deinonychus,In,The,Jungle.,This,Is,A,3d

Imagine going out for a quiet stroll and unexpectedly uncovering the remnants of a prehistoric meal - one that dates back 66 million years - buried beneath layers of ancient rock.



This is exactly what happened to an amateur fossil enthusiast in Denmark who, with a keen eye and a bit of luck, stumbled upon a discovery that promises to shed new light on the diets of prehistoric creatures that once roamed the ancient seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chance-discovery-on-the-cliffs">Chance discovery on the cliffs</h2>



The location called the Stevns Klint Coastal Cliffs, which is a <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNESCO-heritage</a> site south of Copenhagen, proved to be a treasure trove for this local resident.



His name is Peter Bennicke, and he was out on a casual walk when he happened upon some unusual fragments in a piece of chalk.



On closer inspection, these fragments turned out to be pieces of sea lily, which is actually a type of marine invertebrate.



Intrigued by his discovery, Bennicke decided to take these fragments to a museum for further examination. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossilized-vomit-composition">Fossilized vomit composition</h2>



The specialists at the <a href="https://www.oesm.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museum of East Zealand</a> conducted an examination of the fragments, which revealed that the pieces were not just ordinary sea lilies.



They were actually a part of fossilized vomit that had formed near the end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous period</a>, around 66 million years ago.



This vomit is thought to have come from a fish that dined on at least two different species of sea lily. However, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-show-distinct-personalities-when-foraging-for-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> could not digest these parts and subsequently regurgitated them.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/dinosaur-vomit_66-million-years-old_credit-Sten-Lennart-Jakobsen_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/dinosaur-vomit_66-million-years-old_credit-Sten-Lennart-Jakobsen_1s.webp" alt="Regurgitated sea lilies discovered by hiker. Credit: Sten Lennart Jakobsen" class="wp-image-1958343"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Regurgitated sea lilies discovered by hiker. Credit: Sten Lennart Jakobsen</figcaption></figure>



In a press release, the Museum emphasized the importance of such discoveries, stating that they play a key role in piecing together ancient food webs.



"This type of find ... is considered very important when reconstructing past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-past-warming-help-protect-future-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> because it provides important information about which animals were eaten by which," stated the Museum press release.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-food-chain-insights">Prehistoric food chain insights</h2>



Discovering prehistoric fossilized vomit is indeed rare and offers new insights into the diet and behavior of prehistoric animals. In the world of paleontology, this is regarded as a precious find.



Jesper Milan, a noted paleontologist associated with the research, was very enthusiastic about the discovery. 



He hailed this discovery as "truly an unusual find," and elaborated on how it helps decipher the relationships in the prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food chain</a>.



"Sea lilies are not a particularly nutritious diet, as they consist mainly of calcareous plates held together by a few soft parts," explained Milan. 



"But here is an animal, probably some kind of fish that, 66 million years ago, ate sea lilies that lived at the bottom of the Cretaceous sea and regurgitated the skeletal parts."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-clues-in-fossilized-vomit">Unexpected clues in fossilized vomit</h2>



Fossilized remains like this rare regurgitation provide a unique snapshot of life in the prehistoric seas.



Unlike traditional body fossils, which reveal an animal’s physical structure, trace fossils such as vomit, feces, and bite marks offer direct evidence of ancient behaviors. 



These remnants, which are often overlooked, play a crucial role in understanding prehistoric ecosystems.



The Cliffs of Stevns, already famous for their rich fossil record from the end-Cretaceous period, continue to yield new surprises. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-fossilized-vomit-matter">Why does fossilized vomit matter?</h2>



This latest discovery highlights how the prehistoric marine world was more dynamic than previously thought. 



The presence of sea lilies in the fish’s diet suggests that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-shoulders-evolved-from-the-jawbones-of-ancient-fish-called-placoderms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient fish</a> species were more opportunistic feeders than expected, consuming whatever was available in their environment. 



This challenges assumptions that sea lilies, primarily composed of calcium carbonate, were unappealing to most marine predators.



By analyzing the composition and arrangement of fossilized vomit like this, paleontologists can piece together ancient food webs with greater accuracy. 



It also raises intriguing questions. Was this fish struggling to find more nutritious prey? Had it evolved specialized features to help it digest this unappealing food? 



With each new find, researchers inch closer to understanding the daily lives of prehistoric creatures, and recreating a more vivid picture of the past.



The information for this article was published in a <a href="https://www.oesm.dk/usaedvanligt-fund-af-danekrae-paa-stevns-klint/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">press release</a> by the Museum of East Zealand.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

66-million-year-old fossilized vomit gives clues to prehistoric diets

Imagine going out for a quiet stroll and unexpectedly uncovering...

The world’s changing climate isn’t only increasing temperatures - it’s triggering a profound reorganization of Earth’s species. The accelerating pace of these shifts poses serious threats to global wildlife.



New research reveals that rapid temperature fluctuations are actively altering which species can survive in specific regions at a rate faster than previously observed.



The study, led by researchers at UC Santa Cruz, highlights how rising and falling temperatures lead to rapid shifts in species composition. The researchers found that as temperature fluctuations accelerate, ecosystems struggle to maintain stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptation-alone-cannot-save-species">Adaptation alone cannot save species</h2>



The study challenges the assumption that species can easily adapt to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing climate</a> through behavioral shifts or altered interactions with other organisms.



Instead, the research shows that such adaptations are insufficient to counteract the effects of increasingly unstable temperatures.



When climate changes too quickly, ecosystems undergo a reshuffling process that disrupts the balance of species within them.



Study lead author Malin Pinsky is an associate professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Cruz</a>.



"It's like shuffling a deck of cards, and temperature change now is shuffling that deck faster and faster," said Pinsky. "The worry is that eventually you start to lose some cards."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-species-replacement">Climate change and species replacement </h2>



Unlike ocean species, which are often forced to move long distances due to warming waters, land animals can typically relocate to nearby areas that suit their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-fear-climate-change-will-end-the-world-during-their-lifetime/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature needs</a>. However, the researchers found that even this ability does not prevent disruptions to terrestrial ecosystems.



The study was focused on species replacement, a process in which some species disappear while new ones take their place.



While this is a natural occurrence, the study shows that the speed of replacement is increasing due to rapid temperature changes. If this trend continues, species losses may outpace new arrivals, leading to ecosystem instability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-mitigate-the-crisis">How to mitigate the crisis</h2>



The study suggests that the best way to reduce these climate change risks is to prevent further global warming, preserve natural landscapes that support diverse species and temperature conditions, and limit human-driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes to the environment</a>.



The benefits of these actions include increased biodiversity, cleaner air, and healthier ecosystems.



"Temperature affects everything from how fast the heart beats to how flexible and porous our cell membranes are; from how much food animals eat to how fast plants grow," noted Pinsky. "Temperature is in many ways the metronome for life."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-ecosystems-are-more-resilient">Some ecosystems are more resilient</h2>



One of the key findings of the study is that ecosystems with varied landscapes are better equipped to handle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-are-largely-unprepared-for-the-effects-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature shifts</a>. 



When an environment offers a range of temperature conditions, species can seek out cooler or warmer areas as needed. This natural variation acts as a buffer against extreme fluctuations.



For example, if a person standing in an open field starts to overheat, they have no immediate escape. However, if a forest is nearby, moving into the shade provides instant relief. 



Animals experience a similar dynamic. Those living in environments with diverse temperature zones can shift their location rather than face extinction or replacement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-species-struggle-with-climate-change">Some species struggle with climate change</h2>



Unfortunately, not all ecosystems have this level of variation. Some regions, whether due to natural conditions or human development, lack the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-the-world-is-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature diversity</a> needed to protect their inhabitants. 



Species in these regions are at the greatest risk of decline as climate change accelerates temperature shifts. Understanding which environments are most vulnerable can help guide conservation efforts.



Study senior author Shane Blowes is an expert at Germany's Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>) and <a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg</a>.



"Establishing this explicit link between rates of climate change and rates of species turnover allows us to better understand how changing temperatures can impact different ecosystems," said Blowes.



"Pinpointing factors that impact the rate of local species replacement can help prioritize conservation actions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activity-increases-species-turnover">Human activity increases species turnover</h2>



The researchers also found that human activity is worsening the effects of climate change on species replacement. Factors such as land development, pollution, and the spread of invasive species put additional stress on already vulnerable ecosystems.



These pressures further accelerate species loss by reducing habitat diversity and making it harder for species to adjust to temperature changes.



Humans can help mitigate the negative effects of climate change on biodiversity by reducing habitat destruction, minimizing pollution, and controlling invasive species.



In marine environments, reducing fishing pressure and protecting underwater habitats can also support species stability.



As climate change continues to accelerate, understanding how ecosystems respond to temperature shifts will be critical for conservation efforts. The study’s findings highlight the urgency of addressing global warming and protecting diverse habitats to ensure the stability of ecosystems worldwide.



The research was funded by the National Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF</a>), iDiv, and the <a href="https://hifmb.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08456-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Climate change is constantly reshuffling Earth's species

The world’s changing climate isn’t only increasing temperatures - it’s...

In the frozen expanse of the Arctic, polar bears glide effortlessly across ice and plunge into sub-zero waters - yet their fur is remarkably free of frost. 



For years, scientists have wondered: How do these apex predators avoid turning into walking ice cubes? The answer, it turns out, is as simple as it is surprising: greasy hair.



Researchers analyzed hair samples from six wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-struggling-to-survive-longer-summers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bears</a>. They discovered that the fur’s sebum, made of cholesterol, diacylglycerols, and fatty acids, plays a crucial role in preventing ice buildup. 



When the grease was removed, the fur lost its ice-resistant properties and behaved similarly to human hair, which allows ice to adhere easily.



The research offers new insights into how polar bears adapt to their harsh environment. It also opens up possibilities for developing new materials that resist ice accumulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polar-bears-greasy-fur">Polar bears' greasy fur</h2>



The study was led by Julian Carolan, a PhD candidate in the School of Chemistry at <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin</a> and the <a href="https://ambercentre.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMBER Research Ireland Centre</a>.



“We measured ice adhesion strength, which is a useful measure of how well ice sticks to fur; hydrophobicity, which dictates whether water can be shed before it freezes; and freezing delay time, which simply shows how long it takes for a drop of water to freeze at certain temperatures on a given surface,” explained Carolan.



“We then compared the performance of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear</a> hair with that of human hair and two types of specialist human-made ‘ski skins.'"



The results confirmed that greasy, unwashed polar bear hair strongly resists ice. When washed, the fur lost its grease and performed similarly to human hair, to which ice sticks easily.



Further chemical analysis revealed a surprising detail - polar bear sebum does not contain squalene. This fatty compound is common in human hair and in aquatic mammals like sea otters. Its absence in polar bears suggests a key evolutionary adaptation that helps them resist ice accumulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-inspired-innovation">Nature-inspired innovation</h2>



Dr. Richard Hobbs highlighted the broader impact of this discovery. "Animals living in polar habitats have emerged as a source of inspiration for the development of new anti-icing materials,” he said.



“For example, Anne Kietzig’s group at&nbsp;<a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill&nbsp;University</a>&nbsp;recently found that the hierarchical structure of Gentoo penguin feathers afforded them anti-icing properties that relied on the feather structure rather than the preen oil coating." 



"Our work shows that polar bear fur provides an alternative strategy to produce an anti-icing surface based on the characteristic blend of lipids present in their fur sebum or hair grease.”



This study not only clarifies why polar bears avoid ice buildup but also suggests new ways to create sustainable, ice-resistant coatings. Researchers hope to replace environmentally harmful chemicals like PFAS, commonly used in current anti-icing coatings, with alternatives inspired by nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-properties-of-polar-bear-fur">Unique properties of polar bear fur</h2>



Beyond its scientific applications, this discovery provides valuable insights into polar bear hunting techniques and Inuit traditions.



Professor Bodil Holst from the <a href="https://www.uib.no/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of&nbsp;Bergen</a>&nbsp;explained how this adaptation benefits polar bears in the wild.



“One of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-suffering-from-painful-ice-balls-stuck-on-their-feet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bears</a>’ main hunting strategies is ‘still hunting,’ where they lay motionless beside a breathing hole on sea ice waiting for seals to surface. Still hunting frequently develops into an ‘aquatic stalk’ with the polar bear using its hind paws to slide into the water to pursue its prey, and the lower the ice adhesion, the less noise generated and the faster and quieter the slide.”



Inuit hunters have long understood this advantage. They sometimes cover their hunting stools with polar bear fur to reduce noise while moving on ice. Additionally,&nbsp;polar bear trousers (made using the same principle) allow hunters to move quietly without alerting prey.



Importantly, traditional Inuit preparation methods preserve the natural grease in the fur. Unlike fox fur, which is often cleaned with soapstone or dry clay, polar bear fur is kept unwashed to maintain its unique properties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-technology">Implications for future technology </h2>



This research not only deepens our understanding of Arctic survival but also has practical implications for future technology.



By studying how nature prevents ice buildup, scientists aim to create more sustainable solutions for industries that require ice-resistant materials.



Polar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keeping-the-peace-how-drones-can-help-humans-and-bears-coexist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bear</a> fur, with its naturally occurring grease, may inspire the next generation of eco-friendly coatings that could be used in transportation, winter sports, and industrial applications.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ads7321" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ice doesn't stick to polar bear fur - but why?

In the frozen expanse of the Arctic, polar bears glide...

Giant clams, some of the largest mollusks on Earth, have captivated marine biologists for decades. These marine giants can reach lengths of up to 4.5 feet and weigh over 700 pounds, making them key figures in tropical coral reef ecosystems. 



Beyond the sheer size of giant clams, their biology holds secrets that researchers are still uncovering. A new study led by CU Boulder provides insight into how giant clams <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-clams-have-vanished-from-places-where-they-used-to-thrive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved</a> to coexist with algae inside their bodies.



The team sequenced the genome of Tridacna maxima, the most widespread species of giant clam. 



The researchers discovered genetic adaptations that enable these creatures to sustain themselves through symbiosis rather than by consuming large amounts of food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-giant-clams-grow">How giant clams grow</h2>



Unlike many large marine animals, giant clams do not rely on a high-protein diet to sustain their impressive size. Instead, they derive most of their energy from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-algae-soak-up-loads-of-carbon-to-help-save-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> living inside their tissues. These algae harness sunlight through photosynthesis, producing nutrients that the clams absorb.



The recent genomic study highlights how&nbsp;T. maxima&nbsp;has evolved genetic mechanisms that allow it to accommodate these symbiotic algae. By examining the genetic code of&nbsp;T. maxima, researchers found clues about how this partnership contributed to the giant clam’s remarkable size.



Study senior author Jingchun Li is a professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a>.



“Giant clams are keystone species in many marine habitats,” said Li. “Understanding their genetics and ecology helps us better understand the coral reef ecosystem.”



By comparing the genome of&nbsp;T. maxima&nbsp;with those of non-symbiotic mollusks, scientists identified key differences that enable the clam to support algae within its body while maintaining its own health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-symbiotic-relationship">Unique symbiotic relationship</h2>



Popular myths often depict giant clams as dangerous creatures capable of swallowing unsuspecting divers. In reality, these mollusks are entirely non-predatory and depend entirely on their relationship with algae for survival.



When young giant clams drift through the ocean as larvae, they have the opportunity to ingest algae. If they take in the right species, they begin to develop a specialized internal system of tube-like structures where the algae settle and multiply. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-play-an-unexpected-role-in-cooling-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> convert sunlight into sugars through photosynthesis, supplying essential nutrients to their host. “It’s like the algae are seeds, and a tree grows out of the clam’s stomach,” Li said.



This relationship benefits both organisms. While the algae provide food, the giant clams offer their symbiotic partners a safe environment within their tissues. 



The clams regulate light exposure by expanding and retracting their mantles, ensuring that the algae receive sufficient sunlight without experiencing damage from excessive radiation. The clams also provide essential nutrients that sustain their tiny partners.



This process, known as photosymbiosis, is found in only a handful of marine species, such as corals. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-with-algae">Living with algae</h2>



Many other mollusks, even those closely related to giant clams, do not form these symbiotic relationships. Scientists wanted to understand what made giant clams unique in this regard.



To explore this question, the research team collaborated with experts from the <a href="https://www.uog.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Guam</a> and the <a href="https://visit.museum.wa.gov.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Australian Museum</a>. They analyzed the genetic makeup of T. maxima and compared it with species such as common cockles that lack symbiotic partnerships.



The findings revealed that T. maxima possesses a greater number of genes designed to detect and distinguish beneficial algae from harmful bacteria or viruses.



Additionally, the researchers found that the giant clam has evolved a way to suppress parts of its immune system, allowing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> to reside safely within its body for extended periods.



“As a result of the clam’s weakened immune system, its genome contains a large number of transposable elements, which are bits of genetic material left behind by ancient viruses,” said Ruiqi Li, the study’s first author and a postdoctoral researcher at the CU <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/resources/museum-natural-history" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museum of Natural History</a>.



“These aspects highlight the tradeoffs of symbiosis. The host has to accommodate a suppressed immune system and potentially more viral genome invasions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-giant-clam-s-massive-size">The giant clam’s massive size</h2>



Another major finding of the study concerned the genes responsible for regulating body size. 



Compared to other mollusks, giant clams have fewer CTRP genes, which control body weight and growth. Scientists believe that this genetic difference may explain how giant clams are able to reach such enormous sizes.



By reducing the genetic restrictions on body growth, these mollusks may have evolved to expand far beyond the size of their closest relatives. Their symbiotic relationship with algae provides the necessary energy to support this growth, compensating for their lack of a high-protein diet.



Understanding these genetic mechanisms not only helps scientists grasp how giant clams evolved but also offers insights into broader ecological patterns. The study demonstrates how organisms can evolve specialized relationships with other species to maximize their survival in challenging environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-concerns-for-giant-clams">Conservation concerns for giant clams</h2>



Last year, a giant clam population assessment led by Ruiqi Li influenced the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) to revise the conservation status of several giant clam species.



Tridacna gigas, the largest and most iconic species, is now classified as “critically endangered,” meaning it is at extreme risk of extinction in the wild. Conservationists have long warned about the threats facing this species, from overharvesting to habitat destruction.



While&nbsp;T. maxima&nbsp;remains categorized as “least concern” due to its wide distribution, scientists caution that classification may not tell the full story. Ruiqi Li pointed out that different species are sometimes grouped together simply because they look similar, which could lead to an underestimation of conservation risks.



“If you think these giant clams are all the same species, you might underestimate the threat they face,” noted Ruiqi Li. “Genetic studies like this can help us distinguish between species and assess their true conservation needs.”



The research team aims to sequence the genomes of all 12 known giant clam species. By identifying subtle genetic differences, they hope to improve conservation strategies tailored to each species’ needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-climate-change">Impact of climate change</h2>



Beyond direct human threats, giant clams face increasing dangers from climate change. Similar to corals, these mollusks rely on their symbiotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-algae-instead-of-meat-products-to-save-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> for survival. 



When ocean temperatures rise beyond a certain threshold, the clams expel their algae, leading to a condition similar to coral bleaching. Without algae, the clams lose their primary energy source and may not survive.



“The giant clams are very important for the stability of the marine ecosystem and support biodiversity,” said Jingchun Li.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-giant-clams">Importance of giant clams</h2>



In addition to their role as primary producers, giant clams provide shelter for numerous marine species. Their large shells create microhabitats that protect small fish and invertebrates from predators. 



Many marine creatures also depend on giant clams as a food source, further highlighting their importance in coral reef ecosystems.



“Protecting them is essential for the health of coral reefs and the marine life that depends on them,” Li added.



As climate change and habitat destruction continue to threaten marine biodiversity, studies like this offer crucial insights into how species adapt to their environments. 



By understanding the genetic basis of symbiosis in giant clams, scientists can contribute to conservation efforts that preserve these remarkable mollusks for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-024-07423-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Giant clams grow huge without eating much protein

Giant clams, some of the largest mollusks on Earth, have...

Glaciers worldwide are shrinking due to rising temperatures, reshaping landscapes and posing serious challenges for the organisms that inhabit them. Yet in the lofty reaches of the Andes Mountains, a wild relative of the llama is helping new life take root in areas newly exposed by ice retreat.&nbsp;



By depositing substantial piles of dung, vicuñas are speeding up plant colonization on freshly deglaciated terrain, a process that would otherwise take more than a century.



This fascinating discovery, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-83457-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Scientific Reports</a>, underscores an unexpected strategy through which species are adjusting to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-action-and-biodiversity-striking-the-right-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.&nbsp;



While this unique animal behavior offers hope for reviving scarred alpine landscapes, the study’s authors caution that the overall pace of climate change outstrips many species’ ability to find suitable new habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crucial-ecological-role-of-vicunas-nbsp">Crucial ecological role of vicuñas&nbsp;</h2>



Vicuñas are one of two wild South American camelids, with llamas and alpacas as their domesticated counterparts. 



These hardy animals live at high altitudes in the Andes and have a notable habit: much like how people consistently use designated bathrooms, vicuñas gather in communal latrines.



Cliff Bueno de Mesquita is the study’s co-first author and a research scientist at the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>.&nbsp;



“It’s interesting to see how a social behavior of these animals can transfer nutrients to a new ecosystem that is very nutrient poor,” said Bueno de Mesquita.&nbsp;



However, the current rate of climate change still outpaces the ability of many species to find new habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-growth-in-vicunas-latrines">Plant growth in vicuñas’ latrines</h2>



The key finding is that vicuñas’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-dung-feeds-over-2-million-beetles-daily/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dung</a> accelerates plant establishment on deglaciated ground by more than a hundred years. 



Glacial melt in high-altitude areas typically reveals a desolate landscape of rock and gravel, lacking essential nutrients for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant growth</a>. 



Over the last ten years, Steven Schmidt, the paper’s senior author and a professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, and his team noticed small patches of vegetation emerging wherever vicuña dung piles accumulated.



The researchers ventured to sites in the Peruvian Andes, nearly 18,000 feet above sea level, that had previously been covered by glaciers. They analyzed the composition of soil in and around these communal dung piles and discovered notable differences.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhanced-soil-quality">Enhanced soil quality</h3>



Vicuña latrine soils contained considerably higher levels of organic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus than adjacent barren soils - enough to promote rapid plant germination.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-water-retention">Better water retention</h3>



Despite the arid conditions at high altitudes, the latrine soils held more moisture, further supporting plant life in an otherwise harsh environment.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-diversity">Microbial diversity</h3>



Soil samples from latrines revealed a wide variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-soil-planet-warming-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microorganisms</a>, suggesting the latrines serve as fertile ground for microbes and, consequently, plants.



This rich blend of nutrients, water, and microbes helps seeds from lower elevations - carried to high altitudes via vicuñas’ dung - take root more easily in newly revealed terrain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-retreat-and-barren-landscapes">Glacial retreat and barren landscapes </h2>



Normally, the newly exposed soil left by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-glacier-retreat-in-the-arctic-signals-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreating glaciers</a> can remain plant-free for a century or more due to nutrient deficits and low moisture levels. 



Through their dung piles, vicuñas deposit an essential mix of nutrients, seeds, and microorganisms that jumpstart the formation of a new ecosystem. 



Over time, this vegetation encourages other animals, including herbivores and predators like pumas, to move in.



Camera footage confirms that the presence of nascent vegetation has drawn a surprising variety of wildlife, including species rarely seen at such extreme altitudes. 



In turn, vicuñas themselves also graze on the plants that spring up around their latrines, creating a cyclical benefit.



According to Kelsey Rider, an animal ecologist at <a href="https://www.jmu.edu/index.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Madison University</a>, it could take centuries for the deglaciated area to transform into grassland.



This might help mitigate the negative impacts that many animal species preferring colder climates face as their habitats shrink. The process, while beneficial, lags behind the rapid pace of glacial melting worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anthropogenic-climate-change-nbsp">Anthropogenic climate change&nbsp;</h2>



Scientists note that vicuñas, despite effectively fertilizing and rejuvenating new habitats, cannot fully counteract the accelerating glacier loss.&nbsp;



Over the past two decades, global glacier melt has surged, with non-polar glaciers losing around 267 billion tons of ice each year between 2000 and 2019. 



If warming trends persist, up to 68% of Earth’s glaciers could disappear, imperiling water supplies for almost a quarter of the world’s population.



“The vicuñas are probably helping some alpine organisms, but we can’t assume they’ll all be okay, because in Earth’s history, we’ve never seen climate change happen at this speed,”



Bueno de Mesquita said. “Current anthropogenic climate change is probably the most severe crisis our planet and all living things have faced in the past 65 million years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-in-a-drastically-changing-climate-nbsp">Wildlife in a drastically changing climate&nbsp;</h2>



The role of vicuñas in the Andes serves as a compelling illustration of how species can adapt to a changing planet. 



By pooling nutrients in communal dung piles, these animals foster micro-environments that favor plant life, effectively creating oases in barren landscapes.



Although this adaptation stands as a beacon of resilience, the overarching message remains stark: climate change is unfolding too quickly for many species to keep pace.&nbsp;



Without significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and robust conservation efforts, ecosystems around the globe - including the high Andes - risk suffering irreversible damage.



Ultimately, the study emphasizes that while behaviors like the vicuñas’ communal latrines can offer localized reprieves from the stresses of global warming, far more comprehensive measures are needed to ensure that both wildlife and human communities can endure in a drastically shifting environment.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Animal poop can literally transform barren landscapes into lush ecosystems

Glaciers worldwide are shrinking due to rising temperatures, reshaping landscapes...

As landscapes shift around the world, changes in wildlife habitats often bring animals into closer contact with human populations. Such is the case in the American West, where certain populations of grizzly bears (also known as brown bears) are moving onto the prairie following successful conservation initiatives.&nbsp;



While the recovery of these formidable carnivores has been hailed as a significant victory, it has also triggered new challenges, as people grow wary of sharing the land with such large and powerful predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-return-of-grizzlies-to-the-great-plains">Return of grizzlies to the Great Plains</h2>



In the contiguous United States, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grizzly-bear-conservation-must-focus-on-habitat-quality-and-mortality-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grizzly bears</a> have been classified as a protected species since the 1970s. Over several decades, conservation efforts and legal safeguards have allowed them to expand and reclaim parts of their historical range.&nbsp;



In areas like the greater Yellowstone ecosystem and Glacier National Park, populations have rebounded so effectively that grizzlies have migrated out from the mountains and onto the flat, open prairie.



Such reoccupation of ancient habitats can create conflicts where human settlement and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-agriculture-are-locked-in-a-destructive-feedback-loop/">agriculture</a> now dominate. 



These bears, weighing up to 751 kilograms (1,656 pounds) and possessing claws 15 centimeters (6 inches) long, can indeed pose risks - though their diet is often omnivorous and plant-based, they remain powerful predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-public-concerns-and-fears">Addressing public concerns and fears</h2>



As grizzlies re-enter the plains, many local residents find themselves living alongside an animal that can kill livestock, cause property damage, and - though rarely - pose a threat to people.&nbsp;



Recognizing these community concerns, <a href="https://fwp.mt.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks</a> and the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> responded by assigning a specialized bear manager, Wesley Sarmento from the <a href="https://www.umt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montana</a>, to handle issues of human-bear conflict.



Sarmento held a series of public meetings to gather input. Residents voiced their main request: keep grizzlies out of towns, away from homes, and prevent them from preying on livestock.&nbsp;



Sarmento committed to addressing these requests by hazing bears - using methods intended to chase and deter bears from undesirable behaviors without harming them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hazing-in-wildlife-management-nbsp">Hazing in wildlife management&nbsp;</h2>



Although hazing is commonly mentioned in wildlife management, few studies have formally tested its efficacy.&nbsp;



Seeking to fill that gap, Sarmento decided to record data on how well hazing succeeded in moving bears from problem areas and whether it instilled a lasting aversion in the animals, a concept known as “aversive conditioning.”



Initially, he used standard tools: a truck and a shotgun loaded with non-lethal ammunition, such as cracker shells and rubber rounds, designed to discourage bears without causing permanent injury.&nbsp;



In one instance, encountering a large, agitated male grizzly in a soggy field, Sarmento found it impossible to drive close. Approaching on foot, the bear charged - but a timely cracker shell deterred it. This dramatic experience led to interest in a new tool: “bear dogs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-and-drones-tools-for-hazing-bears">Dogs and drones: Tools for hazing bears</h2>



Sarmento acquired two adult Airedale Terriers, known locally as a favored breed, hoping they would help locate and chase off grizzlies. Some residents supported the idea, while others doubted the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/">dogs</a>’ effectiveness. 



In practice, the dogs were inconsistent at detecting bears, often chasing other animals, such as feral cats or porcupines instead. Repeated training efforts yielded limited results.



Given the dogs’ shortcomings, the manager then turned to technology: a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-biodiversity-in-rainforest-canopies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drone</a>. Equipped with a thermal camera, the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) could be flown over fences, canals, and uneven terrain.&nbsp;



Operators could remain safely in a vehicle while piloting the drone to harass and direct grizzlies away from sensitive areas like homes, towns, and livestock pastures - day or night.



This method proved highly effective. Bears could be steered exactly where Sarmento wanted, and the drone’s distinctive buzzing sound was enough to startle them into moving away quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drones-teach-bears-to-avoid-humans">Drones teach bears to avoid humans</h2>



Over time, data showed that older bears needed fewer drone interventions, suggesting they learned to avoid humans and their properties after repeated negative encounters. 



Additionally, the annual number of hazing events declined, an indicator of successful aversive conditioning.&nbsp;



This outcome benefitted both communities and wildlife: fewer conflicts meant fewer reasons for authorities to consider lethal or other severe control measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-risks-for-bears-and-people">Reducing risks for bears and people</h2>



While success with drones and non-lethal deterrence methods is promising, the rate at which grizzlies are returning to the plains continues to raise concerns. Bears can remain at least partially drawn to the same foods and resources humans also value, increasing the likelihood of conflict.&nbsp;



Moreover, with climate change and other ecological pressures, maintaining safe coexistence between humans and grizzlies will require ongoing innovation and engagement with local communities.



Ultimately, the experiences in Montana demonstrate that even formidable predators like the grizzly bear can be deterred and taught to steer clear of human properties.&nbsp;



By combining aversive conditioning with new technologies, wildlife managers can reduce risks to both bears and people, preserving a conservation success story while addressing the inevitable challenges of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wildlife-overlap-is-rapidly-rising-across-the-globe/">human-wildlife</a> coexistence.



More details can be found in Sarmento’s article, published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/conservation-science/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2024.1478450/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Conservation Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Keeping the peace: How drones can help humans and bears coexist

As landscapes shift around the world, changes in wildlife habitats...

If we could turn back time to between 45,000 and 29,000 years ago, we would find that the planet was a vastly different place from how it is currently. Early humans were just beginning to establish their presence beyond the African continent, and they may unwittingly have caused a seismic shift in the local ecology.



But how did their arrival impact the delicate balance of the animal kingdom? A recent study offers fresh insights into this ancient relationship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-scavenger-human-relationship">The scavenger-human relationship</h2>



"Early humans, more than 30,000 years ago, did not live in isolation from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealth-inequality-exists-in-the-animal-kingdom-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal world</a>; they were integrated into a network of relationships with scavengers," explained Dr. Chris Baumann, one of the key scientists behind the research.



This complex web of interactions, where humans and scavenger animals influenced each other, is often challenging to understand from our modern perspective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-data-unearthing-the-past">The power of data: Unearthing the past</h2>



Uncovering insights from the depths of history is no simple task. However, researchers from the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tübingen</a> and the University of Cologne achieved this by leveraging the extensive ROAD database from the ROCEEH research center. 



This database encompasses information from 2,400 prehistoric sites across Europe, Africa, and Asia.



By focusing on zooarchaeological data from European sites once inhabited by humans, the team unearthed intriguing patterns of behavior that had long disappeared into the past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-human-effect-on-scavengers">The human effect on scavengers</h2>



Dr. Baumann and his colleagues hypothesize that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient humans</a> may have hunted and killed more animals than they could consume, thereby increasing the availability of carrion.



At first, this may have been a boon for sizable scavenger animals. "Initially, this benefited large scavengers," noted Baumann.



However, humans soon began to manage their surroundings more carefully, ensuring that large predators were kept at a distance from their settlements.



On the other hand, unthreatening small scavengers like foxes, ravens, or crows were likely tolerated - much like we tolerate urban foxes and raccoons today.



Baumann believes this dynamic resulted in a significant shift in the relationship between humans and scavengers between 45,000 and 29,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-carnivores-were-displaced">Large carnivores were displaced </h2>



"During this period, the late Pleistocene, the large scavengers began to be displaced in favor of smaller species, some of which even benefited from living with humans," noted Dr. Shumon T. Hussain. 



This shift was likely driven, in part, by the arrival of modern humans (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-homo-sapiens-living-spaces-organized-similarly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Homo sapiens</a>) in Europe and the displacement of the region's last Neanderthals.



"Humans further developed their skills and hunted so many animals that significantly more energy became available in the food web," noted Baumann.



This influx of energy resulted in behavioral adaptations and evolutionary changes in scavenging animals, while humans developed new ways of colonizing the landscape. 



In effect, humans played a significant role in shaping ecosystems - which may have also influenced human evolution itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-ecological-impact">Long-term ecological impact</h2>



The changes induced by early humans didn’t just alter the dynamics between scavengers and their environment in the short term. These changes triggered a cascade of ecological consequences that echoed through generations.



As large scavengers were gradually pushed away and smaller ones thrived in human-dominated spaces, the ecosystem itself adapted in response. 



This shift likely influenced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey</a> relationships, competition for resources, and even the genetic evolution of scavenger species over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-domestication-of-animals">Domestication of animals</h2>



Researchers believe that this transition may have contributed to the domestication process, with some animals gradually adapting to human presence and food sources. 



The tolerance for smaller scavengers like foxes and birds may have been an early stepping stone to the complex relationships humans share with domesticated animals today.



Furthermore, this adaptation highlights how human activity can leave an enduring mark on biodiversity - whether intentional or not.



Understanding these ancient ecological shifts provides valuable lessons for modern conservation efforts. 



The study highlights the importance of considering how human interventions, both past and present, can disrupt or reshape natural ecosystems. The research offers insights into how we might promote more sustainable coexistence with wildlife in the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379124006504?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Science Reviews</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How early humans and small scavengers benefited each other

If we could turn back time to between 45,000 and...

Golden,Trevally,Swim,With,A,Whale,Shark,In,Cenderawasih,Bay,

Massive whale sharks, the gentle giants of the ocean, are engaging in unexpected behavior. According to a new study, whale sharks use oil platforms as migratory stopover sites during their expansive journeys across the globe.



These spotted behemoths don't just randomly cruise the seas - they follow a network of natural and human-made structures that dot their underwater highways.



These observations come from a long-term tracking study conducted by Ben D'Antonio and his colleagues at the Australian Institute of Marine Science (<a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AIMS</a>) and The University of Western Australia (<a href="https://www.uwa.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UWA</a>).



The findings paint a fascinating picture of how these enormous fish navigate the vast expanses of our oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-whale-sharks-across-the-ocean">Tracking whale sharks across the ocean</h2>



The study involved analyzing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-shark-mating-behaviors-observed-for-the-first-time-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellite tracking</a> data from 78 whale sharks over a span of 14 years. The researchers focused on whale sharks that had been tagged at Ningaloo Reef and Shark Bay - two critical habitats along the Western Australian coast.



According to lead author Ben D’Antonio, a Ph.D. candidate from the AIMS@UWA program, the study provides crucial insights into how these massive creatures navigate the ocean.



"We mapped their movements across the eastern Indian Ocean and the North West Shelf. The latter area in particular features a number of oil and gas platforms and associated infrastructure," D’Antonio said.



The researchers found that whale sharks use natural underwater formations, such as seamounts, pinnacles, and canyons as navigational aids.



These structures, shaped by ocean currents, act as hotspots for plankton and other small organisms, which provide a reliable food source for the filter-feeding giants.



"Whale sharks travel huge distances across the oceans, and our study illustrates that they tend to use undersea pinnacles and seamounts as stepping stones on these journeys because the currents that flow around these features help to enhance food availability like plankton," said D'Antonio.



Interestingly, the researchers also found that artificial structures, such as offshore oil and gas platforms, may play a similar role in facilitating whale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark migration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-sharks-like-oil-and-gas-platforms">Whale sharks like oil and gas platforms</h2>



While seamounts and pinnacles can span tens of kilometers, oil and gas platforms are relatively small. Yet, they seem to offer a comparable level of food availability. 



Researchers believe this may be due to the way industrial infrastructure affects surrounding marine ecosystems.



"The same is true for the industrial infrastructure found off the north-west coast of Australia," D’Antonio explained.



There is evidence, for example, that plankton are attracted by the artificial lights on these platforms. This discovery suggests that oil and gas platforms may unintentionally benefit marine life by attracting prey species.



However, the role of oil and gas platforms as migratory stepping stones also raises new questions about how their eventual removal could affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-face-deadly-threats-in-shipping-lanes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale shark</a> movement patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-oil-platform-removal">Impact of oil platform removal </h2>



As oil and gas platforms reach the end of their operational lives, many are scheduled for decommissioning. 



The study’s findings suggest that removing these structures could disrupt whale shark migration.



"The removal of platforms at the end of their productive life may change seascape connectivity by removing migratory stepping stones that link important habitats for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale sharks</a>," D’Antonio said.



Understanding the extent to which whale sharks depend on these artificial structures is now a priority.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter? </h2>



Researchers need to determine how frequently the sharks visit platforms and whether they rely on them for sustenance or merely use them as occasional stopovers.



"There is still a need to understand the detail in the relationships between whale sharks and individual oil and gas platforms, like how often and for how long they visit," noted D’Antonio.



These insights are crucial for conservation and management strategies, particularly when planning marine protected areas (MPAs) and making decisions about decommissioning offshore infrastructures.



Policymakers must carefully weigh the ecological consequences before dismantling platforms that may serve an unexpected but important role in whale shark migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-conservation-and-risks">Balancing conservation and risks</h2>



While the presence of oil and gas platforms may provide benefits for whale sharks, they also introduce significant risks. Ship strikes from service vessels are a major concern, particularly in areas with heavy industrial activity.



<a href="https://www.aims.gov.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AIMS</a> scientist and co-author Dr. Luciana Ferreira pointed out the dangers posed by vessel interactions.



"There are records of fatal interactions between whale sharks and vessels, and a considerable portion of the whale shark population at Ningaloo Reef have scars attributed to vessel strikes," she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-sharks-offshore-oil-and-pollution">Whale sharks, offshore oil, and pollution</h2>



Pollution is another pressing issue. Discharges, spills, and other contaminants associated with industrial operations can pose serious threats to marine life. 



Even subtle environmental changes caused by industrial infrastructure may have unintended consequences for whale shark behavior.



"The presence of the platforms may also have indirect implications by altering migration patterns and disrupting the movements of whale sharks between natural features," explained Dr. Ferreira.



Despite these concerns, whale sharks face threats across their entire distribution. Fishing bycatch, entanglement, and ship strikes are all significant dangers that affect populations globally.



To protect whale sharks effectively, conservationists must take a holistic approach that accounts for both natural and artificial influences on their movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-further-research">Need for further research</h2>



This study highlights the complexity of whale shark conservation. While natural features remain the primary drivers of migration, artificial structures appear to play a growing role in shaping their movement patterns. 



Experts must now investigate whether these structures act as temporary refuges, long-term feeding grounds, or accidental hazards.



More broadly, the study highlights the importance of integrating industrial considerations into marine conservation planning. With careful management, it may be possible to mitigate risks while preserving the unexpected benefits that artificial structures provide.



As decisions about decommissioning offshore platforms loom, scientists and policymakers must work together to ensure that conservation efforts align with the realities of an ever-changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine environment</a>. 



The future of whale sharks depends on understanding how both natural and human-made factors, such as oil and gas platforms, shape their world - and ensuring that their migratory pathways remain intact for generations to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ddi.13950" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diversity and Distributions</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Whale sharks use offshore oil rigs as food stops during migration, harming conservation efforts

Massive whale sharks, the gentle giants of the ocean, are...

Around 45 million years ago, during the Eocene Epoch, the Geiseltal region of present-day Germany was a vast, humid swamp that teemed with life. Ancient horses, early tapirs, giant tortoises, large land crocodiles, and countless birds flourished in this tropical paradise. Among these creatures roamed Diatryma, a massive, flightless bird that stood 4.6 feet (1.40 meters) tall.



With its robust frame and enormous beak, this prehistoric giant was once thought to be a fearsome predator. However, modern research has revealed a different story - Diatryma was likely a gentle herbivore.



This bird's legacy remained shrouded in mystery for decades, but a recent discovery by an international team of researchers has brought it back into the spotlight. 



Led by scientists from the Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg (MLU) and the Senckenberg Research Institute, the research team has analyzed a fully preserved Diatryma skull, making it only the second such specimen known in the world.



The findings, published in the journal&nbsp;Palaeontologia Electronica, highlight how museum collections continue to yield remarkable scientific revelations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fossil-lost-in-time">A fossil lost in time</h2>



The newly examined Diatryma skull was not freshly excavated. Instead, it had been sitting unnoticed in the extensive Geiseltal Collection at <a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MLU</a> for decades. It was originally unearthed in the 1950s in a lignite mining area in Geiseltal, a site known for its rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil deposits</a>.



However, due to a misclassification, the fossil led a shadowy existence for years. It was mistakenly identified as a crocodile skull, a forgivable mix-up given the variety of prehistoric reptilian remains found in the region.



For years, the skull sat in storage, unrecognized for what it truly was. It wasn’t until Michael Stache, a geological preparator at MLU's Central Repository of Natural Science Collections, rediscovered the fossil that its true significance came to light. 



"The find was initially misidentified as a crocodile skull," remarked Stache. Upon closer examination, he realized the error and undertook the painstaking process of restoring and analyzing the specimen.



As Stache worked on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fossil-fills-crucial-gap-in-pterosaur-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a>, he noticed that another fragment in the collection seemed to belong to the same skull. By combining the two pieces, he successfully reconstructed what is now recognized as an almost entire preserved Diatryma skull.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-and-remarkable-find">A rare and remarkable find</h2>



The rediscovery of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grand-canyon-fossils-reveal-secrets-of-the-cambrian-explosion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> attracted the attention of Dr. Gerald Mayr, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.senckenberg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Senckenberg Research Institute</a>. He examined the specimen closely and confirmed what few paleontologists ever expected to find - a nearly complete Diatryma skull.



Until this discovery, only one other fully preserved skull of this species was known to exist; it is housed at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Museum of Natural History</a> in the United States.



"This shows, once again, that many of the most interesting discoveries in paleontology occur in museum collections. Just a few years ago, nobody would have thought that the Geiseltal Collection would contain such surprises," commented Mayr.



The skull’s excellent state of preservation offers scientists a rare opportunity to study the anatomy of this ancient bird in greater detail than ever before.



The fossil is now part of the Geiseltal Collection, which consists of approximately 50,000 specimens. These fossils, considered a national heritage asset, provide an invaluable window into the ancient ecosystems of the Eocene. 



Even though the mining operations in Geiseltal ceased in 1993 and fossil excavations ended long ago, new discoveries continue to emerge from the collection, reshaping our understanding of prehistoric life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-gentle-giant-not-a-predator">A gentle giant, not a predator</h2>



For decades, scientists debated Diatryma’s place in the prehistoric food chain.



Early theories suggested that this towering bird was a predator that hunted small horses and other mammals in the swamps of Geiseltal. Its size and formidable beak led researchers to compare it to later, more aggressive species of giant flightless birds.



However, recent studies, including those based on the newly examined skull, have painted a very different picture. Diatryma was most likely a herbivore that used its massive beak to process tough plant material rather than to tear flesh.



Its anatomy suggests it was built for foraging rather than hunting, much like modern, large, plant-eating birds such as ostriches and emus.



"This research expands our understanding of the Eocene Epoch in the Geiseltal even though the excavations were completed long ago," says Stache. Scientists now believe that Diatryma lived alongside early mammals that fed on vegetation rather than preying on animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-geiseltal-collection">Significance of the Geiseltal collection</h2>



The Geiseltal region has long been a treasure trove for paleontologists. Once a mining area rich in lignite deposits, it also preserved an astonishing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of prehistoric life</a>. 



Fossils from this region include everything from tiny insects to massive reptiles, providing an unparalleled glimpse into an ecosystem that thrived 45 million years ago.



Even though large-scale excavations in the area ended decades ago, the work of researchers at MLU and other institutions continues to uncover new findings. The rediscovery of the Diatryma skull proves that museum collections hold many secrets that are waiting to be revealed by keen-eyed scientists.



The Geiseltal Collection remains a hub of international research. Scientists from around the world visit MLU regularly to study its fossils, eager to expand the knowledge of life in the Eocene. 



Each fossil offers a new puzzle piece in the story of evolution, shedding light on how prehistoric species adapted and thrived in their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-diatryma-fossil">Insights from the Diatryma fossil</h2>



With only about 40 known Diatryma fossils in the Geiseltal Collection, researchers believe the bird was a relatively rare sight in the region.



"Diatryma was probably a rare guest in the Geiseltal. Otherwise, there would probably be more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a>," concluded Stache.



The rediscovery of its skull is not just a victory for paleontology but also a proof of the enduring value of museum collections. 



While excavation sites may eventually close, the knowledge they yield continues to evolve, driven by curiosity and scientific advances.



Diatryma, once lost in the depths of a misidentified fossil collection, now stands as a symbol of how history can be rewritten with patience, research, and a touch of serendipity.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://palaeo-electronica.org/content/2024/5393-review-of-gastornithiformes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontologia Electronica</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rediscovered 45-million-year-old skull turns out to be a large, extinct bird species

Around 45 million years ago, during the Eocene Epoch, the...

When it comes to self-awareness in the animal kingdom, not all primates pass the test. A recent study conducted in the harsh wilderness of Namibia reveals that wild baboons, despite their remarkable intelligence, don't recognize themselves in mirrors.



Conducted in Namibia’s Tsaobis Nature Park, this research is the first controlled laser mark test in a wild setting, offering fresh insights into how non-hominid primates perceive themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-recognition-in-animals">Self-recognition in animals</h2>



For over 50 years, scientists have been attempting to measure self-awareness in animals. One of the most widely used methods is the mirror self-recognition test, which involves marking an animal with a visible spot and observing whether it recognizes the mark as being on its own body. 



Animals that show clear signs of self-awareness will investigate the mark on their own body, demonstrating an understanding that the reflection in the mirror is not another animal but themselves.



“We define self-awareness as ‘the capacity to become the object of your own attention’ and we test this capacity by assessing an individual's ability to identify an image of themselves,” noted study author Dr. Alecia Carter from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/anthropology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL Anthropology</a>.



While some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, such as great apes and dolphins, have passed the mirror test, researchers have long questioned whether monkeys share the same ability. The results from this new study suggest that they do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baboons-and-their-fascination-with-mirrors">Baboons and their fascination with mirrors</h2>



The researchers observed 120 wild Chacma baboons in Tsaobis Nature Park over a six-month period between May and October 2021. 



Before testing for self-recognition, the baboons were given time to interact with mirrors. This step was essential because reflective surfaces are uncommon in their natural habitat, unlike in captivity, where primates may have more exposure to their own reflection.



During this exposure period, the baboons displayed curiosity and engaged with the mirrors as if they were a novel object. 



Some played with their reflections, while others attempted to look behind the mirror or interact with the “other” baboon they believed was present. However, despite this engagement, they did not show any signs of recognizing the reflection as their own image.



“The Chacma baboons we observed in Tsaobis Nature Park certainly enjoyed using the mirrors as a new toy. But throughout our study, they didn’t quite understand that the mirror’s reflection represented their own bodies and that the laser mark in the mirror image was, indeed, on themselves,” Dr. Carter explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-baboons-with-lasers-and-mirrors">Testing baboons with lasers and mirrors</h2>



To assess whether the baboons could recognize themselves in the mirror, researchers used a controlled laser mark test. 



A red or green laser was first shone on a visible part of their body, such as their hand or foot. The baboons consistently noticed the mark, reacting by touching or scratching the area, which indicated that they found the mark visually compelling and were aware of its presence on their body.



However, when the laser was shone on a part of their body they could not see directly, such as their ear or cheek, their reaction was entirely different. 



When positioned in front of a mirror, the baboons did not attempt to touch or investigate the mark they could only see in their reflection. This suggests that they did not recognize the reflection as themselves and instead perceived it as another animal or an unrelated visual stimulus.



“As the baboons didn’t touch the marks when viewed indirectly, this research confirms that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-monitoring-will-help-protect-endangered-spider-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monkeys</a> don’t spontaneously recognize themselves in a mirror. But, given the monkeys quickly familiarized themselves with their mirror image, it also suggests that they don’t consider their reflection to be a stranger,” noted corresponding author Esa A. Ahmad.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-gender-and-color-preferences">Age, gender, and color preferences</h2>



The study also revealed interesting patterns in how the baboons interacted with the laser marks.



Younger baboons were more curious and engaged with the marks more frequently than older individuals. Males showed a greater interest in the marks compared to females, suggesting potential behavioral or social differences in how they perceive and react to visual stimuli.



Another surprising finding was the baboons’ preference for the color green over red. They were significantly more responsive to the green laser marks, a pattern that could be influenced by how their vision processes different wavelengths of light. 



By analyzing 361 laser experiments across 120 baboons, the researchers were able to establish a strong dataset supporting these observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-that-have-passed-the-mirror-test">Animals that have passed the mirror test</h2>



While the Chacma baboons in this study did not show signs of self-recognition, several other animals have demonstrated the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror. 



The mirror test, originally developed by psychologist Gordon Gallup in the 1970s, remains one of the key measures of self-awareness in animals.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great apes</a>, including chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, and some gorillas, have repeatedly passed the mirror test. They are known to investigate marks on their own bodies when looking in a mirror, demonstrating an understanding that the reflection represents themselves.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cetaceans</a>, such as bottlenose dolphins and orcas, have also displayed self-recognition. Studies have shown that dolphins use mirrors to inspect themselves, and they often engage in self-directed behaviors, such as sticking out their tongues or blowing bubbles, to observe their reflections.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-elephants-perform-a-special-burial-ritual-for-their-calves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Asian elephants</a> are another species that has passed the test. They have been observed touching marks on their own faces after seeing them in a mirror, suggesting they recognize the image as their own.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rebellious-birds-use-anti-bird-spikes-to-build-their-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eurasian magpies</a> were the first non-mammalian species to pass the mirror test. These intelligent birds have been shown to use mirrors to inspect their bodies, a behavior that was previously thought to be unique to mammals.



Cleaner wrasse, a type of fish, have also demonstrated behaviors that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-sizes-itself-up-in-a-mirror-before-going-into-combat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggest self-recognition</a>, though there is ongoing debate about whether their reactions truly indicate self-awareness or are simply a response to perceived social cues.



These findings suggest that self-awareness may not be exclusive to primates and could be more widespread in the animal kingdom than previously believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-research">Implications for future research</h2>



This study provides a new framework for measuring self-awareness in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-animal-rights-day-2024-honoring-animals-with-justice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. Unlike previous research, which often relied on captive individuals, this experiment took place in the baboons' natural habitat, allowing for more ecologically relevant findings.



“Anthropologists have been trying to measure self-awareness in animals for 50 years, but studies have lacked control conditions and focused on small numbers of animals raised in captivity. Our study is the first controlled laser mark test to be conducted in a wild setting, and we hope it will act as a framework for future visual self-recognition studies,” noted Dr. Carter. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-mirror-test-in-baboons">Beyond the mirror test in baboons</h2>



This study reinforces the idea that self-recognition is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-may-have-a-degree-of-self-awareness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex trait</a> that varies across species. 



While some animals appear to have a higher degree of self-awareness, others - like monkeys - may not perceive themselves in the same way.



With ethical approval from the Namibian National Commission on Research Science and Technology and the Zoological Society of London Ethics Committee, this research paves the way for more studies into how wild animals perceive themselves and their surroundings. 



Future research may explore whether different testing methods or prolonged exposure to mirrors could alter how non-hominid primates interact with their reflections.



By continuing to investigate self-awareness in a variety of species, scientists can deepen our understanding of animal cognition, the evolution of consciousness, and the boundaries of self-perception in the natural world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1933" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Baboons fail to recognize themselves in mirrors, unlike some animals

When it comes to self-awareness in the animal kingdom, not...

Mites are capable of producing offspring without the aid of a partner. The children are exact replicas of their singular parent, creating a line of pure <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=mites&amp;rlz=1C1GEWG_enZA994ZA994&amp;oq=mites&amp;gs_lcrp=EgZjaHJvbWUyFAgAEEUYORhDGIMBGLEDGIAEGIoFMgwIARAAGEMYgAQYigUyBwgCEAAYgAQyBwgDEAAYgAQyBwgEEAAYgAQyBwgFEAAYgAQyBwgGEAAYgAQyBggHEEUYPdIBCDE5NzhqMGo3qAIAsAIA&amp;sourceid=chrome&amp;ie=UTF-8">females.</a>



This isn't a scene from a science fiction novel, but a reality in the intriguing world of oribatid mites of the species Platynothrus peltifer.



Mothers give birth to daughters from fertile eggs that haven't been fertilized by any male counterpart.



This process, known as parthenogenesis, gives rise to an all-female population - a peculiar characteristic that has caught the attention of scientists around the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asexual-reproduction-in-mites">Asexual reproduction in mites</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.uni-koeln.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cologne</a>, along with their international colleagues, set out to investigate the remarkable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asexual-reproduction-can-negatively-impact-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asexual reproduction</a> of oribatid mites.



The study revealed that the secret to the mites' survival is in the independent evolution of their double chromosome copies - a concept known as the "Meselson effect."



Through the use of genome sequencing techniques, the researchers identified several factors that contribute to the genetic diversity of the chromosome sets which could, in turn, ensure the mite's long-term preservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-chromosomes-and-genetic-diversity">Evolving chromosomes and genetic diversity</h2>



The oribatid mite is a living contradiction of the evolutionary principle, surviving over 20 million years without any trace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/males-are-responsible-for-the-genetic-fitness-of-a-population/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexual reproduction</a>.



These mites produce female offspring from unfertilized eggs, sidelining males to nonexistence or sheer rarity - thus, making no contribution to the gene pool.



In contrast to our understanding, the offspring inherit either all or some of the mother’s gene variants (alleles), turning into an identical copy of the mother.



Interestingly, the mite's two chromosome sets evolve independently, allowing the introduction of new genetic variants while preserving essential information. 



These changes enable rapid adaptation to environmental fluctuations, providing a selective advantage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-tools-in-the-genetic-toolbox">New tools in the genetic toolbox</h2>



The research highlights horizontal gene transfer (HGT) as another mechanism that enhances <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-asexual-ants-maintain-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic diversity</a>. HGT refers to the exchange of genetic material outside the boundaries of sexual reproduction.



From a metaphorical perspective, horizontal gene transfer is similar to adding new tools to a preexisting toolbox.



"Some of these genes seem to help the mite to digest cell walls, thus expanding its food spectrum," noted study lead author Dr Hüsna Öztoprak, an expert in the Institute of Zoology at the University of Cologne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-jumping-genes">The role of "jumping genes"</h2>



Transposable elements (TEs), or '<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-fungus-has-become-more-deadly-thanks-to-jumping-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jumping genes</a>,' also play a significant role. They are dynamic components of the genome, exerting influence by altering their locations, akin to rearranging chapters in a book to change the plot's trajectory.



The excitement lies in the different activity levels of TEs in the two chromosome copies. One copy demonstrates an active state that allows for dynamic transformations, while the other remains relatively inactive.



The findings of the study add significant value to understanding the survival strategies of asexual organisms. 



"In future research projects, we would like to find out whether there are additional mechanisms that might be important for evolution without sex,” said Dr. Jens Bast, Emmy Noether group leader at the University of Cologne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mites-and-evolutionary-adaptation">Mites and evolutionary adaptation</h2>



The study of oribatid mites offers a fascinating glimpse into how organisms can adapt and thrive without sexual reproduction, challenging long-standing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary theories</a>. 



While sexual reproduction is traditionally seen as essential for maintaining genetic diversity and evolutionary fitness, these mites demonstrate an alternative path. 



Their ability to evolve through mechanisms such as the Meselson effect, horizontal gene transfer, and transposable elements suggests that asexual reproduction can still provide the necessary genetic variation for adaptation. 



This discovery could inspire further research into other organisms that rely on similar strategies to survive in challenging environments, potentially offering new insights into evolutionary biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-biodiversity-and-conservation">Implications for biodiversity and conservation</h2>



Understanding the genetic mechanisms behind the asexual reproduction of oribatid mites could have broader implications for biodiversity and conservation efforts. 



These mites play a crucial role in soil ecosystems by aiding in decomposition and nutrient cycling. 



Insights into their genetic resilience could inform conservation strategies for other asexual or endangered species facing environmental pressures. 



Additionally, studying the ability of oribatid mites to adapt without genetic recombination may offer practical applications in agriculture and pest management, as scientists seek to harness or mitigate similar reproductive strategies in other organisms.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn0817" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How mites survived without sex for millions of years

Mites are capable of producing offspring without the aid of...

Australia has earned its reputation for harboring creatures that make many people uneasy. Spiders in particular stand out. For decades, the iconic Sydney funnel-web spider has fueled stories of dangerous, sometimes deadly encounters.&nbsp;



Known for its strong fangs and fast-acting venom, it seemed like the final word in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australias-deadliest-spider-is-actually-three-different-species/">spider dread</a>. That assumption has just been called into question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sydney-funnel-web-spider-species">Sydney funnel-web spider species</h2>



This shift in understanding comes from a major study that is published in <a href="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-024-02332-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Ecology and Evolution</a>. Researchers found that what was once believed to be just one species of the Sydney funnel-web spider is, in fact, three separate species. Their DNA analysis and anatomical comparisons uncovered something unexpected: only one of these three spiders is the classic Sydney funnel-web. 



Another lurks in the Australian Blue Mountains. And a third, which is native to Australian Newcastle, appears to be bigger and even more venomous.



Stephanie Loria, an arachnologist at the Leibniz Institute for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change in Germany, helped confirm that this trio of spiders had been hiding under one name for far too long.&nbsp;



Her team took considerable effort to examine fresh samples and museum specimens dating back to the early 1900s, in order to untangle the details that had been overlooked until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-funnel-web-myth">Unraveling the funnel-web myth</h2>



For many years, Atrax robustus was considered the main funnel-web species around Sydney. People believed it ranged from the Central Coast all the way into the Blue Mountains.&nbsp;



The funnel-web’s venom, enriched with potent neurotoxins, has caused <a href="https://biomedicalsciences.unimelb.edu.au/departments/department-of-biochemistry-and-pharmacology/engage/avru/discover/spiders/funnel-web-spiders-atrax-robustus-and-hadronyche-sp." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">13 recorded deaths</a> since documentation began. Its bite can trigger muscle spasms, breathing problems, and serious pain.&nbsp;



However, the introduction of an antivenom in the early 1980s has prevented any further fatalities. Because of the mortality statistics, these spiders earned their status as the most dangerous in the region, if not in the world. Yet, despite its notoriety, Atrax robustus wasn’t the only funnel-web out there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meeting-the-three-species">Meeting the three species</h2>



The research team discovered a trifecta. The “true” Sydney funnel-web is still Atrax robustus. But there’s also the Southern Sydney funnel-web, now properly called Atrax montanus, which inhabits the area south and west of Sydney. 



And then there’s the heavyweight champion: Atrax christenseni, which is nicknamed the “Big Boy.” Its home turf is Newcastle, about 90 miles north of Sydney, and it boasts longer legs and a hefty physique.



“The Newcastle funnel-web, Atrax christenseni - 'Big Boy - is a totally new species. The 'true' Sydney funnel-web, Atrax robustus, centers on the North Shore of Sydney and the Central Coast while the Southern Sydney funnel-web is a resurrected species name from 1914,” explained Dr. Loria at the conclusion of their extensive analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-boy-steals-the-spotlight">Big Boy steals the spotlight</h2>



Atrax christenseni earned its colloquial name when a local spider enthusiast, <a href="https://phys.org/news/2025-01-scientists-identity-crisis-australia-deadliest.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kane Christensen</a>, noticed some males that seemed unusually large. He collected these spiders for venom programs and showed them to scientists for a closer look.&nbsp;



“The sheer size of the males, compared to the males of the other Atrax species, is simply astounding,” said Christensen.&nbsp;



“I am very passionate about funnel-webs and there is no greater compliment than to have another scientist name a funnel-web species after me. I am deeply honored and accept it with great pleasure.”



Experts now believe the venom of this “Big Boy” rivals or surpasses that of the classic Sydney funnel-web, making it the most venomous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/menacing-joro-spiders-are-now-moving-their-invasion-into-us-cities/">spider on Earth</a>. 



Its toxins target the human nervous system by blocking essential sodium channels, a process that can overwhelm the body if not treated promptly. Despite this intimidating fact, funnel-web bites remain quite rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-antivenom-question">The antivenom question</h2>



Many Australians first heard about funnel-web antivenom in 1981, when the Australian Reptile Park began formal <a href="https://www.reptilepark.com.au/about/venom-program/spider-venom-program" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">programs</a> to milk these spiders.&nbsp;



Since then, it has saved countless lives. Male funnel-webs, more likely to wander, frequently show up in backyards or even inside shoes, which is one reason that they cause most envenomation incidents. 



Yet, the chances of a life-threatening bite leading to death are virtually zero if the antivenom is administered in time.



Scientists are now considering whether the existing antivenom needs fine-tuning to account for these newly identified species.&nbsp;



“While funnel-web bites are the most severe among spiders, they are not very common. If you are bitten by a funnel-web spider, call an ambulance and go straight to hospital,” said Geoff Isbister from the Calvary Mater Newcastle Hospital. Some researchers suggest that an optimized formula for each species might yield even better outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-they-live-and-why-it-matters">Where they live and why it matters</h2>



A. robustus, the classic Sydney funnel-web, occupies areas around the city’s North Shore and suburbs. A. montanus thrives in the cooler habitats of the Blue Mountains. A. christenseni, the biggest and brawniest of the group, hangs out near Newcastle.&nbsp;



Because each species has slightly different habitat preferences, spider experts now recommend paying closer attention when funnel-webs turn up, especially if they appear larger than usual.



Beyond medical relevance, these distinctions matter for conservation. Funnel-web spiders serve as key predators in their ecosystems. 



They eat insects and small animals, so changes in their populations can affect many other creatures. By pinpointing which species is found where, ecologists can better track local biodiversity and note any future shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tales-of-caution-and-care">Tales of caution and care</h2>



Despite their potent reputation, funnel-web spiders do not usually go out of their way to bite humans. They can be shy and prefer dark, moist shelters. Problems occur mostly when people inadvertently disturb them.&nbsp;



Spotting one in a garden might spark unease, but experts advise carefully relocating a funnel-web or calling in a professional rather than trying to kill it outright. For those who live in funnel-web territory, checking shoes, garden gloves, and damp corners is never a bad idea.



Venom programs also welcome healthy funnel-web specimens. One funnel-web can be milked many times over its life, helping supply the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/">venom</a> that pharmaceutical experts rely on to create and refine antivenom. If you happen to catch one, local wildlife organizations may have guidelines on safe handling and transport.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-sydney-funnel-web-spiders">Future of Sydney funnel-web spiders</h2>



Scientists plan to investigate the unique venom properties of each funnel-web species and how those may shift across different environments. By understanding these distinctions, venom researchers hope to refine treatments for spider bites.&nbsp;



This approach, they say, could prove vital if venom components vary enough to make current antivenoms less effective in certain cases.



In the end, it turns out that our old friend the Sydney funnel-web spider was never alone. The “Big Boy” from Newcastle and the southern cousin around the Blue Mountains have been around all along, hiding in plain sight. They offer a new perspective on just how much remains to be discovered in Australia’s wild landscape.



The research study was published in <a href="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-024-02332-0">BMC Ecology and Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

New giant species of the world's most dangerous spider identified

Australia has earned its reputation for harboring creatures that make...

In the Southern Ocean, the world's largest iceberg is making headlines with its colossal presence and potential impact on wildlife and humans alike.



The protagonist of this unfolding tale? A gargantuan iceberg named A23a, a marvel of nature that once stretched over 1,540 square miles - twice the size of Greater London. For perspective, the current size of the main section is roughly comparable to the entire county of Cornwall, UK.



However, it isn't A23a's size that's now causing a sense of trepidation among scientists. It's the iceberg's trajectory that is now the primary concern.



A23a has become untethered from the South Orkney Islands and is ominously drifting towards South Georgia - a British territory and wildlife haven.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stark-warning-from-the-high-seas">Stark warning from the high seas</h2>



Commanding the South Georgia government vessel, Pharos, Simon Wallace has observed the impending crisis first-hand. 



"Icebergs are inherently dangerous. I would be extraordinarily happy if it just completely missed us," he said.



Iceberg A23a isn't just a looming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-has-lost-3000-billion-tons-of-ice-in-25-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass of ice</a>. It's a potentially devastating force, with parts of it already breaking into large slabs. 



These fragments could dwell in the surrounding waters for years, making nautical navigation a perilous undertaking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-antarctica-to-the-southern-ocean">From Antarctica to the Southern Ocean</h2>



The story of A23a began in 1986, when the iceberg was born from the Filchner Ice Shelf of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-is-experiencing-rapid-plant-growth-concerning-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a>. It lay dormant at the seabed of the Weddell Sea before embarking on its journey north in 2020.



Initially, the iceberg's progress was hindered by an ocean phenomenon known as a Taylor Column, causing it to spin almost on the spot. 



Nonetheless, its liberty was confirmed by satellite images in December, which showed it had split from its restrictive shackles.



"It's exciting to see A23a on the move again after periods of being stuck. We are interested to see if it will take the same route the other large icebergs that have calved off Antarctica have taken," noted Dr Andrew Meijers, an oceanographer with the prestigious British Antarctic Survey (<a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BAS</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctica-s-iceberg-highway">Antarctica's iceberg highway</h2>



Interestingly, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> reports that most icebergs from Antarctica follow a similar route. Over 90% of them enter the Weddell Gyre's clockwise-flowing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-circumpolar-current-speed-increasing-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">current</a> off East Antarctica.



They ultimately make their way north along the Antarctic Peninsula and venture into the Drake Passage's warmer South Atlantic waters. This passage is playfully referred to as "iceberg alley."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iceberg-threat-to-south-georgia">Iceberg threat to South Georgia</h2>



This isn't the first time South Georgia has faced the prospect of an invading iceberg. In 2017, an iceberg named A68a embarked on a three-year, 10,000-mile odyssey towards the island, fortunately passing by without incident.



However, three years later, an iceberg called A76 posed a similar threat, leaving dangerous ice slabs scattered around the island. 



"Those pieces basically cover the island - we have to work our way through it," said Captain Wallace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wildlife-sanctuary-at-risk">A wildlife sanctuary at risk</h2>



The island, located in the southern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-atlantic-ocean-may-soon-enter-its-declining-phase/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atlantic Ocean</a>, is often referred to as a "wildlife sanctuary." It is a true oasis amid the tumultuous Southern Oceans.



 From penguins and seals to whales and albatrosses, this sanctuary is home to a dazzling array of species.



The majestic A23a has now become a point of intense study for scientists, sailors, and fishermen as they closely monitor its movement via satellite images. 



"The iceberg, at least in satellite images, appears to be maintaining its structure and has not yet broken up into smaller chunks, as previous "megabergs" have done," noted Dr. Meijers.



"It is presently in a meander of the current and not moving directly towards the island, but our understanding of the currents suggests that it is likely to again move towards the island soon."



Dr. Meijers noted that the current follows the shallow continental shelf around the island to the south east, but the question is whether the berg will follow this out into the open South Atlantic, or run up onto the shelf and become stuck for some time.



"If this happens it could seriously impede access to feeding grounds for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/south-georgia-is-a-haven-for-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> - seals and penguins mostly - that breed on the island."



The story of A23a serves as a stark reminder that while mankind's actions may contribute to climate change, nature itself is perfectly capable of scripting its own potentially perilous narratives.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World's largest iceberg may crash into a wildlife sanctuary

In the Southern Ocean, the world's largest iceberg is making...

Scientists have found that insect frass - a blend of excreta, feed, and molted skins - is far from a mere waste product. Instead, it could play a key role in advancing greener, more sustainable agriculture.



The study was focused on "mini-livestock," including the humble yellow mealworm, the bouncy banded cricket, and the robust black soldier fly.



Often underestimated, these insects are being cultivated as an alternative protein source for animals, playing a crucial role in the shift toward more sustainable agricultural practices. However, what they leave behind may be just as valuable - if not more - than the protein they provide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-frass-more-than-just-waste">Insect frass: More than just waste</h2>



Insect frass is a nutrient-rich byproduct of insect farming. In contrast to regular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beer-byproducts-and-manure-used-to-increase-crop-yields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">manure</a>, frass is inherently pathogen-poor and rich in nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon.



The nutrients in insect frass make it a promising organic fertilizer that can augment soil health and plant growth without reliance on synthetic fertilizers. This finding sets the stage for a game-changing shift in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-adopt-regenerative-agriculture-better-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agriculture</a>.



In previous studies, a team of researchers led by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/">Agricultural Research Service</a>&nbsp;(ARS) set out to explore the potential benefits of insect frass. 



The results showed that frass can compete with fossil fuel-based fertilizers with its higher carbon and nitrogen content, while being less pathogenic than other animal manures.



Collaborating with partners from the <a href="https://uada.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arkansas System Division of Agriculture</a>, the ARS team further studied the potential of frass as an organic fertilizer when used as a soil amendment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-proof-is-in-the-soil">The proof is in the soil</h2>



The researchers embarked on an intense two-year field study. The results were quite astounding.



Yellow mealworm frass demonstrated impressive capabilities. It managed to double the soil's carbon content while tripling its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-too-much-and-too-little-nitrogen-at-the-same-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a> content.



This was significantly higher compared to other sources such as poultry litter and ammonium nitrate. Most importantly, the frass-enriched soil produced similar crop yields and carbon dioxide emission rates.



"Insect frass substantially improved soil fertility which showed its ability to be used as an alternative to inorganic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-emissions-from-fertilizers-could-be-cut-by-80-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilizers</a>," said Amanda Ashworth, a soil scientist at the ARS Poultry Production and Product Safety Research Unit in Fayetteville, Arkansas. 



"This is important since insect farming is on the rise and circular agricultural systems (agricultural by-products that are recycled back into production systems) can be sustainable avenues for growing foods in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-agriculture">The future of agriculture </h2>



The question is, are we ready to embrace this change? As the world witnesses an increased demand for sustainable protein sources, the insect farming industry is experiencing a surge in growth. 



According to the Global Edible Insects Market Forecast to 2030 report, the industry is set to grow at an annual pace of 28%, with an anticipated market value of $8 billion U.S. dollars by 2030.



Insect frass stands as a powerful catalyst for change, moving us towards a greener future. It promises a sustainable alternative in agriculture - one that makes use of waste to enhance our environment and feed our growing populations.



The research shows that insect frass is not just waste - it's a potential goldmine, waiting to be discovered and harnessed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-frass-and-regenerative-farming">Insect frass and regenerative farming</h2>



As the agricultural industry shifts toward more eco-friendly practices, insect frass is being recorgnized as an important player in regenerative farming. 



In contrast to traditional fertilizers, which can degrade the soil and contaminate water, insect frass promotes microbial activity and improves soil structure. 



This natural byproduct not only replenishes essential nutrients but also supports long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-soils-produce-a-symphony-of-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil health</a> by promoting beneficial bacteria and fungi.



With fears of fertilizer shortages and environmental damage due to synthetic alternatives looming, insect frass presents a promising alternative.



So far, farmers who have embraced this organic amendment are reporting greater crop resilience, reduced chemical input dependence, and soil biodiversity improvements. 



As research continues, insect frass may ultimately transform the way food is grown, making agriculture not only more productive but truly sustainable.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-87075-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Future of farming: Insect waste reshapes soil health

Scientists have found that insect frass - a blend of...

In India, tigers have not only survived but made a remarkable comeback through conservation efforts. Despite the challenges posed by a growing population and shrinking habitats, the number of wild tigers is on the rise.



This success story is rooted in a mix of ecological restoration, economic strategies, and political stability. Equally significant is the deep cultural reverence for tigers that has allowed humans and predators to coexist peacefully.



Protecting an endangered species like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-tiger-day-worldwide-support-for-tiger-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiger</a>, which can pose a threat to humans, is no easy task. Yet, India has managed to strike a balance. 



By combining protected reserves with shared landscapes where tigers and people live side by side, the country has achieved a 30% increase in its tiger population over the past two decades.



A recent study reveals that India now hosts around 3,700 tigers, making up 75% of the world’s wild tiger population. This proves that even in densely populated regions, it is possible to safeguard large carnivores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dual-approach-to-tiger-conservation">Dual approach to tiger conservation</h2>



India’s tiger conservation strategy blends two distinct approaches: strictly protected reserves and multi-use landscapes where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-captive-tigers-help-restore-wild-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tigers</a> and humans share space. This dual model benefits both wildlife and local communities.



“The advantage of combining these two methods is that reserves act as a source of tigers for surrounding areas. And if coexistence no longer works, the reserves provide a fallback option - ensuring that tigers are not at risk of extinction,” explained study co-author Professor Ninad Mungi of <a href="https://international.au.dk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>.



Today, 45% of India’s tiger-inhabited landscapes are shared with approximately 60 million people. This unique arrangement highlights the importance of finding harmony between human needs and wildlife preservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-enables-coexistence">What enables coexistence?</h2>



Researchers emphasize that human population density alone does not determine whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiger-numbers-have-jumped-by-250-in-thailand/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tigers</a> can thrive. 



Instead, factors such as lifestyle, economic conditions, and cultural attitudes play a crucial role. In relatively prosperous regions, ecotourism and government compensation schemes help generate income, increasing tolerance for tigers. 



For instance, when farmers lose cattle to tigers, they receive financial compensation from the government. This turns a potential loss into a gain, encouraging acceptance of the predators.



The study also identifies specific conservation conditions that support thriving tiger populations: proximity to reserves, abundant prey, suitable habitats, and moderate economic prosperity. 



These elements create an environment where both humans and tigers can flourish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-conflict-affected-areas">Challenges in conflict-affected areas</h2>



However, not all regions are equally conducive to tiger conservation. In rural areas plagued by extreme poverty, many people depend on forests for food, firewood, and other resources.



“In the past, foraging in the forest was sustainable. But now, with more people and less space for tigers, conflicts are increasing,” said Mungi.



Additionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tigers</a> are scarce in areas affected by armed conflict. Nearly half of the regions where tigers have disappeared are in districts impacted by the Naxal conflict. When governance weakens due to conflict, poaching and habitat destruction become major threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-attacks-and-safety-nets">Rare attacks and safety nets</h2>



Despite their fearsome reputation, tigers rarely attack humans. On average, about 100 people are killed by tigers each year in India. If such an incident occurs, the government provides financial compensation to the victim’s family.



Moreover, if a tiger develops a habit of attacking humans, it is captured and relocated to a reserve or zoo. These measures ensure that both human safety and tiger conservation are prioritized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-tiger-conservation">Lessons for tiger conservation</h2>



India’s conservation model offers valuable lessons for other countries facing similar challenges. 



In Europe, for example, wolves attacking livestock have sparked debates about balancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-using-technology-to-protect-our-natural-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife protection</a> with human interests. India’s experience may inspire new strategies that safeguard both predators and farmers’ livelihoods.



According to Mungi, there are parallels between India and Europe when it comes to conserving large carnivores.



“In both India and Europe, protected areas are small − only 200-300 km² − and only a small fraction is strictly off-limits to humans. The debate in Europe and North America has been whether to focus solely on protected areas reserved for wildlife," said Mungi.



"It is critical to have such inviolate areas, where large carnivores are insulated from any human control. But a significant gain can be achieved by going an extra mile and fostering a culture of coexistence beyond protected areas. India offers an alternative by integrating shared landscapes."



“There are, of course, cultural challenges, but culture can change over time. India’s experience proves that large predators can survive in a modern world - if we are willing to think creatively and find a balance between protection and coexistence,” Mungi adds.



India’s success with tiger conservation shows that coexistence is not only possible but also beneficial for both humans and wildlife. By embracing innovative solutions and respecting cultural values, other nations can learn from this inspiring example.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk4827" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

India’s wild tigers are thriving with smart conservation efforts

In India, tigers have not only survived but made a...

As insect populations decline globally in a phenomenon some have described as an "insect apocalypse," biologists are racing to understand how insects are reacting to climate change. 



A recent study of Colorado grasshoppers provides valuable insights into this issue, particularly how their size has changed over time.



While the answers are not straightforward, researchers believe they already possess much of the knowledge needed to make predictions about which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> will thrive and which will struggle in the long term.



The findings stem from the rediscovery of 13,000 grasshoppers collected between 1958 and 1960 by a biologist at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>.



After the scientist's death in 1973, his collection was preserved by his son and eventually donated to the CU Museum. It remained untouched until 2005 when César Nufio, then a postdoctoral fellow, stumbled upon it. 



Recognizing its potential, Nufio began curating the collection and revisiting the original sites to gather new specimens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grasshopper-size-in-changing-climate">Grasshopper size in changing climate</h2>



Nufio and his colleagues, including Caroline Williams, Lauren Buckley, and Monica Sheffer, analyzed how six species of grasshopper had changed in size over 65 years.



Since insects are cold-blooded and rely on external temperatures for development, their growth is highly sensitive to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental changes</a>. 



Contrary to the assumption that animals might shrink to reduce heat stress, some grasshopper species actually grew larger over time. These species benefited from an earlier spring, allowing them to feed on fresh vegetation.



However, this advantage was limited to species that overwinter as juveniles, known as nymphal diapausers. These grasshoppers could take advantage of early spring conditions to grow faster. 



In contrast, species that hatch from eggs laid in the fall - egg diapausers - did not fare as well. As vegetation dried up earlier in the season, these species became smaller over the decades.



"This research emphasizes that there will certainly be species that are winners and losers, but subgroups within those species populations, depending on their ecological or environmental context, will have different responses," noted Sheffer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-winners-and-losers">Predicting winners and losers</h2>



The researchers based many of their predictions on the life cycles of the grasshoppers and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a> of the study site. 



By reviewing existing knowledge about the species' natural history and elevational gradients, they were able to anticipate some of the observed trends.



"We sat down and looked at all that was known about the system, such as elevational gradients and how that should modify responses and how different grasshoppers might respond, with all the wealth of information we knew about their natural history. And while not all our predictions were supported, many of them actually were," explained Williams.



Understanding which species will succeed or fail in a changing climate has been a significant challenge. According to Buckley, this study offers principles that could improve future predictions and help address ecosystem changes caused by climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-data-on-grasshopper-size">Historical data on grasshopper size</h2>



The grasshopper collection was originally assembled by entomologist <a href="https://cumuseum-archive.colorado.edu/Research/Entomology/ento_coll_orthoptera.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gordon Alexander</a> during three summers in the late 1950s. He meticulously documented the timing of six life stages of the grasshoppers, creating a detailed record. 



After his untimely death in 1973, the specimens were stored away until Nufio rediscovered them in 2005. Recognizing their value, he initiated a resurvey of the same areas, ultimately collecting around 17,000 new specimens.



Museum collections like Alexander's have proven invaluable for studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemicals-are-changing-insects-in-subtle-yet-deadly-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>'s long-term effects. 



For example, Joseph Grinnell's surveys of California wildlife from 1904 to 1940 provided a baseline for comparing changes a century later. Similarly, Nufio's work highlights the importance of preserving historical data for modern research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grasshopper-size-changes-across-elevations">Grasshopper size changes across elevations</h2>



The researchers focused on short-horned grasshoppers from the Acrididae family, categorizing them based on their life cycles. 



Nymphal diapausers, which mature as early as May, grew larger at lower elevations. In contrast, early and late emergers from overwintering eggs decreased in size over the decades at these elevations.



"For those that come out in late August, when it's very crispy and dry and we get very hot temperatures, we saw the most negative impacts of climate change," Williams noted.



Surprisingly, none of the species increased in size at higher elevations, despite greater summer warming in these areas. This may be due to snow delaying early-season plant growth, reducing food availability. 



The findings align with experiments where grasshoppers were caged at various elevations to study their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-leaf-eating-insects-have-a-huge-impact-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a> to heat and dryness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research </h2>



The study's results suggest that some grasshoppers can benefit from warming by growing larger and emerging earlier, while others face stress and shrink in size. Similar trends have been observed in other insects, such as butterflies, according to Buckley. 



"We find a pretty similar message with butterflies, which is hopeful to me, in that if we can consider some basic biological principles, we really increase our ability to predict climate change responses," she said.



The team plans to continue exploring the metabolic, biochemical, and genetic factors driving these size changes. 



"Using those museum collections allowed us to go back in time to compare exactly the same sites - there hadn't been any changes in the land use over this 60-year period of warming - using exactly the same methodology," said Williams. 



"Having those unique historical specimens enabled us to look at the changes through time."



This study highlights the complexity of predicting climate change impacts on ecosystems and highlights the critical role of long-term data in unraveling these challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002805" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Grasshopper size changes in response to shifting climate

As insect populations decline globally in a phenomenon some have...

Artificial,Insemination,,In,Vitro,Fertilization,Ivf,Of,Human,Egg,Cell

In a breakthrough achievement, a team of researchers has successfully engineered a bi-paternal mouse - a mouse with two dads - that survived until adulthood.&nbsp;



The experts targeted specific imprinting genes to overcome key barriers that previously prevented unisexual reproduction in mammals.



More specifically, by modifying a set of genes involved in reproduction, the experts successfully bypassed developmental roadblocks that had historically halted bi-paternal embryo growth before birth.



The research team was led by Wei Li, a professor of genetic engineering at the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> (CAS) in Beijing.



“This work will help to address a number of limitations in stem cell and regenerative medicine research,” noted Professor Li.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-barriers-to-unisexual-reproduction">Genetic barriers to unisexual reproduction</h2>



Scientists have attempted to create bi-paternal mice before, but previous efforts failed at early developmental stages. 



The biggest challenge was associated with imprinting genes, which regulate gene expression and play a crucial role in mammalian reproduction.



“The unique characteristics of imprinting genes have led scientists to believe that they are a fundamental barrier to unisexual reproduction in mammals,” explained Qi Zhou of CAS, a corresponding author of the study.&nbsp;



“Even when constructing bi-maternal or bi-paternal embryos artificially, they fail to develop properly and stall at some point during development due to these genes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-mammal-with-two-dads">Creating a mammal with two dads</h2>



Earlier approaches involved generating oocytes (egg cells) from male pluripotent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-first-live-birth-of-a-chimeric-monkey-created-with-stem-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a> using ovarian organoids. These artificially derived oocytes were then fertilized with sperm from another male.&nbsp;



However, when homologous chromosomes - which separate during meiosis to form sperm and egg cells - came from the same sex, imprinting abnormalities emerged. This led to severe developmental defects.



To overcome this, the researchers targeted 20 key imprinting genes using various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-inspire-a-safer-method-of-editing-human-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene-editing</a> techniques, including frameshift mutations, gene deletions, and regulatory region modifications.



This genetic modification not only enabled the successful creation of bi-paternal mice, but also improved stem cell pluripotency, making them more stable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-in-unisexual-reproduction-nbsp">Breakthrough in unisexual reproduction&nbsp;</h2>



By precisely modifying imprinting genes, the team enhanced embryonic stem cell viability, allowing the bi-paternal mice to survive until birth - a feat that had never been achieved at this scale.



“These findings provide strong evidence that imprinting abnormalities are the main barrier to mammalian unisexual reproduction,” said study co-author Guan-Zheng Luo of Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou.&nbsp;



“This approach can significantly improve the developmental outcomes of embryonic stem cells and cloned animals, paving a promising path for the advancement of regenerative medicine.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-challenges-remain">Many challenges remain</h2>



Despite this success, the study acknowledges several significant challenges. The birth rate was low, with only 11.8% of viable embryos developing to term.&nbsp;



Health and lifespan concerns were evident, as many surviving mice exhibited growth abnormalities and shortened lifespans.&nbsp;



Additionally, the bi-paternal mice that reached adulthood were sterile and unable to reproduce. However, they showed increased cloning efficiency, suggesting some unique biological properties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-rates-of-bi-parental-embryos">Survival rates of bi-parental embryos</h2>



The researchers aim to further refine imprinting gene modifications to improve the survival rates of mice with two dads.



“Further modifications to the imprinting genes could potentially facilitate the generation of healthy bi-paternal mice capable of producing viable gametes and lead to new therapeutic strategies for imprinting-related diseases,” said study co-author Zhi-Kun Li of CAS.



Additionally, the team plans to expand these experiments to larger mammals, including monkeys, to investigate whether this genetic engineering approach could be applied beyond rodents.&nbsp;



However, this transition presents a significant challenge, as imprinting gene combinations differ between species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-same-sex-human-couples">Implications for same-sex human couples</h2>



If scientists one day manage to safely and ethically adapt <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">this kind of technology</a> for human use, it could completely reshape how society views family. 



The traditional definitions of parenthood might expand to include a broader range of family structures, reflecting a more inclusive understanding of what it means to be a family.



Of course, this possibility comes with a host of ethical and legal challenges. Society would need to have serious conversations about the long-term safety and health of children born through these methods.



In addition, laws would have to be written and revised around parental rights and consent for genetically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-grow-models-of-human-embryos-in-the-lab-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineered embryos</a>.



Beyond the legalities, this breakthrough would likely spark a cultural shift. It could challenge long-held beliefs about reproduction and gender roles, leading us to reexamine our values around what constitutes a family.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-stem-cell-research">Future of stem cell research</h2>



The study raises critical ethical and scientific questions about the future of unisexual reproduction in mammals.&nbsp;



While these results demonstrate the possibility of bi-paternal reproduction, applying similar technologies to human reproduction remains highly restricted.



The International Society for Stem Cell Research (<a href="https://www.isscr.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISSCR</a>) explicitly prohibits heritable genome editing for reproductive purposes, as well as the use of human stem cell-derived gametes for reproduction, citing safety concerns and ethical implications.



As the field of stem cell engineering and reproductive genetics advances, this research marks a major milestone in understanding genetic imprinting, developmental biology, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-brittle-star-tissue-could-transform-regenerative-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regenerative medicine</a>.&nbsp;



However, many hurdles - both biological and ethical - remain before such breakthroughs could have practical applications beyond the laboratory.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.isscr.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Stem Cell</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mouse with two dads survives to adulthood,  major implications for same-sex human couples

In a breakthrough achievement, a team of researchers has successfully...

A recent study has confirmed what scientists have long suspected - the devastating link between climate change, melting sea ice, and the decline of polar bears. 



Unlike previous research that only highlighted correlations, this study presents a direct, measurable connection.



For the first time, researchers have developed a model that precisely demonstrates how shrinking sea ice leads to polar bear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-doesnt-stick-to-polar-bear-fur-but-why/">population</a> collapse in Western Hudson Bay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polar-bears-are-starving">Polar bears are starving </h2>



A changing climate has dramatically altered the Arctic landscape, forcing polar bears to spend more time on land instead of hunting seals on the ice. 



As their primary food source becomes less accessible, the bears enter longer fasting periods, leading to declining health and population numbers.



“A loss of sea ice means <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/">bears</a> spend less time hunting seals and more time fasting on land,” said Louise Archer, a postdoctoral researcher and lead author of the study.



This prolonged fasting drains polar bears' energy reserves, reducing their ability to reproduce and raise cubs. Without enough stored fat, female bears struggle to give birth and nurse their young. Over time, this energy deficit has led to a sharp population decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-loss-in-polar-bears">Energy loss in polar bears</h2>



To understand the impact of climate change on polar bears, researchers developed a “bio-energetic” model that measures how much energy the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-struggling-to-survive-longer-summers/">bears</a> gain from hunting and how much they need to grow and reproduce. 



This model is unique because it tracks individual polar bears throughout their lives, from cubhood to adulthood.



The model uses over four decades of data from monitoring the Western Hudson Bay polar bear population between 1979 and 2021. 



This long-term dataset allows researchers to analyze trends and predict how continued sea ice loss will affect polar bears in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-polar-bear-population-decline">Dramatic polar bear population decline</h2>



The findings are alarming. The polar bear population in this region has dropped by nearly 50% over the past four decades. 



Body mass has also declined significantly, with adult females weighing 39 kg (86 lbs) less than before and one-year-old cubs losing an average of 26 kg (47 lbs).



“Our model goes one step further than saying there’s a correlation between declining sea ice and population decline,” noted Péter Molnár, associate professor at <a href="https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/home/">University of Toronto Scarborough</a> and co-author of the study.



“It provides a mechanism that shows what happens when there is less ice, less feeding time and less energy overall. When we run the numbers, we get a near one-to-one match to what we’re seeing in real life.”



This level of accuracy confirms that climate change is the primary driver of polar bear decline, rather than other potential factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cubs-face-the-greatest-risk">Cubs face the greatest risk</h2>



The research team, which includes experts from <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change.html">Environment and Climate Change Canada</a>, found that cubs are the most vulnerable to the changing conditions. 



Their survival depends on their ability to gain enough weight before their first fasting period, but shorter hunting seasons make this increasingly difficult.



Archer explained that when hunting time is cut short, mother bears cannot produce enough milk, which puts cubs at greater risk. If a cub does not gain enough weight before winter, it has a much lower chance of survival.



Mothers are also giving birth to fewer cubs. Monitoring data shows that litter sizes have decreased by 11% over the past 40 years. Additionally, many mothers are now keeping their cubs for longer periods because the young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-suffering-from-painful-ice-balls-stuck-on-their-feet/">bears</a> are not strong enough to survive on their own.



“It’s pretty simple - the survival of cubs directly impacts the survival of the population,” said Archer. Her research is supported by a Mitacs Elevate postdoctoral fellowship and the non-profit organization <a href="https://polarbearsinternational.org/">Polar Bears International</a>.



The reduced cub survival rate signals a troubling future for polar bears in Western Hudson Bay. If these trends continue, the population could face an even sharper decline in the coming decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warning-for-polar-bears-worldwide">Warning for polar bears worldwide</h2>



Western Hudson Bay has long been seen as an indicator of how climate change affects polar bear populations globally. 



The Arctic is warming at a rate four times faster than the global average, making the survival of these bears even more uncertain.



“This is one of the southernmost populations of polar bears, and it’s been monitored for a long time, so we have very good data to work with,” said Molnár, who specializes in how global warming affects large mammals.



“There’s every reason to believe what is happening to polar bears in this region will also happen to polar bears in other regions, based on projected sea ice loss trajectories. This model basically describes their future.”



With sea ice disappearing at an increasing rate, other polar bear populations will likely face the same challenges as those in Western Hudson Bay. 



Experts warn that unless significant action is taken to address climate change, these majestic animals may struggle to survive in the coming decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-conservation">Need for conservation</h2>



The researchers hope that their findings will contribute to ongoing conservation efforts and encourage policymakers to take stronger action against climate change.



The bio-energetic model developed for this study could be applied to other polar bear populations to predict future trends and inform conservation strategies. 



By tracking energy intake and expenditure, scientists can gain a clearer picture of how climate change will impact different regions.



Polar bears have long been a symbol of the Arctic, but their future depends on how quickly humanity responds to the challenges posed by global warming. Without intervention, these animals will continue to struggle as their habitat disappears.



The study received funding from the <a href="https://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/index_eng.asp">Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada</a> and the <a href="https://www.innovation.ca/">Canada Foundation for Innovation</a>.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp3752">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Polar bears are suffering from an "energy deficit" that is devastating their populations

A recent study has confirmed what scientists have long suspected...

For centuries, humans have selectively bred dogs for specific tasks such as herding, hunting, guarding, and scent detection.&nbsp;



The assumption has been that these breeds developed distinct physical traits, particularly in skull morphology, that make them superior at their assigned tasks.&nbsp;



However, a new study challenges this long-standing belief, suggesting that skull shape does not determine task performance, and that individual personality and behavior play a larger role than previously thought.



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adq9590" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, the study was led by Nicholas Hebdon and Lindsay Waldrop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misconceptions-about-dog-performance">Misconceptions about dog performance </h2>



The researchers used advanced 3D reconstruction techniques to analyze 117 skulls from 40 domestic dog breeds and 18 wild canid species. 



The findings revealed substantial overlap in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-dogs-have-larger-brains-than-ancient-dog-breeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skull shape</a> across breeds, with no clear structural adaptations for tasks like bite work or scent detection. 



Instead, the research suggests that human breeding preferences have primarily focused on visual traits rather than functional specialization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-skull-shape-and-task-performance">Dog skull shape and task performance</h2>



The study analyzed dog breeds commonly used for bite work and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scent detection</a>, including those in law enforcement and military roles, where dogs are trained for patrol and tracking.&nbsp;



The researchers compared functional groups as classified by organizations like the <a href="https://www.akc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Kennel Club</a> (AKC) and the <a href="https://www.ukcdogs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Kennel Club</a> (UKC).



Despite the diversity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-habits-shaped-the-skulls-of-humans-and-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skull shapes</a> in domestic dogs, the study found high morphological overlap in areas related to function, such as the jaw and nasal structures. This suggests that breeds selected for specific tasks are not as physically specialized as once believed.



For example, bite force measurements showed no significant differences between breeds trained for bite work and those that were not, while scent-detection breeds did not have noticeably enhanced olfactory structures compared to other breeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-and-specialized-tasks">Dogs and specialized tasks</h2>



“In the past 200 years, humans have created hundreds of dog breeds that look really different and are pretty specialized at some tasks like herding, protecting, and detecting odors,” said Lindsay Waldrop, an assistant professor of biological sciences at <a href="https://www.chapman.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chapman University</a>.



“We have assumed that these dogs look different because they are structurally specialized at these tasks, but our study shows that, at least for their skulls, they are not specialized for tasks that involve the skull, such as biting tasks and scent work.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-myths-about-dangerous-breeds">Myths about “dangerous” breeds</h2>



One of the most notable findings refutes a common misconception: that certain dog breeds, such as pit bulls, have unique jaw structures that make them inherently more dangerous.



Waldrop noted that there are many news stories about dogs attacking people badly, and often, specific breeds are targeted in this reporting - such as pit bulls.&nbsp;



“Some people claim that these dogs bite harder than others of the same size or have special features like ‘locking jaws’ that make them especially dangerous to people. Our study shows that this is simply not true. Dogs bred to bite things aren’t structurally different than dogs bred to do other things,” said Waldrop.



Similarly, no distinct skull adaptations were found in dogs bred for scent detection, suggesting that behavioral traits and training play a more significant role in a dog’s ability to track odors than skull morphology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-preferences-and-dog-morphology">Human preferences and dog morphology</h2>



The one exception to the pattern was brachycephalic breeds (e.g., bulldogs and pugs), which have shortened snouts due to human-driven aesthetic selection. However, these modifications were not tied to functional advantages.



“I was most surprised by the overall similarity we see in most of the dog skulls,” said lead author Nicholas Hebdon, a postdoctoral research associate at Chapman University.



“Humans have done so much breeding work to alter the visual appearance of these animals that I honestly expected to see really marked groupings of some kind, and we really didn’t see much of that.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-shapes-skull-morphology">Evolution shapes skull morphology </h2>



In contrast, the study found strong differences between domesticated dog skulls and wild canids, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-wolves-are-a-crucial-component-of-the-american-west/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolves</a> and foxes.&nbsp;



Wild canids have longer snouts relative to their cranial length - a feature typical of species that rely on acute senses, such as smell. This suggests that evolution, rather than selective breeding, shapes skull morphology in ways that align with natural survival needs.



Interestingly, fox skulls showed significant overlap with some terrier breeds, which were historically bred for pest control. This structural similarity may reflect functional convergence between wild predators and domestic dogs specialized for hunting small prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breeds-and-working-dog-selection">Breeds and working dog selection</h2>



The study challenges the notion that physical traits alone determine working dog ability, emphasizing that behavioral traits and training are more influential.



Recent research has shown that breed-associated behaviors are partially heritable, meaning that some behavioral tendencies - such as herding instincts or scent-tracking abilities - may have genetic components.&nbsp;



However, the new findings suggest that observable behavior and trainability are more critical factors than skull structure in determining a dog's suitability for specialized tasks.



This could impact how working dogs are bred and selected, particularly in fields such as law enforcement, search and rescue, and service dog training.&nbsp;



Rather than selecting dogs based on physical traits alone, trainers may benefit from assessing personality, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-canine-cognitive-code-everyday-dog-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive ability</a>, and responsiveness to training as primary selection criteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-canine-evolution">New perspective on canine evolution</h2>



The study’s findings redefine how we understand dog specialization and selective breeding. While humans have significantly altered the visual appearance of domestic dogs over centuries, functional adaptations may not be as pronounced as previously thought.



By debunking misconceptions about breed-based functional superiority, these findings open the door for more effective, evidence-based approaches to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-training-is-more-effective-when-nice-voice-tone-is-used/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog training</a>, breeding, and working dog selection.&nbsp;



Rather than focusing on appearance-based stereotypes, future studies and breeding programs may place greater emphasis on behavioral and cognitive traits - a shift that could benefit both dogs and the people who depend on them.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dog breed does not define performance and ability 

For centuries, humans have selectively bred dogs for specific tasks...

species in Zoanthidae