A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Rubidium atoms can behave unpredictably during atomic collisions, when hit by the right color of laser light. They might even eject themselves from carefully controlled traps, surprising researchers who aim to study them in near-zero-temperature conditions.



A recent study has made it possible to control collisions between these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poorly-understood-force-helps-keep-atomic-nuclei-stable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atoms</a> more precisely than ever. The research was led by Professor Cindy Regal from the University of Colorado Boulder and Jose D’Incao from the University of Massachusetts.



The experts joined forces to examine what happens when laser light nudges these tiny particles to collide with each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-cold-atomic-collisions">Understanding cold atomic collisions</h2>



<a href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.013202" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experiments</a> involving ultracold atomic gases have revealed intriguing surprises about how atoms bounce off one another. Researchers often operate at temperatures near to absolute zero, where standard thermal motion is dramatically slowed.



This allows quantum effects to dominate, including special collision behaviors that are sensitive to small energy shifts in atoms.



Regal’s group explored light-assisted collisions, which occur when a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-43959-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser photon</a> briefly creates a <a href="https://scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/quantum-science-explained/quantum-superposition" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum superposition</a> state in two atoms. In this arrangement, either atom could have absorbed the photon, which leads to unexpected energy release that often kicks both atoms out of their trap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spotlight-on-hyperfine-structure">A spotlight on hyperfine structure</h2>



<a href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/13%3A_Fine_and_Hyperfine_Structure/Hyperfine_Structure" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hyperfine structure</a> is defined by tiny energy shifts caused by an atom’s <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.63.957" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear spin</a> coupling with its electron’s angular momentum.



Until recently, those shifts were often overlooked when investigating collision rates. Regal and D’Incao’s team identified that hyperfine structure can be crucial for determining exactly how collisions occur and how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-photons-create-vortex-when-they-collide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy</a> is released.



“This energy is imparted to the colliding atoms, which can be considered bad as they are large enough to cause atoms to escape from typical traps. But these collisions can also be useful when that energy can be controlled,” said Regal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optical-tweezers-for-precision">Optical tweezers for precision</h2>



The researchers used <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43586-021-00021-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">optical tweezers</a>, which are tightly focused laser beams that can hold individual atoms in place. 



The experts arranged two rubidium atoms in separate tweezers, then carefully merged them to see how quickly they would collide when a second laser beam was introduced at different frequencies.



By controlling the laser’s frequency relative to atomic transitions, the team could measure how variations in the collisional light influenced the atoms’ escape. This approach offered a level of control that was hard to achieve in larger, cloud-based setups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-collision-rates">Refining collision rates</h2>



“We set the laser at a certain frequency, then varied the duration of the collisional light to see how many atoms remained in the trap, from this, we could determine how quickly the atoms collided and gained enough energy to escape,” explained Steven Pampel, the study’s first author.



Different hyperfine states led to distinct collision rates. Those observations prompted the team to build a refined model that linked these collision <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-atoms-in-your-body-took-a-400000-light-year-journey-through-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outcomes</a> to the underlying potential energy curves connecting atoms under the influence of laser light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-detect-atomic-collisions">A new way to detect atomic collisions</h2>



Standard imaging systems can complicate data collection in these experiments. Shining light to see if atoms are still trapped might change their energy status and nudge them out prematurely.



In response, Pampel and colleagues developed a way to pinpoint whether one or both atoms had been ejected without disturbing the system. 



This finer detection method ensured the collisions themselves were accurately counted, leading to more dependable results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-uses-of-controlled-atomic-collisions">Future uses of controlled atomic collisions</h2>



D’Incao noted that visualizing the molecular states formed during these collisions helped confirm the impact of hyperfine interactions on collision outcomes.&nbsp;



“Mapping out the potential energy curves for two colliding atoms, in the presence of light and the hyperfine interaction, required more complex analysis than previous works that had only taken into account the atomic fine structure,” explained D’Incao.



Regal’s group hopes that this deeper understanding of small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-fission-what-exactly-happens-when-the-nucleus-of-an-atom-splits-in-two/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy splittings</a> will inspire fresh ways to manipulate atoms in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41567-021-01357-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">optical tweezer arrays</a>. Fine-tuning collisions can be useful in quantum computing and other research areas that rely on controlling how atoms move and interact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Researchers in this field believe these light-assisted collisions will continue to be a powerful tool in preparing and shaping trapped <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/neutral-atom" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutral atoms</a> for advanced experiments. 



There is also a growing interest in extending these techniques to other atomic species, potentially leading to better control in <a href="https://web.stanford.edu/~oas/SI/QM/Atkins05.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular quantum science</a>.



The entire set of findings could give scientists new ideas for building next-generation devices that rely on carefully choreographed atom interactions. Better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-accurate-optical-atomic-clock-ever-made-will-redefine-the-meaning-of-a-second/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collision</a> management may pave the way for more reliable measurements and calculations in a range of fundamental studies.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.013202" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Tiny atomic collisions unleash unexpected energy bursts

Rubidium atoms can behave unpredictably during atomic collisions, when hit...

Polar bear cubs are hidden away for months inside snowy dens. Their mothers nurse them in these quiet spaces, giving the tiny cubs a chance to grow before they set foot on the cold spring ice.



A team of esearchers led by the <a href="https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto Scarborough</a> have spent multiple years monitoring different dens in a remote region of the Arctic. 



The experts installed remote cameras to see exactly when and how often <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-suffering-from-an-energy-deficit-due-to-lack-of-food-access/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">families</a> emerged. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polar-bear-dens-and-cub-survival">Polar bear dens and cub survival</h2>



A <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/alaska-science-center/science/polar-bear-maternal-denning" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maternal den</a> is not just a warm hideout for the cubs. It also allows them to develop muscles and thick fur in relative safety.



Many bears excavate dens in hilly spots where snow piles up, creating hidden alcoves. Inside, the female takes a long rest, ensuring the cubs gain enough weight before they face the outside world.



Scientists have observed that these dens can regulate temperature to some degree, offering needed protection from Arctic storms. This microclimate appears to help newborns stay healthier for those crucial first weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impacts-on-polar-bear-dens">Climate impacts on polar bear dens</h2>



The Arctic is <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-022-00498-3">heating</a> about four times faster the global average. This has contributed to thinning sea ice and shifts in weather patterns.



“Polar bear mothers are having increasing difficulties reproducing due to climate-driven changes,” said Dr. Louise Archer, lead author of the study from U of T Scarborough. 



The polar bears are responding to these pressures as best they can, but unpredictability in snow cover may alter den stability.



A shorter winter season could force earlier den exits in some areas. When cubs leave too soon, they may be less prepared to follow their mother in search of seals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpses-from-camera-traps">Glimpses from camera traps</h2>



The cameras caught a variety of behaviors, like a mother stepping outside to sniff the air while cubs remained behind. Sometimes the cubs hopped out with her, often staying close to her side.



These snapshots help <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jwmg.22725" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientists</a> match the precise timing of outdoor activity with temperature readings from <a href="https://atstrack.com/tracking-products/gps-satellite.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellite telemetry collars</a>. The videos create a fuller picture of what life looks like at each den site.



Remote monitoring also shows that cubs rarely wander without their mother, even near the den entrance. For young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-doesnt-stick-to-polar-bear-fur-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bears</a>, this companionship provides a layer of defense and teaching.



“This study provides a rare glimpse into one of the most vulnerable and critical periods in a polar bear’s life, offering insights that can help guide our collective conservation efforts,” said Dr. Megan Owen, Vice President of Wildlife Conservation Science at San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-behavior-and-cub-mortality">Shifting behavior and cub mortality </h2>



Each family follows its own schedule, which can shift from year to year.&nbsp;Some families linger around the den area longer than others. This behavior might be tied to temperatures or the mother’s overall condition after months of fasting.



If changing winters consistently prompt earlier den exits, cubs might face harsher outdoor conditions. Once they leave, they become far more dependent on sea ice to locate prey.



In many regions, less than half of polar bear cubs reach adulthood. As denning routines unravel, cub mortality is set to increase.



Industrial expansion adds another concern. Noisy activity could disrupt denning, prompting mothers to move or leave prematurely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boosting-conservation-efforts">Boosting conservation efforts</h2>



Scientists are integrating collar data, long-term temperature tracking, and camera footage to inform wildlife agencies. These resources offer a toolkit for spotting early warning signs of stress on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear</a> reproduction.



By detecting changes in maternal den use, specialists can plan safer buffer zones in sensitive locations. “Studies including observational data at polar bear den sites have been few,” said Dr. Jon Aars, senior researcher at the Norwegian Polar Institute.



The research also helps local communities and industries schedule operations that minimize contact with newborn cubs. It’s a practical step toward ensuring that mothers stay in place until their young can handle Arctic conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-polar-bear-den-areas">Protecting polar bear den areas </h2>



Polar bears rely on stable ice for hunting, but they also need reliable snow for den construction. The entire cycle depends on a balance that is now under pressure from rapid warming.



Collaboration between organizations like Polar Bears International, the Norwegian Polar Institute, and San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance demonstrates a shared commitment to understanding these trends. The more that experts can learn, the better they can guide policies that protect cubs through their most fragile months.



Researchers continue refining camera technology and other remote methods. They hope these insights will broaden awareness and shape decisions that keep den areas undisturbed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-denning-time-is-crucial">Why denning time is crucial </h2>



The images of tiny bears stepping onto the snow are stirring. Yet each moment outside the den represents a big shift in a young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-struggling-to-survive-longer-summers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bear’s life</a>.



Gaining muscle strength and adjusting to the climate take time, especially for altricial cubs that are born underdeveloped. An early departure could lessen their chances out on the ice, where finding the right prey is already no small task.



The hope is that protective measures can give these polar bear families a fair shot. After all, a thriving generation of cubs hints at a better future for the species.



The study is published in <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jwmg.22725" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Wildlife Management</a>.



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Polar bear cubs are emerging earlier from dens

Polar bear cubs are hidden away for months inside snowy...

Alzheimer’s disease is among the many health threats linked to air pollution - an ever-present and often invisible killer that claims up to seven million lives prematurely each year.



These lethal particles don’t just harm the lungs and heart; their effects extend far beyond, infiltrating the brain and contributing to neurological disorders.



A new study from <a href="https://www.scripps.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Research</a> has confirmed a strong correlation between air pollution and various brain diseases, including Alzheimer’s and autism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unmasking-the-effects-of-air-pollution">Unmasking the effects of air pollution</h2>



The researchers unraveled the intricate link between brain cell activity and a chemical modification that might be triggered by a range of factors.



These factors include inflammation, aging, and environmental pollutants linked to air pollution, pesticides, processed food, and smoke from wildfires.



The experts found that this chemical modification, S-nitrosylation, interferes with normal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cell-origins-traced-to-creatures-that-lived-800-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain cell</a> function. In particular, it prevents brain cells from forming new connections, eventually causing cell death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-hope-for-alzheimer-s-treatment">New hope for Alzheimer's treatment</h2>



The research, published in February 2025, presents a breakthrough revelation.



Interfering with S-nitrosylation in a pivotal brain protein showed visible signs of reversing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flavanols-a-key-to-slowing-age-related-memory-loss-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory loss</a> symptoms in Alzheimer's mouse models and human-derived nerve cells.



“We’ve revealed the molecular details of how pollutants can contribute to memory loss and neurodegenerative disease. This could ultimately lead to new drugs that block these effects to better treat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's disease</a>,” noted Stuart Lipton, the senior author of the study.



Lipton, who serves as a clinical neurologist and holds the Step Family Foundation Endowed Chair at Scripps Research, first discovered S-nitrosylation more than two decades ago. 



He explained that this chemical process happens when a molecule bound to nitric oxide (NO) combines with sulfur atoms within proteins to create "SNO," changing their functionality. This leads to what Lipton described as a "SNO-STORM" in the brain. 



The buildup of NO occurs naturally in the body and is produced in response to inflammation or electrical stimulation. 



However, NO can also be formed excessively due to small particulate materials and nitrate-related compounds that are found in or triggered by air pollution, wildfire smoke, pesticides, or processed meats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-proteins-in-the-brain">The role of proteins in the brain</h2>



In their latest study, the researchers probed deeper into the impact of S-nitrosylation on a protein known as CRTC1.



This protein plays a significant role in controlling genes responsible for establishing and sustaining connections between brain cells - crucial for the learning process and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-our-brain-form-long-term-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-term memory</a> retention.



The research confirmed that excess NO leads to S-nitrosylation of CRTC1, which then prevents the protein from binding with another vital brain protein, CREB. 



This disruption hinders the stimulation of other necessary genes for forming neuronal connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-target-to-prevent-alzheimer-s">A new target to prevent Alzheimer’s </h2>



Following these discoveries, the team went a step further and genetically engineered a version of CRTC1 that was resistant to S-nitrosylation. 



When introduced into human nerve cells derived from Alzheimer’s patient stem cells, this modified version demonstrated promising potential.



Signs of Alzheimer's disease, including nerve cell connection deterioration and reduced nerve cell survival, were prevented. 



In Alzheimer’s mouse models, this re-engineered version of CRTC1 revived the activation of genes vital for memory formation and synaptic plasticity - enhancing the brain's ability to reinforce neuronal connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversing-the-impacts-of-air-pollution">Reversing the impacts of air pollution</h2>



These findings offer crucial insights into how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indoor-plants-can-quickly-remove-dangerous-toxins-from-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxins</a> we breathe in from our environment, particularly vehicular pollution and wildfire smoke, accelerate brain aging and Alzheimer's through S-nitrosylation.



“We could nearly completely rescue molecular pathways involved in making new memories. It suggests that this is a druggable target that could make a real difference in treating Alzheimer’s and potentially other neurological diseases,” said Lipton.



The study further highlights why Alzheimer's risk heightens with age. As age progresses, the body's antioxidant defenses weaken, leading to increased inflammation and higher NO levels; this makes proteins more susceptible to harmful S-nitrosylation reactions.



The research has unmasked the silent havoc that S-nitrosylation inflicts on countless proteins throughout our bodies.



“We’re learning that S-nitrosylation affects numerous proteins throughout the body, but reversing just some of these changes - like those on CRTC1 - could have a significant impact on memory function,” concluded Lipton.



The full study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.



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How air pollution fuels Alzheimer’s and brain disease

Alzheimer’s disease is among the many health threats linked to...

Many people strive to maintain smooth, youthful-looking skin and vibrant, naturally colored hair as they age. Scientists have long explored the biological mechanisms behind aging, and new research now highlights the role of specific hormones that may help preserve a youthful appearance.



A study led by Dr. Markus Böhm from the University of Münster suggests that certain hormonal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapies</a> could provide promising new solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intrinsic-and-extrinsic-shifts">Intrinsic and extrinsic shifts</h2>



"Skin is the largest organ of the human body and undergoes both intrinsic (chronological) and extrinsic aging," wrote the researchers.



"While intrinsic skin aging is driven by genetic and epigenetic factors, extrinsic aging is mediated by external threats such as UV irradiation or fine particular matters, the sum of which is referred to as exposome."



The experts noted that intrinsic and extrinsic aging can overlap, leading to the breakdown of connective tissues, reduced stem cell function, and pigment loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormones-that-may-slow-skin-aging">Hormones that may slow skin aging</h2>



<a href="https://www.aad.org/public/everyday-care/skin-care-secrets/anti-aging/retinoid-retinol" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Retinoids</a> are a group of vitamin A derivatives that can help reduce wrinkles. Dermatologists have long prescribed them for skin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-aging-have-been-found-in-the-skin-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rejuvenation</a>.



Some <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3772914/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> are also exploring estrogen and its ability to maintain skin elasticity. They believe that this type of hormone therapy may influence collagen levels.



Dr. Böhm explained that some of the hormones examined in the study show potential for slowing signs of aging. For example, the initial findings suggest that certain hormones could be used to slow hair graying and the development of wrinkles.



“Our paper highlights key hormone players that orchestrate pathways of skin aging such as degradation of connective tissue (leading to wrinkling), stem cell survival and loss of pigment (leading to hair graying),” said Dr. Böhm. 



According to the researchers, hormones such as insulin-like growth factor 1 and growth hormone play important roles in how skin cells function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anti-aging-effects-of-hormones">Anti-aging effects of hormones </h2>



<a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/melatonin-what-you-need-to-know" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melatonin</a> is sometimes called the sleep hormone. Experts note that it has antioxidant qualities, which could shield skin cells from harm.



Melatonin also helps regulate mitochondria, the tiny powerhouses in cells. This might lower stress from environmental factors like UV rays.



Scientists are looking at α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone to see if it influences skin pigmentation. They are also investigating the <a href="https://sc.edu/uofsc/posts/2023/02/conversation_marijuana.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endocannabinoids</a> found in CBD-based products for their effect on skin stress responses.



In certain studies, these molecules appeared to provide protection against UV-induced changes. They may also be linked to how hair loses its natural pigment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-a-path-forward">Finding a path forward</h2>



Research teams are now piecing together how different hormonal systems affect wrinkles and color changes. They hope that future treatments might combine topical and internal methods to keep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beyond-genetics-the-biggest-factors-that-influence-health-and-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin</a> more resilient.



For example, experts see the opportunity for using hormones to address issues like collagen breakdown and pigment loss more precisely.



Some hormones are easy to produce and come with few side effects, making them good candidates for new approaches. Long-term studies are still needed to clarify safe dosage and best application methods.



"Until now, only a limited number of these hormones, mainly topical retinoids and estrogens, have found their way into clinical practice as anti-skin aging compounds," noted the study authors. 



"Further research into the biological properties of endocrine players or its derivatives may offer the development of novel senotherapeutics for the treatment and prevention of skin aging."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-hormone-based-skin-treatments-safe">Are hormone-based skin treatments safe?</h2>



Hormone therapies have been used for years in various medical fields, including endocrinology, reproductive health, and oncology. Physicians carefully evaluate the risks and benefits before prescribing them, as these treatments can influence a wide range of physiological processes. 



Potential side effects may include changes in mood, metabolic function, cardiovascular health, and even skin physiology.



Clinical trials are currently underway to assess the safety and efficacy of hormone-based treatments for skincare. The goal is to investigate factors like hormone absorption through the skin, systemic effects, and potential long-term risks.



Experts emphasize the importance of medical supervision when using hormone-based therapies, warning that self-prescribing or using unregulated products could lead to unintended consequences. 



Misuse may disrupt the body’s natural hormonal balance, potentially causing adverse effects that outweigh any perceived benefits for the skin.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/edrv/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1210/endrev/bnae034/8029650?redirectedFrom=fulltext&amp;login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endocrine Reviews</a>.



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Hormones may slow skin aging and reduce wrinkles

Many people strive to maintain smooth, youthful-looking skin and vibrant,...

It seems unthinkable that anything could live after tens of thousands of years in hibernation. The discovery of a tiny creature in the Siberian permafrost has sparked conversations about how resilient life can be.



In a recent breakthrough, researchers determined that a worm which had been frozen for about 46,000 years had survived and remained alive. 



Dr. Philipp Schiffer, a group leader in the <a href="https://zoologie.uni-koeln.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Zoology</a> at the University of Cologne, and his colleagues, have been studying how this creature managed to survive well beyond its usual lifespan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-environment-in-siberian-permafrost">Extreme environment in Siberian permafrost</h2>



Siberia has vast stretches of permafrost, which is soil or sediment that remains frozen for at least two consecutive years. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-is-no-longer-permanent-arctic-communities-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frozen ground</a> can extend hundreds of feet below the surface in certain regions, with the cold temperatures preserving anything trapped within its layers.



Conditions in these areas can be challenging for people, but the permafrost forms perfect vaults for preserving animal remains. Thick ice and frigid temperatures keep organic material fresh enough to study thousands of years later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-life-on-pause">Putting life on pause</h2>



The resurrected worm belongs to a genus known for its ability to enter cryptobiosis, which is a biological strategy where life appears to stop under cold conditions. 



No major metabolic activity occurs in this state, and organisms can endure severe environmental conditions that would normally be lethal.



Biologists have documented cryptobiosis in other creatures, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-bear-tardigrade-fossils-reveal-how-they-survived-several-mass-extinction-events/">tardigrades</a> and certain brine shrimp. The animals halt their usual body functions until they can return to an environment that can support growth and reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-frozen-worm">Significance of the frozen worm</h2>



Experts identified the newly studied nematode as Panagrolaimus kolymaensis, a species not previously described in scientific literature. 



Radiocarbon dating showed that the sample was tens of thousands of years old, indicating that this worm spent most of its existence in suspended animation under frozen sediment.



It was retrieved at a depth of about 40 yards (37 meters). This position helped it stay protected in that intense cold, and gave it a chance to be resurrected in modern laboratories, where it resumed normal activity and even produced offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-survival-strategies">Unique survival strategies</h2>



According to the researchers, nematodes of this variety usually live for only one or two months. The worm that reawakened in the lab outlived that window by tapping into cryptobiotic powers that are still under investigation.



Special molecules may stabilize cells in these worms, keeping them intact despite extreme dryness or temperature shifts. Similar molecules have been found in other organisms that are known to survive dehydration and freezing.



“No one had thought that this process could last millennia, 40,000 years, or even longer. It is simply amazing that life can begin again after so long, in the state between life and death,” said Dr. Schiffer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-of-the-frozen-worm">Genetics of the frozen worm </h2>



The experts used genome sequencing to confirm that this worm was something different. Its lineage seems to share parts of the genetic toolkit for cryptobiosis with Caenorhabditis elegans, a nematode species that is commonly used in lab research.



Similar stasis has been observed in tardigrades, often called water bears. A 2017 NASA <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/podcasts/houston-we-have-a-podcast/water-bears-in-space/">study</a> noted their capacity to withstand harsh space conditions, suggesting these tiny beings have defense systems against extreme radiation and severe temperature swings.



Certain seeds can also remain viable for years in cold storage and then germinate when conditions improve. Yet the nematode’s frozen stretch lasted far longer than the typical lifetime for most preserved biological samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cryptobiosis-in-extreme-environments">Cryptobiosis in extreme environments</h2>



Scientists who focus on deserts, polar regions, and even other planets may look for parallels in cryptobiotic organisms. Environments like the Atacama Desert, known for its dryness, already harbor small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-new-forms-of-life-inside-humans-rna-carriers-obelisks/">life forms</a> that have evolved impressive strategies to handle scarce moisture.



Conditions on Mars and icy moons around Saturn are less welcoming. However, knowledge of how simple creatures cheat time might lead to ideas about extraterrestrial survival or more efficient preservation methods for samples on Earth.



Cryptobiosis involves shutting down vital processes without losing structural integrity. Genetic pathways that enable such suspension might have applications in food preservation or even organ transplants.



If scientists isolate the genes that protect cells against freezing, future technologies could incorporate them into strategies for stabilizing delicate tissues. Biomedical researchers are always searching for ways to minimize damage from cold storage or dehydration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-legacy-of-the-frozen-worm">The legacy of the frozen worm</h2>



The original specimen has died, but its offspring remain alive in controlled conditions. This provides more opportunities for tests on how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/nematodes/">nematodes</a> handle rehydration, changes in temperature, and prolonged hibernation.



Genetic comparisons with other species may shed light on whether these traits developed once in nematode history or evolved in multiple lineages separately. Either way, the results challenge the idea that living things cannot pause for millennia.



Experts see the next research steps involving experiments that identify proteins or sugars that replace water in the worm’s cells during dormancy. They could also investigate new forms of cryptobiosis in other deep-freeze environments, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stability-of-antarctica-is-threatened-by-submarine-canyons/">Antarctic glaciers</a>.



Evolutionary biologists might expand research into older permafrost samples. If more ancient specimens are discovered, scientists may gain a better understanding of how life on Earth endures in these harsh and extreme conditions.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1010798" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Genetics</a>.



Image Credit: Shatilovich et al, 2023, PLOS Genetics



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Frozen worm comes back to life after 46,000 years

It seems unthinkable that anything could live after tens of...

For years, Mars has captivated scientists in their quest to find signs of life beyond Earth. Though its dry, dusty terrain appears inhospitable today, the Red Planet once had water billions of years ago.



Pools and seas may have once covered the surface, much like early Earth. If life began there, just as it did here, could traces of ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> microbes still exist?



A team of researchers believes they may have found a way to answer that question. By studying gypsum, a mineral known for preserving fossils, they have demonstrated that microbial life can leave behind biosignatures in sulfate minerals. 



These findings could shape future Mars exploration, helping scientists determine whether life once thrived on the now-barren planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-ancient-life-on-mars">Detecting ancient life on Mars</h2>



Detecting evidence of ancient life on another planet is no simple task. Any method must be reliable, precise, and capable of working under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-mars-red-scientists-think-they-figured-out-billion-year-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian conditions</a>. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a> have taken a significant step forward by testing a laser-powered mass spectrometer on terrestrial gypsum samples. This instrument, designed for space missions, can identify biosignatures at a microscopic level.



Study first author Youcef Sellam is a PhD student in the Physics Institute at the University of Bern.



“Our findings provide a methodological framework for detecting biosignatures in Martian sulfate minerals, potentially guiding future Mars exploration missions,” said Sellam.



“Our laser ablation ionization mass spectrometer, a spaceflight-prototype instrument, can effectively detect biosignatures in sulfate minerals. This technology could be integrated into future Mars rovers or landers for in-situ analysis.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-microbes">The search for microbes</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-year-on-mars-avalanches-icy-explosions-and-the-arrival-of-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> once had abundant water, but it eventually dried up. Gypsum and other sulfates formed when these water bodies evaporated, potentially preserving organic life on Mars. If microbes existed, their fossils might still be present in these minerals.



“Gypsum has been widely detected on the Martian surface and is known for its exceptional fossilization potential,” explained Sellam. “It forms rapidly, trapping microorganisms before decomposition occurs, and preserves biological structures and chemical biosignatures.”



To verify this, scientists tested their detection methods on terrestrial gypsum where microbial fossils are known to exist. They studied Mediterranean gypsum formations created during the Messinian Salinity Crisis.



“The Messinian Salinity Crisis occurred when the Mediterranean Sea was cut off from the Atlantic Ocean,” said Sellam. 



“This led to rapid evaporation, causing the sea to become hypersaline and depositing thick layers of evaporites, including gypsum. These deposits provide an excellent terrestrial analog for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> sulfate deposits.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-life-essential-elements">Looking for life-essential elements</h2>



The scientists needed an instrument capable of functioning on a space mission. They chose a compact laser-powered mass spectrometer, capable of analyzing chemical compositions at a microscopic level.



They collected gypsum from Sidi Boutbal quarry in Algeria and examined it using the mass spectrometer and an optical microscope. Specific characteristics helped distinguish microbial fossils from natural rock formations. 



These included irregular shapes, the presence of life-essential elements, carbon-based material, and minerals like clay or dolomite, which are influenced by bacterial activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-life-on-mars">Signs of life on Mars</h2>



The researchers discovered long, twisting fossil filaments in the Algerian gypsum. These structures were previously thought to be benthic algae or cyanobacteria but are now believed to be sulfur-oxidizing bacteria like Beggiatoa. 



These bacteria were embedded in gypsum and surrounded by dolomite, clay minerals, and pyrite.



The presence of these minerals suggests biological activity. Prokaryotic cells influence clay formation by supplying necessary elements. They also help dolomite form in acidic conditions like Mars by raising alkalinity and concentrating ions in their surroundings. 



Without organic life, dolomite would require extreme heat and pressure to form in gypsum, conditions unlikely to have existed on Mars.



If Martian gypsum contains clay, dolomite, and other biosignatures, this could indicate fossilized life. Scientists could confirm this by analyzing additional minerals and searching for similar organic structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed </h2>



“While our findings strongly support the biogenicity of the fossil filament in gypsum, distinguishing true biosignatures from abiotic mineral formations remains a challenge,” said Sellam.



He noted that an additional independent detection method would improve the confidence in life detection. 



"Additionally, Mars has unique environmental conditions, which could affect biosignature preservation over geological periods. Further studies are needed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algeria-s-role-in-planetary-science">Algeria’s role in planetary science</h2>



“This research is the first astrobiology study to involve Algeria and the first to use an Algerian terrestrial analog for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>,” said Sellam. 



“As an Algerian researcher, I am incredibly proud to have introduced my country to the field of planetary science.



“This work is also dedicated to the memory of my father, who was a great source of strength and encouragement. Losing him during this research was one of the most difficult moments of my life. I hope that he is proud of what I have achieved.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/astronomy-and-space-sciences/articles/10.3389/fspas.2025.1503042/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences</a>.



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Did Mars once host life? We finally know where to look

For years, Mars has captivated scientists in their quest to...

Modern technology has changed the way humans observe wildlife. Mini cameras placed in backyards and natural landscapes now capture unexpected activities from the animal world. These tiny devices reveal the secret lives of creatures that often go unnoticed. 



From bears rummaging through garbage bins to deer wandering suburban streets, these glimpses into nature have fascinated millions.



While these videos often go viral for entertainment, scientists have recognized their potential for research. A group at the <a href="https://www.uri.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rhode Island</a> has taken this idea further. They created a massive dataset of animal images, not just for curiosity, but for science. 



The goal was to understand how animals behave at different times of the day and how human presence affects their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity patterns</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-activity-of-400-mammals">Studying the activity of 400 mammals</h2>



To build a more detailed picture of animal habits, researchers launched the Global Animal Diel Activity Project. They gathered data from 20,080 camera trap sites across 38 countries and six continents. 



The study included over 400 mammal species, making it one of the largest camera-based research projects in existence.



This ambitious project involved more than 200 scientists worldwide. They analyzed 8.9 million animal observations to create a massive collection of activity estimates. The results were surprising. 



Less than half of the species studied matched the activity classifications found in reference books. Many animals exhibited <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-humans-and-animals-keep-experimenting-even-when-theres-no-need/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different behaviors</a> than previously thought, challenging long-standing assumptions about their activity cycles.



The study was led by Brian Gerber, a research ecologist at <a href="https://www.colostate.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a>, and Kadambari Devarajan, a research fellow at the University of Rhode Island.



The findings provide new insights into how animals adapt their behaviors based on environmental and human influences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unpredictable-patterns-in-animal-activity">Unpredictable patterns in animal activity</h2>



The study revealed that many animals do not strictly follow diurnal or nocturnal behavior patterns. Instead, their activity changes based on location, environmental conditions, and human presence. 



Gerber was surprised by the extent of this variation. "I expected some variation, but basically most species that we had adequate data on showed that they would change their diel activity.”



For example, American black bears did not follow a consistent schedule. In some locations, they were diurnal, meaning they were active during the day. In others, they were cathemeral, meaning their activity was scattered across both day and night. 



This flexibility suggests that animals may not be as rigid in their routines as previously believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-wildlife-project">Global wildlife project</h2>



Gerber’s interest in diel activity began 18 years ago when he was studying fossas in Madagascar. He noticed that these animals did not always behave according to expected patterns. This observation led to years of curiosity about how different species adapt their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-is-tracking-endangered-animal-habitats-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> to their surroundings.



By 2017, while working at the University of Rhode Island, Gerber developed a method to analyze diel activity across many species. 



Collaborating with other researchers, he designed a large-scale study to explore how animal behavior changes in different environments. 



The resulting dataset included species from a wide range of habitats, including deserts, rainforests, tundras, and savannas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-influence-on-animal-behavior">Human influence on animal behavior</h2>



One of the most significant findings of the study was the impact of human presence on animal activity. Researchers compared data from urban and wild areas to see how species responded to human influence. 



They found that a third of the species studied altered their activity patterns in response to human development.



Some species became more nocturnal, likely to avoid human contact. Others adapted by becoming more diurnal, possibly to take advantage of new food sources or reduced predator threats. This shift in behavior demonstrates that animals are not just reacting to natural environmental changes but also to human activity.



Gerber explained how this discovery challenges traditional classifications. “The most striking thing is that when you are taught an animal is diurnal or is nocturnal, that is not always correct."



“Many terrestrial mammals will be diurnal sometimes and nocturnal or cathemeral other times. When you see a nocturnal species during the day, this is perhaps not as unusual as you might think.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-activity-and-external-pressures">Animal activity and external pressures </h2>



Conventional classifications label animals as diurnal, nocturnal, crepuscular (active during twilight), or cathemeral. These labels suggest that activity patterns are fixed traits. However, the research team found that these classifications are more fluid than previously thought.



Devarajan emphasized that animal behavior is shaped by both evolution and immediate environmental conditions. A species’ activity schedule is not simply a biological trait but also a response to external pressures.



Light availability, human development, and habitat changes all play a role in shaping when animals are active.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifts-in-animal-activity">Shifts in animal activity </h2>



The study found that only 39% of the species studied matched their expected diel classification. This means that most animals showed flexibility in their behavior.



A striking 74% of species changed their activity patterns in response to human influence. For instance, the striped skunk, gray fox, North American porcupine, and snowshoe hare became more nocturnal in areas with higher human impact. This shift likely helps them avoid human disturbances and predators.



The team also discovered that light availability affected diel plasticity. In some cases, urban lighting caused nocturnal species to become more active during the day. This adaptation highlights the complex ways in which animals respond to their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Understanding diel activity is essential for wildlife conservation. Animal activity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/old-and-wise-animals-are-essential-for-the-survival-of-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> influence population tracking, conservation planning, and hunting regulations. Knowing when species are most active can help researchers develop better protection strategies.



As environmental changes accelerate, some species will adapt their activity patterns, while others may struggle. Gerber stressed the importance of recognizing how these shifts affect animal survival.



“Recognizing the fitness consequences of species’ diel phenotype plasticity and lack thereof is an important next step to understand the impacts of environmental change and can help direct conservation actions,” said Gerber.



This study provides a deeper understanding of how animals navigate a changing world. As habitats continue to shift, scientists must continue monitoring how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species adapt</a>. 



The knowledge gained from projects like this can help guide future conservation efforts and ensure the survival of many species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ado3843" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Hundreds of mammals show how humans influence animal activity

Modern technology has changed the way humans observe wildlife. Mini...

Heatwaves aren’t just a seasonal inconvenience anymore. They’re longer, hotter, and deadlier than ever before. Millions feel their effects, from power outages to hospital visits. 



But beyond the obvious effects of extreme heat - dehydration, heat stroke, and exhaustion - there’s something more insidious happening beneath the surface:&nbsp;accelerated aging.



A new study from the <a href="https://gero.usc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC Leonard Davis School of Gerontology</a> suggests extreme heat may be speeding up the aging process at the biological level.



It is well documented that extreme temperatures can strain the body, but now, there’s growing evidence that prolonged heat exposure might make people age faster. If true, climate change isn’t just a crisis of weather - it’s a crisis of time itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-heat-changes-the-aging-process">How heat changes the aging process</h2>



Aging isn’t just about counting birthdays. A person’s chronological age tells one story, but their biological age? That’s the real measure of health. 



Biological age reflects how well cells, tissues, and organs function. When it’s higher than chronological age, disease risks increase, and life expectancy drops.



Jennifer Ailshire, senior author of the study, explained that people living in hotter regions tend to experience faster biological aging than those in cooler areas. Scientists have suspected heat plays a role in declining health, but its direct link to aging has been unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-heat-and-aging">Link between heat and aging</h2>



To investigate, the researchers examined data from over 3,600 individuals aged 56 and older, all participants in the Health and Retirement Study.



Over a six-year span, scientists collected blood samples, analyzing them for epigenetic changes - chemical modifications that influence how genes behave. One major process in this field is DNA methylation, which can switch genes on or off without altering the genetic code itself.



Study co-author Eunyoung Choi noted that the team used epigenetic clocks to monitor these molecular shifts. These clocks detect methylation patterns and estimate biological age.



The researchers then compared biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging rates</a> with historical heat index data from 2010 to 2016, uncovering a strong correlation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-counts-as-extreme-heat">What counts as "extreme heat"?</h2>



The National Weather Service defines extreme heat using the heat index - a combination of temperature and humidity.



Extreme heat is broken down into three categories. The "Caution" level ranges from 80°F to 90°F. The "Extreme Caution" category spans 90°F to 103°F. The most dangerous level, simply called "Danger," starts at 103°F and goes up to 124°F.



This study included all three levels, examining how frequent exposure to each affected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological age</a>. More days of extreme heat meant faster aging at a cellular level. 



The pattern remained strong even after adjusting for lifestyle choices, income, and other demographic factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-exposure-alters-aging">Heat exposure alters aging</h2>



Where a person lives plays a crucial role in how heat impacts them. Some regions endure long stretches of brutal temperatures, and the effect on residents' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-detect-if-your-brain-is-aging-too-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological aging</a> is staggering.



"Participants living in areas where heat days, as defined as Extreme Caution or higher levels (≥90°F), occur half the year, such as Phoenix, Arizona, experienced up to 14 months of additional biological aging compared to those living in areas with fewer than 10 heat days per year," Choi said. 



"Even after controlling for several factors, we found this association. Just because you live in an area with more heat days, you're aging faster biologically."



To confirm their findings, the researchers used three different epigenetic clocks - PCPhenoAge, PCGrimAge, and DunedinPACE. 



All pointed to the same conclusion: heat exposure accelerated aging over one to six years. PCPhenoAge even detected changes within weeks or months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-adults-have-a-greater-risk">Older adults have a greater risk</h2>



Ailshire emphasized that older adults face even higher risks. The study factored in the heat index instead of just air temperature, which proved critical. Humidity can worsen heat’s effects by making it harder for sweat to evaporate, leaving the body struggling to cool down.



"It's really about the combination of heat and humidity, particularly for older adults, because older adults don't sweat the same way. We start to lose our ability to have the skin-cooling effect that comes from that evaporation of sweat," said Ailshire.



"If you’re in a high humidity place, you don’t get as much of that cooling effect. You have to look at your area’s temperature and your humidity to really understand what your risk might be."



Since older adults sweat less, they are more prone to heat exhaustion and heatstroke. Prolonged exposure to extreme temperatures may also compromise immune function, increasing vulnerability to illness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The study raises new questions about how heat reshapes health over time. Scientists aim to pinpoint additional factors that increase vulnerability to heat-driven aging. 



They also want to explore whether this accelerated aging process is reversible - or if it permanently alters long-term health outcomes.



Beyond research, the findings signal a need for immediate action. Cities and policymakers may need to rethink urban infrastructure. More shaded walkways, cooling stations, and heat-resistant building designs could become necessities, not luxuries.



Ailshire believes that ignoring the issue is not an option. "If everywhere is getting warmer and the population is aging, and these people are vulnerable, then we need to get really a lot smarter about these mitigation strategies."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr0616" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Extreme heat can accelerate aging at a cellular level

Heatwaves aren’t just a seasonal inconvenience anymore. They’re longer, hotter,...

Scientists have uncovered a type of sideways motion in bubbles that hints at surprising ways to control <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-fluid-mechanics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluids</a>.



In a recent study, researchers have demonstrated that a simple vertical shake can push these pockets of air horizontally. The study was led by Pedro Sáenz, principal investigator and professor of applied mathematics at <a href="https://math.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC-Chapel Hill</a>.



The unexpected behavior of bubbles may open fresh possibilities for practical uses in electronics and other fields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-movement-of-bubbles">Unexpected movement of bubbles</h2>



"Here we introduce bubbles that spontaneously start to ‘gallop’ along horizontal surfaces inside a vertically-vibrated fluid chamber, self-propelled by a resonant interaction between their shape oscillation modes," wrote the researchers.



Vertical vibrations somehow trigger steady sideways motion in bubbles, even though it defies common physics instincts that expect up-and-down movement only.



“Our research not only answers a fundamental scientific question but also inspires curiosity and exploration of the fascinating, unseen world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-being-tested-to-prevent-stalls-and-reduce-air-turbulence-for-smoother-flights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluid</a> motion. After all, the smallest things can sometimes lead to the biggest changes,” said Professor Sáenz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approach-to-controlling-bubbles">New approach to controlling bubbles</h2>



The shapes of these energetic bubbles can change by shifting the frequency and intensity of the vertical shaking. Adjusting those conditions can make them move in a straight line, spin in a circle, or scramble around in a zigzag pattern similar to the random search used by microbes.



Study co-author Connor Magoon is a graduate student in mathematics at UNC-Chapel Hill.



“This discovery transforms our understanding of bubble <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-missing-elements-were-lost-in-violent-collisions-during-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a>, which is usually unpredictable, into a controlled and versatile phenomenon with far-reaching applications in heat transfer, microfluidics, and other technologies,” explained Magoon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-use-in-microgravity">Potential use in microgravity</h2>



Space-based electronics can overheat if air pockets linger on heated surfaces without buoyancy to lift them away. According to NASA, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/shuttlestation/station/microgex.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microgravity</a> means the force of gravity is nearly undetectable, which can hinder heat removal.



The new galloping behavior offers an alternative that doesn’t rely on gravity. By simply shaking the liquid in satellites or space experiments, these agile bubbles can be coaxed to move off critical spots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaner-surfaces-and-fresh-possibilities">Cleaner surfaces and fresh possibilities</h2>



When bubbles were tested on dusty surfaces, their bouncing and sidestepping cleared grime in proof-of-concept demonstrations. This approach may pave the way for new strategies in industrial cleaning or even targeted drug delivery, where controlling bubble paths is key.



Saiful Tamim is a joint author of the study and a postdoctoral research assistant at UNC-Chapel Hill.&nbsp;



“The newly discovered self-propulsion mechanism allows bubbles to travel distances and gives them an unprecedented capacity to navigate intricate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-rain-to-saturns-rings-new-equations-push-the-boundaries-of-fluid-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluid</a> networks. This could offer solutions to long-standing challenges in heat transfer, surface cleaning, and even inspire new soft robotic systems,” said Tamim.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-behavior-of-bubbles">Complex behavior of bubbles</h2>



The American Physical Society acknowledged this fascinating bubble motion by <a href="https://gfm.aps.org/meetings/dfd-2024/673e5f58d88f375e670eb4e2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">featuring the work</a> in its Gallery of Fluid Motion, a showcase of captivating and insightful fluid flow videos. 



This recognition from top experts highlights the increasing interest in leveraging the bubble phenomenon for practical applications.



Study co-author Jian Hui Guan is a postdoctoral research assistant at UNC-Chapel Hill.



“It’s fascinating to see something as simple as a bubble reveal such complex and surprising behavior," said Hui Guan. "By harnessing a new method to move bubbles, we’ve unlocked possibilities for innovation in fields ranging from microfluidics to heat transfer." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vibrating-bubbles-may-change-future-tech">Vibrating bubbles may change future tech</h2>



<a href="https://shop.elsevier.com/books/leonardo-da-vincis-elements-of-the-science-of-man/keele/978-0-12-403980-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leonardo da Vinci</a> made early notes about odd twists in how air pockets glide through water. Now, modern researchers have taken an additional stride by showing that shaking alone can be an effective steering tool.



"Bubbles often appear to have a life of their own. Da Vinci was a pioneer in documenting their capricious behavior, observing how rising bubbles spontaneously abandon straight paths for mesmerizing helices - a paradox that has persisted for centuries," noted the study authors.



As technology advances, tapping into galloping bubbles may shape new approaches to cooling systems, flexible robotic designs, and even space exploration.



"Given the multifaceted physics of bubbles, harnessing their dynamics may be challenging but holds significant potential rewards," said the researchers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56611-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Bubbles don’t just rise - they can 'gallop' sideways

Scientists have uncovered a type of sideways motion in bubbles...

For years, exoplanets have captured our imagination. When one of these distant worlds exhibits unusual wind and weather patterns, scientists pay close attention.



<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/wasp-121-b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WASP-121b</a> is one such world, identified as an ultra-hot Jupiter due to its intensely heated environment.



In a recent study, astronomers mapped the exoplanet’s winds and chemical elements in three dimensions. The research was led by Dr. Julia Victoria Seidel at the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/about-eso/esoglance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Southern Observatory</a> in Chile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exoplanet-with-a-fierce-wind-pattern">Exoplanet with a fierce wind pattern</h2>



WASP-121b is about 900 light years from Earth, but that distance did not deter the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08664-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a>. They used innovative spectroscopic tools to analyze shifting gases, and provide a fresh perspective on atmospheric motion.



One of the most intriguing details is the presence of iron in different layers. A fierce wind pattern hauls the element across the planet, creating distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-weather-exoplanet-wasp-121-b-has-a-dynamic-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather zones</a>.



This kind of multi-layered wind has rarely been seen before around an <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanet</a>. According to the researchers, the atmosphere is "wild and challenging" to explain using standard models.



It is rare to obtain a 3D map of a planet’s weather, especially one that is orbiting so close to its star. This arrangement means the daylight side could reach blistering temperatures, while the night side remains far cooler.



Scientists wonder if such extreme temperature contrasts might fuel the planet’s unusual wind speeds. They hope further observations will clarify how energy is distributed in this bizarre <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-3d-view-of-an-exoplanet-atmosphere-reveals-chaotic-alien-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>.



Debates continue over whether powerful winds might also trigger the formation of clouds in certain regions. If so, these clouds could shield some chemicals from external detection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probing-the-exoplanet-s-atmosphere">Probing the exoplanet’s atmosphere</h2>



The Very Large Telescope (<a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VLT</a>) in Chile contributed crucial insights by letting scientists combine data from four independent modules. This amplified the signal, enabling the detection of fainter atmospheric details.



“The VLT enabled us to probe three different layers of the exoplanet’s atmosphere in one fell swoop,” noted study co-author Dr. Leonardo dos Santos from the <a href="https://www.stsci.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Telescope Science Institute</a>. The team observed how elements shift position in various vertical slices, giving them a step-by-step look at the planet’s climate.



Combining telescope units is no small feat. Each one must synchronize precisely, or the collected data lose resolution.



Astronomers have embraced these multi-instrument techniques to push the limits of observation. Some exoplanet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-3d-view-of-an-exoplanet-atmosphere-reveals-chaotic-alien-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a> are barely detectable above background noise, so every photon counts.



This method has already sparked interest among observers seeking to examine more distant planets. Many hope it will evolve into a standard approach for characterizing atmospheric layers.



The researchers also took advantage of the <a href="https://www.eso.org/sci/facilities/paranal/instruments/espresso.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESPRESSO instrument</a>, which was designed to measure tiny shifts in starlight. This precision helped the experts pinpoint how fast each gas was moving across various altitudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exoplanet-winds-and-hidden-metals">Exoplanet winds and hidden metals </h2>



Another compelling piece of the puzzle is titanium. <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/02/aa52405-24/aa52405-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> identified it just below a swift jet stream, even though earlier studies suggested its absence.



This discovery came alongside a clue that elements might circulate differently at specific altitudes. The unusual distribution indicates that certain chemicals remain hidden until advanced instruments expose them.



“It’s truly mind-blowing that we’re able to study details like the chemical makeup and weather patterns of a planet at such a vast distance,” said Bibiana Prinoth, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> and ESO.



The unexpected titanium detection also raises questions about how quickly the jet stream mixes material from different latitudes.



Titanium was once assumed to be locked in lower atmospheric layers where temperatures drop. The new detection suggests that powerful winds could loft heavier elements upward if the conditions are right.



Future surveys might reveal more metals behaving in unexpected ways. Such discoveries could reshape assumptions about temperature gradients and chemical mixing in extreme gas giants.



Tracking heavier elements can reveal whether the planet’s magnetic field plays a part. Some scientists think charged metals might migrate differently under strong magnetic influences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insight-into-atmospheric-circulation">New insight into atmospheric circulation </h2>



These results lay the groundwork for studying other alien climates. Researchers plan to push the limits with next-generation telescopes that offer even sharper views.



Instruments like <a href="https://elt.eso.org/instrument/ANDES/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANDES</a> and ESO’s future <a href="https://elt.eso.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extremely Large Telescope</a> could reveal smaller molecules in thinner atmospheres - a capability that might eventually help pinpoint truly habitable worlds.



Understanding these features may also help refine estimates of how planets form. Each discovery adds context to how gas giants take shape around distant stars.



Ground-based facilities have proven effective in capturing fine details. Large apertures and new detector technology will expand possibilities for future high-precision <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-kmt-2020-blg-0414-reveals-fate-of-earth-eight-billion-years-from-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observations</a>.



Scientists anticipate that improved data quality will bridge the gap between theoretical models and actual measurements. They believe more robust simulations will emerge once these advanced telescopes come online.



This unusual exoplanet challenges traditional views of atmospheric circulation. Experts suspect that the interplay between fierce winds, temperature extremes, and unexpected chemical layers will shape new models of planetary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-planet-system-hd110067-discovered-that-moves-in-perfect-mathematical-harmony/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08664-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit:&nbsp;NASA/ESA/G. Bacon (STScI)/N. Madhusudhan (UC)



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Raging winds and hidden metals: The wild weather of a distant exoplanet

For years, exoplanets have captured our imagination. When one of...

Giraffes are well-known for their towering height, which lets them munch on leaves from tall trees with ease. For a long time, experts assumed their unique diets shaped the communities of bacteria in their intestines.



But now, researchers have discovered something different. They found that the type of <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Microbiome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> is more closely tied to the giraffe’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-hate-slopes-and-its-threatening-their-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> than to the specific plants it consumes.



“We expected that giraffes with similar diets would also have similar microbiomes, but we found no such connection. Instead, we saw that giraffes seem to maintain species-specific microbiomes,” said Elin Videvall from <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-giraffe-diets">Studying giraffe diets</h2>



In a joint effort with researchers from Brown University, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989425000812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">team</a> compared samples from reticulated, Masai, and northern giraffes in Kenya. By analyzing DNA traces of plants in droppings, they got a snapshot of which vegetation each individual had eaten.



Similar <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep14567" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches</a> have been used in other ruminants to see how gut bacteria adjust based on different foraging behavior. However, these giraffes turned out to challenge the typical assumption that diet directly shapes the bacterial makeup in the digestive tract.



The giraffes showed wide variation in the plants they had consumed. Despite this variety, their gut bacterial communities stayed linked to their respective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-are-suffering-a-silent-extinction-and-need-more-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Scientists suggest there might be a genetic or evolutionary explanation behind this pattern. It raises questions about how each species manages to keep its own microbial signature, even under different local conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-vital-role-of-gut-microbes">The vital role of gut microbes</h2>



The <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/universitypress/subjects/life-sciences/animal-behaviour/giraffe-biology-behaviour-and-conservation?format=HB&amp;isbn=9781107034860" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ruminant digestive</a> system depends on bacteria to break down tough fibers and release nutrients from plant cells. Giraffes belong to this group, and their gut microbes helps them thrive on foliage.



Variation in these microorganisms can influence a giraffe’s health in surprising ways. They might affect anything from metabolism to disease resistance.



All three species involved in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989425000812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> are endangered. Identifying their diet preferences can guide wildlife managers in preserving vital plant species for giraffe forage.



Protecting feeding grounds that hold the right foliage will help to maintain stable populations of these threatened species. Knowledge of their dietary patterns could also shape decisions on habitat restoration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giraffe-diets-are-adaptable">Giraffe diets are adaptable</h2>



The scientists noted that each giraffe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-gained-their-long-necks-for-food-not-sex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> adapts to the resources available in its territory. This adaptation means two groups of the same species can end up eating quite different plants.



Geographical factors like rainfall patterns and soil composition influence the vegetation. Those factors, in turn, affect the daily diet of these tall browsers.



Many people assume that giraffes are just one species with a few variations, but that’s not the case. Each <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982216307874">group</a> has its own traits, including distinct coat patterns.



These differences apparently go deeper than appearances. Their gut microbiomes also seems to diverge in ways that reflect evolutionary paths rather than dietary patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insight-into-giraffe-diets">New insight into giraffe diets</h2>



This research has practical benefits for wildlife caretakers. If a sick or rescued giraffe needs a diet plan, understanding species-specific gut bacteria may help.



Efforts that keep giraffes in reserves or sanctuaries may rely on more targeted feeding. That could reduce digestive problems and raise survival rates for those under human care.



“We began this study as an international collaboration between academics and conservation professionals. We hope our research can provide better insight into giraffe diets and help support the conservation of giraffes,” said Tyler Kartzinel from Brown University.



Working together across different institutions can push research forward. It also aligns resources so that threatened animals can get the help they need when it matters most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Scientists continue to explore how environment and genetics influence the microbiome in other large herbivores. This knowledge could apply to related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-giraffe-day-2024-a-towering-celebration-of-the-gentle-giants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that face similar challenges in the wild.



There is also an interest in harnessing gut bacteria to support reintroduction programs. If certain microbes enhance survival, that might be a tool for future conservation efforts.



Giraffes remain a treasured part of the African landscape, and preserving them involves more than just fences and guard patrols. It requires understanding how their bodies function at every level.



This study highlights that a giraffe’s inner workings may not follow the rules we see in other animals. Figuring out what drives this pattern is a puzzle researchers plan to keep investigating.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989425000812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Conservation</a>.



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Giraffes have gut bacteria that are unaffected by their diet

Giraffes are well-known for their towering height, which lets them...

Studies have explored the paradox of chasing happiness for more than a decade, showing that focusing too hard on being happy can leave people feeling deflated.



Researchers are now offering an explanation that is rooted in mental fatigue. A study led by Professor Sam Maglio from the <a href="https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto Scarborough</a> sheds new light on why our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overall-people-feel-better-about-life-in-the-morning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attempts at happiness</a> can zap our willpower.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forcing-happiness-drains-your-energy">Forcing happiness drains your energy</h2>



The paradox highlights how actively striving for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">joy</a> can bring about the opposite result. People imagine that more happiness means fewer problems, yet forcing a cheerful outlook can become mentally draining.



This mental drain saps the self-control needed to stick with good habits. It also increases the chances of giving in to temptations that chip away at well-being.



Constantly watching emotional ups and downs puts the spotlight on every dip in mood. This extra attention can turn small challenges into major concerns.



The additional layer of willpower required for staying upbeat can feel like juggling too many tasks at once. When these resources run low, it’s easy to slip into choices that feel good in the moment but hurt overall happiness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chasing-happiness-weakens-self-control">Chasing happiness weakens self-control</h2>



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39887923/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evidence</a> from hundreds of participants suggests that trying to boost happiness demands serious mental energy. One test used a subtle “happiness” prompt and then measured how often people indulged in a tasty treat.



The group exposed to that cue ate more of the snack than those who weren’t prompted. This pattern suggested their self-regulation took a hit when happiness became the priority.



Chasing a pleasant emotional state can mean ignoring other tasks that require discipline. Instead of focusing on daily responsibilities, some individuals get stuck in a cycle of searching for a constant high.



This tug-of-war of chasing happiness drains mental resources needed for balanced decisions. Over time, it leads to more frustration when things don’t go as expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-happiness-as-a-resource-hog">Happiness as a resource hog</h2>



Describing happiness like an unlimited commodity puts pressure on people to acquire it at any cost. When that pursuit gets tangled with personal identity, it can feel like failure if every day isn’t brimming with delight.



Emotional energy isn’t bottomless. Prioritizing joy at all times means less brainpower for resisting impulses, solving problems, or managing stress.



“Just chill. Don't try to be super happy all the time,” said Maglio, who co-authored the research with Aekyoung Kim of the University of Sydney. 



Professor Maglio emphasized the need to accept the good moments that come naturally without forcing them.



The research, supported by the <a href="https://www.sshrc-crsh.gc.ca/home-accueil-eng.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada</a>, adds another layer to the growing evidence that happiness is tricky to micromanage. Instead of viewing it as something to stockpile, the experts suggest a more balanced outlook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daily-life-implications">Daily life implications </h2>



Tuning in to what sparks genuine contentment often works better than hyper-focusing on each wave of emotion. Small pleasures, meaningful relationships, and mindful relaxation can boost mental health without draining your coping skills.



Allowing yourself to have ups and downs can make those bright moments feel more authentic. Avoiding a relentless hunt for positive feelings keeps self-control stronger when temptations pop up.



A little acceptance can go a long way. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3160511/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> show that being kind to yourself increases resilience, even if the day doesn’t look perfect.



People who let happiness unfold naturally often conserve enough mental power to pursue long-term goals. This steady approach pays off when unexpected challenges arise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-stop-chasing-happiness">How to stop chasing happiness </h2>



Everyday <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/judging-your-happiness-makes-you-less-happy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contentment</a> can involve enjoying simple routines, embracing supportive friends, and celebrating small wins. Searching for a blissful state at every turn might only wear you down.



Choosing meaningful activities over chasing happiness with a forced grin can strengthen self-regulation. Feeling relaxed about happiness helps you avoid falling into a mental trap.



Taking breaks from the push to be happier may free up vital energy. Stepping back lowers the emotional workload and supports a clearer perspective.



Learning to recognize that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-a-four-day-work-week-boost-happiness-and-productivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">happiness</a> can’t always be willed into existence may reduce stress. Accepting occasional low moods might improve your capacity to handle daily tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accepting-ups-and-downs">Accepting ups and downs </h2>



Letting go of the idea that chasing happiness means constant joy allows room for natural mood shifts. When self-control remains intact, it’s easier to resist quick fixes that undermine well-being.



People who avoid linking their worth to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constant cheer</a> might find simpler ways to stay balanced. They may enjoy everyday experiences more when they stop policing every moment for perfection.



Ultimately, the research suggests that striving too hard for happiness can deplete the energy needed for maintaining healthy habits, leading to greater dissatisfaction over time.



Letting go of rigid expectations may help preserve emotional resources and promote a deeper sense of contentment.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.70000" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being</a>.



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Why chasing happiness makes you feel worse

Studies have explored the paradox of chasing happiness for more...

Few ocean mysteries capture as much fascination as&nbsp;whale songs, the melodies produced by giant sea creatures. Recent findings suggest these&nbsp;whale songs&nbsp;can offer unique clues about shifting conditions deep below the surface.



Scientists have long recognized that <a href="https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/what-is-baleen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baleen whales</a> emit structured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-whales-use-songs-to-hide-from-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sound signals</a> to maintain contact across staggering distances. 



These signals may also serve as a key to understanding variations in whale foraging patterns, according to a new study led by John Ryan from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (<a href="https://www.mbari.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBARI</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-whale-songs-the-basics">Understanding whale songs - the basics</h2>



Whales are prodigious singers, creating long, complex melodies that can last for hours and even change over time, almost like a hit song evolving. 



Scientists believe whales use these songs to attract mates, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-whales-use-songs-to-hide-from-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signal danger</a>, or even just socialize. What’s wild is that these sounds can travel for miles underwater, thanks to the way sound waves move through the ocean.



But whale songs aren’t just about romance and chit-chat - they also reveal a lot about ocean health. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-have-moved-their-singing-rituals-away-from-shorelines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Noise pollution</a> from ships, drilling, and sonar disrupts whale communication, making it harder for them to find each other and navigate. 



Some researchers even think whales might be adjusting their songs to compete with human-made noise. 



Studying these songs helps scientists understand whale behavior, migration patterns, and even changes in the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-songs-and-prey-availability">Whale songs and prey availability </h2>



The researchers monitored the songs of blue, fin, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback whales</a> for six years. Their analyses uncovered major fluctuations in how frequently these songs appeared, pointing to links between shifting prey availability and whale vocal behavior.



One significant discovery involved <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/humpback-whale" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback whales</a>, whose song detections rose from 34% to 76% of days over the study period. 



The experts noted that this shift coincided with local jumps in key prey resources, such as krill and anchovy, and took place as humpbacks demonstrated an ability to switch food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-shifts-in-whale-songs">Monitoring shifts in whale songs</h2>



Whale vocalizations are recorded by <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/hydrophone.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrophones</a>, which are underwater microphones designed to pick up <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/tags/acoustics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sounds</a> traveling through the ocean. 



These instruments have become vital tools for conservation efforts, because they operate around the clock and can capture subtle changes in whale presence.



Some whales produce <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2008.00208.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">songs</a> not only for social bonding but also as a way to sense one another’s proximity and intentions. 



Shifts in these signals can reveal how whales cope with changing ocean temperatures, prey availability, and competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-habits-in-flux">Feeding habits in flux</h2>



The new findings highlight how dynamic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-songs-share-very-similar-patterns-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> diets really are. Humpbacks, in particular, are known to pivot between different types of prey when certain species decline or relocate.



The investigators found that rising anchovy stocks eventually joined earlier surges in krill populations. This sudden turn in food supply matched an upward trend in humpback whale songs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-songs-and-ocean-health">Whale songs and ocean health</h2>



“Surprisingly, the acoustic behavior of baleen whales provides insights about which species can better adapt to changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean conditions</a>. Our findings can help resource managers and policymakers better protect endangered whales,” said Ryan.



Although song patterns can be influenced by whale migration schedules and local population sizes, the strongest factor was the allure of abundant prey. 



This correlation suggests that whale songs might function as an unexpected barometer of ecosystem health.



These results may motivate future projects to use passive acoustic monitoring as an early alert system for changes in marine life. 



Interpreting whale song data in real time could help managers identify potential feeding hotspots or track unusual shifts in the food web.



Whales occupy higher levels in the food chain. When something affects their prey, whales respond in noticeable ways that can reverberate across the entire ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The study’s approach might encourage researchers to explore additional ocean basins for similar patterns. 



Gathering data from many regions could strengthen our grasp on how large-scale events, such as warming water or temporary food shortages, alter whale behavior.



Other investigations might look at the interplay between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acoustic-tagging-helps-decode-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> communication and environmental stressors. 



Since whales project sound across great distances, these vocalizations can offer clues on changing conditions far beyond the immediate listening area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-humans-and-whales">Bridging humans and whales</h2>



Whale songs offer a unique way to engage the public in ocean health, resonating even with those on land. 



These vocalizations emphasize whales' reliance on a balanced food chain, promoting a deeper connection to marine ecosystems.



Scientists emphasize that new acoustic methods open doors for more frequent and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">less intrusive monitoring</a>. This technology can strengthen marine conservation and give whales a better chance to thrive.



Beyond assessing whales, hydrophone systems also detect an array of ocean sounds. Ships, seismic activity, and the movements of other marine creatures all appear in audio recordings.



Each acoustic signal contributes to a growing library of ocean noise. As we learn to interpret the data, these songs and calls can fill in the blanks about habitat quality and species interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-songs-reveal-ocean-changes">Whale songs reveal ocean changes</h2>



Studying year-to-year changes in whale songs reveals not just the presence of these huge, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/add-humpback-whales-to-list-of-animals-that-build-and-use-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">highly-intelligent animals</a> but also the stability of their feeding grounds. 



These musical signals can serve as markers of subtle transformations in an ecosystem that is often hidden from casual view.



Researchers hope continued listening efforts will help people appreciate how finely tuned whale populations are to changes in their environment. 



With more attention on acoustic monitoring, we may eventually predict and manage the obstacles faced by these gentle giants.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0318624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Whale song complexity continues to astound scientists with each new discovery

Few ocean mysteries capture as much fascination as&nbsp;whale songs, the...

Smiling,Young,Couple,Embracing,While,Looking,At,Smartphone.,Multiethnic,Couple

Love is often seen as a driving force in human relationships, but could it also shape intelligence in the animal kingdom? Scientists have uncovered a surprising connection between cognitive abilities and mating success.



These tiny fish, originally from Central America, are now found in waters worldwide. The new research suggests that intelligence in males plays a crucial role in reproductive success, much like in human relationships where wit and charm often make a difference.



The study reveals that male mosquitofish with better problem-solving skills are more successful in finding mates. This challenges traditional ideas that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-intelligent-life-is-likely-very-common-throughout-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a> in animals primarily evolves for survival. 



Instead, it suggests that brainpower can be just as valuable in securing a mate as it is in avoiding predators or finding food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-male-intelligence-in-reproduction">Role of male intelligence in reproduction</h2>



Male mosquitofish are not just competing for food and shelter; they are also competing for partners. 



<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University (ANU)</a> researchers found that males capable of solving complex tasks had a higher chance of mating than their less-intelligent counterparts. This suggests that intelligence provides a direct reproductive advantage.



Lead author Dr. Ivan Vinogradov explained that cognitive abilities likely evolved because they helped males locate and attract females, increasing their chances of producing offspring. 



This process, known as sexual selection, plays a crucial role in shaping intelligence in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-flightless-birds-are-more-intelligent-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intelligence-beyond-survival">Intelligence beyond survival</h2>



For many years, scientists believed that intelligence in animals evolved primarily through natural selection. Smarter animals had better chances of survival because they could find food, escape predators, and adapt to new environments.



“Evolution of intelligence in animals has long been thought to have been driven by natural selection. Animals that were better at problem solving were more adept at gathering food, finding shelter, and avoiding predators and hence lived longer,” Dr. Vinogradov explained.



“They then passed on these genes to their offspring, helping future generations become smarter over time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bottom-line-intelligence-is-attractive">Bottom line - Intelligence is attractive</h2>



But there is another possible explanation for the evolution of intelligence: the quality of braininess is attractive to the opposite sex. 



A better brain might help an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-aliens-could-detect-earth-what-would-they-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> find more mates, have more sex, and eventually produce more offspring.



Dr. Vinogradov and his collaborators suggest that intelligence in mosquitofish may partly have evolved through sexual selection as well. 



Usually, the pressure of sexual selection is stronger on males than females because, at any given time, there are more males seeking mates than there are females ready to breed.



During this form of selection, traits that boost mating and fertilization success become more common over generations, as the genes for the traits are passed on to offspring. 



“Our study suggests that intelligence in mosquitofish isn’t only driven by their need to find food or avoid predators, but also by the complex challenges of finding love. This shows that, much like humans, love conquers all,” remarked Dr. Vinogradov.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-abilities-of-mosquitofish">Cognitive abilities of mosquitofish</h2>



To understand how male intelligence affects mating success, researchers designed a series of underwater tests. These tests assessed the problem-solving abilities of male mosquitofish. 



The fish had to navigate mazes, figure out how to move around transparent barriers, and remember different colored spots. Those that completed the challenges were rewarded.



The study tracked the reproductive success of each male over two months. The researchers recorded how many offspring each fish produced when competing for mates. 



The results were striking - mosquitofish that excelled at problem-solving tasks had significantly higher reproductive success than those that struggled with the challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-males-more-offspring">Smarter males, more offspring</h2>



After performing over 2,000 paternity tests, the scientists confirmed their hypothesis. Intelligence scores were positively correlated with reproductive success in male mosquitofish. 



The males that performed well in cognitive tests mated with more females and produced more offspring than those that failed the tests.



“Our findings imply that the evolution of cognitive abilities may have been driven by sexual selection for males who gained more mating opportunities,” study co-author Professor Michael Jennions said.



“Something about these males seemingly gave them an edge in securing mating opportunities. Perhaps females recognized and preferred smarter males, or maybe smarter males were better at chasing the females and forcing them to mate, a common, if unpleasant, practice in mosquitofish."



More observations and analyses are needed in order to establish differences in the mating behavior of the smarter males. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-evolutionary-biology">Implications for evolutionary biology</h2>



These findings challenge traditional views on how intelligence evolves. While many scientists have focused on its survival advantages, this study highlights the potential role of mate selection in shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive traits</a>.



Intelligence may not only be about problem-solving for survival but also about improving an individual’s chances of reproduction.



The study also raises questions about how females perceive intelligence in potential mates. If smarter males are more successful in mating, it suggests that females may have preferences that go beyond physical traits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-male-intelligence">Future research on male intelligence</h2>



The study, published in Nature Ecology and Evolution, was conducted by researchers from Australia, Germany, and South Africa. 



The next step is to investigate how, exactly, intelligence influences mating success. Do females recognize intelligence in a mate, or do smarter males use their cognitive skills to outmaneuver their rivals?



Future research could explore whether this pattern holds in other species. If intelligence plays a role in mate selection beyond mosquitofish, it could reshape our understanding of how cognitive abilities evolve in the animal kingdom.



This research suggests that intelligence is not just about survival - it is also about attraction. 



Much like in human relationships, wit and problem-solving skills may help individuals find love and pass on their genes. In mosquitofish, as in life, intelligence may be one of the most valuable traits a male can have.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02645-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.&nbsp;



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Animal intelligence did not evolve due to natural selection

Love is often seen as a driving force in human...

In the wild, every meal is a gamble. Animals like lizards must constantly weigh&nbsp;their&nbsp;options - play it safe or take a risk. The wrong choice could mean starvation. But the right one? A feast.



For some creatures, survival is about consistency. They take the sure thing, never gambling on an uncertain future. Others, when faced with starvation, throw caution to the wind.



A recent study led by Maria Thaker, professor at the Centre for Ecological Sciences (<a href="https://ces.iisc.ac.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CES</a>) at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), reveals that certain tropical lizards fall into the latter category. Under the strain of hunger, they roll the dice - risking it all for a chance at a bigger meal.



The study challenges a long-standing belief. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-lizards-struggle-as-global-warming-raises-their-energy-needs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reptiles</a> have often been dismissed as slow, instinct-driven animals. But this research suggests otherwise. These creatures, despite their cold blood, are surprisingly calculating. They don’t just react; they strategize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunger-makes-lizards-take-risks">Hunger makes lizards take risks </h2>



Scientists call it the “risk-sensitive foraging hypothesis.” The idea is simple: hunger changes how animals approach risk. When full, they opt for reliable food sources, even if they’re small. When starving, they chase bigger, uncertain rewards.



Birds and mammals have demonstrated this behavior. But reptiles? They’ve largely been overlooked. After all, many can slow their metabolism and enter a state of torpor when food is scarce. But tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-provide-new-clues-about-the-diets-of-extinct-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a> don’t have that luxury.



“Reptiles can slow down their metabolism a lot. So, in food-scarce times like winter, they go into torpor (hibernation) to avoid starving to death,” explained Professor Thaker.



“In the tropics, however, reptiles are exposed to warm temperatures all year round and cannot slow their metabolism down enough to get through tough (food lean) times. We expected that lizards in the tropics should have evolved the ability to assess food options, because if they don’t, they may risk starving to death.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starving-lizards-make-riskier-choices">Starving lizards make riskier choices</h2>



To test this, the researchers turned to the rock agama (Psammophilus dorsalis), a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-threatens-the-future-of-8-in-10-lizards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizard</a> commonly found in and around cities like Bengaluru. These small, fast-moving reptiles navigate both natural and urban landscapes, making them ideal for studying adaptive behavior.



The team devised a straightforward test. First, they split the lizards into two groups. One group received plenty of food, while the other received nothing for 48 hours. 



Next, both groups were presented with a choice. One option offered two mealworms, guaranteed. The other was a gamble - either zero or four mealworms. Would hunger change their decisions?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-taking-lizards">Risk-taking lizards</h2>



The results showed that well-fed lizards stuck to the safe bet - two mealworms, no surprises. But the starved lizards? They took the risk, picking the unpredictable option far more often.



“We found that well-fed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-lizard-day-2024-celebrating-our-scaly-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a> played it safe, opting for the guaranteed two mealworms option,” said study lead author and PhD student Avik Banerjee.



“On the other hand, starved lizards took greater risks, frequently choosing the variable option which has the potential to get them four mealworms. Remarkably, both groups of lizards ended up with similar net food gains by the end of the trials, indicating that the different strategies worked.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-survival-strategy-not-a-fluke">A survival strategy, not a fluke</h2>



The study reshapes how we see reptile decision-making. Unlike their cold-climate cousins, which rely on metabolic slowdowns, tropical lizards must stay active. Their survival depends on making smart, timely choices.



And this goes beyond instinct. The lizards remembered their options, assessed the risks, and made choices based on their needs. That’s strategy, not reflex.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lizards-remember-past-choices">Lizards remember past choices</h2>



For decades, intelligence has been linked primarily to mammals and birds. But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-rely-on-trees-so-what-happens-when-they-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> are proving to be far more complex than previously assumed.



“We think that humans have an excellent ability to assess our environment and take calculated risks when needed. But lizards can too,” said Professor Thaker.



“The fact that the rock agamas can remember different options and make appropriate choices to secure their survival is rather cool. We are surrounded by very clever and calculating animals.”



Lizards, often overlooked, might just be thinking more than we ever gave them credit for. And if they can weigh risks and rewards - who knows what else they’re capable of?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0628" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Lizards take bigger risks when they are hungry

In the wild, every meal is a gamble. Animals like...

More than 99% of birds can fly, but some species have lost this ability over time. Penguins, ostriches, and kiwis evolved into flightless forms, adapting to their specific environments. 



A recent study published in the journal Evolution examines how birds transition from flight to flightlessness. 



The researchers compared the feathers and bodies of flightless birds with their closest flying relatives, identifying which traits change first.



These findings provide insights into evolutionary processes and help determine whether extinct birds were flightless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-birds-stop-flying">Why some birds stop flying</h2>



All <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> that are flightless today descended from ancestors that could fly.



“Going from something that can't fly to flying is quite the engineering challenge, but going from something that can fly to not flying is rather easy,” noted Evan Saitta, a research associate at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Field Museum</a> in Chicago and lead author of the study.



Birds often lose the ability to fly when they settle in predator-free islands. Without evolutionary pressure to escape threats, they gradually adapt to a ground-based lifestyle. Another common reason for flight loss is a shift to semi-aquatic living. 



Penguins, for instance, “fly” underwater using their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-birds-brains-evolved-to-enable-them-to-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wings</a>, leading to significant changes in their feathers and skeletons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flight-loss-in-modern-birds">Flight loss in modern birds</h2>



Saitta, primarily a paleontologist, took advantage of the Field Museum’s vast bird collections. 



“I suddenly had access to all these modern birds, and it made me wonder, ‘What happens when a bird loses the ability to fly?’” 



Measuring various feather characteristics, Saitta compared preserved skins of 30 flightless species and their closest flying relatives. He also examined more distant species to expand the dataset.



Previous studies show when different flightless birds diverged from their flying ancestors. Ostriches lost flight much earlier than the Fuegian steamer duck. Their feathers reflect this difference. 



“Ostriches have been flightless for so long that their feathers are no longer optimized for being aerodynamic,” said Saitta. Their long, shaggy feathers serve different purposes, such as insulation and display.



In contrast, the Fuegian steamer duck, which lost flight more recently, retains feathers similar to those of flying ducks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feather-evolution-after-flight-loss">Feather evolution after flight loss</h2>



Saitta was surprised at how long flightless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-wings-inspire-improvements-in-airplane-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> retained flight-adapted feathers. Logically, one would expect unnecessary feather traits to change quickly. However, his postdoctoral advisor Peter Makovicky offered another explanation.



“Pete pointed out that when trying to understand why a modern bird looks the way it does, you can’t just think about natural selection or relaxation thereof. You have to also consider developmental constraints,” said Saitta.



Feathers develop in a strict sequence that is difficult to alter. When birds lose flight, their feather features disappear in the reverse order they evolved.



Feather evolution follows a predictable pattern. Flight feathers first evolved in dinosaurs and became increasingly complex. When a bird loses flight, these adaptations vanish in reverse order. 



Some recent features, like asymmetric flight feathers, disappear quickly. However, fundamental feather structures take much longer to change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skeleton-changes-occur-first">Skeleton changes occur first </h2>



Saitta and his team also found that certain body features change more quickly than feathers. 



“The first things to change when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-talk-to-each-other-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> lose flight, possibly even before the flight feathers become symmetrical, is the proportion of their wings and their tails. We therefore see skeletal changes and also a change in overall body mass,” explained Saitta.



Skeleton changes occur before feather modifications because bones require more energy to grow. Evolution prioritizes reducing these costs first. 



“Let’s say a bird species lands on an island where they are able to safely live on the ground and don’t need to fly anymore. The first things to go are going to be these big, expensive bones and muscles, but feathers are cheap, so there’s less active selection to change them,” said Saitta.



Maintaining a flight-ready skeleton is a larger evolutionary burden than retaining unnecessary feathers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossilized-flightless-birds">Fossilized flightless birds</h2>



This study aids paleontologists who study fossilized birds and feathered dinosaurs.



“Flight didn’t evolve overnight, and flight, or at least gliding, was possibly lost many times in extinct species, just as in surviving bird lineages. Our paper helps show the order in which birds’ bodies reflect those changes,” said Saitta.



Fossilized feathers alone may not indicate whether an ancient bird could fly. Instead, researchers should first examine body mass and wing proportions. 



These traits change before feathers do. If skeletal features suggest flight loss, feather asymmetry can provide further confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-research-on-flight-loss">Past research on flight loss</h2>



Saitta’s study aligns with earlier research on feather changes after flight loss. 



“The good news is that because I came at this question from a different angle, we got results that are very consistent with a lot of the previous research, but I think maybe a little bit broader than if I had approached the question with a more specific focus,” said Saitta.



By analyzing both skeletal and feather changes, this research offers a more complete understanding of how and why birds lose the ability to fly. It also provides valuable tools for identifying flightlessness in extinct species, adding another layer to the study of avian evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/evolut/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/evolut/qpaf020/7997201?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution</a>.



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Why some birds lose the ability to fly

More than 99% of birds can fly, but some species...

Bigger creatures have long baffled scientists who study cancer. For decades, a widespread view called Peto’s paradox suggested that an animal’s size had no bearing on cancer risk. But now, a recent study is challenging that idea.



The researchers examined data from 263 species spanning amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles. They found a clear connection between bigger bodies and higher cancer rates, discrediting Peto’s paradox after 45-years.



The study was led by Professor Chris Venditti from the University of Reading, in collaboration with experts at University College London and The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-size-affects-cancer-risk">Animal size affects cancer risk </h2>



it was previously believed that larger animals had somehow avoided the increased cancer risk associated with more cell divisions. However, this new research shows that size does matter when it comes to cancer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cancer-cells-collaborate-to-survive-challenging-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">likelihood</a>.



“Everyone knows the myth that elephants are afraid of mice, but when it comes to cancer risk, mice are the ones who have less to fear," said Professor Venditti.



"We’ve shown that larger species like elephants do face higher cancer rates - exactly what you’d expect given they have so many more cells that could go wrong."



Past assumptions relied on limited samples and anecdotal observations. This broader dataset allowed scientists to see patterns that were previously overlooked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-rates-in-birds-and-reptiles">Cancer rates in birds and reptiles </h2>



Birds and reptiles can keep growing throughout their lives. This continuous growth made them valuable subjects for comparing cancer rates across distinct life cycles.



Larger birds, such as certain parrots, showed higher prevalence of tumors than smaller counterparts. Yet some outliers, like the <a href="https://www.bushheritage.org.au/species/budgerigars#:~:text=The%20Budgerigar%20is%20a%20colourful,weigh%2030%20to%2040%20grams." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">common budgie</a> (Melopsittacus undulatus), had significantly higher rates than researchers had predicted.



Reptiles displayed a similar pattern, with bigger species experiencing more frequent malignancies. This consistency underlines the role of body size in shaping cancer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-cancer-cells-have-a-molecular-switch-that-could-be-rewired-to-behave-normally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vulnerability</a> across different branches of the animal kingdom.



Advanced methods helped confirm these insights, offering a more precise look at how growth patterns connect to cancer risk. The researchers accounted for each species’ unique evolution, revealing unexpected similarities among distant groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-evolved-defenses-to-cancer">Elephants evolved defenses to cancer</h2>



Elephants stood out as a prime example of animals with ample body mass yet moderate tumor rates. To clarify this paradox, scientists point to tumor-suppressor genes that help keep cell growth under control.



Elephants share a cancer risk comparable to tigers, which are only a fraction of their size. The difference suggests that evolving larger bodies can go hand-in-hand with specialized protective mechanisms.



“When species needed to grow larger, they also evolved remarkable defenses against cancer. Elephants shouldn’t fear their size - they developed sophisticated biological tools to keep cancer in check,” said study co-author Dr. Joanna Baker.



Earlier assumptions missed this subtle adaptation. Now, experts see how evolution crafts various genetic safeguards that allow a massive animal to thrive without facing sky-high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-lifetime-cancer-risk-may-be-established-before-we-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tumor rates</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-winners-and-losers">Unusual winners and losers</h2>



Some smaller species show unexpectedly high cancer rates, while others barely register the disease. 



The budgie’s elevated incidence highlights that size alone isn’t the only factor at play. The naked mole rat is famously resistant to tumors and appears to break the rules in the other direction. 



Experts hope that such biological oddities will expose fresh avenues for cancer research and interventions.



"Finding which animals are naturally better at fighting off cancer opens exciting new paths for research. By studying these successful species, we can better understand how cancers develop and potentially discover new ways to fight the disease,” said study lead author Dr. George Butler.



Scientists note that each anomaly teaches them about the intersection of environment, genetics, and disease. Pinpointing how certain species sidestep tumors might yield game-changing breakthroughs down the road.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-health">Implications for human health</h2>



Some large animals hold clues about keeping cancer in check despite massive cell counts. Comparing these biological tactics could suggest strategies to fortify human cancer defenses.



Medical researchers are intrigued by the possibility of applying elephant-like safeguards to human treatments. Understanding how extra tumor-suppressor genes function might spark more targeted therapies.



Similar logic applies to any species that has found a way to curb destructive cell <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-cancer-cell-death-may-transform-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growth</a>. Larger bodies offer a test case for how cells can multiply under tight regulation, hinting at new approaches for medicine.



Insights from reptile or bird physiology may also inspire creative treatments. With so many species showing unique immune or genetic responses, researchers are digging deeper into nature’s own solutions.



Overall, this discovery overturns a longstanding notion and reinforces the idea that more cells do come with bigger risks. It also highlights the incredible ways that nature deals with challenges as animals grow in size.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422861122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)</a>.



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Animal size and cancer risk: Surprising new details have emerged

Bigger creatures have long baffled scientists who study cancer. For...

Mice sometimes surprise researchers in the lab. When a young mouse spots another lying still, it may paw at its comatose friend, chew on its snout, or even yank its limp tongue aside.



<a href="https://keck.usc.edu/faculty-search/li-zhang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Li Zhang</a> at the University of Southern California and his colleagues have been looking into these interactions. 



They captured <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq2677" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">footage</a> of lab mice confronting a familiar cage mate that had been anesthetized and was unresponsive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rescue-behavior-in-mice">Rescue behavior in mice</h2>



“They start with sniffing, and then grooming, and then with a very intensive or physical interaction,” related Li Zhang.



Scientists observed grooming and mouth-focused nibbling. Some mice targeted the unmoving partner’s mouth area, pulling its tongue out in an attempt to clear the airway. 



These same actions occasionally turned up in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deer-mice-shed-light-on-adaptive-evolution/">mice</a> that were interacting with companions that had passed away.



Researchers noticed how these stereotypical gestures tapered off once the still mouse revived and regained motion. 



They also found that a mouse gave more attention to an unresponsive peer that was recognizable than to one that was a stranger. 



This distinction suggests that familiarity plays a role in prompting these rescue-like behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insight-from-other-animals">Insight from other animals</h2>



Large mammals such as chimpanzees, dolphins, and elephants have been recorded aiding group members that are in trouble. 



Some dolphins have guided a distressed pod mate to the surface so it could breathe, which has long intrigued scientists who study social behaviors in marine animals. 



Elephants have also been known to support injured relatives. These examples suggest that lending a helping hand isn’t always limited to humans.



Rodents, however, can be trickier to monitor in the wild. Mice prefer concealed spaces and often scatter at the slightest hint of danger. That makes it challenging to film them tending to an ailing group member outside the lab.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-oxytocin-in-rescue-behavior">Role of oxytocin in rescue behavior</h2>



These rescue-like gestures appear linked to the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-is-crucial-beyond-its-role-as-the-love-hormone/">oxytocin</a>, a hormone that influences bonding in many species. The new study detected active oxytocin-releasing neurons in the amygdala and hypothalamus. 



These brain regions, known to handle emotion and social behavior, lit up when mice recognized a cage mate in distress. 



“If we extended the observation window, maybe the success rate could be even higher,” said team member <a href="https://keck.usc.edu/faculty-search/huizhong-tao/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Huizhong Tao</a>, also from USC.



Additional evidence showed that turning off these neuron signals or blocking their ability to dispatch oxytocin reduced the mice’s apparent attempts to help. 



Activating the same neurons produced more grooming and nibbling.



The link between this hormone and nurturing conduct has come up in past research, supporting the view that many mammals share some wiring for caring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-for-group-survival">Importance for group survival</h2>



Scientists think these behaviors might help keep social groups together and improve survival. Young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-pass-the-mirror-test-does-that-mean-they-are-self-aware/">mice</a> that responded to a motionless mate saw that partner bounce back to normal sooner than those left alone. 



That small difference might affect how groups function in their natural habitats, where every second can be a matter of life or death.



Some researchers say caution is needed when drawing big conclusions. Animals often do things that look human-like, but motives can be complicated. 



Still, these lab findings give hints that even small creatures might care more about their companions than we once believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-picture">Bigger picture</h2>



Many animals rely on social bonds for carrying out different activities, from defense to nurturing infants. 



This study raises the possibility that more species have built-in behaviors that benefit the whole community. 



Researchers suspect that similar patterns might exist in other species but remain unnoticed because of how tough it is to observe these moments in the wild.



Oxytocin is a hormone found in many vertebrate species and the researchers suggest that it could underpin an innate emergency response to assist an unresponsive group member. 



This revival behavior may thus be widely present, particularly among social animals.



The discovery that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-mice-turn-to-female-mice-to-avoid-fights-keep-social-peace/">mice act as tiny caregivers</a> prompts new questions. Scientists plan to test if there are variations among different strains of mice. 



Some want to see if environmental factors, such as stress or crowding, affect how likely mice are to step up for a comatose mate.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq2677" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Mice offer first aid to unconscious companions

Mice sometimes surprise researchers in the lab. When a young...

The world's appetite for seafood is growing, and the industry is racing to keep up. 



A new study suggests that farming seafood from the ocean - known as mariculture - could be expanded to feed more people while reducing harm to marine biodiversity at the same time. However, success depends on careful planning.



The researchers found that the locations and ways in which mariculture is expanded will determine whether it helps or harms the environment.



The findings, published in the journal Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution, highlight both the risks and opportunities of growing this industry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-of-sustainable-mariculture">The science of sustainable mariculture</h2>



The study was led by Deqiang Ma, who conducted the research as a postdoctoral scholar at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>.



“We can achieve this sustainable mariculture development,” said Ma. "With strategic planning, we can achieve the goal of conserving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-ocean-oxygen-loss-may-ultimately-reverse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a> while meeting the global demand for the expansion of mariculture.”



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mariculture-is-highly-sustainable-and-climate-friendly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mariculture</a> is a type of aquaculture focused on farming saltwater seafood, such as fish and shellfish. In 2020, it contributed about 20% of the seafood consumed globally, providing a critical source of protein for billions of people.



As the demand for seafood production increases, mariculture is expanding rapidly. To understand its impact, Ma and an international team of researchers developed a model to analyze the potential effects of mariculture growth on over 20,000 marine species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-seafood-production">The future of seafood production </h2>



The team’s model created a baseline for mariculture’s current impact and simulated how it could change by 2050 under different scenarios. 



The researchers also factored in two climate change models - RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 - which assume varying levels of warming and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.



In the best-case scenario, where new farms are built in areas with the least environmental impact, seafood production could soar.



“Bivalve production could increase by 2.36-fold and finfish could increase by 1.82-fold compared to current production - projections of what is needed to meet global demand - but the global mariculture impacts would decrease by up to 30.5% under the best-case scenario,” Ma said.



However, the worst-case scenario painted a starkly different picture. If new farms are built in the most ecologically sensitive areas, the damage to marine biodiversity could be more than four times worse than if farms were placed randomly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-smart-expansion">The importance of smart expansion</h2>



This study highlights the need for thoughtful planning, said senior study author Neil Carter, an associate professor at the University of Michigan.



“It is critically important to leverage the growing insights across disciplines, whether it’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clear-and-dynamic-visuals-are-important-when-presenting-climate-change-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change science</a> or economics or marine production,” Carter said. “All these different facets had to come together from other sources in order to make these forecasts.”



The research team included experts from the University of Washington, the University of Freiburg in Germany, Hokkaido University in Japan, and the University of California, Santa Barbara. 



Their collaborative effort highlights the complexity of mariculture expansion and the need for coordinated decision-making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-seafood-farming">Expanding seafood farming</h2>



Large-scale studies like this come with challenges, noted co-author Benjamin Halpern, a professor at UCSB. “But I’ve done this kind of work a lot in my career, and the payoffs can be enormous."



“The cross-disciplinary nature of the questions that can be addressed and the ability to look at them for every patch of ocean in the world makes the research much more relevant and impactful to society and the scientific community.”



The researchers emphasize that this study is just the beginning. More data and refined models will be needed to fine-tune sustainable mariculture strategies for the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-best-approach-varies-by-region">Best approach varies by region</h2>



One key takeaway is that there is no universal solution. The best approach varies by region. What works in the South Pacific may not be ideal for coastal Europe.



Additionally, even the best-case scenario has trade-offs. In all scenarios examined, mariculture expansion negatively impacted some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-the-us-are-highly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine mammals</a>, such as whales, seals, and sea lions. 



Understanding these trade-offs is essential for policymakers who must balance food security with conservation goals.



“With these insights, we can see that it’s not a foregone conclusion that the expansion of an industry is always going to have a proportionally negative impact on the environment,” Carter said. 



“So the next part of this is getting policymakers and communities to interact with each other to figure out how we can actually implement some of these ideas to reduce those impacts and to prioritize marine biodiversity.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02650-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Boosting seafood production while protecting biodiversity

The world's appetite for seafood is growing, and the industry...

Birds have long been symbols of freedom and resilience, soaring through the skies and thriving in diverse environments. From the icy tundras to tropical rainforests, birds have developed survival strategies that allow them to endure the challenges of their surroundings. 



Some species live at a rapid pace, reproducing as quickly as possible before their short lives end. Others take a slower approach, prioritizing longevity over frequent reproduction. 



These strategies have evolved over millions of years, but the accelerating impacts of climate change could alter the balance.



A recent study led by Michigan State University (<a href="https://msu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSU</a>) scientists explores how environmental conditions shape bird behavior. By analyzing nearly 7,500 non-migratory species, the researchers uncovered patterns that link climate variability to survival choices.



The study raises important questions about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> will navigate a future defined by rising global temperatures and unpredictable weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-use-strategies-based-on-climate">Birds use strategies based on climate</h2>



Every bird species faces unique challenges depending on where it lives. In regions with extreme seasonal fluctuations, birds must act fast to ensure their lineage continues. 



These species, including finches and cardinals, reproduce quickly, placing more energy into raising offspring than into their own long-term survival. Their strategy relies on numbers - if enough young birds make it to adulthood, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-flightless-birds-are-more-intelligent-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> persists despite high mortality rates.



On the other hand, birds that inhabit areas with gradual, long-term climate variations tend to play a different game. These species, such as the sulfur-crested cockatoo, prioritize endurance. 



They live longer, often skipping breeding during harsh years, knowing they will have opportunities to reproduce when conditions improve. This approach allows them to hedge their bets, ensuring that their offspring have a better chance of survival.



Study lead author Casey Youngflesh is a former postdoctoral researcher in MSU’s Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior Program.



“A lot of factors drive key components of life history,” said Youngflesh. “We wanted to synthesize these global data resources to see what environmental factors shape biodiversity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-analysis-of-bird-survival">Global analysis of bird survival</h2>



To understand these patterns, the research team compiled a vast dataset of bird species from across the world. This effort represents one of the most comprehensive studies of resident <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, offering insights into how they respond to different environmental conditions. 



By examining temperature variability across both short and long timescales, the researchers could determine which birds were more likely to take risks and which played the long game.



Birds in highly unpredictable climates, where temperatures shift dramatically within a single year, tend to invest in reproduction as soon as possible. 



They cannot afford to wait for better conditions because the future remains uncertain. These birds live by a philosophy of seizing the moment, ensuring their genetic legacy continues despite the risks.



Conversely, birds facing climate changes that unfold over decades or centuries adapt in a more measured way. They rely on longevity as their advantage, opting to survive tough periods rather than gamble on uncertain reproduction. 



This trade-off highlights the diversity of evolutionary strategies in response to environmental challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-pace-of-climate-change">Alarming pace of climate change </h2>



Although long-lived birds can withstand bad years by delaying reproduction, they also face a significant drawback. Their ability to adapt is slower than that of short-lived <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-modern-bird-lived-in-antarctica-69-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. 



Climate change is happening at an unprecedented pace, raising concerns about whether these survival strategies of birds will remain effective.



“If you only live a couple years, one bad year isn’t a big problem,” Youngflesh said. “But if you have two or more bad years in a row, you are in trouble. In variable, unpredictable environments, it may pay to live a long time.”



If extreme weather events become more frequent and erratic, even birds with historically successful strategies may struggle to keep up. The question remains: will evolution be fast enough to match the speed of environmental change?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-across-ecosystems">Patterns across ecosystems</h2>



The study’s findings extend beyond any single region, revealing broad trends across different ecosystems. 



Birds in boreal forests, grasslands, and tropical jungles all show similar responses to climate variability. Whether in dense forests or open plains, the balance between risk-taking and patience plays a crucial role in shaping survival.



Phoebe Zarnetske of the director of the Institute for Biodiversity, Ecology, Evolution, &amp; Macrosystems (<a href="http://Institute for Biodiversity, Ecology, Evolution, &amp; Macrosystems (IBEEM)" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IBEEM</a>) at MSU. She emphasized the importance of these global patterns.



“This study provides important insights about the roles that climate change and variability have in shaping the patterns of life on Earth,” said Zarnetske, noting it was a prime mission behind IBEEM’s funding of the study.



“Importantly, an interdisciplinary approach - combining insights from ecology and climate science - was key to uncovering how organisms respond to climate variability.”



The research raises new questions about how different bird populations will survive in the future. If some species struggle to adapt, their ecosystems could undergo significant shifts, altering food webs and interactions among species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-extreme-weather-events">Role of extreme weather events</h2>



Interestingly, the study revealed that precipitation did not play a major role in determining birds’ survival strategies. However, co-author and climate scientist Lala Kounta pointed out that more extreme weather events, such as heatwaves and droughts, could add new pressures that researchers need to explore further.



“You have to understand these foundational theories before you can predict how things are going to change,” said IBEEM data scientist Kelly Kaspar. 



“Seeing through all the noise and finding patterns is critical, and this has been a rare opportunity to work with different disciplines – I’m in fisheries and wildlife, others are in integrated biology, geography, climate studies. There’s a lot of different expertise here.”



By integrating data from various fields, researchers can gain a clearer picture of how climate affects biodiversity on a global scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bird-populations">Future of bird populations</h2>



The study sheds light on the intricate relationship between climate change and bird survival <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-and-evolution-shape-the-unique-sounds-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a>. While some species may adapt quickly, others could face significant challenges as their traditional behaviors become less effective. 



Scientists continue to explore these patterns, hoping to predict which species will thrive and which may struggle to keep pace with rapid environmental shifts.



Birds have adapted to changing conditions for millions of years, but the coming decades will test their resilience like never before. As climate change accelerates, their ability to make strategic decisions will determine their fate in an unpredictable world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ele.70077" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>.



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Birds adapt their survival strategies to climate change

Birds have long been symbols of freedom and resilience, soaring...

The Arctic’s frozen expanse is home to one of nature’s most awe-inspiring creatures - the polar bear. For thousands of years, these formidable hunters have roamed the ice, perfectly adapted to their brutal environment.



But today? Survival has never been harder for polar bears. Climate change, melting ice, and human activity threaten their very <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-suffering-from-an-energy-deficit-due-to-lack-of-food-access/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">existence</a>.



Each year on February 27, International Polar Bear Day serves as a wake-up call. Founded by Polar Bears International in 2011, this day isn’t just about admiration - it’s about action. 



The timing of Polar Bear Day isn’t random. It aligns with a crucial period when mother bears and their newborn cubs rest in dens, preparing for their first steps into a world that’s changing too fast.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-harsh-start-to-life">A harsh start to life</h2>



Deep beneath the Arctic snow, polar bear mothers curl around their newborn cubs, shielding them from the cold. Cubs arrive helpless - blind, tiny, barely weighing a pound. Their survival depends entirely on the warmth and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-doesnt-stick-to-polar-bear-fur-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">safety</a> of the den.



Spring brings their first test. Emerging into the Arctic, they face an environment shifting under their paws. 



Rising temperatures, erratic weather, and encroaching human activity make survival even more precarious. Many of the safe denning sites of the past no longer exist.



“Keeping moms and cubs safe while also addressing climate change is a critical part of our work on behalf of polar bears - and your support can make a real difference,” noted officials from <a href="https://polarbearsinternational.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polar Bears International</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-polar-bear-habitats">Protecting polar bear habitats</h2>



Scientists and conservationists race to safeguard these bears, but challenges mount. Research is vital - tracking den locations, monitoring bear movements, and identifying emerging threats. 



One of the most pressing concerns is industrial expansion. Oil and gas operations, road construction, and increased shipping traffic disrupt denning mothers.



 The consequences may be devastating. If disturbed too soon, a mother may abandon her cubs - leaving them to perish.



And here’s the shocking part: current industry surveys fail to detect more than half of active dens. That means countless mothers and cubs remain at risk.



New technology offers hope. Researchers are testing advanced thermal imaging and AI-driven mapping to pinpoint hidden dens with greater accuracy. If successful, these innovations could protect critical habitats before it’s too late.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-international-polar-bear-day-matters">Why International Polar Bear Day matters</h2>



International Polar Bear Day isn’t just another “awareness day.” It’s a demand for change. Today is about supporting research, pushing for stronger environmental policies, and educating people about the harsh reality of climate change.



Polar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-struggling-to-survive-longer-summers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bears</a> have walked a thin line between survival and extinction before. Scientists believe they evolved around 150,000 years ago, perfectly adapted to their icy world. But humans nearly wiped them out.



For millennia, Indigenous Arctic communities coexisted with polar bears, hunting them sustainably. That balance was shattered in the 1700s when European, Russian, and North American hunters arrived. Unchecked slaughter pushed the species toward collapse.



By the mid-20th century, another enemy emerged: fossil fuel-driven climate change. Despite repeated warnings, industrial expansion continued unchecked. The ice melted, and the Arctic landscape transformed.



In 1973, a turning point arrived - the United States, Denmark, Norway, and the former USSR signed the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears. The treaty banned commercial hunting and marked the first step toward protecting these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. But was it enough?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-science-tells-us-now">What science tells us now</h2>



Decades of research have deepened our understanding of polar bears. Long-term studies in Alaska and Svalbard reveal alarming trends - rising cub mortality rates, shrinking sea ice, and increased human-wildlife conflict.



One study looked at how mothers respond to disturbances. The results? Even minor disruptions can cause a denning mother to flee, dooming her cubs. 



Another investigation exposed the failure of oil industry surveys to locate active dens, raising concerns about drilling projects in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-part-of-a-bigger-fight">Part of a bigger fight </h2>



There’s still time to make a difference. If we reduce carbon emissions now, sea ice can regenerate, giving polar bears a chance to recover and thrive in their natural habitat.



Polar bears aren’t just symbols of the Arctic. They are keystone predators, essential to the region’s delicate balance. 



Their disappearance would ripple through the ecosystem, impacting other species and Indigenous communities who have lived alongside them for generations.



But let’s be real - this isn’t just an Arctic problem. The loss of sea ice accelerates global warming. Less ice means less sunlight reflected away from Earth, which raises temperatures worldwide. Rising seas threaten coastal cities.



Unstable weather patterns disrupt food supplies. Protecting polar bears is part of a much bigger fight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-on-polar-bear-day">Take action on Polar Bear Day</h2>



International Polar Bear Day isn’t about feeling helpless - it’s about action. Raising awareness is a powerful first step. Conversations spark change, and education fuels advocacy. Sharing information keeps the urgency alive.



Supporting conservation efforts strengthens long-term solutions. Donations help fund critical research and protection programs. Every contribution - big or small - plays a role in safeguarding these animals.



Reducing carbon footprints is another way to make a difference. Adjusting thermostats, choosing energy-efficient appliances, and driving less all contribute to lower emissions.



Advocacy remains crucial. Understanding environmental policies and demanding accountability from leaders can help to ensure that conservation stays a priority. Public support influences stronger legislation to protect Arctic wildlife and combat climate change.



The Arctic is changing fast, but there’s still hope. Through science, conservation, and global collaboration, we can make a difference. 



For millennia, polar bears have thrived in one of the harshest environments on Earth, adapting to extreme conditions. But this challenge is beyond adaptation - they can’t face it alone. Their future hinges on the choices we make now.



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International Polar Bear Day: Keeping moms and cubs safe

The Arctic’s frozen expanse is home to one of nature’s...

Animal emotions can be difficult to decipher, but advances in technology may bring them into clearer focus. A new machine-learning model suggests it can distinguish between positive and negative emotional states in various animals.



These findings could change how we handle livestock and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-and-possibly-even-insects-have-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>. After meticulously analyzing distinct calls from cows, pigs, and other relatives, the team realized that certain acoustic signals indicate mood shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-voice-patterns-and-animal-emotions">Voice patterns and animal emotions</h2>



A research team led by Professor Élodie F. Briefer at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> introduced artificial intelligence to a large library of farm-animal sounds, hoping to identify subtle clues that reveal emotional states.



Machine learning is a computational approach that learns from examples. In this project, the technology compared audio features like pitch and loudness across different calls.



Trained on thousands of recordings, the system recognized which sounds relate to pleasant or unpleasant experiences. The technology reached 89.49% accuracy in discerning the emotional expressions of seven ungulate species.



These animals produce vocal cues that sometimes share evolutionary roots. Researchers suggest that certain voice patterns have remained stable over time, shedding light on how communicative signals might develop across related creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-ai-distinguishes-animal-emotions">How AI distinguishes animal emotions</h2>



The researchers noticed that vocal changes often accompany shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional conditions</a>. They found that duration, pitch range, and energy distribution were particularly telling.



For example, a short call might hint at excitement, while a slower call might reflect unease. This approach could help veterinarians and caretakers catch early warning signs of stress.



“This breakthrough provides solid evidence that AI can decode emotions across multiple species based on vocal patterns. It has the potential to revolutionise animal welfare, livestock management, and conservation, allowing us to monitor animals’ emotions in real time,” said Briefer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-identifying-animal-emotions">Benefits of identifying animal emotions</h2>



Farm operators face recurring health and behavioral problems in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-emotions-evoke-different-responses-in-dogs-and-pigs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herds</a>. They may observe restlessness, poor feeding, or other signals that something is wrong.



“Understanding how animals express emotions can help us improve their well-being. If we can detect stress or discomfort early, we can intervene before it escalates,” said Briefer.



The new system could streamline daily observations. Advanced software might track changes automatically and alert staff when animals require a closer look.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



Some studies link emotional sounds in other mammals to evolutionary communication patterns. Darwin once discussed how shared traits might hint at common expressions of fear or pleasure in various creatures.



Finding parallels across different calls could offer insights into the building blocks of human language. It might illustrate how emotional intonation became a key ingredient in social bonding.



Investigators view this data as a starting point for ongoing research on animal emotions. It could spark fresh perspectives on how animals form social bonds or defend territories.



“We want this to be a resource for other scientists. By making the data open access, we hope to accelerate research into how AI can help us better understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-animal-rights-day-2024-honoring-animals-with-justice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> and improve their welfare,” concluded Briefer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



These findings rely on carefully curated audio samples. Not every farm or field environment has perfect recording conditions.



Background noise, overlapping calls, and varying mic quality might hamper real-world performance. Researchers are working to refine the model for practical settings.



Experts also emphasize that decoding emotion is only part of the story. True well-being involves physical health and social needs.



Some farm scenarios involve high-density housing or specialized feeding routines. Technology that provides real-time feedback could help address issues before they become critical.



Future studies may explore if similar approaches apply to other groups, such as primates or marine mammals. Broader comparisons could test the limits of animal emotions and vocal expression similarities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-grasp-on-animal-emotions">A better grasp on animal emotions</h2>



Industry leaders show interest in solutions that simplify monitoring. Automation might give them more time for direct interaction with animals.



The technology could be adapted for sanctuaries, zoos, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recognizing-emotions-in-horses-can-improve-their-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> reserves. Each environment poses different hurdles in terms of space and animal grouping.



A better grasp of emotional signals might also shape ethical guidelines. Stakeholders can decide if certain practices are beneficial or harmful based on real-time metrics.



Artificial intelligence has come a long way in analyzing patterns. This venture into animal emotions might be another step that redefines how we see other beings.



The outcome might encourage more humane systems that appreciate the subtle ways that animals express themselves.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S258900422500094X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Animal emotions can be decoded through voice recognition

Animal emotions can be difficult to decipher, but advances in...

Young salmon swimming through the San Joaquin River make vital adjustments in their route and timing to improve their odds of surviving a perilous journey. 



Recent research has uncovered how these young fish exploit different parts of the river at specific times of day to avoid predators and cut down on energy costs.



The study was led by Mike Gil, an assistant professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>. The findings reveal the dynamics behind the adaptive behaviors of juvenile salmon.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-decline-in-salmon-numbers">A decline in salmon numbers</h2>



“The salmon fishery in the San Joaquin River delta area is on the verge of collapsing,” said Gil, the paper’s first author. 



“We know these juvenile salmon are getting wiped out on their migration to sea. We need to know why and how this is happening, and if there are opportunities to leverage conservation practices.”&nbsp;



Many of these salmon endure their first year in a portion of the river where they were born, and then <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-unpredictable-effects-on-salmon-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrate</a> hundreds of miles to reach the ocean’s richer feeding grounds.&nbsp;



Later, as adults, they retrace their path upstream to spawn, perpetuating a cycle that has long supported both the fish population and local fisheries.



According to the <a href="https://wildlife.ca.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Department of Fish and Wildlife</a>, the number of Chinook salmon migrating in the fall through the Sacramento and San Joaquin river systems has plummeted from 872,669 in 2002 to 79,985 in 2022, reflecting an alarming 90% decline in just twenty years.



While elevated water temperatures, poor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-at-risk-climate-change-is-diminishing-global-water-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water quality</a>, and the presence of dams all pose significant risks, humans have also introduced non-native predators - namely striped and largemouth bass - that claim a large percentage of juvenile salmon.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-journey-of-young-salmon">Tracking the journey of young salmon</h2>



In an effort to discern how these fish respond to their numerous threats, Gil’s team placed tracking devices in 424 juvenile Chinook salmon, along with 23 striped bass and 17 largemouth bass.&nbsp;



They lined the riverbanks with detection gear to monitor the fish’s activities over two months, capturing a detailed view of predator attacks, salmon movement patterns, and how these two forces interact.



From this data, the researchers confirmed that salmon move farther at night than during daytime - a pattern that had previously been noted but not deeply explained.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-salmon-modify-their-routines">Young salmon modify their routines</h2>



The team’s tracking revealed the reason behind this nocturnal tendency. By day, the predatory bass prefer to patrol the middle of the river, which also happens to be where salmon can ride the strong current downstream and conserve the most energy.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, the fish also face greater danger there when the sun is up, as hungry bass congregate in that mid-river channel to intercept them.&nbsp;



Faced with that threat, young salmon have modified their routine: they cover greater distances mid-river only when it’s dark, taking advantage of lower predator activity.&nbsp;



During the day, these vulnerable fish swim closer to the riverbanks - even though the weaker currents in shallow water mean they expend more than twice as much energy to make progress.&nbsp;



“Intuitively, one would think these fish should just be taxiing right down the middle of the river all the time, so they can get out to the ocean and get away from all these terrifying predators as fast as possible. But that’s not what we saw,” said Gil.&nbsp;



“Our study suggests that bass activities are forcing these fish to adopt a different strategy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facing-predators-at-dawn-and-dusk-nbsp">Facing predators at dawn and dusk&nbsp;</h2>



Another noteworthy finding was that predator attacks peaked around dawn and dusk. “These fish seem to really pick up on changes in ambient lighting,” Gil said.&nbsp;



Because striped bass have relatively large eyes, they maintain a visual edge in dim conditions, while salmon, with smaller eyes, struggle to see well in twilight.&nbsp;



As a result, these early-morning and late-evening hours become particularly dangerous for juvenile salmon seeking to slip by their hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-for-salmon-conservation">Insights for salmon conservation</h2>



Protecting salmon in the San Joaquin River is paramount, especially given the historic collapse in salmon populations that is unfolding.&nbsp;



Understanding the fish’s nuanced responses to predator behavior can help direct conservation efforts.&nbsp;



Even small adjustments in human management strategies, such as limiting light pollution around the river corridor at night, could offer salmon a stronger advantage in moving under cover of darkness.&nbsp;



“We as humans are quite limited in our understanding of how animals in the wild behave. By better understanding this, we can make the most informed decisions about how to keep these species around,” Gil said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-picture-of-coping-strategies-nbsp">Complex picture of coping strategies&nbsp;</h2>



One avenue for improvement lies in examining whether minor changes in water flow or releases from dams can shift the timetable of salmon migration, potentially helping the fish slip through the delta under conditions that reduce bass predation.&nbsp;



Resource managers and conservationists can also investigate the impact of removing or reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-have-become-one-of-the-worlds-most-invasive-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive predators</a> in targeted areas. Each approach, if carefully assessed, could raise survival rates enough to keep the population from collapsing further.



By unraveling the timings and tactics underlying salmon migration, this study paints a more complex picture of how an imperiled species copes with multiple stressors.&nbsp;



The fish must contend not only with environmental hurdles - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperatures-increase-scientists-plan-slow-down-rising-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising temperatures</a> - but also with an altered predator landscape shaped by human intervention.&nbsp;



Their strategy of traveling under the cover of night is a stark example of adaptation, but it also illuminates just how fragile the balance between predator and prey has become.&nbsp;



With salmon runs hanging in the balance, measures to synchronize conservation goals with the fish’s finely tuned behaviors may be the key to reversing the ongoing decline.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.70068" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>.



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Young salmon outsmart predators on their journey to the sea

Young salmon swimming through the San Joaquin River make vital...

Our planet is full of life, and among its tiniest inhabitants, nematode worms play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance.



A recent study has shed light on the surface chemistry of these worms, providing us with an image of how these creatures interact with their environment and each other.



The research could potentially lead to a better understanding of evolutionary adaptations. The study may also be instrumental in countering parasitic infections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nematodes-at-the-molecular-level">Nematodes at the molecular level</h2>



Scientists in the School of Pharmacy at the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nottingham</a> have taken a closer look at nematodes under the magnifying glass.



Using a powerful new mass spectrometry imaging system, they focused on Caenorhabditis elegans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-worms-can-make-complex-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pristionchus pacificus</a>, two species of nematode worms.



The researchers sought to analyze the worm's distinctive surface chemistry and evaluate how its skin influences its physiology and behavior.



The results showed that nematode surfaces are primarily oily or lipid-based, and form a complex chemical landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-creatures-with-big-scientific-value">Tiny creatures with big scientific value</h2>



Nematode <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-discovered-worms-that-kill-tarantulas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worms</a>, as unsightly as they might seem to some, inhabit almost every environment known to us, from soil and water to plants, seeds, and even humans and other animals.



Nematode infections can lead to severe cases with serious health complications.



“Nematodes are an excellent model for human biology and are considered to be some of the most completely understood animals on the planet – especially in terms of genetics, neurology and developmental biology," said Dr. Veeren Chauhan, the lead researcher for this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-biology">Implications for human biology</h2>



Dr. Chauhan noted that we share around 60-70% of our DNA with these worms, so any new discoveries about them can significantly enhance our understanding of human biology and can contribute towards solving global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-fossils-could-inspire-advancements-in-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human health</a> challenges.



"Using world-leading mass spectrometry facilities, we studied the surface chemical properties of nematodes throughout their development," said Dr. Chauhan.



"This allowed us to track molecular changes in detail and observe how surface chemistry differs during development, varies between species, and, importantly, influences their interactions with one another."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-in-chemical-imaging">Breakthrough in chemical imaging</h2>



The 3D-OrbiSIMS instrument was critical in this research because it provided an unprecedented level of molecular detail.



As one of the most advanced tools for high-resolution chemical imaging, it enables scientists to analyze biological surfaces with extraordinary precision.



The University of Nottingham was one of the first institutions in the world to obtain a 3D-OrbiSIMS instrument, solidifying its role in pioneering molecular imaging research. 



This cutting-edge technology allows mass spectral molecular analysis across a wide range of materials, including both hard and soft matter, biological cells, and tissues.



By combining high surface sensitivity, mass resolution, and spatial precision with a depth profiling sputtering beam, 3D-OrbiSIMS has transformed our ability to study microscopic organisms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composition-of-nematode-skin">Composition of nematode skin</h2>



The study revealed that lipids make up approximately 70-80% of the molecular composition of nematode surface skin.



Furthermore, the researchers found that nematode surface chemistry changes over time, as the worms go through different life stages.



These findings offer new insights into nematode biology and the interactions of these worms with their environment. The results would not have been possible without the power of advanced chemical imaging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-lipids">The power of lipids</h2>



Beyond their structural role, the surface lipids of nematodes are proving to be central to their survival and interactions. 



“Discovering that these worms have a predominantly oily, or lipid-based, surface is a significant step in understanding their biology. These lipid surfaces help maintain hydration and provide a barrier against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>, which are essential for their survival," noted Dr. Chauhan.



"What is also very interesting is that these lipids appear to serve as chemical cues that influence interspecies interactions, such as predation." 



"For example, the predatory behavior of Pristionchus pacificus is guided by physical contact with the surface lipids of its prey, Caenorhabditis elegans, and alterations in these lipids can increase the susceptibility of the prey to predation."



Dr. Chauhan noted that gaining this level of understanding of the surface chemistries of these worms and how they influence interaction and survival opens up new areas of scientific discovery and could ultimately help in developing strategies to fight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/declining-moose-populations-linked-to-brain-eating-parasitic-worms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parasitic worms</a> and the diseases that they cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The findings extend beyond fundamental biology, opening new avenues for applied research in parasitology, agriculture, and medicine.



Understanding the chemical makeup of nematode surfaces could lead to innovative strategies for disrupting parasitic life cycles, protecting crops from harmful nematodes, and even developing biomimetic materials that replicate their lipid-based defenses. 



As scientists continue to explore these microscopic yet complex organisms, their unique surface chemistry may hold the key to addressing significant challenges in human and environmental health.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.4c12519" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JACS</a>.



Image Credit: University of Nottingham - Veered Chauhan



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Nematodes use chemistry to survive and communicate

Our planet is full of life, and among its tiniest...

We all dread the arrival of mosquito season, with their buzzing antennae heralding the irritating prick and maddening itch that haunt countless nights. Yet, could this much-maligned insect hold the key to a major advance in disaster response?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquito-signals-pioneer-disaster-detection">Mosquito signals pioneer disaster detection</h2>



A multidisciplinary team of scientists from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a> is now turning the tables on our understanding of mosquitoes.



Specifically, the team is conducting an in-depth look at the tiny creature's antennae and their sensitivity to vibrations, which may prove pivotal in predicting natural disasters such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-have-long-lasting-impacts-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquakes</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tsunamis-are-preceded-by-changes-in-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tsunamis</a>.



"We’re still in the early stages but we’re pretty optimistic that we’ll at least learn a great deal," says Professor Pablo Zavattieri from Purdue's College of Engineering who conducted the investigation along with Jerry M. and Lynda T. Engelhardt.



"Taking inspiration from nature and using it to advance scientific research has been a core feature of engineering since the very beginning," he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracking-the-code-of-mosquito-hearing">Cracking the code of mosquito hearing</h2>



Mosquitoes, most of which are without traditional ears, rely heavily on their antennae to "hear" their way through life. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-device-identifies-mosquitoes-using-only-sound/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antennae</a> help them locate critical sounds, even amid the distracting noises of their own wingbeats.



The research has focused on the arrangement, morphology, and sensory hairs on these antennae. These adaptations are thought to enhance a mosquito's auditory sensitivity and selective response to environmental cues.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mosquito-antennae_ct-scan_credit-Purdue_1s.webp" alt="This CT scan is a close-up of the structural features of a male mosquito's antennae. Purdue University researchers are studying these features to see if they could inform the design of acoustic sensors. Credit: Purdue University / Phani Saketh Dasika" class="wp-image-1960778"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This CT scan is a close-up of the structural features of a male mosquito's antennae. Purdue University researchers are studying these features to see if they could inform the design of acoustic sensors. Credit: Purdue University / Phani Saketh Dasika</figcaption></figure>



“Using advanced micro-CT imaging to create high-fidelity CAD models for finite element analysis, we found that the architectural features of mosquito antennae enable species- and sex-specific acoustic target detection, even amid nontarget signals like their own wingbeats,” researcher Phani Saketh Dasika said.



“Our findings also suggest that mosquito antennae are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-use-thermal-infrared-vision-to-track-and-bite-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">capable of detecting</a> a broader range of frequencies than previously thought, though not all of these may be actively utilized.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-big-ears-of-the-urban-jungle">The big ears of the urban jungle</h2>



The team’s efforts to mimic the responses of antennae from different mosquito species to varying sounds have led to more revealing discoveries.



"By modeling and contrasting the response of the antenna of species of mosquito using sound for different purposes - hearing mates or eavesdropping on frogs - we were able to tease apart features modulating hearing sensitivity and tuning," explained Professor Bernal of Purdue's College of Science. 



"Understanding how these structures work is the first step toward developing acoustic sensors inspired by their sensitive antennae," she added. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mosquito-antennae-sensors-matter">Why mosquito antennae sensors matter</h2>



But it's not just about acoustic sensors. The research has a broader societal impact. 



Professor Zavattieri believes that the insights gained from examining mosquito antennae could inform the development of smart noise-canceling materials. 



These could range from soundproofing panels for buildings to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-artificial-intelligence-noise-canceling-headphones-listen-one-voice-crowd/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noise-canceling headphones</a>, and even acoustic cloaking devices.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mosquito-antennae_mosquito-head-antennae_3d-printed_credit-Purdue_1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mosquito-antennae_mosquito-head-antennae_3d-printed_credit-Purdue_1s.webp" alt="Purdue University professor Pablo Zavattieri holds a 3D-printed mosquito head. His team is recreating mosquito antennae to better study their sensitivity to vibrations, which may improve how natural disasters are monitored and detected. Credit: Purdue University / Drew Stone" class="wp-image-1960780"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Purdue University professor Pablo Zavattieri holds a 3D-printed mosquito head. His team is recreating mosquito antennae to better study their sensitivity to vibrations, which may improve how natural disasters are monitored and detected. Credit: Purdue University / Drew Stone</figcaption></figure>



“Imagine urban environments equipped with bio-inspired sensors, akin to ‘big ears,’ capable of discerning specific sounds amid the hustle and bustle of city life,” said Zavattieri.



“In times of crisis - such as earthquakes or other disasters - these sensors become invaluable, swiftly detecting faint signals of distress and guiding rescue efforts to those in need.”



The team currently focuses on developing antennae through 3D printing, using a range of materials and sizes for frequency testing. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquito-antennae-and-the-future">Mosquito antennae and the future</h2>



Building on these groundbreaking insights, the research team is taking the next steps in transforming laboratory discoveries into practical, life-saving technologies. 



Their innovative approach may not only enhance existing earthquake and tsunami detection methods but also transform crisis response in densely populated areas.



The vision is to equip urban buildings and public spaces with sensors that are modeled after mosquito antennae, and are capable of continuously monitoring subtle vibrations and detecting potential disaster events well before conventional methods.



Collaborations with technology developers and urban planners would be necessary to prototype these sensor networks under controlled conditions. 



Moreover, the insights derived from studying mosquito acoustics hold promise for advancing noise-cancellation technology and acoustic cloaking devices, thus broadening the impact of this research even further.



As the project moves forward, the humble mosquito is set to evolve from a common nuisance into a symbol of innovative progress and resilience, offering new hope for disaster preparedness and urban safety.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1742706124007414?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acta Biomaterialia</a>.



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Mosquito antennae inspire next-gen natural disaster sensors

We all dread the arrival of mosquito season, with their...

Honeybees are renowned for their intricate waggle dance, a specialized form of communication that directs nestmates to valuable food sources.&nbsp;



The basic idea is simple: after returning to the hive, a forager bee performs a dance in which the angle of movement indicates the direction of food, and the duration of the “waggle run” conveys the distance.&nbsp;



If the display succeeds, observer bees become recruits, flying out to locate the advertised resources.&nbsp;



However, despite millions of years of evolutionary refinement, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-perform-waggle-dance-to-share-the-location-of-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waggle dance</a> does not always work. Researchers have long been puzzled by why some recruited bees fail to find the food their nestmates enthusiastically promote.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-honeybee-dance-nbsp">Studying the honeybee dance&nbsp;</h2>



In a recent study, a team led by associate professor Margaret Couvillon from <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>’s Department of Entomology set out to investigate what drives waggle dance success or failure. 



Working with co-researcher and former PhD student Laura McHenry, they uncovered new insights into the role that individuality plays in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-cause-of-honeybee-mortality-can-be-easily-reduced/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honeybee</a> communication. 



By analyzing how unique dance styles can affect the outcome of foraging missions, the scientists found that variety - not uniformity - often leads to better recruitment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-waggle-dances-fall-short">Why some waggle dances fall short</h2>



Although the waggle dance has been studied for over 80 years, many facets of it remain mysterious. Bees move through the hive with excitement, shaking their abdomens and buzzing their wings to “tell” others where to go.&nbsp;



Yet the precision of this communication can sometimes leave much to be desired. Even if the directions appear clear, it is common for newly recruited foragers to miss the target. What might be causing these failures?



“Although the waggle dance itself is fascinating, my lab has additionally been intrigued about waggle dance miscommunication, or the hows and whys behind the failure of the dance recruitment,” Couvillon said.&nbsp;



This line of inquiry motivated her and McHenry to design experiments that tracked individual bees, their dance styles, and how these styles translated into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foraging</a> success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-setting-up-the-experiment">Setting up the experiment</h2>



To unravel the secrets of honeybee miscommunication, Couvillon and McHenry devised a controlled setup using clear-walled observation hives.&nbsp;



By making the hive walls transparent, the researchers could capture high-definition video of the dance floor. Individual bees were tagged so the team could monitor which foragers arrived at the food source, watched a dance, and later performed their own version of the waggle dance for others.



First, certain bees were trained to gather from an artificial feeder placed at a known distance and direction from the hive. These trained bees returned to share their discovery, dancing in front of others to highlight precisely where the recruits should fly.&nbsp;



If a new, tagged bee reached the feeder after viewing a dance, the researchers examined the video footage to identify which dancer had successfully recruited them. Step by step, the investigators could pinpoint the specific waggle run that led to a forager’s triumph.



Initially, Couvillon hypothesized that bees whose dance styles closely matched each other might generate more consistent, accurate directions.&nbsp;



Under that scenario, recruits would easily interpret similar movements and glean an unambiguous sense of distance. But what the data revealed was something else entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overshooting-the-mark">Overshooting the mark</h2>



When the team reviewed the footage, they discovered that successful foraging recruits often came from dances that overshot the true distance.&nbsp;



Instead of telling nestmates to stop exactly where the food was located, these dances had slightly lengthier waggle runs.&nbsp;



The result? Recruits traveled past the feeder, then had a second opportunity to notice it on the way back. This “double chance” approach appeared to boost the overall likelihood of success.



By contrast, bees that performed dances describing the precise distance did not always see such robust success.&nbsp;



The research suggests that in a dynamic and unpredictable environment, a little extra distance in the waggle run might be an advantage, increasing the chance that bees will encounter the resource eventually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honeybee-dance-diversity">Honeybee dance diversity</h2>



Overall, these findings highlight how unique individual styles benefit the colony. Far from undermining communication, variation in waggle dance expression may improve group outcomes.&nbsp;



If every bee performed the dance identically, the success rate might drop, as foragers would rely on one strict formula. But with multiple interpretations and slight “errors” in distance, recruits gain repeated opportunities to locate the food.



“We’ve known for a while that behavioral and genetic diversity benefit honeybees, allowing for superior thermoregulation, disease resistance, growth, and foraging,” said Couvillon. “Now we have also seen that diverse communication enhances recruitment success.”



This discovery adds another layer to the importance of individual variation in social insects. Much like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-asexual-ants-maintain-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic diversity</a> provides resilience against disease, communication diversity can enhance how effectively colonies exploit their environment. 



In the end, a colony filled with slightly different dance styles stands a better chance of finding the best resources consistently - and ensures fewer bees come back empty-handed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The results open new avenues of investigation into honeybee communication and social organization. Future research could examine exactly which factors lead some bees to overshoot the target, or how colonies adjust dance strategies under changing conditions, such as resource scarcity. 



Could environmental stressors push bees toward more conservative or more exaggerated dances? Do certain hive conditions encourage either uniformity or diversity in waggle dance expression?



Whatever scientists uncover, one thing seems clear: the honeybee waggle dance remains a marvel of collective intelligence.&nbsp;



By embracing the quirks and individualities of each dancer, honeybee colonies harness the power of distinct signals to enhance foraging success.&nbsp;



Through dance, they build resilience and adaptability, ensuring that the next generation can keep the colony humming along - one step, one waggle at a time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982224017159" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>. 



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Honeybees use creative dance moves to help others find food

Honeybees are renowned for their intricate waggle dance, a specialized...

A branching coral under pressure from heat and physical damage appears to gain crucial support from a particular reef-dwelling crab, offering fresh insight into how positive species relationships can shield corals from multiple hazards.&nbsp;



These findings reveal a protective role for the crustaceans when corals face intense stress, highlighting the possibility that cooperative interactions may bolster the resilience of vulnerable reef habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-dwelling-crabs-and-foundation-corals">Reef-dwelling crabs and foundation corals </h2>



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2936" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal B Biological Sciences</a>, the study emphasizes that corals are what ecologists call “foundation species,” forming the bedrock of entire ecosystems.&nbsp;



Study first author Julianna Renzi conducted the research as a graduate student at the Duke University Marine Laboratory, part of the <a href="https://nicholas.duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nicholas School of the Environment</a>.



“Foundation species like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaks-in-ancient-coral-growth-reveal-earths-climate-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals</a> create the base of an ecosystem: They form structures that other species use for shelter, they modify the local environment, and they provide food for other organisms,” said Renzi.



“Learning how these species respond to stress can help us design better strategies to conserve them - and, in turn, other species that rely on them - in an era of global change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutualism-and-overlapping-stressors">Mutualism and overlapping stressors </h2>



Renzi concentrates on the concept of mutualism, in which two species each benefit from interacting with the other. Much existing research focuses on how one beneficial partnership mitigates a single threat, such as higher ocean temperatures. 



However, few studies have explored whether such alliances can ease multiple overlapping stressors. 



In this case, the team selected a branching coral known as Acropora aspera from a research zone in Australia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-has-reached-catastrophic-levels-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Barrier Reef</a> during a period of elevated water temperatures.&nbsp;



Within controlled seawater tanks, the scientists subjected coral samples to different stress combinations, including physical wounding, harmful algae, and the presence of Cyclodius ungulatus (the hoof-clawed reef crab).&nbsp;



Coral tissue loss over a month served as the main measure of coral health, allowing the team to see precisely which factors worsened damage and which helped the coral endure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-benefits-for-wounded-corals">Unexpected benefits for wounded corals</h2>



The data indicated that high temperatures alone instigated tissue loss, but the extent depended heavily on other conditions. 



Corals placed alongside harmful algae were six times more likely to suffer serious tissue loss, while those housed with reef crabs had more than a 60% lower chance of severe damage. 



Even more unexpected was how strongly the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-crab-diversity-discovered-in-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crabs</a>’ presence helped corals that had sustained wounds. Those corals displayed significantly less tissue loss than uninjured corals sharing tanks with crabs, and also less tissue loss than wounded corals without crab companions.&nbsp;



While corals lacking crabs sometimes saw injuries expand, corals with crab neighbors rarely experienced further deterioration around the wounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-crabs-removing-algae">Reef crabs removing algae</h2>



To unravel what motivated the crabs to linger near wounded coral, the researchers examined their behavior in more detail. They noticed that, in laboratory tests, the crustaceans avoided live coral tissue, instead feeding in regions where tissue had recently been lost.&nbsp;



Observations on the reef revealed that areas of algae disappeared faster around corals with wounds, leading the investigators to suggest that reef crabs and other organisms might be methodically removing algae in these damaged spots, effectively tidying up the coral surface.



Another key question arose: what attracts crabs to fresh wounds in the first place? Renzi and colleagues propose that the injured coral releases a nutritious mucus that proves enticing.&nbsp;



“Corals probably experience small wounds, like the ones we used in this study, relatively frequently from fish bites and physical abrasion. These wounds are probably not super detrimental, but they may be enough to release this mucus and attract coral-associated organisms, like C. ungulatus,” said Renzi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutualism-and-heat-stress-resistance">Mutualism and heat stress resistance</h2>



The conclusions back an ecological view that beneficial interspecies interactions, or mutualisms, can become particularly vital when the environment imposes significant hardships.&nbsp;



“This work challenges a paradigm about corals,” said Brian Silliman, Rachel Carson Distinguished Professor of Marine Conservation Biology at the Nicholas School, who advised Renzi during her master’s work.&nbsp;



“The temperature at which corals succumb to heat stress is generally thought to be innate and inflexible. But this work shows that an intricate biological partnership greatly increases the ability of corals to resist heat stress. The crabs don’t affect heat tolerance directly - rather, they appear to remove the stress of injury by cleaning coral wounds.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-crabs-working-under-pressure">Reef crabs working under pressure </h2>



The researchers note that these discoveries hold promise for coral reef restoration, since introducing mutualistic crabs to newly planted colonies could reduce tissue loss from infection and disease. 



One broader lesson is that nature sometimes operates more cooperatively than commonly assumed. 



“We often think of the world as ‘dog-eat-dog’ and assume organisms are constantly competing against each other in effort to survive,” Renzi said. “But in cases like these, positive species interactions may be really important for survival. Evolutionarily, looking out for number 1 may also mean looking out for number 2.”



Altogether, this study suggests that reef-dwelling crabs could prove key to helping certain branching corals remain healthy, even under the combined pressures of heat and injury. 



By highlighting such mutually beneficial partnerships, the findings pave the way for innovative approaches to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-coral-reefs-is-a-matter-of-humans-rights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef conservation</a> and underline the value of collaborative ties in the marine realm.



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Reef crabs help heat-stressed corals survive

A branching coral under pressure from heat and physical damage...

Understanding the apparent paradox of "stress as a strength" has led to a recent discovery that could well change the way we perceive biological communities and their resilience.



In a world characterized by rapid environmental change, comprehending the complex relationship between genetic diversity and environmental stress is more critical than ever.



The breakthrough challenges conventional views by suggesting that, under certain conditions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plants-thrive-under-environmental-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> may actually drive the adaptive processes essential for survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-changing-environments">Adapting to changing environments</h2>



A recent study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/desautels/programs/mba-programs/mba?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=cpc&amp;utm_campaign=mba_2024-25&amp;utm_content=nb-search-brand&amp;creative=720501009342&amp;keyword=mcgill%20mba&amp;matchtype=b&amp;network=g&amp;device=c&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQiAq-u9BhCjARIsANLj-s2zcKyoTmLixLDaGTe-hOEDSqn0KcUGuoz5SBQTqcaJKl4gd6N4jPQaApjyEALw_wcB" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> has explored the complexities of how natural communities react and adapt to changing environmental scenarios. The research was led by Professor Rowan Barrett and Charles Xu, a recent PhD graduate.



The results indicated that not all stress is harmful. In fact, a moderated level of environmental stress equips these communities with a robust defense mechanism against severe threats.



This newfound understanding may turn out to be a crucial factor in managing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> amid growing anthropogenic stressors, such as pollution and climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-environmental-stress">What is environmental stress?</h2>



Environmental stress is defined as external forces that disturb the balance of biological processes.



The stressors are either natural in origin - such as high temperatures, droughts, and flooding - or anthropogenic, such as pollution, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>, and global warming.



Understanding these environmental stressors is crucial for identifying the challenges an ecosystem faces and developing effective conservation and management strategies to safeguard biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-environmental-stress">Simulating environmental stress </h2>



The experiment was conducted at a special site known as the Large Experimental Array of Ponds (LEAP), which is located within the university’s nature reserve.



The team exposed microbial communities to a progressive acidification process, thus emulating the type of environmental stressors found in real-world <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-invasion-how-microplastics-are-disrupting-land-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



The study revealed that prior exposure to mild stressors served as a protective shield against subsequent stress.



Communities previously exposed to low-level stressors demonstrated impressive survival rates, maintaining a diverse pool of species, even under more severe stress conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-selection-and-evolutionary-change">Natural selection and evolutionary change </h2>



At the heart of this study lie the processes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> and evolutionary change in freshwater bacterial communities.



Natural selection ensures survival and success of the individuals within a species that are best adapted for a particular environment.



Evolutionary change, on the other hand, involves genetic modifications (over generations) that result in new variants or species that can thrive in their specific habitats.



The scientists used metagenomic analysis to track changes that occurred within the microbial communities.



The findings indicated that the toughest species, the ones that survived the stress, evolved over time to become even stronger against stress.



This dual process guarantees the survival and diversity of the community under conditions of extreme stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



"This research underscores the need to consider both ecological and evolutionary forces when predicting how natural communities will respond to environmental stress," said Barrett.



Incorporating these evolutionary responses into models can significantly improve predictive accuracy concerning changes in biodiversity, and thereby enhance conservation efforts.



With this new knowledge in hand, the research team plans to investigate the long-term evolution of these microbial communities and assess the impact of different environmental stressors on genetic adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-stress-and-ecosystem-health">Environmental stress and ecosystem health</h2>



The results provide a new perspective on the mechanisms that can lead to ecosystem resilience from environmental stress.



Further research may enhance our knowledge about whether such adaptability is replicated in different types of biological communities and environmental scenarios.



By extending research into such dynamics, researchers will be able to reveal overall principles that inform useful conservation and management strategies.



While the mechanisms behind these adaptive responses continue to be investigated, the study serves as a reminder that not all stress is harmful.



These emerging insights encourage a reevaluation of how stress might be integrated, in a controlled manner, into broader efforts to preserve biodiversity and maintain ecological balance.



The research highlights the potential for leveraging natural adaptive processes to enhance ecosystem health and paves the way for innovative conservation efforts.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225000673" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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How environmental stress strengthens ecosystems

Understanding the apparent paradox of "stress as a strength" has...

Birds and feathers are closely tied together - feathers enable flight, provide insulation, and make courtship displays possible. Yet the origin of these remarkable structures predates birds.



Feathered dinosaurs were first reported in the 1990s, but many mysteries remain about how and when feathers emerged. Did all dinosaurs share a feathered ancestor, or did feathers appear multiple times in different lineages?&nbsp;



A new study co-authored by Paul Barrett and Xu Xing from the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> attempts to consolidate the latest knowledge and move us closer to an answer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feathers-of-the-distant-past">Feathers of the distant past</h2>



Fossil evidence has revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-bird-feathers-contain-traces-of-dinosaur-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a> are not exclusive to modern birds and their immediate relatives. Dinosaurs with feathers existed in the distant past, showing that these structures are much more ancient than once believed.&nbsp;



However, broad questions endure: Are feathers found only in meat-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropods</a> close to birds, or could they have been more widespread across the dinosaur family tree?



“While dozens of feathered dinosaurs have been identified since Sinosauropteryx was first unveiled in the 1990s, they’re mainly meat-eaters that are close relatives of birds,” Barrett explained. 



“Everyone agrees that these dinosaurs had feathers, but there’s little consensus beyond that.”



“To settle these disagreements, we need more fossils and to define what a feather is. If we can sort this out, it could reveal where feathers first came from and whether they predate the dinosaurs themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflicting-theories-on-feather-origins">Conflicting theories on feather origins</h2>



Some scientists propose that feathers originated in a common ancestor of dinosaurs and pterosaurs, suggesting all later descendants inherited the potential to grow feathers - though some lost it over time.&nbsp;



Others argue that pterosaurs did not have true feathers, meaning the structures observed on them might be something else. 



A third viewpoint holds that feathers emerged solely within theropods, the group that includes well-known predators like Velociraptor and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-may-have-had-brains-and-brawn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus</a>.



To resolve these debates, better fossil evidence from earlier time periods is essential. Most known feathered dinosaur fossils date to the Cretaceous, yet feathers may have evolved well before then.&nbsp;



Finding older specimens could clarify whether feathers appeared at the dawn of dinosaur evolution or surfaced in only one branch of the family tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-early-dinosaurs-have-feathers">Did early dinosaurs have feathers?</h2>



Professor Barrett emphasized the importance of discovering prehistoric remains from much earlier geological periods.&nbsp;



“We need to find new sites with fossilized feathers, particularly from the Jurassic and the Triassic,” he said. “The Triassic is especially important, as finding feathered dinosaurs at this early time in dinosaur evolution would suggest that all dinosaurs had an ancestor with feathers.”



“If feathered dinosaurs aren’t found among early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, then it makes it more likely feathers were an innovation among later groups.”



Such discoveries could shift perceptions of the entire dinosaur lineage. Were feathers a universal trait that some species shed over time, or did they evolve independently in separate groups?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-a-true-feather">Defining a "true feather"</h2>



Another challenge paleontologists face involves the definition of a “true feather.” 



Modern bird feathers have distinct chemical and structural characteristics, including growth from a follicle in the skin. Ancient dinosaur feathers may have looked different, reflecting earlier evolutionary stages.



“To identify a true feather from a living bird, we’d look to see what it’s made out of, and its structure,” Barrett explained. “One of the characteristics we have to identify is that the feather grows out of a follicle in the skin.”



“It’s possible, however, that follicles and other modern characteristics might not have been present in all dinosaur feathers. Detailed anatomical work at a microscopic level to compare preserved skin and feathers with examples from living birds could help to resolve this.”



Fossilized skin can also offer important clues. Some specimens display bird-like tissues, hinting that the common ancestor of certain dinosaurs and birds shared these traits.&nbsp;



But other dinosaurs show more reptilian textures, indicating the possibility that feathers evolved separately in multiple lineages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-history-of-feathers">Unraveling the history of feathers</h2>



For the moment, experts remain divided on how feathers took hold in dinosaur evolution. The challenge lies in discovering enough well-preserved fossils from the right time periods and reaching a clear consensus on what counts as a feather.&nbsp;



From tantalizing glimpses in existing fossils to ongoing searches in promising new sites, researchers continue to piece together this ancient puzzle.



Ultimately, answers about the origins of feathers may transform how scientists understand dinosaur evolution - and the emergence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>.&nbsp;



Until then, paleontologists will continue to search the world for the fossils which can finally settle this decades-old debate. 



Each new find has the potential to reshape our perception of the prehistoric world and the ancestors of the birds we see in our skies today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0517" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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From dinosaurs to birds, the origin of feathers remains a mystery

Birds and feathers are closely tied together - feathers enable...

This bright blue creature might look like a single jellyfish drifting on the water, but it is actually a community of specialized polyps all working in unison. This <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/hydrozoa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrozoan</a>, known as the Blue Button jellyfish or Porpita porpita, appears delicate but displays a cunning strategy for survival.



Its float usually measures only a few inches across, yet it hosts an impressive mini-collective where each polyp plays a unique role. 



Some feed, some defend, and others handle reproduction - all of which contribute to the colony’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-jellyfish-day-2024-protecting-the-health-of-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">success</a>.



Marine biologist Dr. Shi from the <a href="https://www.ysfri.ac.cn/ENGLISH.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute</a> has <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39591675/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> notable appearances of these organisms in new locations along coastal regions.



Studies have suggested that changes in ocean temperatures and currents may explain why this small floater is popping up in places where it once was rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-floating-colony-not-a-jellyfish">A floating colony, not a jellyfish</h2>



The upper part of the colony looks like a thin disk that can be a brilliant blue or sometimes greenish-brown. This disk is a gas-filled float that keeps the group on the water’s surface as currents move it around.



Circling beneath the float are hundreds of tentacle-like structures that are actually bundled <a href="https://sussexwildlifetrust.org.uk/news/hydroids-and-bryozoans-the-weird-and-wonderful">polyps</a>. They branch off in different lengths, forming a fringe that does much of the colony’s work.



Some polyps specialize in gathering food from the water. Others focus on warding off would-be predators with stinging cells called nematocysts that are designed to deter an attacker.



This layered teamwork sets Porpita porpita apart from most solitary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-more-than-just-a-snack-for-predatory-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jelly-like creatures</a>. Its structure is so integrated that it can function almost like a single being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-porpita-have-a-mild-sting">Porpita have a mild sting</h2>



Most casual swimmers who brush up against this floating cluster feel little more than a mild irritation. The sting is gentle compared to that of more notorious marine animals, yet those with sensitive skin might notice some redness or itching.



The sting is still a defense that helps the colony survive. Small fish and other drifting animals think twice before nibbling on those tentacles!



Many beachgoers mistake the Blue Button for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comb-jellyfish-can-fuse-with-a-friend-and-become-one-creature-after-injury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jellyfish</a> because of its overall shape and bright hue. Careful observers soon realize, however, that this is a colonial hydrozoan rather than a single organism.



A separate <a href="https://www.lajar.cl/index.php/rlajar/article/view/vol51-issue4-fulltext-3070" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> suggests that sightings along the Mexican Atlantic have increased as more people venture into coastal areas. 



Researchers are using open-access data and field surveys to keep tabs on the spread of the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-but-tough">Tiny but tough</h2>



This group of polyps may look fragile on the surface, yet it handles varied conditions surprisingly well. The float’s gas chamber helps the colony remain buoyant even during moderate waves.



It drifts passively, riding the currents without any directed swimming. Some ocean wanderers break apart easily if disturbed, but Porpita porpita remains intact unless hit by rough surf or beached.



It appears that this species adapts to changing waters by relying on wind and sea flows. Despite its delicate look, the colony endures journeys over wide stretches of ocean.



Scientists have found that population size can fluctuate with seasonal shifts in temperature. During certain months, cooler water encourages healthy growth, while extreme heat might reduce their numbers in shallower areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-porpita-grows-and-reproduces">How Porpita grows and reproduces</h2>



Porpita porpita individuals have both male and female reproductive structures, making them hermaphrodites that are capable of different forms of reproduction. 



Some references describe an intriguing developmental process where larvae transform into floating colonies without a typical polyp stage.



This means new generations can appear if conditions are right, causing occasional clusters to show up unexpectedly on sunny beaches. 



The young start off as tiny forms, then expand into an enchanting blue disk with busy polyps attached.



These polyps may adopt distinct tasks almost immediately. In many cases, protective tentacles appear early, ensuring the colony has a built-in guard system even in its youth.



Studying early developmental stages offers clues about how these colonies adapt to diverse temperatures and salinity levels. More work is underway to map their genetic makeup and clarify potential regional differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



While Porpita porpita itself poses little harm to people, its presence can indicate shifts in local ecology. 



Changes in temperature or currents can carry these creatures beyond their usual routes, raising questions about broader marine health.



They also serve as food for certain sea slugs, snails, and sea turtles, linking them to larger food webs. Observing their distribution can reveal patterns in how smaller marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-invasion-jellyfish-are-moving-north-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> and grazers behave.



Some researchers believe continued sightings of the Blue Button in unfamiliar waters may reflect oceanic warming trends. Analyzing these subtle movements becomes a way to understand broader environmental influences.



Effective monitoring hinges on both academic efforts and everyday beachgoers who spot unusual clusters near shorelines. 



Citizen science projects are increasingly vital for gathering valuable data and strengthening the record of occurrences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-porpita-studies">What's next for Porpita studies?</h2>



Porpita porpita will likely keep surprising those who stroll along the beach and catch sight of a vivid blue disk washed ashore. Although harmless for most, its mild sting and unusual look cause many to marvel at what it really is.



Future investigations will show whether increased frequency of sightings correlates with patterns of warming seas and shifting currents. 



Understanding these drifting colonies may help scientists see how oceans are responding to constant environmental change.



Marine scientists who study the Blue Button view it as a subtle biological indicator of the world’s changing waters. 



They aim to gather more details about its genetic variations and possible global distribution patterns.



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This 'blue button jellyfish' isn't actually a jellyfish, so what is it?

This bright blue creature might look like a single jellyfish...

Memory plays a critical role in learning and survival across species. Particularly in primates, social interaction significantly shapes how memory develops and functions. 



Primates, from monkeys to great apes, spend substantial time in social environments, making it crucial for them to observe and learn from others effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions-among-primates">Social interactions among primates</h2>



Primates live closely together in groups. They rely heavily on noticing social signals from others, like facial expressions and gestures.



From birth, primates naturally focus more on interacting with each other than with objects or things.



This strong preference for social interaction helps them develop important skills, especially in how they learn and remember information. 



Paying attention to others is crucial for their brain development and memory formation, influencing how primates learn and adapt throughout life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions-boost-ape-memory">Social interactions boost ape memory</h2>



A team of researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, examined how social interactions affect memory in great apes.



They presented both young and adult apes with videos showing a human hand (social model) or a mechanical claw (non-social model) constructing a tower.



"We found that apes better remembered a tower when they saw a hand building it rather than a mechanical claw. This is because they paid more attention to the actions of a social being rather than a machine," noted Marie Padberg, the first author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attention-improves-social-memory">Attention improves social memory</h2>



To understand this better, the researchers partnered with the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of South Australia</a>. They used artificial intelligence (AI) to analyze regular video recordings of the apes. 



The AI technology measured the apes' heart rates to determine their attention levels during the experiment.



The results showed that apes paid more attention during social demonstrations. Higher attention was directly linked to better memory, showing how closely attention and memory are connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-processing-social-stimuli">Processing social stimuli</h2>



Interestingly, improved memory for social events was evident only in adult apes. Younger apes, including juveniles and infants, did not show memory enhancement when viewing social models. 



This outcome differs from humans, who exhibit superior social memory from infancy. These findings suggest a developmental difference between humans and other apes in processing social stimuli.



Study senior author Daniel Haun is the director of the Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.



"Non-human ape infants and juveniles did not show superior memory for social events. There could be several reasons for this, including the nature of the objects, the complexity of the task, or the duration of the videos," noted Haun.



"Further research is needed to determine whether superior social memory at younger ages is truly a uniquely human phenomenon."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developmental-timing-and-memory">Developmental timing and memory</h2>



This study highlights how important the timing of cognitive development is in primates. It suggests that non-human primates, like apes, might only show improved memory from social interactions as they grow older.



Younger apes do not experience this benefit early in life, unlike human infants who show strong social memory from birth. 



By understanding these differences in developmental timing, scientists can better distinguish how human thinking differs from that of other primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-memory-across-apes">Social memory across apes</h2>



The research took place at the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/comparative-cultural-psychology/studying-non-human-primates/wolfgang-koehler-primate-research-center/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wolfgang Köhler Primate Research Center</a> in Leipzig, Germany. 



The scientists studied 42 great apes, including chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans. These apes ranged in age from as young as 3 months to as old as 47 years.



This study is the first to investigate how social memory develops as apes grow older. The results represent an important step forward in understanding similarities and differences between human and ape psychology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The detailed results are published in the journal Animal Behaviour. They show how paying attention to social interactions helps improve memory in different species.



Future research may explore how the difficulty of tasks, familiarity with objects, and interactions within social groups affect memory. These studies will help scientists understand more clearly how both humans and other primates develop and use social memory.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347225000089?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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Social interactions have a surprising influence on memory in great apes

Memory plays a critical role in learning and survival across...

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes which have a tendency to continue on for millions of years. Extinction events are among the strongest forces which not only kill specific life forms but also offer the basis for fresh avenues of evolution. 



A recent study evokes a fascinating image of the process, revealing how the death of the largest dinosaurs indirectly created the fruit-rich habitats which were so important to our primate ancestors.



The research was led by Christopher Doughty, an ecoinformatics professor at <a href="https://nau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-prehistoric-legacy">A prehistoric legacy</h2>



Sauropods, the long-necked, plant-munching dinosaurs of the ancient world, had a massive influence on the world around them. These hulking dinosaurs knocked over trees on a routine basis and munched through tons of plant matter. 



When Sauropods went extinct some 66 million years ago, their loss profoundly changed ecosystems. Forests rebounded and closed up, which decreased the amount of sunlight on the ground and paved the way for an impressive evolutionary shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauropods-and-ecological-change">Sauropods and ecological change</h2>



The extinction of Sauropods enabled trees to evolve without interruptions. The forests became denser, and tree competition for light intensified. 



Trees developed larger fruits and seeds to dominate others, and these provided their offspring with an advantage over others by supplying them with additional energy and greater survival chances in shaded conditions.



"At first glance, the darker forest understory caused by dinosaur extinctions may seem unimportant, but it could have directly led to the evolution of our fruit-eating primate ancestors," said Professor Doughty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dinosaur-fruit-connection">The dinosaur-fruit connection</h2>



Before the dinosaurs went extinct, fruits were scarce, and seeds were small. But with the ecological niche left open by the sauropods, plants evolved immediately. 



Stronger seedlings, with larger seeds, were able to compete for limited sunlight. In addition, fleshy fruits evolved as an incredibly efficient way of enticing animals to scatter seeds and reproduce.



Even though this evolution scenario was previously theorized, no fossil records existed to conform the hypothesis.



To investigate, Professor Doughty and his team developed a cutting-edge model of seed and fruit size evolution after the dinosaurs became extinct. The model precisely replicated fossil records for the last 65 million years and decisively substantiated the hypothesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversal-of-dinosaur-driven-fruit-trends">Reversal of dinosaur-driven fruit trends</h2>



Interestingly, the model also forecasted a future reversal of seed evolutionary patterns. 



Seeds began to shrink about 35 million years ago. This coincided with the appearance of new large mammals that were successful in duplicating, though on a smaller scale, the forest-clearing behavior previously shown by sauropods.



"Our model predicted these animals would open the forest enough that sufficient light began to enter the understory, and larger seeds were no longer successful over smaller seeds," explained Doughty. 



"The evolutionary pressure for seed size to increase began to diminish. Thus, we were able to explain the trends in seed size over time without resorting to external influences such as climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megafauna-extinction-and-ecological-reset">Megafauna extinction and ecological reset</h2>



About 50,000 years ago, large mammals like mammoths went extinct. These animals previously opened forests by knocking down trees and clearing vegetation. Their extinction allowed forests to become dense and dark again. 



With less sunlight reaching the forest floor, plants adapted by producing larger seeds. This highlights how big animals shape their environment, influencing the evolution of plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-as-ecosystem-shapers">Humans as ecosystem shapers </h2>



Modern human activity mimics the prehistoric impacts of the giants. Current selective forest harvesting mimics the prehistoric pressure imposed by dinosaurs on seed size and dispersal.



But if humans stop modifying forest structure and are not substituted by other megafauna, forests will shift back to more dense, dark structures, and this may trigger another evolutionary adjustment towards larger seeds. 



"These results provide a striking example of how large dinosaurs - and their eventual extinction - not only shaped their contemporary environment but also triggered cascading effects on ecosystems for millions of years," said Benjamin Wiebe, an NAU researcher.



"The next time you're eating fruit or pondering, 'why am I here,' consider the impact of the dinosaur extinctions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/pala.70002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



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How dinosaur extinction influenced fruit evolution

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes...

Giant pandas are full of contradictions. Their distinctive black-and-white fur makes them instantly recognizable, yet it's their diet that puzzles scientists the most. Despite having a digestive system adapted for meat, they survive almost entirely on bamboo.



For most animals, diet follows anatomy. Herbivores have complex stomachs to break down plant fibers, while carnivores have short, simple intestines for digesting protein-rich meat. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-panda-day-recognizing-the-beauty-and-fragility-of-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pandas</a>, though, seem to defy this rule. Their guts resemble those of meat-eaters, yet they munch on bamboo for hours every day.



How do they pull this off? Over time, they’ve developed physical features - pseudo thumbs for gripping stalks, flat molars for crushing tough fibers. But physical traits alone don’t explain how they extract enough nutrition from such a limited diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-genes-adapt-to-diet">Can genes adapt to diet?</h2>



Every living thing runs on genetic instructions. DNA stores the blueprint, while RNA carries out the tasks. Among the many types of RNA, one stands out in this case: microRNA (miRNA). Tiny but powerful, microRNA is capable of controlling which genes get activated.



Scientists recently made a startling discovery - miRNA from plants can enter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>’ bodies through food. 



This raises an intriguing question: Could bamboo-derived miRNA influence giant pandas at the genetic level? If so, their diet might be reshaping their biology in ways no one had expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bamboo-s-influence-on-pandas">Bamboo’s influence on pandas</h2>



A team of Chinese researchers set out to investigate whether plant miRNA from bamboo makes its way into pandas’ blood and affects their genes.



“We showed that plant-derived miRNAs are present in the blood of giant pandas. Our study proved that bamboo used as food for giant pandas does affect the change of giant pandas’ feeding habits," said Dr. Feng Li of <a href="https://www.cwnu.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">China West Normal University</a>.



This suggests something incredible - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancestors-of-giant-pandas-had-a-completely-different-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pandas</a> aren’t just physically adapted to eating bamboo. Their genes might be changing in response to their diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bamboo-alters-panda-biology">How bamboo alters panda biology</h2>



The researchers didn’t just speculate. They took blood samples from seven pandas - three adult females, three adult males, and one young female. 



When the experts analyzed the samples, they found 57 different miRNAs that likely came from bamboo.



“MiRNA in bamboo can enter giant pandas’ bodies through diet, be absorbed by the intestine, enter the blood circulation, and then regulate when the giant panda’s RNA transfers information, thus playing a role in regulating the gene expression of giant pandas,” explained Dr. Li.



This means that plant-derived miRNAs don’t just float around uselessly in the bloodstream. They take part in critical biological processes - growth, metabolism, immune response. More than that, they seem to influence how pandas experience food itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulation-of-taste-and-smell">Regulation of taste and smell</h2>



For pandas, taste and smell are essential. Their diet consists of a single food source, so choosing the right bamboo - nutrient-rich, fresh, and safe to eat - is a matter of survival. It turns out miRNA may be helping with that, too.



“MiRNA in bamboo is also involved in the regulation of smell, taste, and dopamine pathways of giant pandas, all of which are related to their feeding habits,” said Dr. Li.



As pandas eat more bamboo, certain miRNAs build up in their system. Over time, these molecules fine-tune their ability to detect the best bamboo - perhaps even making them crave it. 



This could explain how pandas, despite being genetically wired for a carnivorous diet, have fully embraced their bamboo-based lifestyle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-pandas-are-affected-equally">Not all pandas are affected equally</h2>



One of the most intriguing aspects of this study? The differences between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-melita-panda-the-black-and-white-crustacean-shrimp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pandas</a>. 



The researchers found that miRNA levels varied depending on the panda’s age and sex. Some miRNAs, particularly those involved in reproduction, were only present in certain groups.



“Only miRNAs that can specifically play a role in regulating gene expression can remain in the body, and those that do not play a role will be expelled,” noted Dr. Li.



This suggests that miRNA doesn’t affect every panda in the same way. Some molecules influence feeding habits, while others may shape reproductive health or immune function. 



The idea that diet-derived miRNA could have such wide-ranging effects is opening up new possibilities for research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-this-change-animal-science">Could this change animal science?</h2>



If bamboo miRNA affects the genes of pandas, could other plants influence other species? Could certain foods help regulate immune responses, metabolism, or even disease resistance in animals?



“Plant miRNAs may also participate in regulating the animal immune system, enhancing animals’ disease resistance,” said Dr. Li.



If scientists can understand how plant-derived miRNA works, they might develop better diets for endangered animals - or even improve human nutrition. Imagine eating food not just for calories and vitamins, but for its ability to directly influence genetic expression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-pandas-and-bamboo">Future research on pandas and bamboo</h2>



There’s still so much left to learn. Scientists need larger studies, more samples, and deeper genetic analysis to fully confirm the role of plant miRNA in pandas. Right now, the evidence is compelling, but not conclusive.



“The giant panda is a very precious national treasure in our country, and blood samples are not easy to get. If possible, we hope to collect blood samples of young pandas who have not yet eaten bamboo for research, and perhaps get more surprising results," concluded Dr. Li.



This research hints at a new frontier in biology - where diet doesn’t just influence health but actively shapes genetic expression. The story of pandas and bamboo is still unfolding, and it may be just the beginning of a much bigger scientific breakthrough.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/veterinary-science/articles/10.3389/fvets.2025.1509698/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Veterinary Science</a>.



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Giant pandas' taste for bamboo is literally written in their genes

Giant pandas are full of contradictions. Their distinctive black-and-white fur...

In the hidden corners of the world, caterpillars and ants have a remarkably specialized relationship. The caterpillars secrete a sweet, nectar-like substance that ants feed on, and the ants often protect the growing caterpillars from predators.



This interesting relationship, which exists between ants and the larvae of some species of the Riodinidae family (metalmark butterflies), is so particular that each species of caterpillar interacts with only one species of ant.



Scientists have now investigated the complex mechanisms of this mutualistic partnership. 



They show that chemical signals and sweet secretions determine whether the ant response is one of protection or destruction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillar-protection-from-ants">Caterpillar protection from ants</h2>



In tropical forests, caterpillars provide an important food source to many insectivores. Caterpillar mortality is inevitably high, unless the adult butterfly lays its eggs on a plant that is inhabited by the correct species of ant. 



The research was conducted by Luan Dias Lima during her postdoctoral studies at the University of São Paulo’s Ribeirão Preto School of Philosophy, Sciences, and Letters (<a href="https://www.ffclrp.usp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FFCLRP-USP</a>). 



The ants and caterpillars were collected at the Serra das Araras Ecological Station in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso.



The researchers analyzed the chemical signals produced by caterpillars. The goal was to understand how ants can identify specific types of caterpillars as those to protect or those to kill.



The findings suggest that this relationship is delicately balanced as each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/treasure-map-will-help-experts-find-new-ant-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species of ant</a> recognizes only one species of caterpillar as worthy of protection. 



The ants will kill any other caterpillars, even if they secrete the sweet liquid that is believed to promote protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-signals-and-sweet-secretions">Chemical signals and sweet secretions</h2>



In the experiments, the researchers focused on caterpillars of the species&nbsp;Juditha molpe, which live in harmony with ants of the species&nbsp;Dolichoderus bispinosus.



The team also studied caterpillars of the species&nbsp;Nymphidium chione, which are found only where there are ants of the species&nbsp;Pheidole biconstricta.



They analyzed the cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) present on the ants, caterpillars and plants. CHCs are chemical compounds that are found in the coverings of plants and insects, and play a vital function in waterproofing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-silent-language-decoding-the-chemical-signals-of-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication</a>, and species recognition.



"We found insect and plant CHCs to be quite different from each other. In caterpillars, they signal food for ants. The caterpillars in our experiment offered a sweet secretion, allowing them to be recognized and protected by specific ant species," explained Lima, the study’s first author. 



This sugary secretion not only promotes recognition but also cements the partnership between these species by offering the ants a source of food. 



In return for the nectar, the ants defend the caterpillars from predators, thus improving their chances of survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-ants-turn-hostile">When ants turn hostile</h2>



However, when the researchers mixed up the ant-caterpillar pairings, the harmonious alliance turned hostile, and destroyed the delicate balance that sustains this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-symbiotic-relationships-evolve-between-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic relationship</a>.



At first, the unfamiliar ants showed little interest in the caterpillars, seemingly indifferent to their presence. They ignored them until they discovered the caterpillar organ that secretes the nectar, which momentarily piqued the ants' curiosity.



Their curiosity soon turned to aggression, however, and they began to behave erratically, opening their mandibles and biting the larvae. What started as a potential new alliance quickly devolved into a deadly confrontation.



"Almost all of the caterpillars were killed during this pair-switching treatment. Soldiers of the species P. biconstricta even used their strong mandibles to cut J. molpe into pieces," said Lima.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-the-right-partnership">The importance of the right partnership </h2>



Why are caterpillars relying on ants when things can go so badly wrong? It turns out that ant protection is so important to the caterpillars that adult female butterflies lay eggs only on plant species colonized by the right ant species.



The life of the developing young caterpillars depends on their protection from ants. Without this protection, predators would destroy them.



In the future, the scientists aim to investigate whether CHCs also serve as a deterrent against other natural enemies like parasitoids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-caterpillar-ant-relationships">Evolution of caterpillar-ant relationships </h2>



The exclusivity of these caterpillar-ant partnerships raises intriguing questions about their evolutionary origins. 



Scientists suggest that these relationships may have developed through a long process of co-evolution, where both species adapted to each other over time.



One theory proposes that ancestral caterpillars, once vulnerable to predation, evolved the ability to secrete nectar as a survival strategy, and gradually refined their chemical signals to align perfectly with specific ant species.



In turn, ants learned to recognize these caterpillars as a valuable food source, strengthening the mutual dependence between them.



The evolution of such specialized interactions likely resulted from a long history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a>. 



Caterpillars that failed to match their chemical profiles to local ants faced higher risks of mortality, while those that adapted found a niche where they could thrive.



By studying these ancient alliances, researchers hope to uncover broader patterns in insect evolution and symbiosis, and to shed light on how cooperation between different species shapes ecosystems.



Also contributing to the study were <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a>, the <a href="http://www.ufrgs.br/english/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul</a>, and the <a href="https://ufal.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Alagoas</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1744-7917.13474" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insect Science</a>.



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Ants and caterpillars have a great working relationship, until it isn't

In the hidden corners of the world, caterpillars and ants...

species in Megapodiidae

News coming your way