A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Our brain's ability to absorb fresh information - whether that means mastering a new task at work, memorizing the refrain of a song, or navigating unfamiliar streets - depends on a remarkable talent for neural self‑reinvention. 



Every time we practice something novel, millions of tiny contacts between nerve cells subtly adjust their strength and neurons use multiple mechanisms to store knowledge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-how-the-brain-learns">Mystery of how the brain learns</h2>



Some connections, called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electrical-synapses-are-key-to-decision-making-in-animal-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synapses</a>, amplify their signals to stamp in crucial details; others turn down the volume to clear away noise. Collectively these shifts are known as synaptic plasticity and for decades neuroscientists have cataloged dozens of molecular pathways that can nudge a synapse up or down.



What has remained mysterious is how the brain decides which synapses to retune and which to leave alone. Each synapse has access only to its own local activity, yet the organism as a whole must reinforce precisely those connections that improve future behavior.



This computational puzzle - nicknamed the “credit assignment problem” - is roughly analogous to an ant colony whose workers know only their immediate chores, yet somehow build an efficient nest. 



A new study from the <a href="https://www.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a> now offers an unexpected solution and challenges long‑held assumptions about how neurons <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neurons-can-predict-human-speech-before-we-say-a-word/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learn</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-look-at-learning">Unprecedented look at learning</h2>



To tackle the problem, postdoctoral researcher William Wright and colleagues Nathan Hedrick and Takaki Komiyama turned to state‑of‑the‑art brain‑imaging technology. 



Leveraging two‑photon microscopy - a technique that can record activity deep inside living tissue with single‑synapse resolution - the team observed the brains of mice while the animals acquired a new motor skill.



Over multiple training sessions the microscope tracked both the incoming “input” spines on each neuron’s dendrites and the outgoing “output” firing patterns of the same cell. Achieving such granular detail required several years of technical refinement, funded primarily through <a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institutes of Health</a> research and training grants. 



The investigators combined genetically encoded fluorescent sensors, robotics to stabilize the mouse’s head, and custom analysis software capable of aligning thousands of microscopic images collected over days and weeks. The payoff was an unprecedented movie of learning unfolding in real time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-changes-as-we-learn">The brain changes as we learn</h2>



Conventional wisdom has treated a neuron as if it obeys a single plasticity rule throughout its structure. If a particular pattern of electrical spikes strengthens one synapse on a cell, the same pattern should have a similar effect elsewhere on that neuron.



Yet the scientists discovered a very different scenario. They found that separate compartments of the same neuron - such as dendritic branches pointing toward different input sources - could follow distinct learning rules simultaneously. 



One group of synapses might strengthen when the cell fired, another group might weaken under identical circumstances, and a third set might remain unchanged. “When people talk about synaptic plasticity, it’s typically regarded as uniform within the brain,” Wright explained. 



“Our research provides a clearer understanding of how synapses are being modified during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/variable-learning-the-key-to-more-effective-study-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>, with potentially important health implications since many diseases in the brain involve some form of synaptic dysfunction.”



The patterns were robust across multiple mice and persisted after the animals had mastered the task, suggesting the brain intentionally segregates information streams and applies custom rule sets depending on location. In computational terms, a single neuron acts more like a multi‑core processor executing parallel algorithms than a simple on‑off relay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neurons-are-multi-tasking">Neurons are multi-tasking </h2>



Because each neurite compartment appears to evaluate its performance locally, the broader credit assignment mystery takes on a new complexion. Instead of requiring a global scoreboard that distributes reinforcement back to every contributing synapse, the neuron itself can run several internal scoreboards at once - one per compartment.



“This discovery fundamentally changes the way we understand how the brain solves the credit assignment problem, with the concept that individual neurons perform distinct computations in parallel in different subcellular compartments,” said senior author Takaki Komiyama, a neurobiologist at UC San Diego.



In other words, the ant colony analogy breaks down at the level of a single worker. Each ant, or each compartment, carries its own tiny map of colony objectives, drastically simplifying how useful modifications are selected during learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-artificial-intelligence"><a></a>Implications for artificial intelligence</h2>



Most modern artificial neural networks rely on a single learning rule - back propagation - applied uniformly across all units. The new biological data suggest a richer palette could yield more efficient or flexible machines.



Future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-ai-systems-learn-like-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> architectures might assign different plasticity schemes to distinct dendrite‑like structures within a single node, enabling networks to solve complex problems without cumbersome global error signals.



Engineers already explore approaches such as local learning rules and neuromorphic dendrites, but the UC San Diego results provide empirical evidence that nature has long exploited such diversity. 



Designing hardware or software that mimics compartment‑specific learning could improve energy efficiency, accelerate adaptation, or boost robustness in changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-neurological-disorders">A new look at neurological disorders </h2>



On the medical front, many neurological and psychiatric disorders - from addiction and post‑traumatic stress disorder (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/witnessing-trauma-may-cause-ptsd-in-a-different-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PTSD</a>) to Alzheimer’s disease and autism - involve maladaptive synaptic plasticity. 



By revealing that neurons adjust different sets of synapses under separate guidelines, the study offers clinicians fresh targets.



Drugs or stimulation protocols might be tuned to specific compartments, minimizing side effects compared with blanket interventions.



“This work is laying a potential foundation of trying to understand how the brain normally works to allow us to better understand what’s going wrong in these different diseases,” Wright noted.



For example, selectively dampening overactive compartments in fear‑related circuits could reduce traumatic memories. This would not impair other cognitive functions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-on-how-the-brain-learns">Research on how the brain learns</h2>



Having demonstrated that neurons juggle multiple instructional manuals, the researchers aim to decode the biochemical tags that assign each synapse to a particular rule set. 



Are different neurotransmitter receptors responsible? Do local glial cells or gene‑expression profiles dictate the choice? And how do neurons coordinate compartment decisions to achieve a coherent behavioral output?



Answering these questions will require even finer imaging tools, genetic manipulations that label specific compartments, and sophisticated computational models. Yet the core insight remains: a single neuron is not a one‑rule machine but a mosaic of learning specialists. 



Recognizing that complexity pushes neuroscience closer to deciphering the full score of the brain’s symphony of adaptation - and opens new avenues for treating disorders and crafting smarter artificial minds.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads4706" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How the brain learns: Study reveals an unexpected twist

Our brain's ability to absorb fresh information - whether that...

Around 41,000 years ago, Earth’s magnetic field underwent a chaotic shift that temporarily weakened the planet’s natural protection from harmful solar radiation.



A new study led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> (U-M) suggests that early Homo sapiens may have survived - and even thrived - through this period thanks to innovations including tailored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-early-humans-first-start-wearing-clothes-and-why-parasites-lice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clothing</a>, increased use of sun-protective ochre, and strategic sheltering in caves. 



Meanwhile, their relatives the Neanderthals, who lacked these adaptations, vanished shortly thereafter.



The experts used advanced 3D modeling and archaeological evidence to offer a fresh perspective on how one of Earth’s past geomagnetic upheavals - known as the Laschamps excursion - may have influenced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human evolution</a> and migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sky-lit-up-over-europe">The sky lit up over Europe</h2>



The Laschamps excursion was a geomagnetic event that occurred about 41,000 years ago, during which Earth’s magnetic field temporarily weakened to about 10% of its current strength. 



While the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic poles</a> didn’t fully flip, they did wander significantly - especially over Europe - bringing intense auroras and letting in greater amounts of harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.



“In the study, we combined all of the regions where the magnetic field would not have been connected, allowing cosmic radiation, or any kind of energetic particles from the sun, to seep all the way in to the ground,” said lead author Agnit Mukhopadhyay, a research affiliate in climate and space sciences and engineering at U-M.



“We found that many of those regions actually match pretty closely with early human activity from 41,000 years ago, specifically an increase in the use of caves and an increase in the use of prehistoric sunscreen.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-magnetic-field-and-wandering-poles">Earth's magnetic field and wandering poles</h2>



Earth’s magnetic field is generated by the rotation of its molten iron core, creating electrical currents that produce a magnetic shield around the planet. This field deflects most of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-storms-experts-identify-the-mysterious-source-of-solar-wind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> and cosmic rays that would otherwise reach Earth’s surface and deplete its ozone layer. 



When the field weakens, as it did during the Laschamps event, it exposes much more of the planet to radiation. To explore this ancient episode, the researchers used the Space Weather Modeling Framework - a tool developed at U-M’s Center for Space Environment Modeling - to simulate how the Earth’s magnetic field and space plasma system interacted during the Laschamps event. 



The experts then reconstructed the global space environment in 3D by combining models of the geomagnetic field, the surrounding plasma, and auroral activity at the time. 



The resulting simulations revealed a planet dramatically different from what we know today: auroras visible across Europe and northern Africa, and large swaths of the Earth exposed to solar and cosmic radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-neanderthals-vanish">Why did Neanderthals vanish?</h2>



This intense solar exposure, researchers suggest, could have pushed early humans to adopt protective strategies. By around 41,000 years ago, Homo sapiens were becoming increasingly common in Europe, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/isolation-played-a-key-role-in-neanderthal-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> were nearing extinction and soon vanished.



“What some of the differences are between these species, between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans, that might account for that disappearance has been a major anthropological question for decades,” said Raven Garvey, a U-M associate professor of anthropology.



One possibility? Tailored clothing. Archaeological sites associated with Homo sapiens from this period show evidence of sewing tools - scrapers, awls, and needles - that allowed for the creation of fitted garments. 



Such clothing would have helped protect against cold climates but also may have shielded skin from increased UV exposure. According to the scientists, tailored clothing has a two-fold benefit: it is significantly warmer and this added warmth meant that early humans could travel farther from their hearths and shelters in their search of food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-adaptation-and-innovation">Human adaptation and innovation</h2>



Clothing wasn’t the only adaptation. Homo sapiens also began using ochre more frequently during this period. 



Ochre, a naturally occurring red or yellow pigment composed of iron oxide, has long been used by human ancestors for decorative and symbolic purposes. But it also has practical benefits.



“There have been some experimental tests that show it has sunscreen-like properties. It’s a pretty effective sunscreen, and there are also ethnographic populations that have used it primarily for that purpose,” Garvey said.



“Its increased production and its association primarily with anatomically modern humans (during the Laschamps) is also suggestive of people’s having used it for this purpose as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-response-to-an-invisible-threat">Response to an invisible threat</h2>



Another clue lies in early humans’ use of caves. Archaeological data show a marked increase in cave habitation around the same time as the Laschamps event. 



These natural shelters would have provided physical protection from the radiation pouring in through the weakened magnetic field.



As Mukhopadhyay and Garvey note, these behaviors - hiding in caves, making more use of ochre, and sewing fitted clothes - are all found in archaeological records. The records date back to the Laschamps event, hinting at a collective response to an invisible but potentially deadly threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-field-stability-and-human-survival">Magnetic field stability and human survival</h2>



Garvey is careful to emphasize that the study’s findings. “I think it’s important to note that these findings are correlational and (ours is a) meta analysis, if you will,” she said. “But I think it is a fresh perspective on these data in light of the Laschamps excursion.”



While not proof of causation, the overlap between increased human technological behavior and periods of magnetic field instability offers new insight into how Homo sapiens may have gained a survival advantage over Neanderthals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-magnetic-field-reversal">Future magnetic field reversal </h2>



Beyond its relevance to human prehistory, the study also raises questions about how a future magnetic reversal might affect modern life. 



With Earth’s magnetic field currently weakening and the North Pole slowly drifting, Mukhopadhyay says it’s worth considering what would happen if a similar event occurred today.



“If such an event were to happen today, we would see a complete blackout in several different sectors,” he warned. 



“Our communication satellites would not work. Many of our telecommunication arrays, which are on the ground, would be severely affected by the smallest of space weather events, not to mention the human impacts which would also play a pretty massive role in our day-to-day lives.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-humans-vanish-like-neanderthals">Could humans vanish like Neanderthals?</h2>



The research also carries implications for astrobiology. “Many people say that a planet cannot sustain life without a strong magnetic field,” Mukhopadhyay said. 



“Looking at prehistoric Earth, and especially at events like this, helps us study exoplanetary physics from a very different vantage point. Life did exist back then. But it was a little bit different than it is today.”



In the end, the Laschamps excursion offers more than just an explanation for why Neanderthals may have vanished. It’s a reminder that Earth’s magnetic shield, often taken for granted, plays a crucial role in protecting life on our planet. And when it falters, survival may depend on how quickly life can adapt.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq7275" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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New theory explains why Neanderthals vanished and Homo sapiens are alive today

Around 41,000 years ago, Earth’s magnetic field underwent a chaotic...

Terrestrial Exoplanet

Stellar corpses are supposed to cool, fade, and mind their own business. Yet a new climate‑modeling study hints that some of these faint objects - white dwarfs - could keep nearby planets toasty enough for liquid water to exist.



That possibility expands the hunting ground for habitable worlds by billions of targets and challenges the old idea that life can flourish only around stars that are very much alive.



Today’s tools make that hunt more than wishful thinking. The James&nbsp;Webb&nbsp;Space&nbsp;Telescope (<a href="https://webbtelescope.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) has already glimpsed gas‑giant candidates circling white dwarfs, proving that planets can survive their star’s violent endgame. 



With Webb’s infrared eyes, astronomers can now probe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocky worlds</a> the size of Earth. That capability sets the stage for fresh computer experiments comparing two very different star systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-dwarf-corpses-don-t-chill-out">White dwarf corpses don’t chill out</h2>



After a Sun‑like star sheds its outer layers, its core contracts into a white dwarf that is roughly as big as Earth but packs about half the Sun’s mass.



Current models suggest the Milky Way hosts around 10&nbsp;billion of these embers, and more than 97&nbsp;percent of all stars will finish their lives the same way.



Aomawa Shields of the <a href="https://www.uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California,</a> Irvine, and colleagues wondered whether such dim stars could light the way for life.



“While white dwarf stars may still give off some heat from residual nuclear activity in their outer layers, they no longer exhibit nuclear fusion at their cores. For this reason, not much consideration has been given to these stars’ ability to host habitable exoplanets,” Shields explained.



“Our computer simulations suggest that if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-small-planets-discovered-orbiting-the-nearest-single-star-to-earth-barnards-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocky planets</a> exist in their orbits, these planets could have more habitable real estate on their surfaces than previously thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-sun-water-world">Two‑sun water world</h2>



The team used a three‑dimensional climate model that is normally used for Earth’s environment to compare the climates of two a hypothetical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-17-exoplanets-that-have-oceans-and-possibly-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean‑covered planet</a>s with Earth‑like atmospheres. The two exoplanets were modeled to be in orbit around two different stars.



One exoplanet was placed in the so‑called habitable zone of a hypothetical 5,000 K white dwarf that has passed through most of its lifecycle and is on the slow path to stellar death. 



For comparison, they placed the other exoplanet in the habitable zone around the main-sequence star known as <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/kepler-62-f/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kepler‑62</a>. This is a K-dwarf star that has an equivalent temperature to the white dwarf, but is still actively fusing hydrogen in its core. Kepler-62 is in a similar life stage as our Sun. 



Both modeled planets were assumed to be tidally locked, with one hemisphere fixed in daylight and the other in eternal night. That configuration is common for worlds that hug close to small stars. 



Despite receiving the same amount of starlight overall, the climates of the two test exoplanets diverged in a surprising way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-keeps-white-dwarfs-warm">Speed keeps white dwarfs warm</h2>



The white‑dwarf planet zips around its star every 10 hours. That tight orbit forces a 10‑hour day - much faster than Earth’s orbit, and far quicker than the 155‑day slog of its Kepler‑62 counterpart.



Rapid rotation whips up powerful winds that whisk heat from the day side to the night side and back again. Those winds also shear away the thick, reflective clouds that tend to gather over a slow‑spinning planet’s hot hemisphere.



As a result, the white‑dwarf world ran about 25 °C warmer at its surface than the planet orbiting Kepler‑62.



“We expect synchronous rotation of an exoplanet in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable zone</a> of a normal star like Kepler‑62 to create more cloud cover on the planet’s dayside, reflecting incoming radiation away from the planet’s surface,” Shields noted.



That’s usually a good thing for planets orbiting close to the inner edge of their stars’ habitable zones, where they could stand to cool off a bit rather than lose their oceans to space in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runaway-greenhouse-effect-could-turn-earth-into-an-uninhabitable-hell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">runaway greenhouse</a>. But for a planet orbiting squarely in the middle of the habitable zone, it’s not such a good idea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clouds-winds-extra-shoreline">Clouds, winds, extra shoreline</h2>



The model showed that fewer dayside liquid‑water clouds let more sunlight stream down, while stronger greenhouse gases on the nightside trapped outgoing heat. 



“The planet orbiting Kepler‑62 has so much cloud cover that it cools off too much, sacrificing precious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-kmt-2020-blg-0414-reveals-fate-of-earth-eight-billion-years-from-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable surface</a> area in the process," Shields continued.



"On the other hand, the planet orbiting the white dwarf is rotating so fast that it never has time to build up nearly as much cloud cover on its dayside, so it retains more heat, and that works in its favor.”



Taken together, the temperature bump and the efficient heat circulation spread balmy conditions over a larger fraction of the white‑dwarf planet’s globe. 



That result matters because real estate near the terminator - the ring of perpetual sunset between day and night - often offers the best prospects for life on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/morning-evening-atmosphere-detected-exoplanet-wasp-39b-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tidally locked worlds</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-playground-for-planet-hunters">Wider playground for planet hunters</h2>



Planets in orbit around dead stars are no longer hypothetical. In 2020, astronomers spotted <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/wd-1856534-b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WD 1856+534 b</a>, a Jupiter‑sized object that circles its white dwarf host every 34 hours without being torn apart.



In&nbsp;2024, the Webb telescope directly detected two more gas‑giant candidates orbiting separate white dwarfs, demonstrating Webb’s knack for sniffing out faint planets against dim stellar backgrounds.



“These results suggest that the white dwarf stellar environment, once thought of as inhospitable to life, may present new avenues for exoplanet and astrobiology researchers to pursue,” Shields said. 



As powerful observational capabilities to assess exoplanet atmospheres and astrobiology have come on line, such as those associated with the Webb telescope, we could be entering a new phase in which we’re studying an entirely new class of worlds around previously unconsidered stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Every white dwarf cools for billions of years, granting any close‑in planet a stable light source for far longer than the Sun’s remaining lifespan.



With ten billion of these stars scattered through our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-found-something-strange-at-core-of-milky-way-galaxy-webb-meerkat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>, even a tiny fraction hosting temperate rocky worlds would translate into a staggering number of potential abodes.



The next step is clear: point Webb and its successors at the brightest white dwarfs, catch a transit, and read the atmospheric fingerprints. If the models are right, the ghostly glow of a dying star could someday soon reveal a living planet.



The full study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad9827" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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At least 10 billion stars in our Milky Way galaxy can support habitable planets

Stellar corpses are supposed to cool, fade, and mind their...

Scientists have long puzzled over why Mars, once protected by a global magnetic field like Earth, now shows only a magnetic imprint mostly concentrated in the planet’s southern hemisphere. 



A new study from the <a href="https://ig.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas Institute for Geophysics</a> (UTIG) offers a compelling explanation: perhaps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ ancient magnetic field was one-sided from the start.



The experts present a model showing that a hemispheric, or one-sided, magnetic field could have emerged if Mars’ core had been entirely liquid during the time its magnetic field was active.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-mystery-buried-in-martian-rock"><a></a>A mystery buried in Martian rock</h2>



Today, Mars does not have a global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a>. However, scientists believe that billions of years ago, the planet did possess one. It was likely generated by a planetary dynamo - a self-sustaining process powered by the movement of molten metal within Mars’s core.



While Earth’s magnetic field wraps around the entire planet, Mars left behind a lopsided magnetic signature. Most of the crustal magnetism - what’s essentially a fossil record of the planet’s magnetic past - is preserved in the southern hemisphere. 



For decades, that imbalance has puzzled scientists. Chi Yan, a research associate at UTIG and lead author of the study, believes the explanation may be buried deep within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-internal-structure-of-mars-core-is-finally-revealed/">Mars’ core</a>.



“The logic here is that with no solid inner core, it’s much easier to produce hemispheric (one-sided) magnetic fields,” Yan explained. “That could have implications for Mars’ ancient dynamo and possibly how long it was able to sustain an atmosphere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-core-changes-the-game">Liquid core changes the game</h2>



Most prior models of Mars’ ancient magnetic field were based on assumptions drawn from Earth’s internal structure: a solid inner core surrounded by molten metal. But in recent years, that picture of Mars has started to shift.



In particular, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-insight-lander-is-still-teaching-us-about-mars-after-its-retirement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s InSight mission</a>, which studied Martian seismic activity, revealed that Mars’ core contains more light elements - such as sulfur and oxygen - than previously thought. These lighter elements lower the melting point of the core, making it more likely to be entirely molten.



“If Mars’ core is molten now, it almost certainly would have been molten 4 billion years ago when Mars’ magnetic field is known to have been active,” said study co-author Sabine Stanley, a professor at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a>.



With a liquid core possibility in mind, the team ran a new set of simulations. Instead of a solid inner core, they modeled a young Mars with a fully liquid core.



The team then added a slight temperature difference between the planet’s northern and southern hemispheres. In the model, the northern mantle was made just a bit hotter than the southern mantle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-flow-shaped-the-magnetic-field">Heat flow shaped the magnetic field</h2>



The results were striking. As the simulation ran, heat from the molten core escaped preferentially through the cooler southern hemisphere. 



That focused outflow of heat proved sufficient to power a magnetic dynamo - but only in the south. This simulated southern-hemisphere-only magnetic field matches what we observe today in Martian rock.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_molten-core_magnetic-field-quirks_illustration_credit-UTexas_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_molten-core_magnetic-field-quirks_illustration_credit-UTexas_1s.webp" alt="Computer simulation of a one-sided magnetic field on early Mars based on data from a study led by the University of Texas Institute for Geophysics. The study could explain the unusual magnetic imprint found on Mars today. Credit: Ankit Barik/Johns Hopkins University" class="wp-image-1966274"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Computer simulation of a one-sided magnetic field on early Mars based on data from a study led by the University of Texas Institute for Geophysics. The study could explain the unusual magnetic imprint found on Mars today. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Ankit Barik/Johns Hopkins University</figcaption></figure>



“We had no idea if it was going to explain the magnetic field, so it’s exciting to see that we can create a (single) hemispheric magnetic field with an interior structure that matches what InSight told us Mars’ interior is like today,” Stanley said.



These findings suggest that Mars didn’t necessarily have a planet-wide magnetic field that was later erased from its northern hemisphere - as some researchers have proposed. Instead, the field may have always been asymmetrical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-hemispheric-mystery"><a></a>Rethinking the hemispheric mystery</h2>



The difference between Mars’ northern and southern hemispheres has long intrigued scientists. The north features relatively low, smooth terrain, while the south is higher, more rugged, and more strongly magnetized. 



Some earlier theories suggested that massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-rocks-nasa-dart-asteroid-deflection-mission-may-impact-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> impacts may have obliterated magnetic traces from the northern hemisphere. But the new study offers a different idea: what if the northern rocks were never magnetized in the first place?



“Mars is naturally interesting to look at because it’s like Earth in some ways and it’s the closest planet that we can imagine actually setting up shop on,” said UTIG planetary researcher Doug Hemingway, who was not involved in the study.



“But then, it’s got this dramatic hemispheric dichotomy where the topography, the terrain and the magnetic field of the northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere are dramatically different. Anything that gives a clue at what could account for some of that asymmetry is valuable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-mars-and-planetary-habitability">Ancient Mars and planetary habitability</h2>



Understanding how Mars lost its magnetic field is more than just a question of planetary history - it has implications for the planet’s climate and potential for life. A global magnetic field helps shield a planet’s atmosphere from solar wind, the stream of charged particles constantly blowing from the Sun. 



When Mars lost its magnetic protection, the atmosphere thinned, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> evaporated, and surface conditions became too harsh for life as we know it. The new research suggests that Mars’ magnetic dynamo may have been patchy from the beginning, raising the possibility that atmospheric loss began earlier than previously thought.



By revealing how a small thermal asymmetry in a planet’s mantle could produce a lopsided magnetic field, the study may also help scientists understand other planetary bodies with unusual magnetic features. This includes the planet Mercury and even some of the moons in our solar system.



As planetary scientists continue to digest InSight’s seismic data and refine their models of Mars’ interior, more findings may be on the way. 



For now, this study marks a significant step toward explaining one of the Red Planet’s most persistent mysteries - and suggests that Mars’ inner life may have been every bit as strange as its landscape.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL113926" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Mars once had a strong magnetic field, but now only traces remain

Scientists have long puzzled over why Mars, once protected by...

In the dense rainforests of the Republic of Congo, western lowland gorillas are often seen foraging through the soil. They were long assumed to be foraging for insects, but recent research has turned this assumption on its head. 



The real prize hidden in the dirt is not insects at all, but deer truffles - specifically, a species known as Elaphomyces labyrinthinus.



This revelation not only reshapes our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-humans-linked-same-genes-gorilla-small-penises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorilla</a> behavior, but also highlights the deep value of traditional ecological knowledge. The research, from the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, reveals how primates are deeply connected to their forest environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-truffle-eating-gorillas">Discovery of truffle-eating gorillas</h2>



The study was led by Gaston Abea, a member of the semi-nomadic Bangombe people and the first Indigenous person in Ndoki to become the lead author of a peer-reviewed scientific paper. 



Born in the village of Bomassa, Abea brought together deep cultural understanding, sharp observational skills, and modern scientific methods to uncover the truth behind soil-scratching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-gorillas-self-aware-new-research-challenges-old-assumptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorillas</a>.



Abea spent over a decade working at the Mondika and Goualougo field stations, tracking gorilla behavior. His local tracker background gave him a unique perspective, helping him spot patterns others might miss.



"My people's traditional knowledge of these forests is endangered by modern lifestyles but is proving invaluable in continuing to study and preserve these ecosystems," said Abea.



His work strengthens the growing recognition of Indigenous perspectives in conservation, though academic research still often overlooks them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-truffle-digging-is-a-regular-behavior">Truffle digging is a regular behavior </h2>



To understand this behavior, the researchers conducted daily observations of four different gorilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a> across two sites: the Goualougo Triangle and the Djéké Triangle. They observed these groups nearly every day for almost ten years, documenting each instance of soil scratching.



The team also used molecular classification tools to identify the truffles being foraged. They conducted group scans to determine how much time gorillas spent searching for truffles. 



Then, the researchers used video observations to measure how efficient the animals were during these foraging bouts. Over time, the pattern became clear: soil scratching was a consistent strategy to find deer truffles, not an aimless search or an insect hunt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-gorillas-dig-more-than-others">Some gorillas dig more than others</h2>



Interestingly, not all gorilla groups embraced this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> equally. Soil scratching was most frequent in Buka’s group, followed by Kingo’s and Mététélé’s groups. 



In contrast, the Loya-Makassa group rarely engaged in truffle foraging. The behavior’s distribution seems tied partly to the availability of truffles, but not entirely.



Social factors appear to influence the practice as well. In one striking example, an adult female gorilla moved from a group that rarely scratched soil to one that did so almost daily. She soon began to mirror the habits of her new group, suggesting that cultural transmission may shape how gorillas forage.



"This is an exciting finding for our understanding of gorilla foraging behavior," said David Morgan of the <a href="https://www.lpzoo.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lincoln Park Zoo</a>, who worked on the study and has spent years researching in Ndoki.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-carefully-select-truffles">Gorillas carefully select truffles</h2>



One of the most vivid pieces of evidence came from a gorilla named Jeanne. Photographed in the Goualougo Triangle, Jeanne was seen scraping away forest leaf litter with her hands. 



Once the gorilla exposed the soil, she pinched her fingers together and brought a small round object - presumably a truffle - to her mouth. This precise motion defined a successful foraging attempt and offered a glimpse into just how deliberate the behavior is.



The study's inclusion in a special issue of the journal Primates marked a milestone. The issue celebrated 25 years of research in the Ndoki forest and brought attention to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-early-primates-lived-in-pairs-and-were-not-solitary-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> that may have otherwise gone unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-truffle-foraging-traditions">Protecting truffle-foraging traditions</h2>



Abea’s findings were incorporated into an ecological impact assessment for the Djéké Triangle.



As a result, conservation managers decided to adjust planned locations for tourism-related infrastructure. The aim was to protect areas where truffle foraging occurs regularly, ensuring this unique behavior could continue undisturbed.



"This is Gaston's first article as lead author - a milestone for his career and for our capacity-building efforts," said Morgan. "He is the first research assistant of Indigenous People's origin to become first author, in the Ndoki landscape." 



The decision to shift construction plans also highlights a growing understanding of cultural behavior in wildlife. These are not just instinctive acts but socially-influenced practices that may vary by group and change with experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-gorilla-hunters-to-guardians">From gorilla hunters to guardians</h2>



Abea’s story represents more than scientific achievement. It also reflects a cultural shift within his own community. He is one of over 100 Congolese research assistants trained since 2005 at Ndoki, many of whom come from nearby villages and Indigenous Ba’Aka communities.



"Our ancestors used to hunt gorillas, now we protect them, and I hope to inspire other Ba'Akas to do the same," said Abea.



His journey, from a boy in Bomassa to lead author of a major scientific article, mirrors the broader transformation in conservation thinking - one that values the voices and wisdom of local communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-insights-shape-global-research">Local insights shape global research</h2>



While the knowledge about gorillas and foraging for truffles is slowly gaining recognition in the sciences, it still appears too rarely in published research. This study shows how blending local knowledge with science can reveal key insights into animal behavior and ecosystem health.



"This paper shows how much traditional ecological knowledge, scientific research, and conservation can benefit from each other," said Dr. Sydney Ndolo, second author of the paper and now professor of Botany at Université Marien Ngouabi in Brazzaville.



"Local cultures will only survive if they are properly valued, and research is an important means of achieving this."



Through Abea’s work and this study, a hidden part of gorilla life now comes into view - one shaped by truffles, food, forest, and social bonds. And alongside it, the role of Indigenous knowledge in science gains new ground.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10329-024-01151-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Primates</a>.



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Gorillas are digging for a surprising food in the jungle soil

In the dense rainforests of the Republic of Congo, western...

Nature-based activities are showing real promise in improving mental health, with visible benefits reported in as little as 12 weeks. 



In a recent evaluation of a community program for people with mild to moderate mental health conditions, participants experienced better mood and lower anxiety levels after joining weekly outdoor sessions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reshaping-mental-health-through-nature">Reshaping mental health through nature</h2>



This study is part of the UK government’s larger effort to rethink how mental health care is delivered.



One initiative included setting up seven “test and learn” green social prescribing sites across England. The first site to release its findings comes from Humber and North Yorkshire, where researchers from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a> led the evaluation.



Green social prescribing works by linking people with community-based nature activities instead of, or alongside, traditional medical treatments. 



Healthcare professionals can refer patients to activities that bring them outdoors and into contact with the natural world. Though still in the testing phase, the evidence is growing stronger that this approach can be a useful tool in mental health support.



More than 220 participants took part in the Humber and North Yorkshire program. The researchers measured their mental health using the Office for National Statistics’ personal well-being metrics and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). The participants ranged in age from 18 to 85 and included people of all genders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-activities-deeper-impact">Longer activities, deeper impact</h2>



The results showed consistent improvement across the board, but participants in longer sessions - typically nine to 12 weeks - saw the most progress.



Activities that involved direct interaction with nature, such as horticulture and care farming, had a bigger effect than sports, crafts, or mindfulness sessions alone.



Professor Peter Coventry from the University of York’s Department of Health Sciences elaborated on the findings.



“We have known for some time that nature has a positive impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-scents-linked-to-improved-health-and-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health and wellbeing</a>, but in more recent years, a stronger evidence base has grown that proves this to be true for mental health in particular," he said.



“The fact that activities such as gardening, tending allotments, and care farming had the most impact on the participants in our study, demonstrated that it is not just about being passive in nature, but connecting with it in a meaningful way." 



Professor Coventry added that spending time in nature with others from your community can ease <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-do-fear-and-anxiety-reside-in-the-brain-new-cells-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a> and depression by reducing loneliness and fostering connection. Participating in local activities that support the environment can boost mood and promote a sense of belonging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accessible-and-enjoyable-nature-activities">Accessible and enjoyable nature activities</h2>



The benefits of the program were seen across different age groups and income levels. Of the participants, 65% came from low socioeconomic backgrounds. 



Horticulture-based sessions had particularly high attendance, suggesting these activities were both accessible and enjoyable for a wide range of people.



“This intervention might not work for everyone, but through an initial exploratory conversation a social prescriber will discuss with a patient or user of the service if nature-based activities would be suited to them," said Trish Darcy, a research associate from the University’s Mental Health and Addiction Research Group. 



"For that choice to happen, we need more investment to support these community-based activities."



“In our study, 65% of participants were from low socioeconomic groups and we now know that not only can it help improve their mental health, but participation was high for horticultural based activities in particular, meaning that not only is it good for the individual, but for the local community environment too."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-green-partner-in-healthcare">A new green partner in healthcare</h2>



The experts conducted the study in partnership with The HEY Smile Foundation and the NHS Humber and North Yorkshire Integrated Care Board. 



The research is part of a national cross-government initiative, with backing from DEFRA and several departments and agencies including the Department of Health and Social Care and Sport England.



Dr Hannah Armitt, clinical lead for the regional program, emphasized the potential to bridge medical care with community programs.



“The research conducted in our region has the potential to enhance service delivery by connecting statutory services with local providers of nature-based and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/outdoor-classes-improve-childrens-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outdoor activities</a>," said Dr. Armitt.



“It is important to evidence the potential of green space and nature to ensure clinicians and patients alike can harness the benefits of this wonderful free natural resource we have in abundance in Yorkshire and Humber.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-nature-prescriptions">Future of nature prescriptions </h2>



As more of healthcare shifts into the community, the role of local organizations is becoming increasingly important. 



Anthony Hurd is the program manager of the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/healthsciences/research/mental-health/projects/humber-north-yorkshire-green-social-prescribing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humber and North Yorkshire Green Social Prescribing</a>.



“This work has not only shown the positive outcomes that nature-based activities have on mental health, it has also highlighted the role that community-based organizations play in supporting the health and wellbeing of communities," said Hurd.



“As healthcare begins to move more into the community, and with a focus on prevention, the community-based organizations delivering activities such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-is-beneficial-for-physical-and-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gardening</a>, care farming, and walking groups need to be recognized as key players in our national health service and be resourced appropriately.”



With continued investment, green social prescribing could become a trusted and lasting part of mental health care across the country - offering hope, healing, and a healthy dose of fresh air.



The research is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1155/hsc/2016261" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Health &amp; Social Care in the Community</a>.



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How nature heals: Outdoor activities greatly improve mental health

Nature-based activities are showing real promise in improving mental health,...

A team of researchers has recently identified the right frontal lobe as a vital part of logical thinking and the ability to tackle new problems.



The study reveals that when the right brain is damaged, people’s capacity for reasoning suffers, implying that this area is central to our day-to-day cognitive functions.



The research was led by experts at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL) and <a href="https://www.uclh.nhs.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London Hospitals</a> (UCLH).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-damage-to-the-right-frontal-lobe">Damage to the right frontal lobe </h2>



Scientists have long used functional imaging (fMRI) to study cognition in healthy individuals. These studies, however, only show correlations rather than proving which parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-specialized-regions-develop-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> are essential. 



To pinpoint causation, experts rely on lesion-deficit mapping, a technique that examines how specific types of brain damage affect behavior.



Finding sufficient patients with carefully localized right frontal lobe damage can be challenging. The research team overcame that hurdle by enrolling 247 patients with unilateral focal brain lesions (either in the left or right, frontal or posterior regions).



Another 81 healthy adults served as a baseline for comparison. By systematically observing what happens when parts of the brain are damaged, the team could identify the areas indispensable for particular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifestyle-choices-in-young-adulthood-impact-cognitive-ability-in-midlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive skills</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-brain-s-reasoning-ability">Measuring the brain's reasoning ability</h2>



To measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-showcase-smart-logical-reasoning-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logical reasoning</a>, the researchers created two original tests. One verbal analogical reasoning task asked participants to determine relationships between words. 



A question might read: “If Sarah is smarter than Diana, and Sarah is smarter than Heather, is Diana smarter than Heather?” Such questions test one’s ability to deduce logical conclusions from given statements.



The second was a nonverbal deductive reasoning task that required spotting patterns or similarities among shapes, pictures, or numbers. 



One sample query stated: “Which set of numbers is 1, 2, 3 most similar to 5, 6, 7 or 6, 5, 7?” The goal was to see how patients reason about relationships without relying on language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-right-brain-is-essential-for-reasoning">Right brain is essential for reasoning </h2>



When the researchers compared test results, one detail stood out: patients with injuries in the right frontal lobe scored significantly worse on both tests than those with lesions in other areas. These patients were about 15% more prone to errors than their counterparts and the healthy controls. 



This outcome supports the idea that the right brain is essential for reasoning. It's especially important when interpreting novel information and drawing logical conclusions.



Lead author Joseph Mole of the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ion/ucl-queen-square-institute-neurology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology and Department of Neuropsychology</a> emphasized the importance of these findings in spotting reasoning issues early.



“Our study explores how the front right part of the brain helps people think and solve new problems,” said Mole. “It also shows that our two new tests can help detect reasoning problems in individuals with brain damage, improving diagnosis and treatment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ties-to-fluid-intelligence"><a></a>Ties to fluid intelligence</h2>



Another important takeaway involves what neuroscientists call fluid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/every-part-of-the-brain-works-together-to-support-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a> - our capacity to solve problems in new or unfamiliar situations.



Senior author Lisa Cipolotti, a professor in the same institute at UCLH, noted that the study shows a substantial overlap between the brain networks responsible for fluid intelligence and reasoning. Both networks appear to rely heavily on the right frontal lobe.



The experts used advanced lesion mapping techniques developed by Professor Parashkev Nachev and colleagues at the UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology. These tools made it possible to explore precisely which portions of the frontal lobe, when damaged, most affect reasoning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-neurological-care"><a></a>Implications for neurological care</h2>



The practical impact is significant. Brain injuries from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stroke-risk-is-elevated-by-air-pollution-and-traffic-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strokes</a> or tumors can affect daily life in subtle ways. These injuries require the early identification of cognitive deficits. 



Many neurological assessments miss right frontal lobe dysfunction because standard tests often focus on memory, language, or motor skills. By contrast, the tasks introduced here specifically examine higher-order reasoning.



The researchers hope that once validated further, these tests can be integrated into clinical settings. For patients, that means more thorough evaluations and, potentially, more focused rehabilitation programs.



If doctors know that a person’s right frontal region has sustained damage, they can anticipate potential problems in logical thinking and develop strategies. This type of cognitive training or specialized therapy will help patients manage symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-right-brain-studies-are-needed">More right-brain studies are needed</h2>



Future studies may refine the new tasks to confirm their effectiveness. Additional testing will also detect right-brain deficits across a wider range of patient populations. 



Researchers also aim to examine whether training that targets reasoning skills can bolster recovery, potentially improving quality of life for people with frontal lobe injuries.



As this line of research advances, the main lesson is clear: while multiple parts of the brain support different aspects of cognition, the right frontal lobe’s role in reasoning appears especially vital. 



For anyone dealing with brain damage - or anyone working to help those who are - this knowledge reshapes how we assess, treat, and ultimately understand the very nature of human thought.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/brain/advance-article/doi/10.1093/brain/awaf062/8104772?searchresult=1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain</a>.



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Where logic lives: Brain region responsible for reasoning revealed

A team of researchers has recently identified the right frontal...

A honeybee colony seems like a perfect model of unity. Inside the hive, thousands of individuals work in rhythm. Foragers seek nectar. Water collectors hydrate the group. Ventilators fan their wings to cool the brood. Guard bees monitor the entrance. 



In this coordinated dance, defense is critical - but personality plays a role, and not all bees choose to sting.



What triggers a bee to sting? Why do some launch themselves into action while others hold back? A new study from the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> has explored these questions.



Researchers discovered that not only do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-bees-choose-the-same-flowers-again-and-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> differ in their readiness to sting, but their personalities remain consistent across time and context. The hive may move as one, but decisions start within the individual.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-choose-to-sting-or-abstain">Bees choose to sting or abstain</h2>



Doctoral student Kavitha Kannan and neurobiologist Morgane Nouvian led the research at the University of Konstanz. To examine stinging behavior, they needed a reliable group. They selected guard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-wildflowers-may-be-harming-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> - those that are naturally closer to the frontlines.



"Basically, you can expect that, simply by the distribution of tasks, a collector will have a different stinging behaviour than a guard. As we wanted to exclude as many influencing factors as possible, this selection was the first logical step. We were then able to gradually test other influencing factors," explained Kannan.



The bees were exposed to a rotating dummy that simulated a predator. The setup allowed repeated trials without harming the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>. When a bee stings in natural conditions, its stinger is lost and it dies. Here, the bees could engage or abstain multiple times without being harmed. Each action or lack of action was logged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarm-scents-don-t-trigger-all-bees">Alarm scents don’t trigger all bees</h2>



In honeybees, a sting is more than a weapon. It is a call to arms. When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee</a> stings, it releases a complex scent signal known as the sting alarm pheromone (SAP), which is primarily composed of iso-amyl acetate (IAA).



This alerts others and encourages them to join in the group defense. As more bees respond, the concentration of IAA increases. Eventually, the response declines - a strategy that may ensure not too many casualties occur. 



The study found that SAP does influence bees, but not equally. When exposed to synthetic IAA, bees showed varied reactions. The presence of this signal raised the odds of stinging - but some bees still held back.



"Ultimately, it turned out that although these factors had an influence, they did not impact the predictability of individual stinging behavior," said Nouvian. The bees that chose to sting in one trial often did so again. Others remained passive, regardless of the alarm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-personality-and-stinging-behavior">Bee personality and stinging behavior </h2>



To probe deeper, the researchers tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee</a> responses over four repeated trials. The results were striking. Stinging behavior stayed consistent in most individuals. Some stung every time, others never stung, and very few wavered between the two choices.



Even more interestingly, the bees showed greater consistency in behavior when the time between trials was less. This suggests that internal states - perhaps neurological or hormonal - affect decisions. A bee wasn’t flipping a coin each time. It was acting from a semi-stable inner condition.



This state dependence was especially clear when patterns like 1−0−1−0 (stinging, not stinging, stinging, not stinging) were rare. Instead, most bees either kept attacking or kept abstaining. These temporal patterns implied that bees make evaluations based on more than stimulus alone - they carry a mood-like persistence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peers-aren-t-always-influential">Peers aren't always influential</h2>



Bees are famously social. Still, the presence of another bee had a surprising effect. Rather than encouraging aggression, it reduced it. Pairs of bees were less likely to sting than solo bees, even when faced with the same threat.



This finding challenges currently-held assumptions. Larger groups don’t necessarily mean higher per-bee aggression. In fact, the data aligns with older studies suggesting that larger colonies can show less per-capita defense.



When tested in pairs, real bees stung less than would be predicted by combining data from singles. The effect appeared again, even when both bees could detect IAA. "Pairs as entities did [respond to IAA] (z = −4.327, p &lt; 0.001) … individual bees within pairs (z = −3.68, p &lt; 0.001)," the research paper noted.



Yet, the experts also found that SAP, when released naturally by one bee, could recruit another. The first bee’s sting raised the odds that its partner would follow. But over multiple exposures, this recruitment faded. Responsiveness to IAA dropped, trial by trial. Even social signals have an expiry date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-with-gentle-personalities-sting-less">Bees with gentle personalities sting less</h2>



Another part of the study tested whether bees adjust based on their companions' personalities. After identifying aggressive and gentle bees, the team mixed them in various combinations. Would gentle bees become bolder when placed among aggressive peers?



The answer was no. Bees classified as gentle stayed that way, even in groups full of stingers. Aggressive bees also stayed true to type. The only thing that influenced changes was the SAP level in the arena. More SAP raised the chance of stinging, less reduced it.



These results reveal that honeybees don’t mirror the behavior of those around them. They react to chemical signals, not peer pressure. 



“We propose that [Lecomte’s] results were rather the consequence of the reduced group size,” noted the researchers, questioning earlier claims about social inhibition among bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-resist-group-influence">Bees resist group influence</h2>



What does this mean for our understanding of bee society? This study breaks the idea of a hive acting as one. Each bee carries an internal threshold. That threshold can be nudged by alarm pheromones or dulled by time. It can be lowered by a sense of threat or raised by the presence of others.



Still, the final decision lies with the bee. Stinging isn’t a hive decision. It’s an individual one, shaped by subtle internal states and stable personality.



"That bees stop responding to the SAP but not to the threat itself might be another example of social information being less valued than personal information," the researchers suggested.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-honeybee-behavior">Future research on honeybee behavior </h2>



This study paves the way for deeper research into honeybee behavior. By proving the stability of individual responses, it opens doors for exploring the biological roots of personality. Future work could look into the neurobiology of aggression or the hormonal triggers behind it.



The hive may appear unified, but it is made of diverse minds. Some are ready to die for the colony. Others prefer to wait, even when the alarm is raised. Both types are part of nature’s plan - and together, they balance risk and survival.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241295" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Bees have unique personalities that determine whether they sting

A honeybee colony seems like a perfect model of unity....

Warm sunshine, soft sand, rolling dunes, and the scent of saltwater can make it easy to forget that every beach getaway relies on a fragile coastal balance. In many regions, that balance is maintained by barrier islands - narrow offshore landforms that serve as nature’s protective shield for inland communities.



Researchers have been investigating how these islands stand firm against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-dunes-lala-lallia-origin-of-earths-largest-desert-sands-mystery-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a> and shifting sea levels. 



One such effort has been led by Orencio Duran Vinent, an assistant professor in the <a href="https://engineering.tamu.edu/ocean/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ocean Engineering</a> at Texas A&amp;M University, who recently studied how an island’s dunes factor into its survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dunes-lose-strength-after-storms">Dunes lose strength after storms</h2>



Many coastal communities rely on these islands to slow down erosion and reduce the force of crashing waves. When a major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-arabia-was-once-green-and-lush-with-rivers-lakes-and-grasslands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storm</a> hits, a robust dune system can keep floodwaters and pounding surf from destroying roads and homes.



These dunes work like natural walls, but they need healthy vegetation and enough elevation to hold their ground. A recent <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01611-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paper</a> co-authored by Professor Duran Vinent highlights how storms and sea-level shifts can strip away that plant cover, leaving behind a sandy expanse that gives no real protection.



Once the dunes vanish, the shoreline can begin to lose land at a rapid pace. Some researchers call the bare expanse a barren state, and see it as marking a low point from which it is difficult to rebound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tall-dunes-protect-beaches">Tall dunes protect beaches </h2>



Dunes sprout where winds carry sand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-coastal-cities-around-the-world-could-disappear-under-rising-seas-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inland</a>, then vegetation anchors those grains in place. That green cover also helps the dunes grow tall enough to act as a sturdy barricade.



When dunes stand at a comfortable height, they are sometimes called the high state, hinting at their role in keeping storm waters at bay. This state represents more than just a sand pile because it supports plants, habitats for local wildlife, and a measure of safety for property owners.



If strong floods sweep over these dunes, they can break apart and lose the vegetation that once solidified the structure. Recovery is possible if the plant life can take root again, but everything depends on how frequently storms bombard the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-seas-are-already-toppling-coastal-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">island</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-dunes-cannot-recover">When dunes cannot recover</h2>



The recent findings mention a key threshold that separates a healthy dune system from a flattened shoreline. Once the island’s elevation dips below that point, its chances of bouncing back get slimmer with every wave.



If flooding becomes a regular event, the island’s dunes may fail to restore themselves in time. That path leads toward the barren state, in which the dunes lack enough height to safeguard the land behind them.



According to a <a href="https://geonarrative.usgs.gov/cch-bi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USGS</a> overview, these islands often have two fates: they either hold onto dunes or end up with a barren profile. The difference lies in how quickly vegetation can regrow and how much time passes between storm assaults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-nature-to-rebuild-island-dunes">Using nature to rebuild island dunes</h2>



“Modern coastal engineering aims to use natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> rather than concrete constructions, promoting sustainable approaches that include and protect natural systems,” said Professor Duran Vinent.



He and his collaborators see a chance to protect shorelines by working with wind, waves, and plants instead of fighting them head-on.



Interventions could involve planting hardy vegetation or creating gentle slopes that encourage natural sand buildup. Small changes may cut down the frequency of flooding events that push islands toward a barren state.



This approach has gained attention because it costs less in the long run and blends better with local habitats. Some designs even factor in shifting tides and seasonal wind patterns to allow dunes to expand naturally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dunes-protect-homes-and-tourism">Dunes protect homes and tourism</h2>



From seafood joints to boardwalk shops, many livelihoods sit on the strip of land just behind these protective islands. One big storm could wash away tourism revenue, so local leaders are tuning in to research that highlights these natural defenses.



Whenever dunes flourish, families, restaurants, and entire ecosystems see fewer disruptions from flooding. That stability can help keep roads open, preserve local wildlife, and maintain the scenic charm that folks love.



“A better understanding of the natural dynamics of barrier islands will allow a more timely and effective intervention from coastal engineers, mitigating the risks to coastal infrastructure,” said Duran Vinent.



He noted that this outlook calls for close collaboration among ecologists, geologists, and city planners who share a stake in a stable shoreline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planning-for-tomorrow">Planning for tomorrow</h2>



Communities that sit near the water can help by limiting construction in sensitive dune zones. Strong dunes form more easily when the beach isn’t overcrowded with walls or heavy equipment that deflect windblown sand.



Local governments might offer guidelines that restrict development near fragile dune ecosystems, thus ensuring that vegetation can grow where it’s needed most. Scientists suggest that these proactive steps stop small storms from doing big harm.



Such measures can be tough decisions for places that depend on beach tourism, but they are essential for long-term safety. If the barrier island dips below that critical elevation, it may never return to a robust dune profile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-and-protecting-island-dunes">Monitoring and protecting island dunes</h2>



<a href="https://www.careerexplorer.com/careers/coastal-engineer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coastal engineers</a> are looking beyond sand and concrete by joining forces with ecologists who track plant growth. That teamwork reveals how dunes can flourish or fail under shifting water levels and changing climates.



“A deeper understanding of the connection between the natural environment and coastal engineering is essential. Fresh insights might help everyone predict which spots are most at risk and how to keep vital vegetation alive,” explained Professor Duran Vinent.&nbsp;



Future research could include advanced computer models that pinpoint weak links in these systems. Better data might also guide decisions on restoring islands that have already flattened out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-dunes-to-save-islands">Restoring dunes to save islands</h2>



Efforts that restore a failing barrier island offer big payoffs for marine life, beach-goers, and folks who worry about eroding coastlines. These efforts can bring back the taller dunes that block storm surge and protect local homes.



It may take patience, but many see no better way to keep beaches safe and welcoming for future generations. Prioritizing natural systems can save money, preserve landscapes, and keep that salty breeze blowing over sandy shores.



Discussions around climate change make the role of barrier islands even more pressing. Some predict stronger storms and higher sea levels, which calls for solutions that nurture dunes in a natural way.



Research continues to offer new ideas that blend ecological wisdom with engineering know-how. Beach lovers everywhere stand to gain if these protective stretches of sand stay healthy in the face of future challenges.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01611-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Healthy dune systems on barrier islands protect coastal cities

Warm sunshine, soft sand, rolling dunes, and the scent of...

Mars is a planet of dramatic contrasts. Roughly one hemisphere of the globe is rugged and ancient, scarred with craters that indicate its age. The other is smoother, having been shaped by lava flows that have covered the underlying rugged surface.



A recent image from the Mars Express spacecraft offers a vivid glimpse of these two faces in a region known as Acheron Fossae. This area lies between two massive volcanoes - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-map-exposes-ancient-structures-and-volcanic-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Olympus Mons</a> to the south and Alba Mons to the northeast. 



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> (ESA) studied the new images to understand better how volcanic and tectonic activity once reshaped the Martian surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-structures-reveal-tectonic-past">Ancient structures reveal tectonic past</h2>



The right side of the image reveals a network of long, trench-like structures known as grabens. These geological features formed on Mars when the planet's crust was pulled apart by tectonic stress.



Huge blocks of land cracked, sank, and created deep troughs that are separated by ridges. The grabens formed nearly four billion years ago and stretch about 800 kilometers (500 miles) - roughly the length of Germany.



The crustal tension responsible for the grabens likely came from the shifting of Mars’s surface during periods of intense volcanic activity. 



The presence of nearby volcanoes, such as Olympus Mons and Alba Mons, suggests a strong link between volcanic activity and surface deformation in this area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-and-lava-shape-younger-plains">Glaciers and lava shape younger plains</h2>



Just below the center of the image is a smooth region that marks the beginning of younger plains. These plains were likely formed by glacial movement and lava flows. 



Close to the grabens, evidence points to rock glaciers - combinations of ice and rock - that flowed slowly over time. These glaciers appear to have crept away from the cliffs, leaving behind patterns that resemble waves lapping at a shoreline. 



The movement ends in gently sloping piles of debris, known as "debris aprons," that spread away from the cliff bases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-features-of-mars">Older features of Mars</h2>



Zoomed-in 3D views highlight the grabens, glacial flow, and areas where lava poured over older features. 



One clear example is a half-visible impact crater, about 28 kilometers (17 miles) wide, that is partially buried beneath a smooth lava field. This suggests the crater existed before the volcanic activity that resurfaced the terrain.



In the upper right of the main image, three cone-shaped peaks rise above the plains. These domes are likely volcanic in origin. 



What’s fascinating is that the grabens slice through some of these features, indicating that the crust continued to stretch and shift even after the volcanic domes formed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-geological-changes-on-mars">Powerful geological changes on Mars</h2>



Since launching in 2003, ESA’s Mars Express has been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photographing Mars in color</a> and 3D with high resolution. For over 20 years, it has offered scientists a window into the Red Planet’s layered history. 



Today, the spacecraft continues to reveal how time, lava, and ice worked together to shape the Martian landscape.



The Acheron Fossae image is just one example of how Mars, though quiet today, was once a planet of powerful geological change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-planetary-evolution">A window into planetary evolution</h2>



Scientists continue to investigate areas such as Acheron Fossae in order to learn more about the forces that sculpted not just Mars, but rocky planets in general. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/odyssey-orbiter-captures-unprecedented-images-of-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red Planet</a> offers a special geological record. Mars does not have plate tectonics and has very little wind or water erosion, unlike Earth, so its surface features have been preserved for billions of years. 



These historic landscapes are snapshots of planetary processes locked in time. By examining the cracks, flows, and plains of Mars, scientists can reconstruct how the planet cooled, stretched, and changed. 



The fact that there are ancient grabens, glacial landforms, and volcanic plains indicates a complicated and energetic past, even though today the planet is geologically calm. 



These findings also assist scientists in constructing improved models of the appearance of other planets in the distant past.



With additional missions in the pipeline, including future sample-return missions and eventual crewed missions, Mars will continue to provide new opportunities to study planetary history, climate evolution, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">possibility of ancient life</a>.



Information for this article was obtained from an European Space Agency <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express/Martian_rock_on_the_move">press release</a>.



Image Credit: ESA



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Split personality of Mars revealed in its striking features

Mars is a planet of dramatic contrasts. Roughly one hemisphere...

Most people imagine crocodiles as relics from the dinosaur era - unchanged, prehistoric predators lurking in murky waters. But their survival story is much more complex.



New research from the <a href="https://www.uco.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Oklahoma</a> and the University of Utah shows that these animals aren’t just fossils with teeth. They’ve made it through two mass extinctions, thanks in part to one big advantage: adaptability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-crocodiles-survived">Why crocodiles survived</h2>



Crocodylians - today’s crocodiles, alligators, and gharials - are the last surviving members of a larger group called crocodylomorphs, which goes back 230 million years.



These ancient creatures included many now-extinct species that once lived in a range of environments.



The research is the first to closely examine the diets of these extinct animals to understand how some survived while others did not.



“Lots of groups closely related to crocodylians were more diverse, more abundant, and exhibited different ecologies, yet they all disappeared except these few generalist crocodylians alive today,” said Keegan Melstrom, lead author and assistant professor at UCO. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-extinction-risk-is-heavily-influenced-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extinction</a> and survivorship are two sides of the same coin. Through all mass extinctions, some groups manage to persist and diversify. What can we learn by studying the deeper evolutionary patterns imparted by these events?”



Today, many scientists believe Earth is entering its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sixth-mass-extinction-is-currently-in-progress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sixth mass extinction</a>, fueled by habitat loss, invasive species, and climate change. Studying past survivors, like crocodylians, may offer clues on how to protect today’s wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodylians-vs-mammals">Crocodylians vs. mammals</h2>



For years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> have been the go-to group for studying extinction and survival. Their flexible diets and ability to live in many habitats seemed to explain their resilience. But crocodylomorphs have long been overlooked in this conversation. This crocodylian study changes that.



“There’s a danger of trying to draw conclusions from millions of years ago and directly apply it to conservation. We have to be cautious,” said co-author Randy Irmis. 



“If people study mammals and reptiles and find the same patterns with respect to extinction survival, then we might predict that species with a generalist diet may do better. That information helps us make predictions, but it’s unlikely we’ll ever be able to pick out which individual species will survive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-diversity-of-crocodile-ancestors">Shrinking diversity of crocodile ancestors</h2>



Modern crocodylians are known for living in water and eating just about anything that crosses their path - fish, small mammals, even fellow crocodiles. But this lifestyle is only a narrow snapshot of their past.



In the Late Triassic Period, crocodylomorph ancestors lived mostly on land. They were small-to-medium-sized predators feeding on small animals. Other reptile groups were more dominant at the time, showing off a wide range of sizes and shapes. 



But when the end-Triassic extinction struck, these dominant groups vanished. Only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-crocodiles-weighed-1000-pounds-and-walked-on-two-legs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodylomorphs</a>, especially those with flexible diets, pulled through.



“After that, it goes bananas,” said Melstrom. “Aquatic hypercarnivores, terrestrial generalists, terrestrial hypercarnivores, terrestrial herbivores - crocodylomorphs evolved a massive number of ecological roles throughout the time of the dinosaurs.”



For a while, crocodylomorphs thrived in every corner of their ecosystems. But during the Late Cretaceous Period, their diversity began to shrink. By the time a meteor ended the age of dinosaurs 66 million years ago, only a few crocodylian lineages survived - most of them semi-aquatic generalists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-crocodylians">The evolution of crocodylians</h2>



To understand what these animals ate, the researchers studied the shape of fossilized teeth and skulls. 



Sharp, pointed teeth suggested a meat-heavy diet, while flatter, grinding teeth pointed to a plant-based menu. Skull structure also offered clues about how the animals hunted and fed.



The crocodylian study was massive in scope. The researchers traveled to museum collections in seven countries across four continents. 



The experts examined the skulls of 99 extinct crocodylomorph species and 20 living crocodylian species. To compare, they also analyzed dietary traits in 89 mammals and 47 lizards. This fossil record, stretching over 230 million years, revealed how crocodylians evolved into a variety of forms.



Some were fast-moving land predators. Others grazed like herbivores. Many returned to the water. Today, that wide-ranging history is mostly hidden behind the toothy grin of a croc.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-crocodiles-survive-future-changes">Will crocodiles survive future changes?</h2>



While modern crocodylians continue to thrive in rivers and swamps, many face serious threats. The gharial of the Himalayan foothills and the Cuban crocodile in the Zapata Swamp are critically endangered. Their survival may still hinge on one of their oldest traits - a flexible diet.



“When we see living crocodiles and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alligators-birds-hearing-dinosaur/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alligators</a>, rather than thinking of ferocious beasts or expensive handbags, I hope people appreciate their amazing 200+ million years of evolution, and how they’ve survived so many tumultuous events in Earth history,” said Irmis. 



“Crocodylians are equipped to survive many future changes - if we’re willing to help preserve their habitats.”



The full crocodylian study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pala.70005" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



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How crocodiles survived Earth's biggest mass extinctions

Most people imagine crocodiles as relics from the dinosaur era...

Comets streak in from the outer solar system, shed streams of dust, and sometimes trigger brief meteor storms on Earth. For years, astronomers blamed the random tug of the planets for the way these meteoroid streams gradually drift in and out of Earth’s path.



However, a new study led by <a href="https://www.seti.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SETI Institute</a> scientists Stuart Pilorz and Peter Jenniskens argues that the real architect is more subtle. The research points to the Sun’s own motion around the solar‑system barycenter, the shared center of mass for all planets and the Sun.



“Contrary to popular conception, everything in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-structure-discovered-at-the-edge-of-our-solar-system-oort-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> does not orbit the Sun,” explained Pilorz. “Rather, the Sun and planets all orbit their common center of mass, known to scientists as the solar system barycenter.”



That off‑center dance gives long‑period comets - and the dust grains they release - a tiny gravitational nudge each time they dive toward the inner solar system. Over centuries, those nudges unravel a needle‑thin meteoroid ribbon into a broad, wandering sheet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-position-and-velocity-of-the-sun">Position and velocity of the Sun</h2>



Most orbital models anchor the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/see-the-sun-in-exquisite-detail-in-rare-solar-orbiter-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun</a> at the exact center, a convenient simplification because it holds more than 99 percent of the solar system’s mass. But the new work shows that the simplification hides the critical mechanism that disperses long‑period comet streams.



“Long‑period comets spend most of their lives so far away from the solar system that they feel the tug from the barycenter,” Pilorz said. “But every few hundred years they swoop inside Jupiter’s orbit and come under the Sun’s influence.”



During that brief inner‑system swing, solar heating triggers jets of gas that eject dust grains. The grains initially follow the comet’s path, forming a ribbon so narrow that Earth almost never encounters it. 



Yet when each grain nears the Sun again, it experiences a gravitational boost or braking because the Sun has shifted slightly in both position and velocity. This shift is relative to the barycenter since the previous visit.



“That kick is exactly in the same way that we use planetary encounters to speed or slow down spacecraft,” Pilorz stated. If you imagine bouncing a tennis ball off the front or back of a moving train, the analogy fits: the ball’s speed changes only because the train itself is moving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteor-showers-and-the-sun-s-wobble">Meteor showers and the Sun's wobble </h2>



Jenniskens first suspected the Sun’s wobble was important in 1995, when he noticed that certain ephemeral meteor showers - sometimes lasting less than an hour - seemed to recur on a 60‑year rhythm. 



That period matched the combined gravitational influence of Jupiter’s 12‑year orbit and Saturn’s 30‑year orbit, which together dictate the Sun’s main oscillation around the barycenter.



“We traveled to Spain in an attempt to record one of these showers and saw what was described in the past as ‘stars fall at midnight.' The whole shower lasted only 40 minutes, but there was a bright meteor every minute at the peak," noted Jenniskens.



The observation validated his prediction method: track where Jupiter and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-energy-imbalance-discovered-on-saturn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn</a> will push the Sun, then forecast when a dust stream - nudged by that same motion - will intersect Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-jumps-reshape-meteoroid-path">Subtle jumps reshape meteoroid path</h2>



Inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a>’s orbit, a meteoroid abandons the barycenter frame and orbits the Sun directly. When it retreats beyond Jupiter, it switches back to barycentric motion.



“We found that the two jumps in the plane of motion, when the Sun takes control as the comet approaches and then again when it hands control back to the barycenter as the comet heads away, kicked the inclination and node of the orbit by a small amount,” said Pilorz.



Grains at different points in the stream meet the Sun at different barycentric phases, so each accrues a slightly different orbital tweak. 



Over centuries the narrow ribbon diffuses, weaving above and below Earth’s path - sometimes delivering a brief meteor outburst, other times leaving the night sky empty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reframing-the-random-comet-streams">Reframing the random comet streams</h2>



“We’re used to telling ourselves that a comet’s motion changes randomly due to a series of complex perturbations from the planets,” said Pilorz. “That isn’t wrong, but if we recall that the Sun also orbits the barycenter, the explanation becomes much simpler.”



Planetary tugs still matter: between Jupiter and Saturn, their combined <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-pulls-earth-closer-to-the-sun-warming-our-climate-scientists-say/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a> exerts a steady torque that slowly precesses a meteoroid stream’s orbit. 



Yet the study shows that the dominant driver of the short‑term, seemingly erratic spreading is the Sun’s own wander.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteor-forecasts-and-lost-comets">Meteor forecasts and lost comets</h2>



Understanding how quickly a meteoroid stream disperses helps astronomers trace the dusty breadcrumb trail. Trails are traced back to a parent comet, even if the comet itself has grown faint or disappeared. 



The new framework gives modelers a cleaner way to predict when Earth will next plow through a dense filament - information useful for both sky watchers and satellite operators wary of high‑speed dust impacts.



By recognizing that our star is a fellow traveler around the solar system’s barycenter, astronomers can now see the graceful mechanism behind what once looked like cosmic caprice. 



The Sun’s gentle sway sets the rhythm for meteor showers that occasionally turn the night sky into a fleeting storm of falling stars.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S001910352500106X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Icarus</a>.



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How the wobbling Sun can help us predict meteor showers

Comets streak in from the outer solar system, shed streams...

A recent study suggests that satellite data can help protect 30% of ocean habitats in the Atlantic, while minimizing the disruption to shipping and fishing. The experts propose a practical way to meet global biodiversity targets without major sacrifices to economic activity.



The study was led by scientists at the Plymouth Marine Laboratory and the <a href="https://www.azti.es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centro de Investigación Marina y Alimentaria</a> (AZTI), supported by the European Space Agency (ESA).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seascapes-of-the-atlantic">Seascapes of the Atlantic </h2>



The researchers divided the Atlantic Ocean into distinct zones called seascapes. These are areas defined by their unique biological and physical traits.



Using satellite data, the experts were able to identify which zones are most important to biodiversity and could benefit from protection.



“We calculated the center point of each seascape and then determined that, by diverting marine traffic around rather than through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protected areas</a>, we would achieve the UN’s goal of effectively protecting 30% of biodiversity, without heavy disruption to fishing and shipping,” explained Dr. Asier Anabitarte, a researcher in sustainable fishing technologies at AZTI.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-satellites-to-protect-the-ocean">Using satellites to protect the ocean</h2>



The researchers used data from ESA’s Envisat and Copernicus Sentinel-3, as well as NASA and NOAA satellites, to track biological activity across different parts of the Atlantic. The team monitored organisms at all levels of the food chain - from microscopic phytoplankton to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-tag-allows-long-term-tracking-of-whale-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> and other marine mammals.



Dr. Victor Martinez-Vicente, coordinator of the <a href="https://booms-project.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BOOMS project</a>, emphasized the importance of this method:



“The biogeography of the ocean has a long history, yet the novel application described in Asier’s paper is a demonstration of the potential that satellite-derived data has to support marine policy at the global scale,” said Dr. Martinez-Vicente.



The experts also mapped human activity - particularly shipping and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-hunting-for-food-fulmars-follow-the-fishing-vessels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> - using data from the Automatic Identification System. This allowed them to overlay areas of heavy traffic with key habitats for species such as migratory birds, turtles, dolphins, and porpoises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-noise-affects-marine-habitats">Ocean noise affects marine habitats</h2>



The study highlights noise as one of the most damaging effects of human activity on the high seas. The constant hum of engines, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/military-sonar-does-a-lot-more-damage-to-dolphins-than-previously-disclosed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sonar</a>, and industrial equipment can severely disrupt life underwater.



“Noise pollution from human activity can be disruptive and damaging to marine habitats because it can affect how cetaceans communicate and hunt,” said Dr. Anabitarte. 



“However, it also affects fish populations by interfering with their ability to sense their environment, their ability to mate, communicate and avoid predators.”



The experts took into account the type of ship, how many were traveling through a given zone, and how much noise they produced. The analysis suggests that careful redirection of shipping lanes could reduce these impacts without adding major costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-biodiversity-in-the-atlantic">Protecting biodiversity in the Atlantic </h2>



Currently, only about 1.45% of the high seas - the vast ocean areas outside any country’s jurisdiction - are officially protected.



Yet these waters make up roughly two-thirds of the world's oceans and are under increasing pressure from climate change, overfishing, and industrial development.



In June 2023, the United Nations adopted the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction agreement. Its aim is to protect 30% of the ocean by 2030, focusing on zones with rare and threatened species. But the lack of solid biodiversity data has made progress difficult.



Satellite technology can help protect these ocean zones by monitoring biodiversity across huge, remote areas and offering science-based recommendations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smart-protection-shared-oceans">Smart protection, shared oceans</h2>



ESA Ocean Applications Scientist Marie-Helene Rio, who served as the technical officer for the project, sees this study as a promising first step.



“By protecting at least 30% of each seascape with activity lanes is a good starting point for high seas protection, which can be redefined later based on the presence of rare species or key habitats and socioeconomic factors agreed with stakeholders within a systematic spatial planning approach,” said Rio.



Dr. Anabitarte noted that other impacts from shipping and fishing lanes on the high seas should be considered in future studies, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/basking-sharks-are-exceptionally-vulnerable-to-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vessel strikes</a> on mammals, as well as consequences of fishing such as seafloor damage, accidental loss of species, and litter.



This approach - using data to guide decisions - offers a realistic way to protect ocean life while still allowing human activity to continue. Ultimately, the model may help us meet international conservation goals without choosing between nature and progress.



The research was part of ESA’s Science for Society Biodiversity in the Open Ocean: Mapping, Monitoring and Modeling (BOOMS) project.



The&nbsp;study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X25002516" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>. 



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Satellite data could help protect 30% of Atlantic ocean habitats

A recent study suggests that satellite data can help protect...

If you've ever watched songbirds squabble at a backyard feeder, you've seen a small glimpse of the competition animals face for limited resources. 



While some species seem to be constantly at odds, others - even those that appear quite similar - manage to coexist in surprising harmony.



For decades, a classic theory from the field of ecology has suggested that forest-dwelling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-genes-are-responsible-for-the-rapid-diversification-of-warblers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warblers</a> share trees by using different parts of them. 



Now, a new study adds a modern twist to that idea and shows it may be more complicated than it seems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-a-classic-idea">Revisiting a classic idea </h2>



The research, conducted by scientists at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> and the American Bird Conservancy, revisits an influential idea that was first proposed by ecologist Robert MacArthur in the 1950s.



MacArthur observed that several species of warblers could live in the same tree without crowding each other out, simply by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-social-networks-greatly-influence-their-food-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foraging</a> in different zones - some near the trunk, others at the tips of branches, and at varying heights.



This concept has been a staple in biology textbooks ever since. But thanks to DNA analysis and decades of fieldwork, the new study suggests that the story goes deeper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-close-look-at-species-interactions">A close look at species interactions </h2>



Study co-author David Toews is the Louis Martarano Career Development Professor of Biology in the Penn State Eberly College of Science.



“MacArthur suggested that we needed to look more closely at species interactions. We wanted to revisit this idea with modern technology, using molecular methods and an evolutionary perspective that weren’t available in MacArthur’s time," explained Professor Toews.



"This allowed us to not only directly quantify their diet, but also better understand how warblers are partitioning their habitat and how what we see today may have been shaped by competition over the warbler’s evolutionary history.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-bird-competition">Analyzing bird competition </h2>



The team observed 13 warbler species that nest in northeastern New York forests during the summer. 



Over 20 years, the researchers tracked where in the trees each bird preferred to forage - how high up they searched, how dense the foliage was, and how close they stayed to the trunk.



The experts also collected fecal samples during five breeding seasons to analyze what the birds were eating.



Using a technique called fecal meta-barcoding, they could extract insect DNA to identify prey species. Alongside this, they studied the physical traits of each bird, including size and beak shape, using public databases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbird-foraging-behaviors">Songbird foraging behaviors </h2>



The findings showed that each bird species did indeed forage in slightly different ways. "The implication from MacArthur’s study is that, if the birds are foraging in different areas of the tree, then they are eating different things,” said Professor Toews.



“MacArthur tried to test this using data from his colleagues, who attempted to analyze fragments of insects from stomach contents, but this was biased toward fragments that weren’t digested, and they were extremely difficult to identify."



"Now, we can extract DNA from fecal samples and use a technique called fecal meta-barcoding to see which insect species have been eaten by birds.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pressures-over-evolutionary-timescales">Pressures over evolutionary timescales </h2>



While the birds' movements and strategies differed clearly - smaller species tended to hover more, and those with longer legs stayed closer to the ground - their diets were surprisingly similar.



Eliot Miller, BirdsPlus Index Manager at the American Bird Conservancy, noted that a bird's and shape are products of many pressures operating over evolutionary timescales.



“But numerous studies, including our own, show that chief amongst these pressures is foraging behavior,” said Miller.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-differences-in-songbird-diets">Subtle differences in songbird diets</h2>



The DNA analysis revealed that although the warblers fed on thousands of insect and spider species, there was a great deal of overlap in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plantations-limit-native-birds-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diets</a>.



“The birds we studied collectively consumed thousands of arthropod species, and there was a considerable amount of overlap in their diets,” said Professor Toews.



“The differences in diet were quite subtle, and we found that closely related species had more similar diets. This suggests that MacArthur’s emphasis on diet may have been partially misplaced, though the general idea of portioning their resources by foraging in different parts of the trees is sound.”



Many birds were simply taking advantage of what was available. Professor Toews noted that more than 75% of fecal samples contained the most common insect in the area, a snipefly, and more than half of the samples contained a common, invasive leaf weevil.



This kind of opportunistic feeding may suggest that while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/competition-limits-the-ranges-of-tropical-mountain-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a> shaped the songbirds’ physical traits and foraging strategies, diet may not have played as strong a role in pushing species apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-migration-and-competition">Bird migration and competition </h2>



“Because of the notable differences in foraging behavior, we believe that competition has shaped how these species forage today, as well as how they evolved to forage over evolutionary time,” Miller said. 



“But we don’t see many differences in diet, so it’s likely that other forces may have more directly influenced warbler evolution. It is worth noting that these birds migrate to Central and South America over the winter, so competition for resources in those locations as well as the stress of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-benefit-from-social-networks-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> may also shape the traits we see today.”



The researchers are planning future studies to look more closely at what warblers eat during their time in the tropics and how the nutritional value of their food might vary. 



This could offer deeper insight into how competition and migration shape these songbirds beyond their breeding grounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-more-nuanced-view-of-coexistence">A more nuanced view of coexistence</h2>



“MacArthur was right in that these warblers are partitioning their habitat in fine ways, but it’s a little more complex than he originally thought,” said Professor Toews.



“People often observe competitive interactions between species at their bird feeders, and studies like this show how these kinds of interactions that happened hundreds or thousands of years ago can shape the species we see today.”



The takeaway? Even birds that seem to get along may be playing out a long, slow competition - one that stretches across trees, continents, and generations.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2025.0001" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Bird competition: How warblers share trees without fighting

If you've ever watched songbirds squabble at a backyard feeder,...

Ankylosaurus,In,Nature.,This,Is,A,3d,Render,Illustration

Dinosaur fossils often steal the spotlight, but sometimes, tracks and footprints can tell an even deeper story. Ancient ankylosaur tracks, recently discovered in Canada, have rewritten a chapter of dinosaur history.



These newly discovered tracks belong to a group of armored dinosaurs known for their tail clubs called ankylosaurids. Yet, no one had ever seen their footprints before.



Researchers working in British Columbia and Alberta uncovered the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossilized</a> prints in mid-Cretaceous rock formations. The discovery includes multiple trackways of a new ichnospecies, Ruopodosaurus clava.



This finding offers long-sought confirmation that ankylosaurid dinosaurs, known for their weaponized tails, roamed North America far earlier than previously recorded.



The research, published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, highlights just how much a footprint can reveal. From foot structure to group behavior, and even evolutionary timelines, these impressions bridge gaps in the fossil record and expand our understanding of dinosaur diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-armored-ankylosaur-dinosaur-tracks">Armored ankylosaur dinosaur tracks</h2>



Ankylosaurs are famous for their tank-like bodies and low-slung frames. They fall into two main groups: nodosaurids and ankylosaurids. 



Nodosaurids had four toes and flexible tails. Ankylosaurids, however, carried club-like tails and walked on three-toed feet.



Until now, paleontologists had only found four-toed ankylosaur tracks in North America. These belonged to Tetrapodosaurus borealis, a widely documented ichnospecies linked to nodosaurid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>. 



The discovery of three-toed tracks with associated five-fingered forelimb impressions was new – and important.



The name Ruopodosaurus clava means “tumbled-down lizard with a club,” which is a nod to both its clubbed tail and the mountainous terrain of Tumbler Ridge. 



The armored dinosaur tracks date back around 100 million years to the Cenomanian stage of the Late Cretaceous. They came from two formations – the Dunvegan and the basal Kaskapau. Both represent wet deltaic environments that supported lush vegetation and slow-moving waterways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-well-preserved-dinosaur-footprints">Well-preserved dinosaur footprints </h2>



The most complete specimen, TRMF 2023.09.002, was found beside the Wolverine River. It preserves a left manus and a pair of feet, with all digits clearly impressed.



Other tracks were recovered from sites like Bullmoose Creek and Everlasting Creek - each offering a unique snapshot of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-hollow-bones-just-like-modern-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>' movements.



The prints differ sharply from other dinosaur tracks. The three toes of the hindfoot are wide, blunt, and either triangular or U-shaped.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dinosaur_Ruopodosaurus_footprints_spiked-tail_credit-Arbour_-1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dinosaur_Ruopodosaurus_footprints_spiked-tail_credit-Arbour_1s.webp" alt="Ruopodosaurus hand and footprints from Tumbler Ridge: Ruopodosaurus footprints from Tumbler Ridge. Credit: V. Arbour/C. Helm." class="wp-image-1965970"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Ruopodosaurus hand and footprints from Tumbler Ridge: Ruopodosaurus footprints from Tumbler Ridge. Click image to enlarge. Credit: V. Arbour/C. Helm.</figcaption></figure>



The forefoot shows five spread-out digits in a crescent shape. The stride patterns, toe shapes, and narrow walking stance support the identification of ankylosaurids.



“While we don’t know exactly what the dinosaur that made&nbsp;Ruopodosaurus&nbsp;footprints looked like, we know that it would have been about 5–6 meters long, spiky and armored, and with a stiff tail or a full tail club,” said Victoria M. Arbour, a vertebrate palaeontologist at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.uvic.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Victoria</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-fossil-record-in-north-america">Dinosaur fossil record in North America</h2>



These footprints bridge a long-standing gap in the North American <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> record. No ankylosaurid bones have been found in this region between 100 and 84 million years ago. 



For decades, researchers thought ankylosaurids had disappeared from the continent during this time, only to return later from Asia.



But the tracks tell a different story. They show that ankylosaurids were very much present in mid-Cretaceous ecosystems. They coexisted with nodosaurids, as both Ruopodosaurus and Tetrapodosaurus prints appear in the same rock layers.



Dr. Charles Helm, who co-authored the study, had observed these unusual three-toed tracks near Tumbler Ridge for years. 



He eventually brought Arbour into the project to confirm their significance. This collaboration paid off with the identification of a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and the rewriting of an evolutionary timeline.



“Ever since two young boys discovered an ankylosaur trackway close to Tumbler Ridge in 2000, ankylosaurs and Tumbler Ridge have been synonymous," Helm enthused. 



"It is really exciting to know through this research that there are two types of ankylosaurs that called this region home and that Ruopodosaurus has only been identified in this part of Canada."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-3d-models-and-skin-prints">Revealing 3D models and skin prints</h2>



Beyond visual observations, the researchers used photogrammetry to create detailed 3D models of the dinosaur tracks. These helped confirm the unique features of Ruopodosaurus. Some track surfaces also revealed faint skin impressions, providing rare textural data on ankylosaur feet.



Trackway measurements showed consistent stride lengths, narrow gait, and outward toe rotation. This matched well with ankylosaurid hip and limb anatomy. 



Although these dinosaurs had wide bodies, their legs were positioned more vertically, resulting in a surprisingly narrow trackway.



Comparative studies ruled out other possible candidates. Stegosaurs, ceratopsians, and iguanodonts either lacked the right foot shape or had different forelimb anatomy. Only ankylosaurids possessed the correct combination of a three-toed foot and a five-digit hand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bone-and-stone-evidence">Bone and stone evidence</h2>



While skeletal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remains</a> from this time are rare, a few bone fragments support the presence of ankylosaurids. 



Vertebrae and ossicles found in the same formations share more in common with ankylosaurids than nodosaurids. These hints, paired with the new tracks, paint a clearer picture of mid-Cretaceous dinosaur diversity.



“This study also highlights how important the Peace Region of northeastern BC is for understanding the evolution of dinosaurs in North America - there’s still lots more to be discovered,” said Arbour.



The size of the prints suggests the animals were about 120 cm tall at the hip. That’s slightly smaller than some nodosaurids, whose prints measure up to 50 cm. This difference hints at niche separation or varied ecological roles among the armored dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-region-rich-in-dinosaur-tracks">A region rich in dinosaur tracks</h2>



The Peace Region continues to be a goldmine for track-based discoveries. Past finds include tyrannosaurid trails, giant crocodylian traces, and even the largest bird footprints from the Mesozoic in North America. 



Ruopodosaurus joins this growing list, adding a new dimension to our understanding of dinosaur evolution.



These armored dinosaur tracks, formed in mud and preserved by time, offer more than just direction. They tell us who walked here, how they moved, and how long they remained. In a land where bones are rare, the ground carries the memory of ancient giants.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2025.2451319" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>. 



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Footprints of armored dinosaurs with clubbed tails found for the first time

Dinosaur fossils often steal the spotlight, but sometimes, tracks and...

For centuries, humans believed they held a monopoly on geometric intuition. The ability to recognize structure in a&nbsp;shape - its right angles, symmetry, and parallel lines - was seen as a mark of human cognition. But a new study suggests that this mathematical sense may not be ours alone. 



Carrion crows, long admired for their cleverness, have now demonstrated the ability to detect geometric regularity in shapes. 



This discovery, led by researchers at the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tübingen</a>, opens a surprising chapter in the story of animal intelligence.



The research does more than showcase the brainpower of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-flightless-birds-are-more-intelligent-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>. It questions whether our deepest ways of understanding space and form might be shared with other species - and perhaps even rooted in evolution itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-geometry-helps-crows">How geometry helps crows</h2>



Geometry isn't just about math classes or architectural blueprints. At its core, it reflects the brain’s ability to process structure. 



In humans, even those without schooling or exposure to formal mathematics can recognize simple geometric rules. Symmetry stands out. So do parallel lines and equal sides. We notice when something is off.



Until now, this perception seemed absent in other animals. Many can navigate, estimate quantities, or even use tools, but they appeared blind to the subtler rules that define shapes. 



Previous research with baboons, our close evolutionary cousins, found they could not consistently recognize regular quadrilaterals. That led some scientists to believe geometric insight might be uniquely human.



But carrion crows, members of the corvid family known for problem-solving, proved otherwise with their surprising geometric shape recognition <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">abilities</a>.



"Claiming that it is specific to us humans, that only humans can detect geometric regularity, is now falsified," said Andreas Nieder, the study’s lead researcher. "Because we have at least the crow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-crows-geometry-skills">Testing crows' geometry skills </h2>



Nieder and his team worked with two male carrion crows, both over ten years old, and trained to interact with a touchscreen. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-living-in-cities-are-usually-more-colorful-and-less-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> had previously shown the ability to count, and now they faced a new kind of challenge. 



They were presented with an array of six shapes. Five were similar, one was not. Their task? Pick the odd one out.



Initially, the birds encountered easy trials - five stars and a crescent moon, for example. They quickly learned that pecking the unique shape earned them a tasty reward: mealworms. 



After they consistently succeeded with simple patterns, researchers introduced more complex ones. The new shapes were all quadrilaterals - four-sided figures - carefully adjusted to vary in geometric regularity.



Here’s where things got interesting. These quadrilaterals weren't easy to distinguish. The researchers made only subtle changes: shifting a single corner to distort the shape’s symmetry or right angles. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unambiguous-test-results">Unambiguous test results</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> had never seen these quadrilateral comparisons before, and yet, when tested, they performed far above chance.



On their very first try with the quadrilateral shapes, the crows performed strikingly well. Crow 1 correctly picked the outlier in 50% of the trials, while crow 2 managed 60%. Since there were six options, random guessing would result in a success rate of just 16.7%.



What’s more, their ability didn’t depend on familiarity. The shapes were randomly rotated and scaled. The irregular shape, called the “intruder,” changed position every trial. Yet both crows maintained impressive accuracy. Their detection rate remained well above chance across 60 initial tests.



Statistical analysis confirmed the results. Performance differences also matched the degree of geometric regularity. The birds identified intruders more easily when the base shapes followed stronger geometric rules - parallel sides, right angles, equal lengths.



These effects emerged immediately. The birds showed no need for additional training or repeated exposure. The researchers tested whether results improved over time. They found slight learning effects, but the core skill was present from the beginning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-like-cognition-yet-bird-brained">Human-like cognition, yet bird-brained</h2>



To probe deeper, the researchers compared the birds' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagulls-birds-more-intelligent-than-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">success</a> with the types of quadrilaterals shown. These included squares, rhombuses, trapezoids, and more irregular shapes. Both birds performed better on the most regular shapes and struggled more as irregularity increased.



In some cases, their struggles mirrored those seen in humans. The rhombus, despite being highly regular, tripped up both the crows and people in earlier studies. 



This suggests a shared perceptual bias - a tendency to overlook certain features or prioritize others when judging shape.



"The evidence is actually quite convincing," said Mathias Sablé-Meyer, a cognitive neuroscientist who worked on the earlier baboon study.



"I have to accept the result and think, you know, that's pretty cool! And then the question is, where does that even come from?"



The answer may lie in the way animals process embedded features - nested shapes, equal angles, and structured lines. Crows, like humans, seem capable of recognizing these shape relationships, even without formal instruction or language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-excel-in-shape-recognition-nbsp">Birds excel in shape recognition&nbsp;</h2>



If baboons can’t do it, but crows can, what does this say about intelligence? Not all cognition follows the same evolutionary paths. Birds and primates diverged long ago, yet both have evolved complex cognitive abilities.



The crows' success in shape recognition may stem from a broader sensitivity to visual detail. Unlike the baboons, which failed to reach consistent accuracy even after training, the crows met high performance standards across multiple sessions. 



They also faced more exaggerated shape deviations - one vertex of each intruder was shifted by 75% of the average edge length, a bolder change than in the baboon experiments.



But that alone may not explain their success. Birds such as pigeons and chickens have shown sensitivity to symmetry in patterns and mate selection. Some use regularity in spatial cues for navigation. What this new study reveals is something more abstract: an ability to detect structure in shape for its own sake.



"I hope that my colleagues are looking into other species," said Nieder. "I'm pretty sure they may find that other intelligent animals can also do this."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geometry-crows-and-evolution">Geometry, crows, and evolution</h2>



This study challenges the idea that geometry emerged solely with human civilization. Instead, it suggests that the roots of this ability run deeper - into the biological foundations of perception.



Carrion crows did not learn geometry in classrooms. They did not measure angles or discuss theorems. Yet they saw order in shape. They recognized what fit and what did not. That’s the very heart of geometric intuition.



By watching these birds peck at a screen, researchers have unearthed something remarkable. The way we understand space may be less of a cultural invention and more of a shared instinct - one that humans, birds, and perhaps many other creatures carry within.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/epdf/10.1126/sciadv.adt3718" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Crows understand shapes and use geometry in everyday life

For centuries, humans believed they held a monopoly on geometric...

In a major breakthrough for global pollinator health, scientists have developed a new man-made food source capable of sustaining honey bee colonies without any natural pollen. 



This innovation could revolutionize beekeeping and play a crucial role in curbing the alarming rates of colony collapse that threaten agriculture worldwide.



The research is the result of a decade-long collaboration between <a href="https://wsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University</a> (WSU) and <a href="https://apixbiosciences.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APIX Biosciences NV</a> in Belgium. 



In extensive field trials across commercial crop pollination sites in Washington state, the new diet proved not only viable but highly effective in keeping nutritionally stressed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bee</a> colonies alive and thriving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-power-bar-for-pollinators"><a></a>A power bar for pollinators</h2>



The new food resembles compact bars - similar in appearance to energy bars for humans - that are placed directly into the hive. These bars are enriched with a complete blend of nutrients that bees would normally obtain from a diverse diet of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollen</a>. 



Once inside the colony, young worker bees process the food and distribute it to both larvae and adult bees. Much like how livestock and pets are sustained on commercial feed throughout their lives, this innovation marks the first time honey bees can be maintained entirely on an artificial diet.



“Until this study, honey bees were the only livestock that could not be maintained on a man-made feed,” said Patrick Pilkington, CEO of APIX Biosciences US. 



“The reported scientific work shows in commercial field conditions that providing nutritionally stressed colonies with our pollen-replacing feed results in a major measurable step change in colony health compared to current best practices.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-an-artificial-diet-for-bees">Why an artificial diet for bees?</h2>



The need for such a feed has become increasingly urgent as honey bees face mounting challenges in their environment. 



Changes in land use, widespread urban development, monoculture farming, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a> events have all contributed to a steady decline in available pollen sources.



“Honey bees are generalists and do not get all their nutrition from a single source,” explained Brandon Hopkins, a professor of pollinator ecology at WSU and co-author of the study. “They need variety in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-need-a-balanced-diet-for-optimal-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a> to survive but find it increasingly difficult to locate the continuous supply of pollen they need to sustain the colony.”



Without sufficient nutrition, colonies are more vulnerable to disease, parasites, and stress from crop pollination. In recent years, colony mortality rates have soared to levels many beekeepers consider unsustainable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-inside-the-feed"><a></a>What’s inside the feed</h2>



One of the most significant scientific discoveries in the development of this new artificial diet is the identification of isofucosterol - a plant-derived molecule naturally found in pollen that is critical for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-and-flower-strips-improve-honey-bee-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee health</a>. 



In the study, colonies fed with isofucosterol-enriched bars were able to survive an entire season without any pollen access.



Colonies that did not receive the molecule, however, showed dramatic declines, including reduced larval production, signs of adult paralysis, and even total collapse.



In addition to isofucosterol, the bars are formulated to include all essential nutrients bees require, ensuring colonies remain healthy even when natural pollen is scarce or of poor quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-trials-yield-promising-results"><a></a>Real-world trials yield promising results</h2>



To test the feed under realistic conditions, WSU scientists deployed nutritionally stressed colonies to pollinate blueberries and sunflowers - crops known to offer poor pollen nutrition. 



Compared to colonies given standard commercial feeds or no supplementation, those receiving the new diet not only survived but exhibited strong growth and improved survival rates.



“Some beekeepers don’t pollinate blueberries anymore because colonies suffer or die and the pollination fees don’t cover the losses,” Hopkins noted. 



“Blueberry pollen isn’t very nutritious for honey bees, and they aren’t adapted well to pollinating that crop. But if they have this supplemental food source, beekeepers may return to pollinating those fields since they know their bees are more likely to survive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-decade-in-the-making"><a></a>A decade in the making</h2>



The innovation represents over 10 years of research and testing by a multi-institutional team. 



Thierry Bogaert, lead author of the study and chairman of APIX Biosciences, highlighted the scale of the effort: “The newly published work is the result of a herculean scientific effort of three teams,” he said.



These included the founders and scientists of APIX who tested thousands of ingredient combinations, WSU’s honey bee specialists, and professional beekeepers and extension teams who enabled large-scale field testing. Study co-author Anne Marie Fauvel coordinated the beekeeping collaborations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-artificial-diet-looking-ahead">An artificial diet: Looking ahead</h2>



As the agriculture industry continues to depend on pollination services from honey bees, the introduction of a reliable, artificial diet could help stabilize colonies in the face of increasing environmental stressors.



“We are confident that the product will positively impact beekeepers and growers once it’s available to purchase in the US, which is targeted for mid-2026,” Pilkington said. 



“Meanwhile, we are working with WSU and the beekeeping community across the USA to develop the best way to make use of this new tool in agricultural settings.”



With beekeepers facing crisis-level losses year after year, this breakthrough offers a glimmer of hope - and a concrete way to better support the insects that help feed the world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.3078" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Artificial diet offers hope for saving endangered honey bees

In a major breakthrough for global pollinator health, scientists have...

Wild animals, shaped by evolution, are adapted to survive in harsh ecosystems. These adaptations may now hint at solutions to human reproductive health and pregnancy challenges. 



Dr. Michelle Shero, assistant scientist at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>), has explored this link through the study of seals.



“When people think about biomedical research, they probably don’t immediately think about wildlife such as birds, cheetahs, bears, or seals – but they should,” said Shero.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fasting-seals-and-pregnancy-diabetes">Fasting seals and pregnancy diabetes</h2>



Human pregnancy involves complex metabolic changes. One problematic condition that arises fairly commonly is gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), which affects up to 25% of pregnancies.



It usually resolves after childbirth but can have lasting effects on both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-reveal-hidden-danger-of-microplastics-to-unborn-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mother and baby</a>. Conventional medicine treats GDM with diet, exercise, or medication, all aimed at lowering maternal blood glucose levels.



Marine mammals take a different path. Phocid seals, such as the Weddell or hooded seal, enter a fasting state during reproduction. They stop eating altogether while nursing, and lose up to 40% of their body mass.



Despite this, both mothers and pups thrive. This remarkable strategy hinges on reversible insulin resistance - a condition that looks like GDM but causes no harm.



Unlike humans, fasting seals maintain high blood sugar levels without accumulating ketones or damaging tissues. Their insulin levels stay low. Glucose continues circulating, and supports energy needs without tipping into metabolic dysfunction.



This balance results from finely tuned hormonal shifts and tissue-specific insulin responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sugar-transfer-in-seal-pregnancies">Sugar transfer in seal pregnancies</h2>



In humans, high maternal glucose levels lead to excessive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horse-miscarriages-offer-insights-into-human-pregnancy-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fetal</a> growth and complications. Seals flip this script.



In Weddell seals, the fetus has higher glucose levels than the mother. This shift happens due to unique blood cell glucose ratios and slow glucose turnover.



These features suggest a controlled nutrient transfer that supports the fetus without risking overgrowth. Learning from this could improve treatments for gestational diabetes in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-seals-survive-with-low-oxygen">How seals survive with low oxygen</h2>



Seals dive deep, holding their breath for hours. Their bodies can stockpile oxygen and use it with surgical precision. Blood flow prioritizes the brain, heart, and uterus while cutting supply to muscles.



“What marine mammals do to make it possible for them to dive for so long is really amazing,” said Shero. 



“This is even more incredible when we consider the fact that every time the adult seal dives, her fetus is brought along and responds in much the same way on all those dives too.”



Marine mammals maintain this dive reflex even under extreme oxygen deprivation. Their bodies withstand arterial oxygen pressures that would knock humans unconscious. They also avoid tissue damage during reoxygenation through powerful anti-inflammatory responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-human-fetuses-from-hypoxia">Protecting human fetuses from hypoxia</h2>



During birth, some babies can experience oxygen deprivation, which may lead to lifelong damage. Currently, humans rely on cesareans and heart rate monitoring to avoid this dangerous situation.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-provide-a-window-into-the-oceans-twilight-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seals</a> offer a better model as their pregnancy includes repeated, deep fetal hypoxia. Learning their strategies could reshape approaches to neonatal care.



Adaptations like splenic contractions, vascular shunting, and blunted nitric oxide responses may hold keys. Seals also collapse their lungs underwater to prevent nitrogen toxicity, then re-expand them with surfactant-rich linings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pressing-pause-on-pregnancy">Pressing pause on pregnancy</h2>



Another adaptation that seals show is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-stress-may-have-lasting-effects-on-fetal-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">embryonic</a> diapause. After mating, many pinnipeds delay embryo implantation. This ensures pups are born during optimal conditions. In some species, diapause can last months.



Shero noted that this ability may exist in other mammal species, including humans. “Learning how to ‘hit pause’ on pregnancy until conditions are optimal, like seals do, would be a breakthrough,” she explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-embryo-pause-vs-freezing">Natural embryo pause vs. freezing</h2>



Current IVF protocols freeze embryos. This can damage DNA and lower success rates. If doctors could trigger a safe metabolic pause like diapause, embryos could wait for the best moment to implant.



Reciprocal studies show that sheep embryos paused in a mouse uterus resume normal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-start-bonding-with-their-baby-before-delivery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">development</a>. This points to a shared mechanism among mammals. One rare IVF case even documented a human embryo in diapause for five weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-seals-teach-us-about-pregnancies">What seals teach us about pregnancies</h2>



Seals survive under pressure - literally and figuratively. Their biology can reshape our understanding of what’s “normal” in health.



“In seeking ways to improve human health, we should be looking to the extraordinary feats of wild animals – they have often found the most innovative solutions,” Shero concluded.



This research was supported by the <a href="https://everypagefound.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Every Page Foundation</a> and other science bodies, including <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF</a> and WHOI.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.fertstertreports.org/article/S2666-3341(25)00026-1/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">F&amp;S Reports</a>.



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Seal pregnancies reveal clues for treating birth complications

Wild animals, shaped by evolution, are adapted to survive in...

Hidden in the bushes of South Australia, a tiny bird is singing. But its voice carries more than a melody. In the superb fairy-wren, song is not just for romance or rivalry. It may also reveal something deeper - personality.



Birdsong has long fascinated biologists. It's central to mating and territory defense. It can also hint at an individual’s condition or cognitive skill. 



But one question remained mostly untouched: can song reflect personality traits, especially in female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-the-2024-eclipse-revealed-about-bird-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>? A new study answers that with a confident yes.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> set out to explore this in wild superb fairy-wrens, a species where both sexes sing. 



The results, published in Royal Society Open Science, reveal how personality traits like exploration and aggressiveness influence the complexity of bird song. And it’s not just males that sing with meaning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bird-personality-matters">Why bird personality matters</h2>



In animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> research, personality refers to consistent differences in behavior across time and situations. Some birds are bold, while some are shy. Some explore widely, yet others stay safe. These traits affect how animals survive, mate, and interact with the world.



Dr Diane Colombelli-Négrel and her team studied two key personality traits: exploration and aggressiveness. These have ecological relevance. 



Exploratory birds are often more curious and likely to investigate unfamiliar environments. Aggressive birds may confront rivals and defend territory more strongly.



Previous studies hinted at links between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personality</a> and signaling, especially in males. But no one had tested how these links play out in both sexes - or how they affect learned traits such as song complexity. This made superb fairy-wrens, where both males and females sing, a perfect subject.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fairy-wrens-learn-songs-throughout-life">Fairy-wrens learn songs throughout life</h2>



Superb fairy-wrens are insectivorous songbirds native to southeastern Australia. They live in social groups, often with a breeding pair and several helpers. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-are-more-at-risk-from-climate-change-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> sing complex "chatter songs" that serve both mating and defensive purposes. Juveniles start singing full songs about 50 days after fledging.



Song learning starts early, even in the egg. Birds learn from their parents and others nearby. Adults may continue learning, suggesting they are open-ended learners.



“Regardless of their sex or life stage, individuals that were more exploratory had more element types per song, which may be explained by the possibility that more exploratory birds approach and learn from a wider variety of tutors compared to less exploratory birds,” said Dr Colombelli-Négrel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-song-style-linked-to-bird-personality">Song style linked to bird personality</h2>



Between 2019 and 2023, researchers captured 102 color-banded birds - 62 males and 40 females - at Cleland Wildlife Park. Each bird went through two personality tests while in short-term captivity.



To measure exploration, they placed each bird in a novel environment - a flight cage divided into sectors. The more sectors a bird visited in five minutes, the more exploratory it was.



To measure aggressiveness, they used a mirror test. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-living-in-cities-are-usually-more-colorful-and-less-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds</a> that spent more time near their reflection were considered more aggressive. 



The researchers then released the birds back into their territory. Over several months, the team recorded 1,034 chatter songs.



They analyzed these for complexity - counting the number of unique element types, rare elements, and syllables. The experts also compared song traits between adults and fledglings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploration-increases-song-complexity">Exploration increases song complexity</h2>



Exploratory birds had more element types per song. This finding held true regardless of sex or life stage. 



The research indicates that curious individuals are exposed to more vocal tutors. They hear a wider variety of song elements and may include these in their own songs.



More exploratory individuals also had more rare element types. This suggests a broader learning scope. They don’t just copy common tunes - they gather and use the unusual ones too.



Interestingly, the number of songs recorded also predicted element diversity. This supports the idea that superb fairy-wren songs are highly variable and change with context.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bold-birds-sing-fewer-syllables">Bold birds sing fewer syllables</h2>



More aggressive individuals produced songs with fewer syllables. Aggressive fledglings, but not adults, had more element types per song. In birds, singing behaviors - shaped in part by personality - play a critical role in mating and territory defense.



This pattern reveals something about the trade-offs in song structure. More aggressive individuals, perhaps focused on signaling dominance or defending space, may prioritize efficiency over complexity. 



Their songs are shorter but still effective. In fledglings, however, aggression coincided with more varied element types. 



One possibility is that these young birds experiment more to assert dominance. Adults, already established in their roles, may have less need to vary their songs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-males-and-females-sing-differently">Do males and females sing differently?</h2>



The study revealed that females sang songs with more syllables than males, regardless of their personalities. This contrasts with earlier findings in some fairy-wren populations.



Despite singing differently, males and females did not differ in exploration or aggression scores. Both sexes showed similar consistency in personality traits, and both advertised those traits through song.



“Our study supports the idea that both male and female birds can advertise their personality when singing, which may be important for mate choice,” said Dr Colombelli-Négrel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-songs-personality-and-mating">Bird songs, personality, and mating</h2>



The research adds weight to the idea that birdsong carries more than just mating or territorial messages. It may also serve as an honest signal of behavioral type.



More exploratory birds might signal adaptability. They may be preferred by mates for their diverse repertoires. Aggressive birds might use simpler, more direct songs to assert control or deter rivals.



Whether these song traits influence reproductive success in superb fairy-wrens remains to be tested. But in other species, females do prefer songs linked to cognitive or exploratory traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-singing-might-show-intelligence">Singing might show intelligence</h2>



If personality shapes song learning, then vocal signals may help listeners judge a potential mate’s behavior - even before meeting them. A song could hint at curiosity, social habits, or risk-taking style.



In species like the zebra finch, females preferred the songs of males who solved problems faster. If similar dynamics exist in fairy-wrens, song may be an indicator of intelligence or flexibility.



The link between personality and song complexity may also affect social learning. More sociable fledglings might pick up more element types simply by being around more tutors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-sing-to-express-themselves">Birds sing to express themselves </h2>



The superb fairy-wren’s chatter song is more than a call. It is a self-portrait painted with sound. This study shows that personality shapes that portrait, adding complexity or simplicity depending on the individual.



By examining both sexes and different life stages, the researchers have uncovered how traits like curiosity and boldness echo through the air. 



The findings open new questions about how birds learn, express themselves, and choose mates. In these tiny birds, personality doesn't just fly - it sings.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241497" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Birds express their personalities through song

Hidden in the bushes of South Australia, a tiny bird...

Grief is considered a deeply human response to loss. Across cultures, people mourn with rituals, social withdrawal, and emotional upheaval. But are we alone in our experience of grief? A new study by UCL anthropologists suggests animal grief may differ entirely.



The study, published in the journal Biology Letters, examined how rhesus macaque mothers respond to the deaths of their infants. What the researchers found could shift our understanding of animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-emotions-can-be-decoded-through-voice-recognition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotion</a>.



While many assume that animals grieve similarly to humans, this research provides a more nuanced view. The macaque mothers did not withdraw or show signs of emotional collapse. Instead, they exhibited an unexpected and short-lived burst of activity. 



This pattern, absent of lethargy or appetite loss, may reflect a different process altogether - one that lacks the prolonged sorrow seen in human grief.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restlessness-instead-of-withdrawal">Restlessness instead of withdrawal</h2>



The researchers observed 22 female rhesus macaques living on Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico. Half had recently lost their infants, and the others served as non-bereaved controls. 



Using smartphone software to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>, the team recorded how much time each mother spent resting, grooming, feeding, and engaging in displacement behaviors such as self-scratching or pacing.



In humans, grief often leads to decreased energy and motivation. Lethargy, sleep disturbance, and withdrawal from social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a> are common. 



However, the macaque mothers in this study behaved differently. In the two weeks following their infants’ deaths, bereaved females spent significantly less time resting than controls.



“Following the loss of an infant, we had expected the macaque mothers to spend more time resting, as is common among bereaved humans,” said Dr. Alecia Carter, a co-author of the study.



“What we actually observed was the opposite. The bereaved macaque mothers spent less time resting in the first two weeks after an infant’s death and there was no difference of their time spent foraging, grooming, or doing displacement behaviors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-grief-may-involve-agitation">Animal grief may involve agitation </h2>



This surprising pattern led the researchers to rethink their expectations. The idea of a two-phase grief response - protest followed by despair - is well-established in studies on mother-infant separation. 



In primates, both infants and mothers show early signs of agitation when separated, a phase known as protest. Among infants, this is sometimes followed by despair, marked by low activity and reduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-emotions-evoke-different-responses-in-dogs-and-pigs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engagement</a>.



In the macaque mothers, only the protest-like phase was observed. There was no evidence of a longer despair stage. “The mothers’ period of restlessness was surprisingly short,” noted Dr. Carter. 



“But this short-term response can also be seen in primate mother-infant separation studies, which show a relatively short period of ‘maternal disturbance’ after separation from their infant.”



Rather than a full grieving process, the macaques may simply experience a short-lived behavioral disruption. This suggests that grief, as understood by humans, may not be a universal feature of mammalian life.



The absence of longer-term emotional change raises a critical question: do non-human primates truly grieve, or do they merely react to disruption?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-clear-signs-of-animal-grief">No clear signs of animal grief</h2>



Emily Johnson, the study’s lead author and a master’s student at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>, approached the research with a central question in mind. 



“Death is an inevitable part of life and how we respond to death can vary greatly, even among humans,” she said. “We wanted to explore how the behavioural response to death, the experience of grief, differs between primates and humans. Is grief a uniquely human experience?”



The researchers carefully distinguished between bereavement and grief. Bereavement refers to the state of having lost someone. 



Grief, by contrast, is the emotional and behavioral reaction to that loss. In this study, the mothers clearly experienced bereavement. But the evidence for grief, as defined by emotional withdrawal and behavioral changes, was lacking.



“Anthropologists have long questioned whether animals are capable of experiencing grief, and many pet owners will report their beloved cat or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> grieves after the death of a fellow pet,” said Johnson.



“But these are reports from owners who are often themselves grieving. Grief-like behaviour, such as reduced activity, could simply be because they have lost a playmate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bereaved-mothers-rested-less">Bereaved mothers rested less</h2>



The team collected data over 93 days, capturing a total of 2,528 minutes of observation time. Each macaque mother was watched for a median of 158.7 minutes across several sessions.



The infants who died were, on average, just 9 days old. Most bereaved mothers did not carry the corpses of their infants for long. In fact, only two mothers did so, and for less than two days.



There was only one statistically significant difference between the bereaved and control groups: resting time. Bereaved mothers rested less in the first two weeks after their infants’ deaths. 



This effect disappeared in the following weeks. There were no differences in feeding, grooming, or displacement behaviors. The findings suggest that any response to loss among the macaques was immediate and short-term, not prolonged.



This lack of extended change is important. It mirrors findings from studies on baboons and other primates, which often show physiological stress after a loss but no consistent behavioural markers of grief. 



In some cases, primates may even expand their social networks post-bereavement, as seen in chacma baboons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grief-signs-may-be-missed">Grief signs may be missed</h2>



While the study offers compelling results, the authors acknowledge alternative explanations. One is that the sample size - just 11 bereaved mothers - may have been too small to detect subtle patterns. Another is that the age of the infants at death mattered. 



Since all of the infants were very young, mother-infant bonds may not have been fully established. In cattle, for example, stronger grief responses are observed when calves are removed after several days, not immediately after birth.



Individual variation may also play a role. Just as grief in humans can vary widely across individuals and cultures, the same could hold true for non-human primates. Some macaques might grieve in ways not captured by the study’s methods. 



More detailed data, including hormonal and neurological measures, might uncover hidden aspects of grief.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-direction-for-animal-mourning">New direction for animal mourning</h2>



The authors propose a shift in how researchers approach animal grief. Instead of expecting a mirror of human sorrow, scientists might look for evidence of protest-like responses and recognize that not all species - or even individuals - will enter a despair phase.



“Our findings show no behavioural markers of grief in the way humans understand it among the macaque mothers, so we recommend further study in this area and greater data collection on primates’ responses to bereavement,” said Johnson.



By recognizing protest and despair as separate stages with different expressions, future research can develop more accurate models. This framework could help distinguish true grief responses from other stress-related behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-grief-may-be-brief">Animal grief may be brief</h2>



The study does not prove that macaques cannot grieve. It shows that if they do, their grief may look nothing like ours. 



The absence of lethargy or appetite loss challenges our assumptions about shared emotional landscapes between humans and other primates.



Rather than sadness, macaque mothers may respond with brief agitation and then return to normal. That may not mean they feel nothing. But it does mean we must question what grief really looks like across species - and whether our human model applies at all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0484" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Animal grief may look nothing like human sorrow

Grief is considered a deeply human response to loss. Across...

The deep sea is Earth’s largest habitat, yet remains one of its least explored. In this silent, dark realm, marine animals live in isolation, beyond the reach of most research tools.



Among the many elusive creatures in these waters, squids and octopuses - collectively known as cephalopods - stand out for their intelligence, agility, and ecological importance. 



Studying them has always posed a major challenge since traditional tools fail in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dolphin-day-2025-honoring-the-oceans-most-playful-minds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lightless depths</a> where cephalopods roam, hunt, and can vanish without a trace.



Recent research led by marine ecologist WU Qianqian at <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> may change that. Using cutting-edge molecular tools, her team has developed a new way to detect cephalopods from the faintest traces of their DNA left behind in seawater.



This approach promises to transform how scientists explore life in the deep sea, offering a clearer picture of its biodiversity and the role of these animals in marine ecosystems in general.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-players-in-the-ocean-s-web">Key players in the ocean’s web</h2>



Cephalopods are more than just fascinating creatures - they are essential links in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biologging-animals-are-recording-human-impact-on-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> food web. “Cephalopods play an important role in marine ecosystems, contributing to the distribution of energy and nutrients in the food web,” noted WU Qianqian.



Cephalopods serve both as hunters and as prey. While young, they are eaten by fish, seabirds, and marine mammals. As adults, they prey on crustaceans, fish, and sometimes even other cephalopods. 



Their mobility allows cephalopods to connect distant ecosystems, swimming from shallow coastal waters to the ocean’s depths.



Despite their importance, most cephalopods remain poorly understood. Many live in the deep sea, where light barely penetrates and traditional survey methods such as net captures fail. 



These animals can evade traps, change color, and squeeze into impossible spaces. Researchers needed a better way to find and study them without disturbing their world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-marine-animals-using-dna">Tracking marine animals using DNA</h2>



Environmental DNA, or eDNA, refers to genetic material that organisms release into their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-animals-swim-at-the-perfect-depth-to-save-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surroundings</a> through skin, waste, mucus, or decaying tissue.



By collecting water samples and analyzing the DNA they contain, scientists can infer what species are present - even if the animals themselves remain unseen.



In their new study, Wu’s team designed universal primers targeting mitochondrial 16S rRNA genes - genetic regions that are useful for identifying species.



These primers, named Cep16S_D and Cep16S_O, were created specifically to detect squids (Decapodiformes) and octopuses (Octopodiformes). 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dna-metabarcoding_ocean_fishing-for-cephalopods_illustration_credit-Wu-Qianqian_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dna-metabarcoding_ocean_fishing-for-cephalopods_illustration_credit-Wu-Qianqian_1s.webp" alt="In the technique known as &quot;environmental DNA metabarcoding,&quot; probes are designed to target specific DNA fragments, similar to how anglers use specific bait to catch a particular species. The challenge is creating probes that are specific enough to just the group one tries to detect, but also general enough to catch anything within that group. Credit: Wu Qianqian" class="wp-image-1965833"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">In the technique known as "environmental DNA metabarcoding," probes are designed to target specific DNA fragments, similar to how anglers use specific bait to catch a particular species. The challenge is creating probes that are specific enough to just the group one tries to detect, but also general enough to catch anything within that group. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Wu Qianqian</figcaption></figure>



They allow researchers to perform eDNA metabarcoding, a technique that amplifies and reads many species’ DNA from a single sample.



“For this, our lab, which is renowned for its environmental DNA research, worked together with researchers from the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.jamstec.go.jp/e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMSTEC</a>) who have developed a system for collecting large amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea</a> samples,” said Wu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-cephalopods-of-all-sizes">Detecting cephalopods of all sizes </h2>



Creating these primers was no simple task. Wu’s team had to balance specificity and breadth. 



The primers needed to detect all cephalopods while avoiding unrelated organisms. They also needed to perform reliably in both lab settings and the complex chemical environment of deep-sea water.



In tests, the primers showed high sensitivity and could identify species from a wide range of sizes. From small species like Heteroteuthis dagamensis to giants like the elusive Architeuthis dux, the primers succeeded across various water depths. 



This success marks a major step forward, especially because earlier primers often failed to detect certain taxa or produced results that lacked resolution.



A key factor in the team's success was the use of longer DNA segments. While longer fragments usually degrade faster, the cold conditions of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-like-marine-life-found-on-underwater-mountains-includes-100-new-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep sea</a> slow this process. Longer DNA pieces provide better taxonomic resolution, which means scientists can identify species more precisely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-hidden-biodiversity">Uncovering hidden biodiversity </h2>



The research reveals the technique’s strength in field applications. Wu and her colleagues analyzed samples collected from near the ocean surface all the way down to 2,000 meters.



The new primers helped detect cephalopod species that had not previously been identified in Japanese waters. This shows that the method can uncover hidden biodiversity and correct gaps in our knowledge of regional marine life.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dna-metabarcoding_ocean_machine_fishing-cephalopods_credit-Kobe-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dna-metabarcoding_ocean_machine_fishing-cephalopods_credit-Kobe-University_1s.webp" alt="&quot;For this research, our lab, which is renowned for its environmental DNA research, worked together with researchers from the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) who have developed a system for collecting large amounts of deep-sea samples,&quot; says Kobe University marine ecologist Wu Qianqian. Credit: Wu Qianqian" class="wp-image-1965835"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">"For this research, our lab, which is renowned for its environmental DNA research, worked together with researchers from the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) who have developed a system for collecting large amounts of deep-sea samples," says Kobe University marine ecologist Wu Qianqian. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Wu Qianqian</figcaption></figure>



One surprising pattern emerged: octopus DNA was found only in the deepest samples. From mock community tests, the researchers confirmed that the primers themselves worked correctly. 



That suggested the result wasn’t an error, but a clue about octopus behavior. These animals are ground-dwelling and solitary, making them less likely to leave traces in midwater or shallow areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-reveals-marine-animal-behavior">DNA reveals marine animal behavior </h2>



The ability to detect marine animals through DNA is only one benefit of this approach. Wu believes it can also reveal how cephalopods live.



“In future studies, we need to nevertheless revise our sampling strategy to account for life history and behavioral patterns of different cephalopods,” she said.



Environmental DNA can indirectly reflect how species move and interact with their habitat. Since octopuses tend to avoid open water, their limited DNA traces in shallow samples suggest a mostly benthic, hidden lifestyle. 



Squids, in contrast, are more likely to roam and leave detectable trails.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-foundation-for-future-ocean-research">A foundation for future ocean research</h2>



Even with strong primers and high-quality data, one challenge remains: the reference databases. Species misidentification can occur when available DNA sequences are incorrect or incomplete. 



“We need to resolve issues with misidentification of species due to errors in the DNA databases, and for this we intend to strengthen the collaboration between molecular biologists and taxonomists,” Wu said.



She noted that this technique has far-reaching impact. “Nevertheless, our technique is expected to open new possibilities for deep-sea cephalopod research and to serve as a foundation for marine life conservation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-for-marine-animal-detection">Tools for marine animal detection</h2>



By combining eDNA metabarcoding with precise primer design, Wu and her colleagues have created a sensitive, non-invasive method for tracking cephalopods. 



Their work lays the groundwork for future studies into marine biodiversity, population shifts, and ecosystem health.



In a world where human impact on the ocean grows every year, these DNA tools are vital for detection of marine animals. 



They help scientists listen to the quiet signals of life below, and to map the rhythms of creatures we’ve barely begun to understand.



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This project involved collaboration between scientists at Kobe University, <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a>, the <a href="https://omnh.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osaka Museum of Natural History</a>, the <a href="https://www.chiba-muse.or.jp/NATURAL/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum and Institute</a> in Chiba, JAMSTEC, and the <a href="https://churashima.okinawa/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Okinawa Churashima Foundation</a>.



Funding came from Japan’s <a href="https://www.env.go.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ministry of Environment</a>, including support for deep-sea research cruises as part of a marine protected area monitoring project.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0141113625001515?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Environmental Research</a>.



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'DNA fishing' helps scientists survey marine life in the deep ocean

The deep sea is Earth’s largest habitat, yet remains one...

What happens when a mouse watches The Matrix? Apparently, science advances. A recent project used that very setup to produce the most detailed functional brain map ever created. 



It captures 84,000 neurons and their 500 million synapses in vivid, 3D <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-our-brains-build-mental-maps-of-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">detail</a>. The resulting data opens a new chapter in neuroscience, and hints at how thoughts and perceptions arise from a tangled mess of neural wiring.



This isn’t just a technical marvel. It’s a window into the brain’s hidden world, one that may eventually explain how we think, remember, or lose ourselves to disease. 



From gene engineering to artificial intelligence, the research combined many tools - but its essence lies in one simple curiosity: how do brain cells connect to form what we experience?



"It definitely inspires a sense of awe, just like looking at pictures of the galaxies," said Forrest Collman of the <a href="https://alleninstitute.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Allen Institute</a>, one of the project's leading researchers. "You get a sense of how complicated you are …"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-mouse-mind">Inside the mouse mind</h2>



The <a href="https://www.nature.com/immersive/d42859-025-00001-w/index.html">experiment</a> began with entertainment. Scientists played a variety of video clips to a mouse - snippets of sci-fi, nature scenes, animations, and sports.



The mouse had been genetically engineered to make its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fueling-the-mind-new-map-reveals-where-the-brain-gets-its-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> glow when active. A laser-powered microscope captured the resulting activity in the brain’s visual cortex.



The <a href="https://www.bcm.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baylor College of Medicine</a> team recorded how individual brain cells lit up as the mouse viewed the world on screen. 



Every flicker of light marked a neuron in action, communicating through a vast, living network. This activity was concentrated in a tiny brain section, about the size of a poppy seed.



From that glowing tissue, the Allen Institute took over. They shaved the brain sample into more than 25,000 slices, each one thinner than a human hair. Using electron microscopes, they captured almost 100 million images. 



These pictures revealed the fibers - axons and dendrites - connecting the neurons like spaghetti in a bowl.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-slices-turned-into-colorful-3d-map">Brain slices turned into colorful 3D map</h2>



The real magic began with analysis. Scientists used powerful software and artificial intelligence to stitch the images back together. 



This digital reconstruction recreated the tangled circuits in 3D. Each neural fiber was given a different color, letting researchers distinguish one from another with clarity.



"You can make a thousand hypotheses about how brain cells might do their job but you can't test those hypotheses unless you know perhaps the most fundamental thing - how are those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-specialized-regions-develop-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> wired together," said Clay Reid, one of the project’s pioneers.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mouse-brain-map_small-section-neurons_brain-wiring_credit-Allen-Institute_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mouse-brain-map_small-section-neurons_brain-wiring_credit-Allen-Institute_1s.webp" alt="This image provided by the Allen Institute shows a digital representation of neurons in a section of a mouse's brain, part of a project to create the largest map to date of brain wiring and function, in Seattle, Wash. Credit: Forrest Collman/Allen Institute" class="wp-image-1965641"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This image provided by the Allen Institute shows a digital representation of neurons in a section of a mouse's brain, part of a project to create the largest map to date of brain wiring and function, in Seattle, Wash. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Forrest Collman/Allen Institute</figcaption></figure>



The colored map wasn’t just for show. It allowed researchers to track which neurons connected to which - and how signals might travel through the maze. 



Even more impressively they matched those connections to the activity recorded earlier, while the mouse was watching movies.



This link between structure and function has rarely been achieved at such scale. If laid end to end, the neuron wiring in the tiny sample would stretch over 5 kilometers (3 miles).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-brain-map-may-explain-disorders">New brain map may explain disorders</h2>



This kind of detailed mapping holds promise beyond pure curiosity. Understanding brain circuitry could lead to new insights into neurological diseases. Disorders like Alzheimer’s and autism might result from wiring problems - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-maps-help-the-brain-remember-places-and-paths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">connections</a> that form incorrectly or not at all.



That’s where the new dataset becomes powerful. It allows scientists to explore healthy brain wiring in full detail. Future comparisons with diseased tissue might reveal subtle patterns that are responsible for serious brain malfunctions.



"The technologies developed by this project will give us our first chance to really identify some kind of abnormal pattern of connectivity that gives rise to a disorder," said Sebastian Seung, a lead researcher from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton</a>.



The researchers stress that this is just the beginning. Their current map represents a small part of the mouse brain. Mapping an entire mouse brain will take more time, effort, and technology. But the foundation is now in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-brain-map-for-all">A shared brain map for all</h2>



The team didn’t just build a brain map - they made it public. The full 3D reconstruction is now available for scientists around the world to explore. Curious minds can also dive in, even if they aren’t neuroscientists.



"The beauty and complexity that you can see in these actual neurons and the hundreds of millions of connections between them" make it a work of both science and art, said Collman.



Researchers at Princeton created digital tools to navigate the data. Anyone can use these tools to trace circuits, identify neurons, or design their own experiments. This kind of sharing echoes the spirit of the Human Genome Project, which helped launch gene-based medicine after decoding our DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-ahead">The road ahead</h2>



The comparison to the Human Genome Project is not casual. Neuroscientists believe this work will have a similar impact. Mapping the brain at this level can change how we approach mental health, cognition, and learning.



Harvard researchers Mariela Petkova and Gregor Schuhknecht, who were not involved in the study, offered strong praise.



The work "marks a major leap forwards and offers an invaluable community resource for future discoveries," they wrote. The shared data "will help to unravel the complex neural networks underlying cognition and behavior."



In this new map, scientists see more than lines and colors. They see a future where understanding the brain’s wiring may unlock the mind itself. One mouse, a movie, and millions of synapses - together, they’ve brought us one step closer.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08790-w">Nature</a>.



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Huge advance in brain research that was supposed to be 'impossible'

What happens when a mouse watches The Matrix? Apparently, science...

At any single moment on Earth, billions of animals are on the move. Birds cross continents, marine mammals traverse vast oceans, insects pollinate fields and orchards, and mammals - from foxes to hedgehogs - navigate their way through forests, grasslands, and even city gardens.



These movements are not random; they are vital threads, in the fabric of ecosystems, that support biodiversity, regulate natural cycles, and ultimately sustain life on Earth. 



In line with this, understanding why animals move, how they choose their paths, and where they go has never been more important.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-movement-in-a-changing-world">Animal movement in a changing world</h2>



New research from researchers at <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a>, in collaboration with CNRS Montpellier and University College Dublin, offers a fresh perspective about animal movement in the face of global change. 



Rather than simply tracking where animals go, this work explores how to predict where they will go next as the planet rapidly transforms due to human activity.



From climate shifts and habitat loss to pollution and urban sprawl, the conditions that animals face are evolving fast. Models and methods need to adapt just as quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-animals-gps-to-big-data">Tracking animals: GPS to big data</h2>



The study of animal movement has come a long way. With technologies such as GPS collars, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-tag-allows-long-term-tracking-of-whale-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellite tags</a>, radar, and even Fitbit-style sensors, scientists are now able to collect vast amounts of data on animal behavior. 



These tools allow researchers to track everything from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-succession-animal-herbivore-mass-migration-serengeti/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> paths to daily commutes across a landscape. Each year, billions of data points pour in and are analyzed using cutting-edge mathematics and statistics.



But most of this work has focused on the present. Scientists have used these tools to describe patterns, not to forecast them. 



And in a world where environments are changing faster than ever due to climate shifts, habitat loss, and human expansion, that kind of short-term thinking may be inadequate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activity-shapes-animal-paths">Human activity shapes animal paths</h2>



This new study lays out a roadmap for predicting animal movement in unpredictable times. The team reviewed how a wide range of human-driven changes - including ocean warming, deforestation, invasive species, light pollution, and oil spills - are shaping where and how animals move.



“To predict where animals will move in rapidly changing environments, we cannot rely on correlative approaches,” said Sara Gomez of CNRS Montpellier. 



“We must incorporate biological mechanisms into our models, starting from first principles of animal movements and decision making, and develop models adequate for dynamical systems.”



The authors also argue that we need to study more species - and not just in pristine natural spaces. Movements in human-dominated environments are often overlooked, yet they may hold the key to understanding how animals adapt to novel challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-wildlife-management">Improving wildlife management</h2>



Dr. Holly English of University College Dublin emphasized that this is not just about improving scientific models. These predictions could shape how we manage wildlife and design <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-success-stories-offer-hope-for-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> strategies in future.



"We discuss the challenges and opportunities of including these predictions into more effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> management and policy," said Dr. English. 



"We give examples of conservation schemes, such as rewilding and translocations, which offer exciting, but vastly unused, opportunities to collect data from novel environments and test our model predictions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predictive-science-is-needed">Predictive science is needed</h2>



The study's lead researcher, Professor Luca Börger from Swansea University, believes the field is on the edge of a major shift. “Animal movements fundamentally affect ecosystem processes,” he said.



“Current research in the field, however, fails to address one of the most pressing problems we are facing: predicting where and when animals will move in rapidly changing or 'novel' environments.”



“We believe we are at an exciting point now where we can achieve such a crucial transformation in our field, from a descriptive to a predictive science, which is much needed under current rapid global change,” said Professor Börger.



As the world changes, so must the science we use to understand it. This study is a call to think ahead - to build models that don’t just explain the past, but help us prepare for what comes next.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.70040" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



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Animal movement predictions matter more than ever

At any single moment on Earth, billions of animals are...

Bird nests rely on seemingly fragile materials to build homes that endure wind, rain, and daily commotion. These structures may look basic, but they reveal remarkable stability.



For years, many wondered how nests made from stiff, straight twigs could remain intact. Now, L. Mahadevan from the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (<a href="https://seas.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SEAS</a>) and his colleagues provide an inside look at this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-flightless-birds-are-more-intelligent-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-birds-build-sturdy-nests">How birds build sturdy nests</h2>



Many avian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> invest hours gathering branches to craft a protective place that suits breeding and survival needs. Each piece is chosen with care, creating a design that endures shifting weight from landing birds.



Recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2401868122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> used <a href="https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/computed-tomography-ct" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray tomography</a> to see how rods in nest-like formations interlock and share load. Researchers noted that friction and gravity help keep stiff elements from sliding apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-x-rays-reveal-how-twigs-interlock">X-rays reveal how twigs interlock</h2>



The Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology contributed a unique sample - a pigeon nest fashioned from steel scraps that produced clear images under X-ray scans. This allowed investigators to track how rods overlap and twist through one another.



By mapping each wire’s position, the team found subtle hooking points that created an unexpected degree of stability. Certain rods locked into place with minimal overlap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-thin-twigs-for-sturdy-bird-nests">Long thin twigs for sturdy bird nests</h2>



Scientists introduced <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/bird-nests-and-construction-behaviour/5FEF068EB96410DC357025F7E2CBA236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">entanglement</a> as a way to quantify how rods criss-cross in a dense collection. This measurement considers the number of crossing points that establish a continuous chain throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structure</a>.



Additional trials showed how external vibration can tighten certain clusters. Slight shakes shift individual rods until they slot into more secure positions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stiff-and-flexible-rods-can-entangle">Stiff and flexible rods can entangle </h2>



“When we think about entanglement, we typically think about flexible, individual constituents wrapping around each other, as exemplified in tangled headphone cords or entangling vines. Contrary to this common intuition, stiff and straight rods can also entangle themselves - if they are long or thin enough,” said Mahadevan.&nbsp;



Computer simulations replicated these nest arrangements to test stability in various loading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tired-birds-sleep-more-deeply-trading-safety-for-rest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scenarios</a>. Results indicated that each rod’s contact angle and placement affect how quickly the configuration collapses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-on-real-bird-nests">Observations on real bird nests</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagulls-birds-more-intelligent-than-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds</a> in crowded environments face vibrations from cars, people, and changing weather. These day-to-day tremors appear to help rods nestle into a tighter weave.



“For rods with a low aspect ratio, there could be pockets of entanglement, but those would still fall apart and stay unconnected. But for high aspect ratio rods, things are really connected inside and the nest would stay together,” said Jung Kwon, a postdoctoral fellow in applied mathematics at SEAS. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineers-may-copy-bird-nest-designs">Engineers may copy bird nest designs</h2>



Structural engineering might draw from nest design to develop flexible frameworks. Interlocked rods could allow for adaptable shapes that lock or release upon demand.



Similar methods might someday shape active fabrics, which adjust stiffness through entanglement. That could broaden possibilities in protective gear, sports equipment, or rehabilitative devices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-use-friction-for-safety">Birds use friction for safety</h2>



Some spiders use <a href="https://www.arc.agric.za/arc-ppri/Pages/Biosystematics/Spider%20Research%20Centre/Venomous-Spiders-Neurotoxic-venom.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a> in their webs, while birds rely on geometry and friction. Each species showcases a unique approach to building a safe haven.



Scientists have <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269631986_Morphology_and_biomechanics_of_the_nests_of_the_Common_Blackbird_Turdus_merula" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noted</a> that weaving birds push and pull twigs until everything feels snug. This layering later forms a barrier that absorbs frequent motion and limits damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-randomness-creates-a-strong-natural-design">Randomness creates a strong, natural design</h2>



“The role of local topological constraints, i.e., the inability of a filament to move through another filament in its vicinity, is what defines an ordered weave in a textile,” said Mahadevan. 



That concept opens fresh lines of inquiry about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-living-in-cities-are-usually-more-colorful-and-less-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> maximize natural materials under unpredictable conditions.



Understanding these patterns might guide researchers toward self-supporting platforms with fewer mechanical fasteners. It also nudges engineers to see how randomness and repeated actions merge into stable, load-bearing systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-nests-could-shape-future-structures">Bird nests could shape future structures</h2>



Experts keep searching for ways to interpret nest mechanics and other seemingly haphazard formations. Field notes and live observations continue to deepen what lab tests alone can uncover.



Small changes, like rod shape or bounce frequency, might explain why certain nests endure strong winds or repeated impact. These insights could spur ideas for building adaptable structures in everything from construction to everyday goods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-build-sturdy-nests-as-homes">Birds build sturdy nests as homes</h2>



Researchers have established a starting point to see how stiff rods behave under dense packing. Variations in rod length guide how tightly each mass holds together.



Though birds have refined this approach for countless generations, people are only beginning to realize how basic shapes and contact angles can shift our design strategies. This may signal a shift toward structures that unite strength with resourcefulness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-for-mechanical-stability">Clues for mechanical stability</h2>



In nature, every choice fulfills a purpose, and every rod contributes to a larger puzzle. That puzzle shows how complexity emerges from small parts hooking in crucial spots.



As more studies delve into bird nesting habits, investigators will reveal more clues for mechanical stability. If rigid rods can mirror nature’s logic, the potential for self-supporting systems might stretch beyond nest-building.



In conclusion, birds do not rely on glue or nails, yet they create homes that stand up to harsh weather and constant motion. That feat may inspire creative approaches to eco-friendly engineering.



By examining how rods of specific lengths interlock, scientists are uncovering solutions once hidden in a tangle of sticks. Such findings may encourage new ways to balance solidity and adaptability in design.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2401868122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Tangled twigs: The secrets of sturdy bird nests

Bird nests rely on seemingly fragile materials to build homes...

In an age of digital fatigue, authenticity feels rare. Social media users scroll past hundreds of posts each day, barely registering most of them. Sponsored content from human influencers often blurs into the background, sounding staged or transactional. But one group is rising above the noise - the petfluencers.



These furry stars command loyal audiences and evoke powerful emotional connections. More than just adorable distractions, petfluencers are turning into persuasive digital personalities. 



From lounging with wine bottles to chasing socks, they create marketing moments that feel spontaneous and sincere. Recent research confirms what many marketers are starting to suspect: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> may be more effective than people when it comes to selling products online.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rise-of-petfluencers">The rise of petfluencers</h2>



The word “petfluencer” describes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-dogs-severely-harm-wildlife-even-when-leashed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> with their own social media accounts. They don’t just appear occasionally on their owner’s feed. They are the feed. These profiles, run by humans, portray pets as having their own voice, style, and preferences.



Some, like Nala the Cat, have become multimillion-dollar brands. With over 4.5 million followers on Instagram, Nala endorses products from cat food to mobile apps and is reportedly worth more than £80 million.



These numbers are not just cute trivia - they reflect a shift in consumer attention and trust.



At a time when many social media users feel bombarded by ads and polished influencers, pets offer something that feels more real. They don’t chase likes for ego or profit, and that’s exactly what makes them powerful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sincerity-as-a-secret-weapon">Sincerity as a secret weapon</h2>



A study published in The Journal of Advertising Research investigated this phenomenon. The researchers compared consumer responses to ads featuring petfluencers versus human influencers. They found that petfluencers were perceived as being significantly more sincere.



"Petfluencers offer distinct advantages compared to human SMIs," noted lead researcher Dr. Laura Lavertu of the <a href="https://www.strath.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Strathclyde</a>.



"While the persuasiveness of human influencers often stems from their relatability or aspirational appeal, petfluencers are seen as more genuine and sincere. Because they are pets, they have no hidden agenda. They don't come with the baggage or scandals that sometimes follow human influencers, which makes them seem more trustworthy."



The sincerity of petfluencers pays off. In one experiment, the team tested an Instagram ad for peanut butter. One version featured a man’s hands; the other, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reimagining-pet-diets-for-a-more-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a>’s paws. The text was identical. Yet, the petfluencer ad had more than triple the engagement and cost much less per click.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-petfluencers-so-effective">What makes petfluencers so effective</h2>



This effectiveness doesn’t come from relatability in the usual sense. Human influencers often succeed by offering aspirational lifestyles or relatable struggles. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pets</a> can’t do that. Instead, they evoke empathy through innocence. They don’t judge. They don’t manipulate. They simply exist - and audiences project their emotions onto them.



The research team found that sincerity plays a central role in this dynamic. Study participants consistently rated petfluencer posts as more honest, warm, and trustworthy. This sincerity drove increased willingness to pay for promoted products, from wine to socks.



And it’s not just about the animal. The way the ad is framed also matters. Consumers with a high tendency to anthropomorphize - those who see pets as having human-like emotions - were more likely to respond favorably. 



When the message matched a present-focused mindset, such as enjoying a treat “right now,” the effect was even stronger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-message-with-mindset">Matching message with mindset</h2>



One of the more interesting findings from the study relates to temporal focus. This refers to whether someone thinks more about the present or the future when making decisions. Petfluencers were especially persuasive when their message matched the audience’s mindset.



For example, someone who thinks in the “now” tends to respond to messages about instant gratification. A petfluencer talking about cozy evenings with wine might strike the right emotional chord. In contrast, future-focused individuals may not respond as positively to that same message.



The researchers confirmed this in controlled experiments. When participants saw petfluencer ads aligned with their time orientation, they were more likely to engage and to pay more. This match in mindset created a feeling of closeness and sincerity that made the message more believable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-petfluencers-are-incredibly-persuasive">Petfluencers are incredibly persuasive </h2>



These insights have significant implications for marketing. Petfluencers may not replace human influencers, but they offer a valuable alternative. Especially now, as many audiences feel tired of perfectly curated human lives on social media.



The sincerity crisis surrounding human influencers is real. People know that influencers get paid to promote things they might not believe in. Even when followers like a human influencer, they may still question the influencer's motives. With pets, those doubts don’t surface as easily.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animals</a> are not perceived as materialistic, manipulative, or fame-hungry. This perceived innocence gives them an edge. In fact, animals are often seen as incapable of deception. That cognitive bias makes them incredibly persuasive in a way humans can’t easily replicate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-takeaways-for-brands">Practical takeaways for brands</h2>



Marketing teams should consider petfluencers not just for pet-related products but also for broader categories. As shown in the studies, petfluencers can successfully promote items like wine and socks - products that are not directly related to pets.



To make the most of a petfluencer campaign, brands should aim for message alignment. That includes considering the audience’s tendency to anthropomorphize and their temporal focus. Present-oriented messaging, paired with human-like pet content, creates a tighter bond and encourages trust.



More than anything, brands should value the petfluencer’s perceived independence. While owners and agencies manage these accounts, the pet persona remains central. This makes the endorsements feel less calculated and more sincere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-petfluencers">The future of petfluencers </h2>



As the influencer industry grows - expected to reach over $56 billion globally in the next five years - competition for attention will intensify. Amid the sea of human influencers, petfluencers may continue to offer something rare and refreshing: sincerity.



Future research may examine how product fit and owner visibility affect outcomes. But the direction is clear. Pets aren’t just viral content. They are effective communicators in their own right. 



Their power lies not in how much they say, but in how genuinely they appear to care - something that consumers are desperate to believe again.



And when trust is the currency, pets just might be the richest influencers of all.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00218499.2025.2463707" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Advertising Research</a>. 



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Petfluencers are viewed as more genuine and sincere than human influencers

In an age of digital fatigue, authenticity feels rare. Social...

For centuries, horses have stood beside humans - on farms, in sport, in therapy, and in war. They carry our weight, follow our signals, and react with subtle cues. But one thing they cannot do is speak. 



Horses show discomfort through posture, tension, or the way they walk. Yet, unless you're a trained expert, these signs are easy to miss. What if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> could give horses a voice - not in words, but through movement data?



That’s exactly what a team of researchers from Sweden is doing. Using a blend of machine learning and synthetic imagery, they’ve created an AI model that can interpret the body language of horses in 3D. 



This breakthrough system is named <a href="https://celiali.github.io/Dessie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dessie</a>, and it may reshape how we detect pain or illness in animals that can’t tell us where it hurts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-reading-horses-is-so-difficult">Why reading horses is so difficult</h2>



Veterinarians often rely on visual cues during clinical exams. However, movements that signal distress are subtle and easy to misinterpret. 



Human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-tool-superanimal-can-accurately-analyze-animal-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observation</a> has its limits - particularly in dynamic settings like walking or trotting. Horses may offload pain to one limb, change their weight distribution, or shift their posture slightly. These changes can indicate orthopedic issues, behavioral distress, or early signs of injury.



Traditional diagnostic tools such as X-rays or MRIs show results after the damage has taken hold. Dessie aims to catch the signs earlier, by helping humans read equine body language more precisely. 



The model works by transforming 2D images into 3D representations that reflect the horse’s shape, pose, and motion in real-time.



This isn’t just about visualizing a horse. It’s about interpreting a language that’s always been there - unspoken, physical, and deeply expressive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isolating-movement-patterns">Isolating movement patterns</h2>



Dessie works using a special kind of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-emotions-can-be-decoded-through-voice-recognition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> training method called disentangled learning. In traditional models, all the information - pose, shape, background, lighting - is bundled together. That can confuse the AI, making it harder to focus on what matters: the horse.



Disentangled learning separates each feature. It puts shape in one box, pose in another, and ignores irrelevant background noise. 



This makes Dessie’s 3D reconstructions not just detailed but reliable. Researchers can now isolate movement patterns without the distraction of surrounding objects or inconsistent lighting.



"Dessie marks the first example of disentangled learning in non-human 3D motion models," said Hedvig Kjellström, Professor in computer vision and machine learning at <a href="https://www.kth.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KTH Royal Institute of Technology</a>.



Dessie also doesn’t need high-end cameras or markers on the horse’s body. It can work with simple video footage, using just a single camera. That opens up new possibilities for rural clinics, breeders, and researchers who might not have access to expensive imaging technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-how-different-horses-move">Recognizing how different horses move</h2>



To train Dessie, researchers needed massive amounts of visual data. But real-world images of horses in varied poses, lighting, and breeds are hard to collect. 



So, the team developed a synthetic data engine called DessiePIPE. It generates endless horse images using a 3D model and AI-generated textures, all based on real-world breed characteristics.



This synthetic approach allows researchers to teach Dessie how different horses move - without needing thousands of live animals. DessiePIPE renders horses walking, eating, rearing, or resting, with random backgrounds and lighting conditions. 



The system can even generate matched image pairs that differ in just one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-monitoring-will-help-protect-endangered-spider-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aspect</a> - such as shape or pose - to train the model to notice small differences.



This method not only trains Dessie to recognize subtle motion differences but also makes the system generalize better to new environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-detects-how-horses-show-pain">AI detects how horses show pain</h2>



Pain in horses often shows up as subtle changes in gait or stance. These cues can go unnoticed unless observed by experienced clinicians. Dessie offers a new level of insight by translating these signs into 3D metrics.



Elin Hernlund, associate professor at <a href="https://www.slu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SLU</a> and an equine orthopedics clinician, noted that the model helps spot early warning signs.



"Horses are powerful but fragile and they tell us how they are feeling by their body language. By watching their gait we can see, for example, if they are offloading pain," said Hernlund.



With Dessie, that gait can be measured and modeled precisely. The result is a digital record of posture and movement, which can be reviewed repeatedly, compared over time, or shared across clinics.



"We say we created a digital voice to help these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-three-million-undiscovered-animal-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> break through the barrier of communication between animals and humans. To tell us what they are feeling," said Hernlund.



"It's the smartest and highest resolution way to extract digital information from the horse's body - even their faces, which can tell us a great deal."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-problems-with-real-world-data">Detecting problems with real-world data</h2>



Although Dessie was trained largely on synthetic data, it performs remarkably well on real-world images. The researchers fine-tuned the system using just 150 real annotated images. Even with this small set, Dessie outperformed state-of-the-art models on benchmark tasks.



In keypoint detection tasks, where the system must locate joints or features on a horse's body, Dessie achieved higher accuracy than tools like MagicPony or Farm3D. It also predicted body shape and motion more precisely - essential for detecting problems like lameness or muscular asymmetry.



When trained with larger datasets, Dessie improved even further, beating out models that had been trained on much more data but lacked the structure provided by disentangled learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-model-isn-t-limited-to-horses">AI model isn't limited to horses</h2>



Though built for horses, Dessie isn’t limited to them. Its architecture is flexible enough to generalize to similar species like zebras, cows, or deer. The model can reconstruct these animals in 3D, despite never having been trained on them directly.



This opens the door for broader applications in animal welfare, research, and conservation. Endangered species, for instance, could be studied using just photographs and videos, without the need for intrusive monitoring.



The researchers even demonstrated Dessie’s ability to process artistic images - paintings and cartoons - and still generate accurate 3D models. That shows just how well the system can separate core features from visual distractions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-ahead-limitations-and-ambitions">The road ahead: Limitations and ambitions</h2>



While promising, Dessie still has limitations. It works best when there’s only one horse in the frame. 



If the model encounters unusual body shapes not present in the training data, it struggles to adapt. The team hopes to solve this by incorporating a new model called VAREN, which has better shape diversity.



The experts are also expanding Dessie’s library of visual data. To do that, they’re reaching out to breeders worldwide.



"To achieve this, we're asking breeders to send images of their breeds to capture as much variation as possible," said Hernlund.



With more diverse images, Dessie could learn to identify breed-specific traits, track genetic links to motion patterns, and improve care for horses of all types.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-letting-horses-speak-through-movement">Letting horses speak through movement</h2>



Dessie doesn’t teach horses a new language. Instead, it helps us finally understand the one they’ve always used. By converting motion into a digital voice, the AI makes communication between horses and humans more accurate and empathetic.



It marks a step toward a future where animals can tell us more - where their movements carry the weight of meaning, and where science helps us listen.



For horses, and maybe for other animals too, the silence might finally be over.



The study is published in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.03438" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>. 



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How AI is helping horses speak without words

For centuries, horses have stood beside humans - on farms,...

In a world where happiness often feels like a moving target, we constantly seek what brings true contentment. People turn to careers, families, friendships, pets, and even meditation or travel in the hope of feeling joy and fulfillment in life.



A study led by Dr. Adelina Gschwandtner from the <a href="https://www.kent.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kent</a> and Dr. Michael Gmeiner from the London School of Economics (<a href="https://www.lse.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LSE</a>) reveals that owning a pet can increase life satisfaction as much as being married or seeing close friends regularly. 



Published in the journal Social Indicators Research, the findings show that pet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companionship</a> could be worth up to £70,000 per year when measured in life satisfaction. This places cats and dogs in the same emotional league as partners and loved ones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-value-of-owning-a-pet">Emotional value of owning a pet </h2>



To reach these conclusions, the researchers used an economic tool called the “life satisfaction approach.” This method estimates the monetary value of different life events or conditions by examining how much they contribute to a person’s reported happiness.



Traditionally used to assess job loss, income changes, or marital status, the life satisfaction approach now finds a new application in valuing animal companionship.



The technique measures life satisfaction on a 1 to 7 scale. Using data from the UK Household Longitudinal Study, the researchers assessed responses from over 2,600 observations across various households. 



They used regression models to compare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-dogs-severely-harm-wildlife-even-when-leashed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet</a> owners and non-pet owners while controlling for variables such as income, employment, health, and personality traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pets-boost-joy-and-life-satisfaction">Pets boost joy and life satisfaction</h2>



Importantly, the researchers aimed to understand causation - not just correlation. To do this, they developed an innovative instrument called “TOTORO,” based on how often individuals were asked to watch over a neighbor's property. 



This variable indirectly signals the likelihood of owning a pet and helped the researchers control for potential reverse causality, where happier or lonelier people might be more inclined to get pets in the first place.



The results were eye-opening. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reimagining-pet-diets-for-a-more-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dog</a> ownership increased life satisfaction by 2.93 points, and cat ownership by 3.74 points. 



These gains are comparable to major life events such as marriage. The research team converted these effects into monetary terms, finding that pets may contribute up to £73,000 (almost $83,000) per year to life satisfaction. That number closely mirrors the value placed on marriage or regular interaction with close friends in previous studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pet-companionship-and-public-health">Pet companionship and public health</h2>



“This research answers the question of whether overall pet companions are good for us with a resounding 'Yes.' Pets care for us and there is a significant monetary value associated with their companionship,” said Dr. Gschwandtner.



”This information can be used for health care practice and policies aiming to increase well-being and life satisfaction of humans involving pets.”



These findings add new depth to our understanding of what it means to live well. They also offer a quantifiable basis for encouraging pet companionship as part of public health strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-pets-heal-and-help">How pets heal and help</h2>



Science has long recognized the soothing effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. Simply petting a dog or watching a cat can improve life by reducing blood pressure and heart rate. 



In stressful settings, pets often perform better than friends or family at calming us down. Their presence helps lower cortisol levels and elevate mood. The researchers drew on a broad base of literature showing that pets reduce loneliness, especially for people living alone.



“Until one has loved an animal, a part of one’s soul remains unawakened," said French writer Anatole France.



Pets also support recovery during illness, improve self-esteem, and create opportunities for social engagement - particularly for dog owners who are out and about more often. The attachment humans feel toward animals has even been compared to bonds with family.



Emotional well-being, strengthened through consistent, loving companionship, may be one of the most important factors in long-term happiness. For many, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pets</a> act as anchors in times of emotional drift. This study helps explain why.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-shapes-the-bond">Personality shapes the bond</h2>



Not everyone experiences pets the same way. The researchers also explored how personality influences both the decision to own pets and the emotional payoff from them.



Cat owners tend to be more open and conscientious but less extroverted. Dog owners, in contrast, are generally more agreeable and outgoing. 



These findings mirror earlier research and suggest that certain personality types may connect more deeply with pets.



Pet owners overall were more open, extroverted, and conscientious than non-pet owners. These traits themselves are associated with higher life satisfaction. Controlling for personality allowed researchers to isolate the direct impact of pets on happiness, ensuring the results weren’t just a reflection of the personalities of pet lovers.



This connection between traits and companionship also hints at why some people prefer cats over dogs, or vice versa. Cats may appeal more to introspective, independent individuals. Dogs often attract those seeking interaction, structure, and social connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pets-may-replace-life-partners-emotionally">Pets may replace life partners emotionally</h2>



One surprising part of the study was its exploration of whether pets might serve as substitutes for human relationships.



The data showed that unmarried pet owners reported levels of life satisfaction comparable to those in relationships. Interaction terms in the analysis suggested that for some, pets may indeed fill the emotional gap left by the absence of a partner.



These findings challenge assumptions that human contact is the only meaningful form of social support. 



For many, a dog’s loyalty or a cat’s calm presence may be just as emotionally nourishing as a conversation with a friend or partner. In a world increasingly marked by isolation, pets may serve as vital companions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-household-to-health-policy">From household to health policy</h2>



Given the magnitude of the pet effect, the implications extend well beyond personal decision-making. If pets contribute this much to joy and life satisfaction, they should feature more prominently in public health strategies.



This might include policies that encourage pet ownership among the elderly or those living alone, promote pet-friendly housing, or even subsidize pet care for those in need.



The method used here is especially valuable because it doesn’t ask people directly how much their pets are worth to them. 



Instead, it captures the emotional value in an unbiased way through its effect on reported well-being. This allows policymakers to weigh the benefits of pet companionship alongside other health interventions.



The emotional return on pet ownership is not just theoretical - it shows up in economic models as well as personal stories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pet-care-adds-joy-to-life">Pet care adds joy to life</h2>



The researchers noted that pet ownership isn't a magic fix. Pets come with responsibilities, potential health risks, and financial costs. Yet, their value is clear.



Through calm presence, daily interaction, and loyal companionship, pets appear to improve our lives in ways that are as real as they are heartwarming.



In a time when loneliness and mental distress continue to rise, perhaps part of the solution lies in better recognizing the role of animals. A wagging tail or a soft purr might not just be comforting - they may be among life’s most powerful, and measurable, gifts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11205-025-03574-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Social Indicators Research</a>.



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Pets increase life satisfaction as much as marriage or close friendships

In a world where happiness often feels like a moving...

The ocean holds many wonders, but few captivate the human spirit like dolphins do. These sleek, intelligent mammals have inspired stories, songs, and scientific marvel for centuries. On April 14, National Dolphin Day invites us to appreciate their role in nature and urges us to protect them from mounting threats.



This day is not just a celebration of their charm - it is also a call to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elevated-mercury-levels-discovered-in-dolphins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">awareness</a>. Dolphins face complex challenges, from pollution and habitat destruction to the ethical concerns of captivity. 



National Dolphin Day serves as a timely reminder that these animals, so similar to us in many ways, deserve respect and protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extraordinary-intelligence-of-dolphins">Extraordinary intelligence of dolphins </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-and-whales-got-new-backbones-for-life-in-the-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dolphins</a> are members of the Cetacean family, which includes whales and porpoises. But dolphins often steal the spotlight because of their extraordinary intelligence.



They demonstrate problem-solving abilities, use tools, and even pass down knowledge through generations. Bottlenose dolphins, in particular, have been observed using sea sponges to cover their snouts while foraging on the ocean floor - a behavior that hints at cultural learning.



Their brains are large and complex, second only to humans in size when compared to body weight. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-and-self-awareness">Communication and self-awareness </h2>



Dolphins use echolocation, a form of biological sonar, to navigate murky waters and locate prey. They also communicate using a wide array of clicks, whistles, and body movements.



Some even have signature whistles, functioning much like names, which help identify individuals within their pod.



In captivity, dolphins have demonstrated self-awareness through mirror tests and have shown empathy and cooperation in both wild and trained settings. 



Their capacity for emotion and understanding has led scientists to argue that they should be classified as non-human persons, deserving of moral and legal rights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-dolphin-survival">Threats to dolphin survival</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-dolphins-who-play-with-others-become-successful-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dolphins</a>, whether gliding through ocean waves or winding through rivers, face growing danger. Across the globe - and off U.S. coasts too - their habitats are under stress. Plastic waste, chemical runoff, and warming waters are changing everything.



But it’s not just what’s in the water - it’s also the noise. Dolphins rely on sound like we rely on sight. Ships, sonar systems, and offshore drilling drown out their world, making it hard to feed, mate, or even stay together.



Fishing gear poses another huge risk. Many dolphins end up trapped in nets meant for tuna or shrimp, unable to reach the surface in time. Some are still caught for marine parks or entertainment shows, despite decades of pushback from scientists and activists.



In the U.S., groups like <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/topic/marine-mammal-protection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a>, the <a href="https://www.dolphinproject.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dolphin Project</a>, and the <a href="https://www.opsociety.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oceanic Preservation Society</a> push for stronger protections. Conservation zones, fishing reforms, and better pollution control are part of the solution - but public support matters too.



National Dolphin Day reminds us that protecting dolphins means protecting the oceans we all depend on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-make-a-difference">How to make a difference</h2>



You do not have to live by the ocean or work in marine biology to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pebanista-yacuruna-giant-dolphin-species-discovered-peru-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dolphins</a>. Supporting dolphin-friendly practices in daily life can go a long way. 



Reducing single-use plastics helps prevent ocean litter. Choosing sustainable seafood ensures that fishing practices do not harm marine mammals. Raising awareness about the ethical problems of dolphin captivity can shift public opinion and influence policy.



In the U.S., joining or donating to groups like the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.marinemammalcenter.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Mammal Center</a>&nbsp;or the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.dolphincommunicationproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dolphin Communication Project</a>&nbsp;can help fund vital conservation programs. School programs and public campaigns are also crucial to foster early respect and curiosity for marine life.



When people understand the importance of dolphins in their ecosystem, they are more likely to care for the ocean as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deeper-meaning-of-national-dolphin-day">Deeper meaning of National Dolphin Day</h2>



National Dolphin Day is not only a celebration - it is a reflection of how humans connect with nature. Dolphins mirror many of our own traits: intelligence, empathy, playfulness, and communication. This connection reminds us that we are not separate from nature, but part of a shared ecosystem.



The future of dolphins depends on the choices we make today. As we mark April 14 with awareness and action, we celebrate not just an animal but a symbol of hope, beauty, and balance in the natural world. 



Through protection and respect, we ensure that these marine wonders continue to thrive in our oceans and rivers for generations to come.



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National Dolphin Day 2025: Honoring the ocean’s most playful minds

The ocean holds many wonders, but few captivate the human...

An ichthyosaur called "Fiona" has recently stirred curiosity from far beyond scientific circles. She measured about 11 feet (3.4 meters) during life, and met a swift end when her long snout planted itself several inches into the sand, setting the stage for an unusual preservation.



Fiona was carefully excavated in five segments from a glacial field in Patagonia in 2023. 



Lead author Judith Pardo-Pérez from the <a href="https://umag.cl/language/en/our-university/vice-presidency-of-community-engagement/directorate-of-university-social-responsibility/environmental-sustainability-unit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Magallanes</a> and the <a href="https://capehorncenter.com/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cape Horn International Center</a> in Chile worked with a large team to transfer the fossil to the <a href="https://mhnrioseco.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> Río Seco for a closer look at her condition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nearly-complete-ichthyosaur-skeleton">Nearly complete ichthyosaur skeleton</h2>



The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/hauterivian" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hauterivian</a> stage was a slice of the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/the-cretaceous-period.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early Cretaceous</a> period, and Fiona’s bones add crucial information about marine reptile life from that time. 



Her almost complete skeleton is especially significant, since findings in that part of the Southern Hemisphere are quite limited.



<a href="https://www.palaeodiversity.org/pdf/03/Palaeodiversity_Bd3_Maisch.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> believe she was an apex predator when she roamed ancient waters. The wide distribution of these creatures in various latitudes suggests they adapted to a range of environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>.



Fiona is the only fully preserved and excavated pregnant ichthyosaur known from Chile. A fetus still inside her body highlights how these reptiles gave birth to live young, a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234149040_Evolution_of_Fish-Shaped_Reptiles_reptilia_Ichthyopterygia_in_Their_Physical_Environments_and_Constraints" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trait</a> associated with advanced marine reptiles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-and-burial-mystery">Fossil and burial mystery</h2>



Inside her body were fossilized fish vertebrae, which indicate that her last meal had not yet been digested. The fetus was also mostly intact and appeared ready for birth, with its tail oriented toward what would have been the exit path from the mother.



The fossil reveals a story of sudden burial. Scientists suspect an underwater landslide pushed down a heavy flow of sand that covered Fiona almost instantly, and led to excellent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> for the preservation of both mother and unborn baby.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ichthyosaur_Fiona_131-million-years-old_Patagonia-glacier_credit-UTexas_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ichthyosaur_Fiona_131-million-years-old_Patagonia-glacier_credit-UTexas_1s.webp" alt="Lead author Judith Pardo-Pérez in the glacial field in Patagonia where the fossil was discovered. In 2023, Fiona was air-lifted in five pieces and brought to the Natural History Museum Río Seco, in Punta Arenas, Chile, for further research. Credit: Alejandra Zúñiga" class="wp-image-1965523"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Lead author Judith Pardo-Pérez in the glacial field in Patagonia where the fossil was discovered. In 2023, Fiona was air-lifted in five pieces and brought to the Natural History Museum Río Seco, in Punta Arenas, Chile, for further research. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Alejandra Zúñiga</figcaption></figure>



“We were conducting our research with different objectives, they are very synergistic,” remarked co-author Matt Malkowski, an assistant professor at The University of Texas at Austin’s <a href="https://www.jsg.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jackson School of Geosciences</a>.



Malkowski uses methods in stratigraphy to understand landscape shifts and was drawn into the Fiona project when he met Pardo-Pérez in <a href="https://torresdelpaine.com/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Torres del Paine National Park</a>.



Certain geological signatures suggest multiple landslides hit that region over an extended period. More than 80 other ichthyosaurs rest in the same glacial field, hinting at repeated catastrophic flows that buried these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> in a similar manner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakup-of-continents">The breakup of continents </h2>



At the time of Fiona's burial, South America was in the process of separating from what is now Africa. 



Malkowski said the opening up of a narrow oceanic passageway between the continents may have affected global climate, currents and habitats for marine life.



“If you are the apex predator in the ocean at the time, these are all things you care about,” he said. “You care about migration pathways. You care about places that you can hunt and fish and do your thing. You care about places where you can reproduce.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-reveals-injury-and-anatomy">Fossil reveals injury and anatomy</h2>



A set of fused fin bones suggests Fiona recovered from an earlier injury or infection. The skeletal details of both mother and fetus reveal aspects of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/paleopathology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paleopathology</a> seldom seen in marine reptiles from this period.



“The discovery of the Fiona ichthyosaur provides valuable information regarding the species, its paleobiology, and paleoecology,” said Pardo-Pérez. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ichthyosaur_Fiona_131-million-years-old_credit-UTexas_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ichthyosaur_Fiona_131-million-years-old_credit-UTexas_1s.webp" alt="Students in the Jackson School’s Undergraduate Honors Research Program visited Fiona on a 2025 field trip to Patagonia. Credit: Matt Malkowski." class="wp-image-1965521"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Students in the Jackson School’s Undergraduate Honors Research Program visited Fiona on a 2025 field trip to Patagonia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Matt Malkowski.</figcaption></figure>



She explained that new imaging methods could uncover unique structural characteristics that enhance the understanding of these creatures’ anatomy.



Fiona’s remarkable condition highlights how precise timing in burial can preserve entire skeletons. She shows evidence of normal feeding habits, advanced pregnancy, and well-developed bones typical of a robust adult.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-landscapes-and-marine-life">Shifting landscapes and marine life</h2>



Shifting landscapes might have affected marine life across what is now South America. The possibility of a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380326350_The_Cretaceous_World_Plate_Tectonics_Paleogeography_and_Paleoclimate" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">narrow oceanic passage</a> once connecting the continent to modern-day Africa could have shaped currents and sea temperatures.



Malkowski’s sedimentary techniques might reveal whether repeated events scattered fossils through various layers or whether a single, larger catastrophe occurred. That knowledge helps paint a broader picture of how ocean basins evolved in the distant past.



Researchers continue to analyze trace minerals from the rock surrounding Fiona and the other ichthyosaurs. 



Fluctuations in these minerals may show how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-fuel-pollution-is-causing-disease-disaster-and-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient</a> seas adapted to tectonic transformations, and influenced predators that roamed the waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-reshapes-views-on-ichthyosaurs">Fossil reshapes views on ichthyosaurs</h2>



Fiona marks a turning point in how scientists view ichthyosaur populations in southern latitudes. 



Each piece of data gleaned from her skeleton contributes to a fuller understanding of the biology, reproduction, and survival of these reptiles under shifting conditions.



Experts remain excited about what this discovery implies for future excavations in Patagonia. Rapid glacial melting reveals previously unreachable regions that may hide additional creatures from the Early Cretaceous.



Malkowski’s involvement is a reminder that paleontology and sedimentology share common goals. He is not a traditional fossil hunter, yet his methods complement the anatomy-based approach led by Pardo-Pérez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-story-is-still-unfolding">The story is still unfolding </h2>



Researchers emphasize that Fiona’s story is still unfolding. Some suspect each additional ichthyosaur in the area may introduce additional information about variations in diet, growth patterns, or injury history.



“Moreover, its skeleton will allow us to delve deeper into aspects of its anatomy through new studies and the use of medical technology,” said Pardo-Pérez. 



New scanning technology will bring sharper insight into the mother’s physiology and her pup’s final stage of development.&nbsp;



The collection of samples around her remains is planned in order to understand local climate conditions at the time. This may shed light on the triggers behind multiple burial episodes, shaping an ongoing narrative in southern Chile’s fossil record.



Fiona testifies to how ancient catastrophes can preserve a life story for millions of years. Her unusual circumstances give paleontologists a vital look into an extinct species that is still full of surprises.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2445705" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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'Fiona' the ichthyosaur was preserved for millions of years after a landslide

An ichthyosaur called "Fiona" has recently stirred curiosity from far...

In nature, animals, plants, and microbes constantly communicate. They leave signals, detect scents, react to temperature shifts, and interpret the behavior of others. These exchanges, though often invisible, steer their actions. 



A new study now reveals just how central these invisible threads are. Led by Dr. Ulrich Brose of the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>) and Friedrich Schiller University Jena, the research expands what we know about species interactions.



The experts propose that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> operate through a vast information-sharing system - what the researchers call the “Internet of Nature.”



This system goes beyond the visible: it tracks how information, not just matter and energy, flows between species. That information affects behavior, community dynamics, and ecological balance.



The idea could revolutionize ecological theory. The Internet of Nature treats species as signal users and processors, not just eaters, pollinators, or dispersers. In doing so, it opens a fresh view of what nature truly is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-runs-on-network-signals">Nature runs on network signals </h2>



For decades, ecologists have mapped food webs and tracked energy transfer. They watched who eats whom, who carries seeds, who pollinates flowers. 



These patterns created models that explained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-must-reconnect-with-nature-now-to-save-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> roles and energy balance. But something important was missing.



The new paper shows that focusing only on physical links omits a vital layer. Information links - including warnings, cues, and signals - affect when and where species move. They influence what animals do and how communities stay stable or collapse.



“An understanding of processes in natural ecosystems without considering the flow of information through the Internet of Nature would be similar to trying to understand where and why goods are shipped in human societies without taking the Internet into account,” explained first author Uli Brose.



This view adds complexity but also realism. Ecosystems are not only chains of consumption. They are networks of watchers, listeners, and responders, all adapting based on shared information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-types-of-information-signals">Three types of information signals</h2>



The researchers identified three types of information signals in nature. These exist alongside material flows like food, water, or seeds. Each one shows how deeply <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-timing-is-drastically-changing-due-to-extreme-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> rely on signals to interpret their surroundings.



Trophic information links appear in predator-prey interactions. For example, wolves may use tracks or visual signs to find elk. 



The elk, sensing danger, huddle together or hide in dense areas. Neither behavior involves direct contact, but both come from interpreting cues.



Pure information links occur between species that do not interact directly. Consider a hyena spotting a vulture circling overhead. 



The hyena knows that the bird might have found food. It watches closely and may follow. These silent clues create webs of understanding that guide animals toward opportunities or away from risks.



Environmental information links arise from signals in the environment itself. Temperature, light, or sound can trigger changes. 



Moths fly toward artificial lights. Spiders set webs near lamps. Chameleons adjust their skin to match background hues. 



These are all examples of organisms responding to the world around them - not to other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-grip-on-co2-is-slipping-what-it-means-for-us-all/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a>, but to the medium they live in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-communication-breaks-down">When communication breaks down</h2>



The idea of combining food webs with signal networks in nature shifts how scientists view ecosystem resilience. When a disturbance - like a wildfire or invasive species - enters a system, information pathways determine how far it spreads. 



They also influence how well <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> respond and recover. Species that share reliable information can avoid danger faster, find resources more easily, or adapt behaviorally. 



When that communication breaks down, confusion spreads. A food web may still exist on paper, but in practice, it falters.



This is why understanding these invisible threads matters. If scientists can map both the material and informational flows in ecosystems, they can better predict how systems change over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-block-nature-s-signals">Human activities block nature’s signals</h2>



One major threat to the Internet of Nature comes from us. Human activities don’t just change habitats - they scramble the channels species use to communicate. Artificial light, industrial sound, and chemical pollution all interfere with signal transmission.



“Road traffic and industrial structures not only pollute the air but also interfere with the vibrational signals that ants, for example, use to coordinate their activities,” noted co-author Dr. Myriam Hirt of iDiv and the University of Jena.



“That is just one example of how human activities can disrupt the vibrational and pheromonal communication essential for insect reproduction, foraging, and social cohesion.”



These disruptions matter because many species rely on subtle vibrations, smells, or light cues to function. Ants, moths, birds, frogs, even microbes interpret environmental signals. 



When those signals become scrambled or blocked, reproduction fails, feeding patterns change, and ecological roles shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-habitats-and-information-pathways">Species' habitats and information pathways</h2>



Conservation efforts often focus on preserving habitats or stopping hunting. While important, this approach does not account for the signal flows that species depend on. 



If a frog’s pond remains but its mating call is masked by engine noise, the pond becomes useless. The researchers suggest a deeper focus on sensory ecology. 



That includes identifying which species send signals, which receive them, how long signals persist, and how far they travel. New tools like audioscapes and vibration maps could help document these patterns.



“Accounting for the internet of nature will shift our perception of how animals, plants, and microbes act in the living world from a concept of passive particle movement as in physics or chemistry to a more realistic emphasis on living beings that produce and use information,” said Brose.



“The consequences of this shift go beyond the ecological theory playground and will have a substantial impact on how we protect not only the species' habitats but also their information pathways through the medium.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-internet-of-nature-can-protect-biodiversity">Internet of Nature can protect biodiversity</h2>



The idea of the Internet of Nature reframes ecosystems. It tells us they are not just groups of species living together, but networks of messengers and interpreters. 



They share not just resources, but strategies and warnings. If we want to protect nature, we must protect its signals. 



That means reducing noise, dimming lights, and restoring natural rhythms. Because in the end, ecosystems thrive not just on what is eaten, but on what is seen, heard, smelled, and felt.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02670-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Nature has its own "internet" that humans are just starting to understand

In nature, animals, plants, and microbes constantly communicate. They leave...

Saving lives with careful intervention is often seen as a trait unique to humans. Yet research suggests that some ants may operate their own version of medical support. 



A peer-reviewed study published in the science journal, Current Biology, highlights how Florida carpenter ants (Camponotus floridanus) handle severe wounds among their nestmates.



In these ants, injuries to legs sometimes call for amputation or cleaning, depending on the severity. These amputations, in turn, save <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the life of the ant</a>. It's an amazing discovery, to say the least.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-and-life-saving-amputations">Ants and life-saving amputations</h2>



According to Erik Frank from the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Würzburg</a>, decisions about how to treat a damaged limb appear to hinge on the potential risk of infection and the amount of muscle tissue in the injured area.



Scientists examining Florida carpenter ants discovered that the insects use a striking combination of wound cleaning and limb removal. 



"When we're talking about amputation behavior, this is literally the only case in which a sophisticated and systematic amputation of an individual by another member of its species occurs in the animal Kingdom," says first author Erik Frank. 



In a separate <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-43885-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paper published in 2023</a>, a different ant species, Megaponera analis, was shown to rely on a special gland to release antimicrobial compounds during treatment.



Florida carpenter ants, lacking this specialized gland, apply purely mechanical means. They use their mouthparts for cleaning, and in certain cases, follow up by removing the entire limb. 



Observations revealed that the ants rely on a systematic evaluation of each wound, suggesting they can detect when amputation is more likely to offer a better outcome than cleaning alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wound-type-determines-the-ants-actions">Wound type determines the ants' actions</h2>



In the study, femur injuries were consistently handled with initial cleaning before the leg was removed, whereas tibia injuries received only cleaning. 



"Femur injuries, where they always amputated the leg, had a success rate around 90% or 95%. And for the tibia, where they did not amputate, it still achieved a survival rate of about 75%," says Frank. 



Such careful attention led to much higher survival than in ants left untreated.



Leg anatomy appears to explain this difference. Muscle tissue within the femur may become compromised if left intact, while the tibia contains less muscle and plays a smaller role in moving blood through the leg. 



"Thus, because they are unable to cut the leg sufficiently quickly to prevent the spread of harmful bacteria, ants try to limit the probability of lethal infection by spending more time cleaning the tibia wound," explains senior author and evolutionary biologist Laurent Keller of the <a href="https://www.unil.ch/unil/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lausanne</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-florida-carpenter-ants-the-basics">Understanding Florida carpenter ants - the basics</h2>



Camponotus floridanus, better known as the Florida carpenter ant, is one of the most common ant species in Florida. These ants are big, bold, and easy to spot thanks to their reddish-brown bodies and darker heads and abdomens. 



Unlike the typical "carpenter" ants that chew through wood to build nests, Florida carpenter ants prefer to move into existing cavities, like tree hollows, rotting wood, or even wall voids in homes. 



They're not shy either - on warm evenings, especially in spring and summer, you might catch them foraging in long trails, searching for sugary snacks or protein-rich morsels.



What makes C. floridanus especially interesting is their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex social structure</a> and communication skills. These ants use chemical signals called pheromones to coordinate everything from food collection to defense. 



They live in colonies with thousands of individuals, and every ant has a specific job - some guard the nest, others care for young, and many act as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-farming-ants-work-hard-to-maintain-healthy-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tireless foragers</a>. 



Scientists actually study them to better understand social behavior and aging, since these ants can live for years and show unique patterns of brain activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-society-and-amputations">Ant society and amputations</h2>



Ants operating as medics raises questions about how a social insect develops such organized responses.



"The fact that the ants are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leafcutter-ants-remember-past-infections-strengthening-colony-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">able to diagnose a wound</a>, see if it's infected or sterile, and treat it accordingly over long periods of time by other individuals - the only medical system that can rival that would be the human one," Frank says. 



These behaviors show a surprising ability to reduce deaths from infected limbs.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/ants_performing-amputation_credit-Danny-Buffat_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/ants_performing-amputation_credit-Danny-Buffat_1s.webp" alt="Video still image – wound care and amputation in Florida carpenter ants, C. maculatus. Credit: Danny Buffat" class="wp-image-1965342"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Video still image – wound care and amputation in Florida carpenter ants, C. maculatus. Credit: Danny Buffat</figcaption></figure>



Another unexpected twist is that these responses seem to appear without learned training. "It's really all innate behavior," says Keller. 



Since ants often rely on age-based division of labor, the individuals performing these treatments may have an inborn skill set that emerges at the right stage in their life cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Researchers are now exploring the prevalence of similar amputation strategies in other Camponotus species. 



They hope to learn whether this practice is unique to Florida carpenter ants or if others without antimicrobial glands share the same approach. 



"<a href="https://youtu.be/Ys96YXXTL1Q" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">When you look at the videos</a> where you have the ant presenting the injured leg and letting the other one bite it off completely voluntarily, and then present the newly made wound so another one can finish the cleaning process - this level of innate cooperation, to me, is quite striking," says Frank. 



This work also raises questions about pain perception in ants, since the injured insect remains conscious throughout the limb removal. 



To sum it all up, this incredible research hints at complex interactions that make ant societies a remarkable source of curiosity.



Understanding the nuances of these responses could shed light on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how all insects</a>, not just ants, balance communal well-being with individual costs.



-------



<a href="https://youtu.be/Ys96YXXTL1Q" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click here to see the full video...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)00805-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Ants are the only animals besides humans that perform life-saving surgeries

Saving lives with careful intervention is often seen as a...

Researchers have been fascinated by how sea sponges build strong yet delicate glass-like skeletons. These natural structures have now inspired scientists to use bacteria to create tiny, durable lenses in the lab.



The research was led by Anne S. Meyer, an associate professor in the Department of Biology at the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enzymes-from-sea-sponges">Enzymes from sea sponges</h2>



Sea sponges combine minerals from their surroundings to create <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/bioglass" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioglass</a>, a material that feels fragile yet remains surprisingly resilient. That fusion of durability and lightness has intrigued research teams for decades.



The concept gained momentum when experts realized that this simple marine biology trick might inspire new imaging technologies. 



By mixing enzymes that were derived from sea sponges, with certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>, Meyer’s team managed to get the living bacterial cells to make themselves into small lenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-form-lenses">Bacteria form lenses </h2>



The tiny lenses belong to a category called <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2012/sm/c2sm06988a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microlens devices</a> that focus or manipulate light at a very small scale. Researchers see big potential in these devices for use in medical imaging and commercial applications.



​Meyer’s group collaborated with scientists from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>, <a href="https://www.tudelft.nl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Delft University of Technology</a>, and <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden University</a>. Together, the experts combined biology and optics to create living cells that coat themselves with a glass-like shell at normal temperature and pressure.​



“This research is the first to engineer light-focusing properties into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-bacteria-used-oxygen-about-one-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> cells, and I am excited to explore the different possibilities that our work has opened up,” said Meyer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bacteria-use-sponge-enzymes">How bacteria use sponge enzymes </h2>



Meyer’s lab inserted a sponge enzyme, called <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29909834/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silicatein</a>, into the outer layers of bacterial cells. That enzyme enabled the cells to gather silica-based material, forming a glass-like coating over each tiny bacterium.



Once covered, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> can focus incoming light into bright beams. This shell also allows the bacteria to stay alive for months, which means they can change or adapt in ways that regular microlenses cannot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-based-lenses-for-medical-imaging">Bacteria-based lenses for medical imaging</h2>



Getting microlenses down to the size of individual cells could push imaging boundaries even further. A small lens often provides sharper images, giving researchers a chance to see structures that might otherwise remain hidden.



Some experts envision these living microlenses in medical imaging, where scientists look for finer details in tissue samples. Others see commercial uses, such as inspection tools in factories where high-resolution images are essential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accessible-and-affordable-lenses">Accessible and affordable lenses</h2>



The microlenses don’t just work - they’re tough. Traditional microlens production often involves harsh temperatures or costly machinery, but these new lenses are made in mild, low-tech conditions. That makes them more accessible, more affordable, and easier to replicate.



Because the coating comes from biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>, the structure holds up under stress. Researchers confirmed that the lenses remained functional even after months, which sets them apart from most synthetic microlens alternatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-optical-tools">The future of optical tools</h2>



There is growing excitement about what living lenses could bring to optical devices. They might be added to image sensors to improve resolution or even woven into flexible materials for wearable technology.



The possibility of self-replicating or self-repairing optical elements opens up entire categories of innovation. If these lenses can change with their environment, future devices might include smart responses to light, temperature, or motion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-devices-for-new-frontiers">Living devices for new frontiers</h2>



Since these microscopic lenses can survive for months, they could serve as tiny detectors that react to different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-antibiotic-found-in-soil-has-potential-to-fight-superbugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surroundings</a>. They might even help monitor conditions inside cramped or extreme environments.



“The ease of producing these microlenses could make them a good way to fabricate optics in locations with less access to nanofabrication tools, including outer space,” said Meyer. 



The team received support to test how these glassy cells behave in places without standard fabrication tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-questions-still-remain">Some questions still remain</h2>



Researchers still don’t fully understand how glass-coated bacteria and their lenses will perform in real-world imaging systems.



Their ability to survive and change over time brings up new challenges about stability and predictability, especially in sensitive medical or aerospace applications.



There are also open questions about scaling up production. While the process works in the lab, using it in industry means developing methods to grow and shape millions of these bacterial lenses in uniform, reliable ways.



The study was published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409335121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: National Science Foundation/ J. Adam Fenster / University of Rochester 



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Bacteria used to create 'living lenses' that can see inside cells

Researchers have been fascinated by how sea sponges build strong...

Every plant leaf, eagle feather, and speck of pond scum spell out existence with the same four DNA letters. Ribosomes read that code, snap together twenty familiar amino acids, and pay each cellular bill with the energy token ATP.



That sameness keeps biologists chasing one big puzzle: if the instructions are nearly identical everywhere, who wrote the first edition? 



The answer points to LUCA - the Last Universal Common Ancestor - an organism that sat at the split between Bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-the-pressure-builds-archaea-go-multicellular/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaea</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-genetic-code-one-single-ancestor">One genetic code, one single ancestor</h2>



Living systems are not fond of coincidence. A single genetic alphabet, the same protein‑making machinery, and a universal energy currency add up to more than luck. 



“The evolutionary history of genes is complicated by their exchange between lineages," explained Dr. Edmund Moody, lead author from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>. His team sifted thousands of genomes to see how far back the shared toolkit stretches.



"We have to use complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary models</a> to reconcile the evolutionary history of genes with the genealogy of species.” 



By letting the data, rather than strict cutoffs, decide which features belonged to LUCA, the researchers landed on roughly 2,600 genes - about as many as a run‑of‑the‑mill modern bacterium carries. 



Co-author Dr. Tom Williams noted, “One of the real advantages here is applying the gene‑tree species‑tree reconciliation approach to such a diverse dataset representing the primary domains of life, Archaea and Bacteria. This allows us to say with some confidence - and assess that level of confidence - in how LUCA lived.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-developmental-toolkit">LUCA's developmental toolkit</h2>



Previous estimates swung from a lean 80‑gene outline to libraries topping 1,500 families. The updated theory paints LUCA as anything but a genetic ghost. 



Inside those 2,600 blueprints are membrane pumps, DNA‑repair crews, and all the ingredients for simple lipids. Better still, the cache includes the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood%E2%80%93Ljungdahl_pathway" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wood–Ljungdahl pathway</a>, a tidy chemical loop that welds carbon dioxide to hydrogen, spits out acetate, and releases usable energy in the process.



Such provisions point to a self‑reliant cell thriving without outside help. That picture challenges older ideas that early life was a stripped‑down passenger riding geology’s coattails toward complexity. 



Instead, LUCA seems to have been capable, adaptable, and ready to try new tricks the moment the planet cooled enough to keep liquid water in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-hydrothermal-vents">Chemistry of hydrothermal vents</h2>



Tracking gene changes throughout Earth's history, the study dates LUCA to about 4.2 billion years ago, only a few hundred million years after Earth itself pulled together. 



“We did not expect LUCA to be so old, within just hundreds of millions of years of Earth formation. However, our results fit with modern views on the habitability of early Earth,” said <a href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/persons/sandra-alvarez-carretero?_gl=1*1vhoh1m*_ga*NzU0MjM5MjI2LjE3NDQ5Mjc5MDk.*_ga_6R8SPL3HLT*MTc0NDkzMTg1Ni4yLjEuMTc0NDkzMTk2Mi42MC4wLjA." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Sandra Álvarez‑Carretero</a>.



Back then, asteroid impacts and belching volcanoes regularly upended the crust. Yet seafloor hydrothermal vents likely offered warm, metal‑rich oases. 



Iron, nickel, and sulfur minerals could have driven the very reactions scripted in LUCA’s genome. 



The Wood–Ljungdahl pathway, still used by some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">present‑day microbes</a>, fits neatly into that setting, turning vent chemistry into food and fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-peace-was-short-lived">LUCA's peace was short-lived</h2>



“Our study showed that LUCA was a complex organism, not too different from modern prokaryotes. What is really interesting is that it clearly possessed an early immune system, showing that even by 4.2 billion years ago, our ancestor was already engaged in an arms race with viruses,” said <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Davide-Pisani-27ef6f2a-19b3-4474-b71c-e61f2c8585a4/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Davide Pisani</a>. 



Genes resembling today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> defenses suggest viral predators appeared almost as soon as cells did.



This constant sparring matters. Viral raids can shuffle genes between hosts faster than random mutation alone. 



The pressure to dodge infection forces microbes to innovate, potentially speeding up the invention of new enzymes, pathways, and even entire metabolic lifestyles that later lineages would inherit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-sharing-space-with-luca">Microbes sharing space with LUCA</h2>



It’s clear that LUCA was exploiting and changing its environment, but it is unlikely to have lived alone. 



"Its waste would have been food for other microbes, like methanogens, that would have helped to create a recycling ecosystem,” observed Tim Lenton from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>. 



In modern hydrothermal vents, acetate‑producers and methane‑makers trade leftovers, smoothing local chemistry and stabilizing energy flows.



Similar give‑and‑take could explain how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-early-earth-a-purple-planet-scientists-say-its-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early Earth</a> cycled carbon and hydrogen long before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-microplastics-are-disrupting-photosynthesis-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> took the stage. 



By knitting together waste and resource, hydrothermal vent communities may have tempered extreme swings in temperature and acidity, opening fresh niches for the next wave of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-bacteria-used-oxygen-about-one-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary experiments</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-luca-matter">Why does LUCA matter?</h2>



“The findings and methods employed in this work will also inform future studies that look in more detail into the subsequent evolution of prokaryotes in light of Earth history, including the lesser‑studied Archaea with their methanogenic representatives,” said Professor Anja Spang, co-author from the Royal Netherlands <a href="https://www.nioz.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Sea Research</a>.



<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Philip-Donoghue-4fd2d6ef-3986-4566-97e4-7ae7db296525/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Philip Donoghue</a> highlighted the interdisciplinary nature of the work, saying it brought together data and techniques from across multiple fields. 



This collaborative approach, he explained, made it possible to uncover insights into early Earth and the origins of life that no single discipline could have revealed on its own. 



He also pointed out how swiftly ecosystems seem to have taken root on the early planet - an observation that opens the door to the possibility that life might be thriving on other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-k2-18b-strongest-evidence-yet-of-extraterrestrial-life-discovered-webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth-like worlds</a> in the universe.



"This suggests that life may be flourishing on Earth‑like biospheres elsewhere in the universe," Donoghue concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



To sum it all up, each genome pulled from ocean mud or desert crust adds a puzzle piece to LUCA’s portrait. 



As sequencing tech grows faster and cheaper, scientists will keep hunting for ancient gene families, refining the ancestral blueprint, and scoping out early viral fossils hidden in microbial DNA. 



New drilling missions aimed at untouched seafloor vents could reveal communities whose lifestyles echo those first biochemical gambles, tightening links between geology and genetics.



The storyline is still unfolding, but one takeaway already stands firm: life did not tiptoe onto the stage. It sprinted, armed with a full toolkit, ready to spar with viruses, and eager to reshape its surroundings - leaving every organism alive today carrying a hint of that four‑billion‑year‑old spark.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02461-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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All life on Earth comes from one single ancestor, and now we know what it was

Every plant leaf, eagle feather, and speck of pond scum...

Industrial fishing has been a huge food source for decades. It pulls enormous amounts of marine organisms - and their stored nutrients - out of the water every year. Scientists say these activities are tied to the loss of important nutrients that help keep aquatic systems alive.



This observation gained traction when experts found that modern fishing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habits</a> remove a significant share of these valuable elements from coastal and open-water habitats.



This research was led by Adrian Gonzalez Ortiz, who carried out this work while completing his master’s degree at <a href="https://www.usu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utah State University</a>. 



Gonzalez Ortiz teamed up with collaborators from the <a href="https://www.seaaroundus.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sea Around Us</a> initiative and other institutions to analyze the chemicals stored in the bodies of commonly fished species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-shifts-ocean-nutrient-balance">Fishing shifts ocean nutrient balance</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-consequences-of-catch-and-release-sport-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fisheries</a> focus on certain species based on demand and convenience. A targeted approach can shift the balance of nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, which are vital for marine food webs.



The researchers looked at landings across hundreds of locations worldwide. They uncovered patterns of nutrient removal that coincide with shifts in fish population structures in those regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-loss-weakens-nutrient-circulation">Fish loss weakens nutrient circulation</h2>



Estimates suggest more than 400 million tons of carbon alone were taken out through industrial catches over a span of many years. Even trace losses matter because fish play a part in passing these elements around the oceans.



“Fish and other marine organisms contain specific nutrients in their bodies,” said Gonzalez Ortiz. Capturing species that hold a lot of these elements may lower the supply that keeps ecosystems resilient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mid-sized-fish-hold-more-nutrients">Mid-sized fish hold more nutrients</h2>



Medium-sized fish - often called <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/What-is-a-mesopredator-In-this-hypothetical-ecosystem-wolves-are-the-apex-or-top_fig1_40738157" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mesopredators</a> - have been singled out in the data. They act as hunters and prey, forming a key link for energy and nutrient movement across food webs.



“They store higher proportions of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, compared to other trophic groups,” said Dr. Trisha B. Atwood, associate professor at Utah State University.



These fish supply nutrient-rich prey to top-level predators, so removing them weakens both ecosystem function and future fishing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-vessels-most-industrial-fishing-activity-is-not-publicly-tracked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prospects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-on-different-regions">Impacts on different regions</h2>



The study tracked major changes in coastal zones and the open sea. Some coastal waters, such as parts of Southeast Asia, recorded striking extraction rates of nutrients over the past few decades.



In other areas, catches dipped after an initial boom, leading to fewer nutrients being taken out of those spots. This pattern sometimes pushed fishing fleets to head for new territories, where harvesting rose and nutrient removal climbed as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-removal-changes-ocean-productivity">Fish removal changes ocean productivity</h2>



Nutrient extraction is not just about the fish that people eat. By removing organisms with crucial roles in cycling phosphorus and nitrogen, fisheries can change local productivity in ways that might be overlooked.



“This not only negatively impacts the ecosystem but also fisheries,” said Dr. Atwood. Fish often bring vital substances to shallower waters, and taking them out removes those chemical supplies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-possible-solutions">Looking at possible solutions</h2>



Experts are <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/faf.12233" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studying</a> how fisheries management might adapt to curb nutrient losses. Reducing overfishing and giving depleted stocks time to bounce back could help shore up the element flow in some regions.



Stricter catch limits or seasonal bans might lessen the strain on the most affected species. A balanced approach could keep vital trophic levels healthy and ensure that fishing can continue to support global demand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cascading-effects-in-the-ocean">Cascading effects in the ocean</h2>



Some officials believe that new guidelines could protect fish populations and ocean nutrients. Others say that improved data collection on the basic chemistry of these creatures might spark better policies.



Changes in the nutrient makeup of the ocean can ripple through entire systems. That may impact everything from coral reefs to large migratory predators that need nutrient-packed meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-can-guide-better-fish-policies">Research can guide better fish policies</h2>



Researchers are calling for more local studies that look at the fish in their habitats. That includes examining the full dietary range of predators and how smaller fish pass crucial chemicals around.



Most management rules focus on tonnage alone. Adding information about nutrient composition could paint a clearer picture and keep fisheries more sustainable over the long term.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-success-in-fisheries">Measuring success in fisheries</h2>



Many governments are revisiting how they measure success in fisheries. Some are exploring integrated methods that consider not only the biomass of fish but also the distribution of chemical elements needed to keep the waters productive.



The research team hopes that updated approaches will spur better evaluations of ocean health. “Such a decrease in catches resulted in fisheries expanding to other ocean areas,” said Dr. Maria ‘Deng’ Palomares, manager of the Sea Around Us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutrients-and-long-term-ocean-health">Nutrients and long-term ocean health</h2>



Overlooking the chemical side of fishing could lead to unrecognized risks for marine environments. Solutions will likely require precise data, careful planning, and perhaps more restraint in how we exploit aquatic resources.



Stakeholders from the fishing industry and environmental groups acknowledge that balancing needs of people and nature is tricky. This evidence hints that a closer look at key nutrients may give leaders a sharper tool for preserving fish populations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02218-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Fishing removes key nutrients from marine ecosystems

Industrial fishing has been a huge food source for decades....

In cities around the world, empty lots and old industrial sites are being transformed into patches of color and life through the planting of wildflowers. These green spaces are meant to help pollinators such as bees and butterflies, providing much-needed food sources from urban wildflowers.



But new research suggests that the soil beneath these flowers might be doing more harm than good. A team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> has found that wildflowers growing on previously developed land - including sites where buildings and factories once stood - can take up harmful metals such as lead, arsenic, cadmium, and chromium.



These metals don’t just stay in the plants. They end up in the nectar that pollinators feed on, introducing toxic substances directly into their diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polluted-roots-of-urban-wildflowers">Polluted roots of urban wildflowers</h2>



Many cities, particularly older ones, have soil that’s been exposed to decades of industrial activity. Sources including cement dust, mining runoff, and vehicle emissions leave behind long-lasting contaminants which can affect urban wildflowers.



In the post-industrial city of Cleveland, Ohio - where the study took place - over 33,000 vacant lots remain from years of population decline and industrial use. Researchers tested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sipping-on-nectar-hummingbirds-consume-a-surprising-amount-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nectar</a> from common self-seeding wildflowers growing in these urban spaces.



The wildflowers included white clover, wild carrot, bindweed, and chicory - plants known to attract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-bees-choose-the-same-flowers-again-and-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> and provide nectar throughout the growing season. Every plant tested contained at least one toxic metal.



Lead was the most common and found in the highest concentrations. The amount and type of metal varied by plant species. 



Chicory had the highest total metal levels, followed by white clover, wild carrot, and bindweed. These are not rare or exotic flowers - they grow widely across cities in both the U.S. and the UK, often planted intentionally as part of pollinator-friendly initiatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-wildflowers-affect-bee-health">Urban wildflowers affect bee health</h2>



Even small amounts of metal in nectar can affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-quality-and-biodiversity-impact-bee-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee health</a>. Previous studies have shown that these contaminants damage pollinators’ ability to learn and remember, which directly affects how well they can forage for food. 



In extreme cases, the toxins can lead to population decline and even death. Reducing the risk of metal exposure is critical for the success of urban pollinator conservation schemes, according to the researchers.



They also noted that certain plants are more likely to absorb these contaminants than others - a fact that should inform future planting strategies. One solution is to test soil quality before sowing wildflowers. Polluted areas might need to be cleaned up first.



In places where harmful metals are already present, managing wildflowers through regular mowing may help. Limiting their bloom time can reduce the amount of contaminated nectar available to bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-can-benefit-from-wildflower-soil">Bees can benefit from wildflower soil</h2>



Dr. Sarah Scott is an expert in the University of Cambridge’s Department of Zoology and the study’s lead author.



“It’s really important to have wildflowers as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dancing-bees-reveal-that-urban-gardens-are-a-good-source-of-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food source for the bees</a>, and our results should not discourage people from planting wildflowers in towns and cities,” said Dr. Scott.



“We hope this study will raise awareness that soil health is also important for bee health. Before planting wildflowers in urban areas to attract bees and other pollinators, it’s important to consider the history of the land and what might be in the soil – and if necessary - find out whether there’s a local soil testing and cleanup service available first.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-practical-way-to-support-pollinators">A practical way to support pollinators</h2>



Pollinators are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-disappearing-and-its-bad-news-for-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vital</a> to the world’s food supply. They help plants - including fruits and vegetables such as apples and tomatoes - develop and reproduce.



Natural pollination is estimated to contribute billions of dollars to global crop production each year. But wild pollinator populations have plummeted by over 50% in the past 50 years, largely due to habitat loss, land use changes, pesticides, and climate change.



“Climate change feels so overwhelming, but simply planting flowers in certain areas can help towards conserving pollinators, which is a realistic way for people to make a positive impact on the environment,” said Dr. Scott.



This new research serves as a reminder that while planting wildflowers is a step in the right direction, the quality of the land they’re planted on matters just as much. A colorful patch of blooms may look like a haven for bees - but if the soil beneath holds a toxic past, it could turn into a hidden hazard.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.71238" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Urban wildflowers may be harming bees

In cities around the world, empty lots and old industrial...

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