A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Remember when your mom advised you to eat dinner early? Turns out, she was right all along. A recent study by scientists from the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC) and Columbia University found evidence that backs up this age-old wisdom.



The study, published in the open access Nature group journal Nutrition &amp; Diabetes, suggests that consuming over 45% of our daily calorie intake after 5 p.m. can lead to increased glucose levels. 



This uptick in glucose carries potential health risks, irrespective of a person's weight or body fat levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meal-time-and-glucose-levels">Meal time and glucose levels</h2>



The experiment was conducted at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a>'s Irving Medical Center in New York, under the guidance of Dr. Diana Díaz-Rizzolo, a postdoctoral researcher and member of the Faculty of Health Sciences at the <a href="https://www.uoc.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UOC</a>.



"Maintaining high levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glucose-the-sweet-secret-to-a-younger-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glucose</a> over long periods of time can have implications including a higher risk of progressing to type 2 diabetes, an increase in cardiovascular risk due to the damage that high glucose levels do to blood vessels, and increased chronic inflammation, which aggravates cardiovascular and metabolic damage," noted Dr. Díaz-Rizzolo.



Until now, it was commonly believed that the primary repercussion of late dinners was weight gain, mostly because people tend to opt for unhealthy, ultra-processed foods at night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-of-meals">Timing of meals</h2>



However, the importance of this study lies in its ability to demonstrate that the timing of our meals can independently affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/type-2-diabetes-heightens-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glucose</a> metabolism, regardless of the number of calories consumed throughout the day or an individual's weight and body fat level.



For their research, the team examined 26 individuals aged between 50 and 70, who were either overweight or obese and had prediabetes or type 2 diabetes. 



They divided the participants into two groups: early eaters who consumed the majority of their daily calories before evening, and late eaters who consumed 45% or more of their calories after 5 p.m. 



Despite both groups consuming the same amount of calories and the same types of food, their meal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meal-timing-has-a-major-influence-on-our-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">timings</a> were different.



Intriguingly, it was found that late eaters had poorer glucose tolerance despite their weight or diet composition. They also tended to consume larger quantities of carbohydrates and fats in the evening.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-late-eating-affects-glucose">Why late eating affects glucose</h2>



Dr. Díaz Rizzolo, an expert on obesity, diabetes, and aging-related topics, explained the science behind this.



"The body's ability to metabolize glucose is limited at night, because the secretion of insulin is reduced, and our cells' sensitivity to this hormone declines due to the circadian rhythm, which is determined by a central clock in our brain that is coordinated with the hours of daylight and night." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-considerations">Cultural considerations</h2>



It's important to recognize how meal timing varies across cultures, as dietary habits differ widely. For example, Mediterranean cultures often have their largest meal in the late afternoon, while Northern Europeans eat dinner early. 



Adapting dietary advice to fit these cultural contexts can improve its effectiveness. Future research should explore how considering cultural, environmental, and social factors in dietary guidance could boost adherence and results, thereby improving global public health.



By understanding meal timing in cultural contexts, dietary recommendations can better fit diverse habits worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-to-a-healthier-lifestyle">The path to a healthier lifestyle</h2>



This study reveals an essential aspect of our daily nutrition - the timing of our meals.



"Until now, personal decisions in nutrition have been based on two main questions: how much we eat, and what foods to choose. With this study, a new factor in cardiometabolic health is beginning to become increasingly important: when we eat," concluded Dr. Díaz-Rizzolo.



The path to a healthier lifestyle, according to the results of this study, should include a focus on eating the bulk of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-you-eat-can-literally-change-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a> during daylight hours. 



"The highest levels of calorie intake during the day should be at breakfast and lunch, instead of at teatime and dinner," said Dr. Díaz-Rizzolo.



She also recommends avoiding ultra-processed products, fast food, and carbohydrate-rich foods - especially at night.



While more research is needed to explore the implications of this study further, the results thus far provide food for thought on meal timing and cardiometabolic health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41387-024-00347-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrition and Diabetes</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Meal timing has a major influence on our health

Remember when your mom advised you to eat dinner early?...

Pterosaurs, the extinct flying reptiles that soared alongside dinosaurs, are among the most intriguing creatures in Earth's history.&nbsp;



While some later species reached wingspans of up to 10 meters, early pterosaurs were significantly smaller, typically limited to around two meters.&nbsp;



Now, a newly described species, Skiphosoura bavarica, sheds light on the evolutionary steps that allowed these creatures to bridge this size gap and adopt advanced anatomical features.&nbsp;



The discovery, led by David Hone of <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, represents a rare find that enhances our understanding of pterosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-mastered-land-before-dominating-the-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-pterosaur-fossil-unlike-any-other">A pterosaur fossil unlike any other</h2>



The name Skiphosoura bavarica translates to “sword tail from Bavaria,” reflecting its distinctive stiff, pointed tail and the southern German region where it was unearthed.&nbsp;



What makes this fossil truly remarkable is its state of preservation. Nearly every bone of the animal has been recovered, and unlike most pterosaur fossils, which are typically flattened, this specimen is preserved in three dimensions.&nbsp;



With a wingspan of about two meters - comparable to a golden eagle - Skiphosoura provides a rare glimpse into the morphology of transitional pterosaurs.



“This is an incredible find. It really helps us piece together how these amazing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flying animals</a> lived and evolved. Hopefully this study will be the basis for more work in the future on this important evolutionary transition,” Hone said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broad-classification-of-pterosaur-fossils-nbsp">Broad classification of pterosaur fossils&nbsp;</h2>



For over 200 years, scientists have classified pterosaurs into two primary groups. Non-pterodactyloids were early pterosaurs with small heads, short necks, long tails, a short bone in their wing wrists, and a long fifth toe on their feet.



Pterodactyloids were a later species characterized by large heads, long necks, short tails, elongated wrist bones, and a short fifth toe.



While this broad classification was useful, it left significant gaps in understanding how pterosaurs transitioned between these forms. The discovery of in the 2010s helped address some of these questions.&nbsp;



These intermediate species revealed that the head and neck adapted first, with other anatomical changes following later. However, scientists were left wondering what occurred immediately before and after the darwinopterans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-the-evolutionary-gap">Bridging the evolutionary gap</h2>



Skiphosoura bavarica offers vital clues. Evolutionarily, it stands between darwinopterans and pterodactyloids, displaying a combination of features from both groups.&nbsp;



It possesses the pterodactyloid-like head and neck characteristic of darwinopterans but also exhibits advancements such as a lengthened wrist, a shorter fifth toe, and a reduced tail - though not as pronounced as in later pterodactyloids.



This discovery, combined with a newly reconstructed evolutionary tree, allows researchers to trace the progression of anatomical changes in pterosaurs.&nbsp;



The study also places the Scottish pterosaur Dearc as a transitional species between early pterosaurs and darwinopterans.&nbsp;



Together, Dearc and Skiphosoura complete a nearly unbroken sequence of evolutionary adaptations, providing a step-by-step account of how pterosaurs evolved into the large, advanced forms seen in the later pterodactyloids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptations-for-larger-sizes">Adaptations for larger sizes</h2>



Interestingly, both Dearc and Skiphosoura are unusually large compared to other species of their time.&nbsp;



This suggests that the adaptations that enabled pterodactyloids to achieve enormous sizes - such as larger heads and longer necks - began appearing in transitional forms like Skiphosoura.&nbsp;



These changes likely offered advantages such as improved flight capabilities and more efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foraging</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-pterosaur-fossil-nbsp">Analyzing the pterosaur fossil&nbsp;</h2>



The fossil preparation and analysis were feats of modern technology and expertise. Unlike typical flattened fossils, the three-dimensional preservation of Skiphosoura required meticulous work.&nbsp;



“As a preparator, I have worked on more than 60 pterosaur specimens from Solnhofen limestone,” said study co-author Stefan Selzer, who prepared the specimen.



“I recognized during the final prep this specimen showed features that combined characteristics of both major groups of pterosaurs, with the shortened tail as the most important diagnostic feature.”&nbsp;



Digital imaging also played a critical role in analyzing the fossil.&nbsp;



René Lauer of the <a href="https://www.lauerfoundationpse.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lauer Foundation for Paleontology, Science, and Education</a> explained: “The specimen was disarticulated with bones of varying quality often overlaid upon one another.”&nbsp;



“Digital photography of the specimen taken in both visible and UV light significantly aided in the process to identify these elements and to better analyze finer details that were not discernible in normal daylight alone.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-pterosaur-evolution">Redefining pterosaur evolution</h2>



The discovery of Skiphosoura bavarica provides a detailed roadmap of pterosaur evolution, offering insights into how these creatures developed the traits that would eventually enable them to dominate the skies.&nbsp;



By clarifying the sequence of anatomical changes, this fossil represents a major milestone in understanding the evolutionary history of pterosaurs.



“Pterosaurs have long been symbols of the unique life of the past. Skiphosoura represents an important new form for working out pterosaur evolutionary relationships and by extension how this lineage arose and changed,” said co-author Adam Fitch, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>.



As researchers continue to study this exceptional find, they hope to uncover even more details about how pterosaurs adapted and thrived in prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.&nbsp;



“This is an incredible find. It really helps us piece together how these amazing flying animals lived and evolved,” Hone said.



With Skiphosoura bavarica, scientists have a clearer view of the evolutionary journey that transformed small, early pterosaurs into the majestic flying reptiles of the Mesozoic era, cementing its role as a key link in the story of life on Earth.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01377-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

New fossil fills crucial gap in pterosaur evolution

Pterosaurs, the extinct flying reptiles that soared alongside dinosaurs, are...

Acupuncture, ketamine infusions, and electroconvulsive therapy are just a few of the options available for individuals diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Treatment-Resistant Depression (TRD). These treatments, while potentially effective, can often feel daunting or expensive. 



Now, research from <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emory University</a> suggests that psilocybin-assisted therapy (PSIL-AT), using the active ingredient in hallucinogenic mushrooms, could provide transformative benefits to more than five million people in the U.S., pending <a href="https://www.fda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a> approval.



The study highlights the urgent need for therapies featuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psilocybin</a> while addressing the logistical and economic considerations that policymakers, insurance providers, and public health agencies will face in making such treatments widely accessible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millions-could-benefit-from-psilocybin-therapy">Millions could benefit from psilocybin therapy</h2>



Using national data on individuals currently being treated for MDD and TRD, Emory researchers applied exclusionary criteria to identify those who would be medically eligible for PSIL-AT.&nbsp;



Factors such as comorbidities, including mania, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-close-to-bars-and-pubs-increases-the-risk-of-heart-failure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart failure</a>, and diabetes, were used to refine the eligible population.



The analysis revealed that 56 to 62% of patients with MDD and TRD - approximately 5.1 to 5.6 million people - could benefit from this therapy.



Study lead author Fayzan Rab is an M.D. candidate at Emory University’s School of Medicine.&nbsp;



“This information is significant because much of the current focus on psychedelic therapies is about its efficacy within clinical trials, and very few people are studying what would be the broader implications of implementing these novel therapeutics,” said Rab.&nbsp;



“Our study is one of the first to look at the bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-alone-in-america-an-escalating-public-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health</a> and economic consequences of a world where psilocybin therapy is made more available to Americans.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-actionable-data-for-fda-consideration">Actionable data for FDA consideration</h2>



Psilocybin-assisted therapy is currently designated as a breakthrough therapy by the FDA, allowing for an expedited review of Phase III clinical trial results due to its potential to address <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confirmed-magic-mushrooms-can-effectively-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>.&nbsp;



The findings from this study provide actionable data to inform the FDA’s decision-making process.



“What is really timely about this research is that it provides a data-driven number that is interpretable to the FDA,” Rab said.&nbsp;



“This is how many Americans we think are at stake. I think that will be a meaningful estimate for the FDA to weigh when they consider whether to approve psilocybin for therapeutic use.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insurance-coverage-and-psilocybin-therapy-demand">Insurance coverage and psilocybin therapy demand</h2>



If approved, the availability of PSIL-AT will be heavily influenced by decisions from private and public insurance providers, including the <a href="https://www.cms.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services</a> (CMS).&nbsp;



According to the study, nearly 20% of Medicaid’s 85 million beneficiaries - approximately 17 million people - are likely to have clinical depression. How Medicaid and other insurers decide to reimburse for psilocybin-assisted therapy will significantly impact its accessibility and demand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-acting-relief-from-psilocybin-nbsp">Fast-acting relief from psilocybin&nbsp;</h2>



One notable advantage of psilocybin therapy is its rapid efficacy. Previous clinical trials have shown that a single 25 mg dose of psilocybin can substantially reduce symptoms of depression.&nbsp;



Dr. George Grant, co-director of Emory University’s <a href="https://psychedelics.emory.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Psychedelics and Spirituality</a> (ECPS), emphasized the potential cost savings for the healthcare system.



“Psychedelic medicines have promise because the intervention is so fast-acting, whereas right now, insurance providers and payers often need to fund the use of antidepressants throughout their lives,” said Grant, who is also the executive director for Spiritual Health at the <a href="https://whsc.emory.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woodruff Health Sciences Center</a>.



This quick-acting treatment could alleviate the financial burden on both insurers and patients while delivering significant relief for those with depression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-holistic-approach-to-mental-and-spiritual-wellness">Holistic approach to mental and spiritual wellness</h2>



Supported by Emory University’s ECPS, the study integrates clinical psychiatry with spiritual health to explore the therapeutic potential of psychedelic medicines. The center aims to foster a deeper understanding of how psychedelics can bring patients to a state of mental and spiritual wellness.



“Coming to the aid of people who are suffering is very important, and psilocybin-assisted therapy could help people arrive at a place of satisfaction within themselves so that their lives achieve optimal meaning and purpose,” Grant said.



Rab also highlighted the impartial academic environment in which the research was conducted, stressing that it was independent of pharmaceutical influence.&nbsp;



“I am glad to be supported by the Center for Psychedelics and Spirituality, which is an academic environment, providing an objective third-party perspective to policymakers, the FDA, and public health agencies,” Rab said.&nbsp;



“I am really hopeful that continued research in the area of psychedelic medicine and therapeutics could benefit the millions of Americans that might qualify for it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-forward-for-psilocybin-therapy">A path forward for psilocybin therapy</h2>



The study provides a roadmap for the potential rollout of psilocybin-assisted therapy, offering actionable insights for healthcare providers, insurers, and policymakers.&nbsp;



By addressing the needs of millions of Americans suffering from MDD and TRD, PSIL-AT could represent a paradigm shift in the treatment of depression, bridging clinical efficacy with accessible and holistic care.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Psilocybin therapy offers hope for millions with depression

Acupuncture, ketamine infusions, and electroconvulsive therapy are just a few...

Life, as we know it, is a collection of small events; brewing morning coffee, letting the dog out, starting the laptop, letting the dog back in. 



Our brains are constantly on the job, observing and processing these pieces that together make up our day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-start-and-finish-of-events">Start and finish of events</h2>



Professor Jeff Zacks, head of the Department of Psychological &amp; Brain Sciences at Washington University, shines light on an essential fact.



“Knowing where events begin and where they end is crucial to understanding the world.” 



Professor Zacks' research has focused on understanding this fundamental aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human cognition</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computer-models-learning-from-uncertainty">Computer models learning from uncertainty</h2>



To comprehend these processes better, Professor Zacks and his research team embarked on two separate studies.



In the first project, they trained computer models to watch over 25 hours of videos featuring people performing simple, daily tasks. After this, they asked the computer models to predict what would happen next. 



Interestingly, the results showed that these models performed best when they responded to uncertainty. 



In situations where predictions of next actions puzzled them, the models would assess the scene from scratch - a strategy that improved their understanding remarkably.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-turn-of-events-in-the-brain">Unexpected turn of events in the brain</h2>



Professor Zacks had previously hypothesized that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-changes-how-we-recall-memories-making-them-seem-frightening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human brain</a> was particularly sensitive to life’s little surprises and would reassess a situation every time something unexpected happened. 



He proposed that surprising situations forced people to re-evaluate their surroundings, a concept known as "prediction error."



However, the study's findings threw a wrench in this theory, with the model paying more attention to uncertainty than to prediction errors. The researchers were undeterred by these findings.



“We’re doing science here. We revise theories when faced with new data," said Professor Zacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-act-of-events-in-the-brain">Balancing act of events in the brain</h2>



Surprises continue to matter, however, and the concept of prediction error should not be entirely discarded.



Tan Nguyen, a graduate student in Zacks’ Dynamic Cognition Laboratory proposes an alternative approach - the brain possibly uses both mechanisms in balance. 



"It’s not a case of either/or. Each model can make unique contributions to our understanding of human cognition,” explained Nguyen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-memory-and-event-comprehension">Exploring memory and event comprehension</h2>



Taking the research further, another member of the <a href="https://dcl.wustl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dynamic Cognition Lab</a>, Maverick Smith, is inspecting the correlation between event comprehension and memory.



Smith collaborated with Heather Bailey, an associate professor at Kansas State University and a former postdoc at WashU.



Their work collates evidence suggesting that long-term memory is closely tied to one’s ability to discern logically and accurately where one event ends and another begins. 



“There are a lot of individual differences in the ability to identify when events start and stop, and those differences can strongly predict how much people remember later on,” noted Smith.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-s-capacity-to-process-events">Brain's capacity to process events</h2>



Smith’s research shows that older people often have difficulty processing events, a problem that potentially contributes to age-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> loss.



“Maybe there’s a way we can intervene to help them better remember the events in their lives,” said Smith.



Professor Zacks, Nguyen, Smith, and other members of the Department of Psychological &amp; Brain Sciences have ambitious plans to deepen their understanding of the brain’s capacity to process and remember events.



Currently, they're using fMRI brain imaging to monitor real-time responses to everyday event videos from 45 study participants.



In one ongoing study, the team is tracking eye movements, revealing how we visually process the world around us. 



Another of Smith's video-based experiments aims to improve the memory of study subjects - including older people and Alzheimer's patients - by making event boundaries more identifiable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-understanding-of-events">The brain's understanding of events</h2>



“Some people are definitely better than others at segmenting events into meaningful chunks. Can that ability be improved, and can that lead to improvements in memory? Those are the questions we’re still asking,” Smith concluded.



In the end, our understanding of the world hinges on how we comprehend the mundane, everyday occurrences that make up our lives. 



In a world driven by big events, we often overlook these smaller instances. Yet, it's these "little things" that allow our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains</a> to comprehend and navigate our lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/3/10/pgae459/7818226?login=false">PNAS Nexus.</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Our brain breaks life into 'events' to make sense of the chaos

Life, as we know it, is a collection of small...

What if a debilitating illness such as Alzheimer's could be detected by the simple prick of a finger?



This could soon be a reality in the world of Alzheimer's testing, which would increase accessibility to this critical information for people across the globe. In fact, it could be as easy as dropping a little blood onto a card, popping it into the mail and awaiting your results.



Thanks to the hard work of European researchers based primarily at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a> in Sweden, this simplified testing method is on the horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-magic-behind-the-method">The magic behind the method</h2>



The promising test involves gathering a couple of blood drops from a finger prick onto a uniquely crafted card that is specifically designed for optimal sample preservation.



The primary function of this innovative card is to separate blood cells from plasma, thereby ensuring that the sample remains viable for further analysis.



After about 15 minutes, and once it has had a chance to dry completely, the card is securely packaged and ready to be mailed in the regular post to a specialized lab.



There, contemporary high-sensitivity techniques are utilized to examine and analyze the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-biomarkers-predict-dementia-onset-15-years-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers</a> within the plasma.



This refined method is the culmination of years of extensive development and fine-tuning to identify certain biomarkers that have demonstrated impressive accuracy and reliability in identifying potential Alzheimer's sufferers.



Impressively, these markers have shown significant efficacy, initially when tested in cerebrospinal fluid, and then in venous blood samples. The idea is now to assess their presence in the blood from superficial vessels in the finger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-the-new-with-the-old">Comparing the new with the old</h2>



To illustrate the effectiveness of this new method, a recent study included capillary blood samples from 203 people all of whom underwent the finger prick test. 



The memory clinics responsible for administering these tests are spread across five different locations in Europe. 



Once the tests were completed, they were sent over to the Neurochemistry Department at the University of Gothenburg for detailed analysis, which included testing for the presence of established <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-disease-earliest-biomarker-protein-psd-95-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers for Alzheimer's</a>, such as pTau217.



The outcomes of the study were shared by Hanna Huber, a researcher at the University of Gothenburg’s Sahlgrenska Academy, at the CTAD (Clinical Trials on Alzheimer’s Disease) conference in Madrid, Spain, on October 30, 2024. 



"The simple capillary blood test works almost as well as venous samples,' explained Huber. "But, unlike traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-tests-offer-new-hope-in-detecting-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood tests</a>, this new test does not require transport on dry ice. This could significantly increase accessibility to Alzheimer's testing in countries and regions lacking the infrastructure needed for high-sensitivity analyses."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-alzheimer-s-testing">The future of Alzheimer's testing</h2>



Looking ahead, this test could become available within a matter of years, with a new European study already underway to explore whether it can be self-administered.



This capability would empower individuals to perform their own finger prick and then mail the sample to a lab, which would bypass the need for healthcare personnel.



The test arrives just in time as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pomegranates-may-be-key-in-preventing-and-treating-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's treatments</a> are making strides, with drugs like lecanemab already being approved in a variety of countries outside the EU. 



For these treatments to work, early detection is crucial. The new test could pave the way for new research opportunities with regard to Alzheimer's disease, including into its genetic makeup and its prevalence among different global populations.



It is important to note that this test is not designed for general screening purposes. 



The World Health Organization (WHO) currently discourages general screening for Alzheimer's disease, as past treatment options have been limited, which renders widespread screening ethically unjustified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-global-access-to-alzheimer-s-testing">Expanding global access to Alzheimer's testing</h2>



One of the most promising aspects of this new finger-prick test is its potential to close the gap in global access to Alzheimer's diagnostics.



Many regions, particularly in low-resource countries, struggle to provide the necessary infrastructure for traditional testing methods, which often require specialized equipment and transportation of samples under strict conditions, such as on dry ice.



By simplifying the process and eliminating the need for complex logistics, this test could bring early detection and intervention to communities that have historically been underserved. 



This advancement could also encourage more research collaborations and support the collection of diverse data sets, which would potentially enhance the understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medical-breakthrough-new-vaccine-may-prevent-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's disease</a> manifests across different populations and contribute to more targeted and inclusive treatments.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Finger prick method could simplify Alzheimer's testing

What if a debilitating illness such as Alzheimer's could be...

Astronomers at the University of Toronto (U of T) have identified, for the first time, pairs of white dwarf and main sequence stars within young star clusters.&nbsp;



This significant finding, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad7500" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>, opens a new window into an extreme phase of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar evolution</a>, offering a critical link in understanding the lifecycle of binary star systems. These insights may also shed light on cosmic events such as supernova explosions and gravitational waves.



Binary systems - where two stars orbit a shared center of gravity - are central to the universe's evolution.&nbsp;



The discovery of these rare systems could help astronomers piece together the transition between the early and final stages of binary stars, advancing our understanding of how stars and galaxies evolve and how elements are created.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-stage-of-stellar-evolution-nbsp">Mysterious stage of stellar evolution&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binary star systems</a> are widespread, with about half of all stars similar to the Sun existing in such pairings. 



Typically, these stars vary in mass, which influences how they evolve. Massive stars age more rapidly, transitioning through life stages far faster than their lower-mass companions.



In the later stages of a massive star’s life, it swells dramatically during the red giant or asymptotic giant branch phases.&nbsp;



In close binary systems, this expansion can engulf the smaller companion star in a shared layer of material, a phenomenon known as the common envelope phase.&nbsp;



This mysterious stage plays a critical role in stellar evolution, but its details have long eluded scientists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-binary-star-systems-nbsp">The role of binary star systems&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-white-dwarf-stars-eat-heavy-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">White dwarfs</a> - the dense remnants of dead stars - provide a unique opportunity to study this phase. 



Identifying systems that pair white dwarfs with main sequence stars, known as white dwarf-main sequence binaries, offers critical clues about what happens during and after the common envelope stage.



“Binary stars play a huge role in our universe,” said lead author Steffani Grondin, a graduate student at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>’s David A. Dunlap Department for Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics. 



“This observational sample marks a key first step in allowing us to trace the full life cycles of binaries and will hopefully allow us to constrain the most mysterious phase of stellar evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-star-pair-discovery">Machine learning and star pair discovery</h2>



Despite their predicted abundance, white dwarf-main sequence binaries have been notoriously difficult to find. Before this study, only two candidates had been confirmed within star clusters.&nbsp;



Using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a>, the researchers analyzed data from three astronomical surveys: the European Space Agency’s Gaia mission, the 2MASS infrared survey, and the Pan-STARRS1 optical survey. This innovative approach uncovered 52 potential binaries across 38 star clusters.



Study co-author Joshua Speagle is a professor in U of T’s David A. Dunlap Department for Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics and Department of Statistical Sciences.&nbsp;



“The use of machine learning helped us to identify clear signatures for these unique systems that we weren't able to easily identify with just a few datapoints alone,” said Speagle.&nbsp;



“It also allowed us to automate our search across hundreds of clusters, a task that would have been impossible if we were trying to identify these systems manually.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-timeline-of-binary-star-systems">Evolutionary timeline of binary star systems</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-origins-of-young-star-clusters-traced-to-three-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star clusters</a> are invaluable for studying the evolution of stars because all stars in a cluster are believed to have formed simultaneously. Finding white dwarf-main sequence binaries within these clusters allows researchers to determine the systems' ages and trace their evolutionary paths.



“It really points out how much in our universe is hiding in plain sight - still waiting to be found,” said co-author Maria Drout, an astronomer at U of T.&nbsp;



“While there are many examples of this type of binary system, very few have the age constraints necessary to fully map their evolutionary history. While there is plenty of work left to confirm and fully characterize these systems, these results will have implications across multiple areas of astrophysics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrophysics-and-beyond">Implications for astrophysics and beyond</h2>



Binary systems containing compact stellar remnants are linked to some of the universe’s most dramatic events, such as Type Ia <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-travels-back-in-time-to-better-understand-supernovae-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a> and gravitational wave-producing mergers. 



Type Ia supernovae are crucial tools for measuring cosmic distances, while gravitational waves - ripples in spacetime - are detectable by instruments like the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO).



The team plans to refine their findings using data from telescopes such as Gemini, Keck, and Magellan.&nbsp;



As they confirm and measure the properties of these binaries, the researchers hope their work will provide a deeper understanding of the transient phenomena that shape our universe.



Image Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), Olofsson et al. Acknowledgement: Robert Cumming.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Binary systems with living and dead stars reveal stellar secrets 

Astronomers at the University of Toronto (U of T) have...

The devastating rainfall from Storm Boris, which caused severe flooding across Central and Eastern Europe, could have been nearly nine percent less intense without the current levels of global warming. This is the conclusion of a recent analysis from the Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI).



This finding was made possible by a novel modeling technique called “storylines,” which provides a new way to trace the fingerprints of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-tens-of-millions-of-people-love-watching-videos-of-extreme-weather-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a> in real time. 



This approach is described in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01847-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a> and is accessible via a new online tool developed by the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-a-warmer-climate">The impact of a warmer climate</h2>



In mid-September, Storm Boris unleashed torrential rain across Poland, the Czech Republic, Austria, and Romania, resulting in catastrophic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flooding</a> and displacing countless families. 



Boris produced one of the highest rainfall totals ever recorded in several areas over a five-day period, and the floods claimed at least 27 lives. While cleanup is underway, public and media inquiries are focusing on whether global climate change played a role in this tragic event.



“For the past few years, science has been able to provide robust answers to this absolutely legitimate question,” said lead author Marylou Athanase, a climate physicist at AWI.&nbsp;



“As early as one or two weeks after a given event, so-called probabilistic attribution studies can be used to draw initial conclusions on how much more probable the event was, due to climate change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-climate-trends-and-weather-events">Connecting climate trends and weather events</h2>



Yet explaining these probabilities to the public has often proven challenging. Probabilistic studies, while valuable, may lack clarity when connecting global climate trends with specific weather events.&nbsp;



“That’s why we at the AWI have worked so hard to advance a totally new way - the ‘storyline’ approach,” explained co-lead author Antonio Sánchez-Benítez.&nbsp;



“Essentially, we apply the ‘what if?’ principle. What would a given catastrophe look like in a world without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>? And what about in a climate that was even warmer?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impact-on-specific-storms">Climate impact on specific storms</h2>



Using the storm as a case study, AWI’s team illustrated the power of this approach. Their analysis showed that, if not for climate change, Storm Boris would have dropped about nine percent less rain.&nbsp;



On its journey from the eastern Mediterranean toward Central Europe, Boris intensified as it encountered water roughly two degrees Celsius warmer than preindustrial levels, which increased the water vapor in the atmosphere.&nbsp;



While nine percent may sound minimal, it can make a significant difference in areas where the additional water exceeds the capacity of rivers, dams, or drainage systems, leading to potentially devastating consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-models-and-real-world-weather">Climate models and real-world weather</h2>



One of the key challenges was to accurately connect long-term climate modeling with the actual, observed conditions of specific weather events.&nbsp;



To address this, the team used a process called “nudging,” where actual wind data, including jet stream information, is fed into the model to align it more closely with real-world conditions.&nbsp;



“Climate models normally simulate a specific, quasi-random sequence of weather conditions,” explained Helge Gößling, a climate physicist and head of storyline research at AWI.&nbsp;



“With nudging, we provide the model with actually observed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-winds-make-it-difficult-for-albatrosses-to-feed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind</a> data, and we nudge the model a bit in the direction of the actually observed wind. In this way, we can accurately reproduce real weather in the real climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-the-influence-of-global-warming-nbsp">Quantifying the influence of global warming&nbsp;</h2>



In their models, the researchers could simulate a pre-climate change world by reducing greenhouse gas levels and adjusting other variables.&nbsp;



By rerunning the scenario, they produced a side-by-side comparison of current and hypothetical climates. This approach allows scientists to quantify the influence of global warming on specific events, from extreme storms to more typical weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-climate-data-and-technology">Advanced climate data and technology</h2>



The researchers used the CMIP6 version of the AWI climate model, which contributed to the IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report, incorporating real-time wind data from the <a href="https://www.ecmwf.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts</a> (ECMWF). 



“We have since automated the system to the point where daily analyses on the current weather are run on the supercomputer at the <a href="https://www.dkrz.de/en/about-en/about-us" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Climate Computing Center</a> (DKRZ),” Athanase said



The results are then made available to the public on AWI’s online platform. This <a href="https://climate-storylines.awi.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tool</a>, updated with a three-day lag from real-time, provides users with access to maps and interactive timelines showing the “Climate Change Signal of the Day” for extreme and daily weather events worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-science-and-public-understanding-nbsp">Climate science and public understanding&nbsp;</h2>



By offering a visual and interactive way to examine climate change’s influence, AWI hopes to bridge the gap between complex climate science and public understanding.&nbsp;



For now, the tool tracks temperature and precipitation data starting from January 2024, allowing users to explore climate impacts on recent weather events.&nbsp;



“Our goal is to promote a better understanding of the connections between climate change and extreme weather events, and to supply concrete and timely answers that can also be used in media coverage of these events,” Athanase said.



The AWI’s storyline model and online tool represent an innovative step forward in climate science communication, helping researchers, decision-makers, and the public see, in real terms, how global warming affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather patterns</a> and extreme events.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How much does climate change influence extreme weather events?

The devastating rainfall from Storm Boris, which caused severe flooding...

Curiosity, the renowned Mars rover from NASA, is enriching our understanding of the Red Planet's mysterious landscapes and puzzling geological features.



Around the corner awaits a new expedition for Curiosity, this time to investigate a formation known as a boxwork. This intriguing network of patterns lies in a region at the foot of Mount Sharp and promises even more fascinating discoveries. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curiosity-finds-yellow-sulfur-stones">Curiosity finds yellow sulfur stones</h2>



Before embarking on this new quest, Curiosity bids farewell to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-explores-mars-ridge-with-intriguing-watery-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gediz Vallis</a>, a channel that is shrouded in enigma.



Details of the formation of this channel during a period of transition to a drier climate continue to elude scientists. 



But it is not just the channel that piques their interest. Curiosity stumbled upon a strange field of yellow sulfur stones during the summer, literally crushing them with its wheels as it drove along. This adds another layer of mystery to the Martian puzzle.



Before moving out, Curiosity provided scientists with invaluable imagery. The rover captured 360-degree panoramas of the stones, along with channel features, making sure no detail was overlooked.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="cczO1PejFp-4040684-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quest-for-ancient-life">The quest for ancient life</h2>



A fundamental purpose of the rover's mission is probing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-found-for-life-on-mars-where-ancient-rivers-once-flowed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars' past</a>, with the hope of finding traces of ancient life.



Billions of years ago, Mars was flush with lakes and rivers, potentially creating conditions conducive to microbial life. 



Nestled in the foothills of Mount Sharp, which is a towering mountain, Gediz Vallis might hold the key to understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mars-became-uninhabitable-after-being-life-supporting-ocean-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how Mars looked</a> as water dwindled on its surface.



Scientists aren't just interested in understanding the climate shift. The team is also investigating different features within the channel, including a debris mound aptly nicknamed “Pinnacle Ridge.”



Evidence suggests that rivers, wet debris flows, and dry avalanches have all left their signatures on this formation.



Intriguingly, the process of constructing a timeline of these events is well underway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-stones-the-latest-martian-mystery">Sulfur stones: The latest Martian mystery</h2>



The sprawling field of sulfur stones, originally appearing as an unremarkable patch of light-colored terrain in images from NASA’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-photo-of-martian-space-potato-moon-phobos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a>, has sprung a pleasant surprise.



A close inspection by Curiosity revealed that these sulfur stones were teeming with yellow crystals, a find unlike anything seen on Mars before.



The rover's instruments confirmed that the stones were pure sulfur - an unusual occurrence that raises more questions than it answers.



On our home planet, sulfur is usually linked with the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-frost-detected-on-mars-enormous-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and hot springs. Yet, no evidence on Mount Sharp suggests these phenomena as likely candidates.



Ashwin Vasavada is a Curiosity project scientist at NASA’s <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California.



“We looked at the sulfur field from every angle - from the top and the side - and looked for anything mixed with the sulfur that might give us clues as to how it formed. We’ve gathered a ton of data, and now we have a fun puzzle to solve," said Vasavada.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treading-on-martian-spiderwebs">Treading on Martian "spiderwebs"</h2>



Having completed a thorough survey of the Gediz Vallis, Curiosity is all set to traverse the edge of the channel, capturing a few more panoramas before making its way to the boxwork region.



This formation of ridges, likened to spiderwebs sprawling across the surface, is believed to be linked to minerals settling into rock crevices and hardening over time. They have been left behind as the surrounding rock eroded.



“These ridges will include minerals that crystallized underground, where it would have been warmer, with salty liquid water flowing through. Early Earth microbes could have survived in a similar environment. That makes this an exciting place to explore,” said Kirsten Siebach, a Curiosity scientist from <a href="https://www.rice.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rice University</a> in Houston.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-curious-legacy-of-curiosity">The curious legacy of Curiosity</h2>



Curiosity, a brainchild of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory managed by Caltech, continues to be a cornerstone of Martian exploration for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. 



The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Project, under the management of the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, and its High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) instrument, constructed by BAE Systems, also play significant roles in taking our understanding of Mars to new heights.



Video Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sulfur stones and spiderwebs: Curiosity's latest discoveries on Mars

Curiosity, the renowned Mars rover from NASA, is enriching our...

A new study suggests that individual cells might be capable of learning - a behavior once thought exclusive to organisms with brains and complex nervous systems. 



The research, led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.crg.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Genomic Regulation</a> (CRG) in Barcelona and <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a> in Boston, challenges long-standing assumptions about the fundamental capabilities of cells.



“Rather than following pre-programmed genetic instructions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-cells-capable-of-photosynthesis-created-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> are elevated to entities equipped with a very basic form of decision making based on learning from their environments,” explained study co-author Jeremy Gunawardena, an associate professor of systems biology at Harvard Medical School. 



The findings, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.10.041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, could transform our understanding of life at its most basic level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habituation-learning-without-a-brain">Habituation: Learning without a brain</h2>



The researchers focused on habituation, a simple form of learning where an organism gradually stops responding to a repeated stimulus - like how humans tune out the ticking of a clock or flashing lights.&nbsp;



While habituation has been extensively studied in animals with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-black-widow-venom-attacks-the-nervous-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nervous systems</a>, whether similar behavior exists at the cellular level has been a contentious question.



Early experiments in the 20th century observed behavior resembling learning in the single-celled ciliate Stentor roeselii, but the findings were largely dismissed. In the 1970s and 1980s, more evidence of habituation emerged in other ciliates, and modern experiments have continued to build on these insights.



“These creatures are so different from animals with brains,” said Rosa Martinez, a co-author of the study and researcher at the CRG.



“To learn would mean they use internal molecular networks that somehow perform functions similar to those carried out by networks of neurons in brains. Nobody knows how they are able to do this, so we thought it is a question that needed to be explored.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-simulations-to-decode-cellular-learning">Using simulations to decode cellular “learning”</h2>



Instead of working with cells directly in the lab, the researchers turned to computer simulations to track the biochemical reactions that cells rely on to process information.&nbsp;



By simulating how molecular interactions change when exposed to repeated stimuli, the team uncovered evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-our-brains-neurons-make-and-retrieve-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>-like behavior.



The study focused on two common molecular circuits: negative feedback loops and incoherent feedforward loops.&nbsp;



Negative feedback is like a thermostat - it regulates processes by turning them off when a certain threshold is reached.&nbsp;



Incoherent feedforward loops act like a motion-activated light with a timer, triggering a process and its inhibitor simultaneously.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memories-formed-at-the-cellular-level">Memories formed at the cellular level</h2>



Simulations revealed that cells use these circuits to fine-tune their responses to repeated stimuli, replicating hallmark features of habituation seen in animals.&nbsp;



A critical discovery was the role of “timescale separation,” where some biochemical reactions occur much faster than others.



“We think this could be a type of ‘memory’ at the cellular level, enabling cells to both react immediately and influence a future response,” Martinez explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-neuroscience-and-cognitive-science">Bridging neuroscience and cognitive science</h2>



The findings also offer new insights into a long-standing debate between neuroscientists and cognitive researchers about habituation.&nbsp;



Neuroscientists argue that stronger habituation occurs with more frequent or less intense stimuli, while cognitive scientists emphasize internal changes, finding habituation stronger with less frequent or more intense stimuli.



The study showed that both perspectives are valid. During habituation, cells respond less to frequent or weak stimuli, but after habituation, their response to similar stimuli is stronger.&nbsp;



“Neuroscientists and cognitive scientists have been studying processes which are basically two sides of the same coin,” Gunawardena said. “We believe that single cells could emerge as a powerful tool to study the fundamentals of learning.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ability-of-cells-to-learn-and-remember-nbsp">The ability of cells to learn and remember&nbsp;</h2>



If confirmed through real-world experiments, these findings could have profound implications.&nbsp;



The ability of cells to “remember” might explain phenomena like cancer cells developing resistance to chemotherapy or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-have-been-found-in-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> becoming resistant to antibiotics. Both involve cells appearing to “learn” from their environment to survive.



The researchers used mathematical models to test various scenarios quickly, identifying those worth exploring in laboratory settings. This approach could save time and resources while accelerating discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-computational-approach-to-biology">A computational approach to biology</h2>



“The moonshot in computational biology is to make life as programmable as a computer, but lab experiments can be costly and time-consuming,” Martinez said.&nbsp;



Her team works at the <a href="https://barcelonacollaboratorium.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Barcelona Collaboratorium</a>, a joint initiative designed to use mathematical modeling to tackle big biological questions.



“Our approach can help us prioritize which experiments are most likely to yield valuable results, saving time and resources and leading to new breakthroughs,” noted Martinez. “We think it can be useful to address many other fundamental questions.”



This research marks a significant step toward understanding learning and memory at the cellular level, potentially reshaping our view of what individual cells are capable of and opening new doors for medical and scientific exploration.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Biological breakthrough: Cells can ‘learn’ like brains

A new study suggests that individual cells might be capable...

Bad habits are repetitive behaviors or patterns that may have negative consequences on physical health, mental well-being, relationships, or productivity. 



They often develop unconsciously and can be challenging to break because they are reinforced by habit loops, which consist of a cue, a routine, and a reward.



But what if you could easily change your habits? What if you had the power to take control of your brain's habit-making mechanism and use it to your advantage?



Enter cognitive neuroscience, a field that offers fresh insights into how our brains form habits. In a recent study, scientists at Trinity College Dublin have proposed a new approach to changing habits that promise lasting results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-habits">The power of habits</h2>



Led by Dr. Eike Buabang, postdoctoral research fellow in the lab of Professor Claire Gillan, the study explores how habits drive our daily lives.



"Habits play a central role in our daily lives, from making that first cup of coffee in the morning to the route we take to work, and the routine we follow to prepare for bed," said Dr. Buabang.



"Our research reveals why these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">automatic behaviors</a> are so powerful - and how we can harness our brain's mechanisms to change them."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-brain-systems">Two brain systems</h2>



Our habits are driven by two brain systems. One triggers automatic responses to familiar cues, while the other enables goal-directed control.



Take, for instance, the habit of scrolling through social media when you're bored - this is the result of an automatic response system. But when you put your phone away to focus on work - that's the goal-directed brain control system at work.



When these two systems are imbalanced, it can lead to action slips like entering an old password instead of the new one. 



In more severe cases, it can contribute to compulsive behaviors seen in conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, substance-use disorders, and eating disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switching-from-bad-habits-to-good-ones">Switching from bad habits to good ones</h2>



Understanding the interplay between these two systems can pave the way for personal development and clinical treatment of compulsive disorders. 



"Good and bad habits are two sides of the same coin - both arise when automatic responses overpower goal-directed control. By understanding this dynamic, we can start to use it to our own advantage, to both make and break habits," noted Dr. Buabang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-involved-in-habit-change">Factors involved in habit change</h2>



Dr. Buabang's research provides a playbook for behavior change, bridging brain science with practical applications. The framework describes several factors crucial for influencing the balance between automatic responses and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-to-set-realistic-goals-and-achieve-them-in-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goal-directed control</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-repetition-and-reinforcement">Repetition and reinforcement</h3>



Repeating a behavior builds strong associations between cues and responses, while rewarding the behavior makes it more likely to be repeated. 



The same mechanism can be leveraged to break habits, by replacing old behaviors with new ones to create competing automatic responses.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environment">Environment</h3>



Your surroundings play a significant role in habit change. Tweaking your environment to make desired behaviors easier to access encourages good habits, while removing cues that trigger unwanted behavior disrupts the bad ones.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goal-directed-system">Goal-directed system</h3>



Knowing how to engage your goal-directed system can help strengthen and weaken habits. 



However, stress, time pressure, and fatigue can trigger a return to old patterns, so staying mindful and intentional is crucial when trying to break them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-theory-to-real-world-applications">From theory to real-world applications</h2>



The theory doesn't stop at habit change; it also opens the door to personalizing treatments based on how different people <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-long-does-it-take-to-form-a-habit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">form</a> and break habits.



"We are all different; depending on your neurobiology, it might make more sense to focus on avoiding cues than reducing stress or allowing yourself more time for your daily routine," said Professor Gillan.



These insights have far-reaching implications. They could reshape public health strategies and help policymakers design more effective health campaigns. 



"By working with - rather than against - how our brains naturally form habits, we can create strategies that make healthier choices more automatic at both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shopping-habits-have-remained-consistent-for-3500-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">individual</a> and societal levels," noted Professor Gillan.



In conclusion, this new approach to habit change has the potential to revolutionize both personal development and the treatment of compulsive disorders. 



The exciting findings from the <a href="https://www.tcd.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin</a> team have provided a new avenue for tapping into our brain's potential, making habit change achievable and lasting.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(24)00266-3?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1364661324002663%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Cognitive Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Brain science: A new approach to breaking bad habits

Bad habits are repetitive behaviors or patterns that may have...

There is a green deficit in our cities, and it's more serious than you think. A new study led by RMIT University in Australia highlights this glaring issue. The study measured access to nature in eight global cities and found most of them to be grossly deficient in canopy cover.



This is despite these cities having a significant number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-an-amazing-ability-to-adapt-to-new-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> in sight. The discrepancy lies in the lack of adequate "canopy cover" - the overhead layer of branches and leaves that provide shade, reducing temperatures and increasing green cover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-troubling-tree-deficit">Troubling tree deficit</h2>



Less than 30 percent of buildings in cities such as New York City, Amsterdam, Buenos Aires, and Denver were found to be in neighborhoods with adequate canopy cover.



New York and Amsterdam scored almost 0% for canopy cover, while a whopping 92 and 50 percent of their buildings, respectively, had views of at least three <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a>.



This research, a collaborative effort with the Technical University of Munich, studied over 2.5 million buildings across eight cities using the "3-30-300" rule, an emerging sustainable cities measure.



This innovative rule states that every home, school, and workplace should have a view of at least three <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a>, be located in a neighborhood with at least 30% canopy cover, and be within 300 meters of a park.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-canopy-cover-champions">Canopy cover champions</h2>



Among the cities studied, only Seattle and Singapore could pass the 30% canopy benchmark. In these cities, 45% and 75% of buildings, respectively, have the luxury of enjoying adequate shading.



But the access to parks is not consistent. Singapore and Amsterdam scored high, while Buenos Aires and New York City trailed behind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-more-canopy-cover">Need for more canopy cover</h2>



Dr. Thami Croeser, a lead researcher and an <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RMIT University</a> research fellow, found it alarming that a majority of the buildings studied failed the 30% tree canopy test.



Considering that 2023 was the hottest year on record and 25% of the global population experienced dangerous levels of extreme heat, canopy cover is an urgent requirement to cool down our cities, noted Dr. Croeser.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-tree-cover-in-cities">Benefits of tree cover in cities</h2>



"Previous research has shown depression, anxiety, obesity and heatstroke are more prevalent in urban areas that lack access to shady <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> canopy and green open spaces," said Dr. Croeser.



Environmentally, urban trees play a critical role in improving air quality by absorbing pollutants such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, while also filtering harmful particulate matter. 



Additionally, trees are essential for stormwater management, as their roots absorb rainfall and reduce the risk of flooding.



By storing carbon, urban forests help offset greenhouse gas emissions. They also provide vital habitats for birds, insects, and other wildlife, enhancing urban biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insufficiency-of-current-practices">Insufficiency of current practices</h2>



Dr. Croeser is critical of current methods of street design or retrofitting, which tend to prioritize infrastructure like cabling and pipelines over tree growth.



He advocates for a change in our practice, to prioritize green infrastructure and incorporate trees into early stages of design.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-struggles-of-urban-trees">Struggles of urban trees</h2>



Urban trees face a tough life. They are planted in compacted soil, covered with asphalt and lack proper water access.



Dr. Croeser argues that improving these conditions can greatly enhance the growth and longevity of urban trees, thus increasing canopy cover. The "3-30-300" rule might be relatively new, but it is rapidly gaining global acceptance.



This benchmark was devised by Dutch urban forestry expert Professor Cecil Konijnendijk.to set a definitive, evidence-based minimum for nature in cities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Professor Wolfgang Weisser from the <a href="https://www.tum.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Munich</a> and Dirk Voets, Senior Advisor Geospatial at Cobra Groeninzicht, have expressed support of the "3-30-300" rule and are optimistic about its potential.



The study is a clarion call for us to reassess our urban designs. The findings reach out to a global audience to advocate for more harmonious co-existence with nature in our urban spaces.



The research may ultimately be a catalyst for significant change, leading us to build more sustainable, liveable, and delightful cities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53402-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Most cities lack sufficient canopy cover, despite visible trees

There is a green deficit in our cities, and it's...

We think about the foods we consume daily and the impact of our diets on our health, but how often do we consider the broader implications of these choices on the health of our planet?



Can shifting to more sustainable diets simultaneously tackle climate change and global food insecurity? This is a delicate balance to strike, but the answer is a resounding "yes."



Before diving into this, though, we ought to remember the words of Joe DeCesaro, a data analyst at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a>’s National Center for Ecological Analysis &amp; Synthesis (NCEAS).



“Changes in food demand in one part of the world can have cascading environmental and human welfare implications for people around the world,” he cautioned.



DeCesaro and his team at the NCEAS have conducted a fascinating study that aimed to understand the environmental implications of a major shift towards four distinct types of diets, globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact-of-global-diet-shifts">Environmental impact of global diet shifts</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-food-system-is-unsustainable-and-must-be-transformed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food system</a> is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide, accounting for about a third of global greenhouse gas emissions and using more than 70% of freshwater resources.



Apart from this, agriculture causes significant land degradation and contributes to nutrient pollution in water bodies. 



One way to alleviate environmental pressure is to move towards more sustainable diets that reduce the consumption of resource-intensive food items, such as red meat, and increase the intake of nutrient-dense foods like vegetables and legumes.



Yet, DeCesaro's study reveals that diet change is only part of the solution. 



“We wanted to know who would actually be feeling the change from the food production if these shifts occur,” explained Ben Halpern, NCEAS director and a coauthor on the study.



The team, therefore, focused on understanding where and how environmental pressures might shift if global diets changed significantly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strengths-and-weaknesses-of-different-diets">Strengths and weaknesses of different diets</h2>



The study analyzed the global impact of shifting to four types of diets: Indian, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-can-lead-to-longer-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean</a>, EAT-Lancet (largely plant-based or "flexitarian"), and average government-recommended Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDGs).



The Indian diet emerged as the most beneficial, potentially leading to a 20.9% reduction in food production-based environmental pressure. In contrast, following FBDGs could result in a 35.2% increase in global environmental pressure.



The researchers utilized extensive data, including each country's average diets, trade flows, and the environmental pressures of food production worldwide.



“The research was motivated originally by the question: Who’s consumption is generating the pressures of food production that are being felt by people and places around the world?” explained DeCesaro.



“Are poorer countries paying the environmental price of producing higher pressure foods that are being eaten by richer countries, or vice versa?" 



"Our methods allow us to track changes in the environmental pressures from the producer to the consumer, and vice versa, in a standardized format across four pressures. Our work is quite novel in this space.”



The study found that the Indian diet - primarily due to its recommendation of zero <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-seafood-has-one-sixth-the-carbon-footprint-of-red-meat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">red meat</a> - was the most effective in reducing global cumulative pressure on environments.



This sharply contrasted with FBDGs, which typically recommend more red meat than what many countries currently consume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-high-income-countries">Learning from high-income countries</h2>



Interestingly, the study revealed that the majority of the reductions in global environmental pressure would come from high-income countries. 



“Higher-income countries’ average current diets have higher consumption quantities of most food categories than the recommended quantities in our diet scenarios,” said DeCesaro. 



This indicates that these countries are over-consuming, suggesting the potential for significant reductions in environmental pressure through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-dietary-shifts-could-keep-global-climate-goals-within-reach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dietary shifts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-sustainable-practices">Sharing sustainable practices</h2>



The research also revealed that a shift towards more sustainable, plant-forward diets could increase food-production-related environmental pressures in lower-income countries. 



However, DeCesaro noted, this increase is primarily due to these diets meeting more of the people's daily needs.



To ensure food security and equitable access to nutrition, he suggested that wealthier countries support by providing access to efficiently produced food imports and encouraging economic development to improve dietary health. This support could also include reducing environmental pressures from food production, promoting innovation and sharing sustainable food production practices.



In conclusion, the message, as summarized by Halpern, is clear: “The decisions we make about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-genes-identified-that-directly-influence-what-we-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">what we eat</a> are important for reducing our environmental footprint, but other people may pay the price for those decisions.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad8509">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Global diet shifts: The hidden costs of what we eat

We think about the foods we consume daily and the...

Have you ever wondered why dog brains exhibit such a wide range of behaviors across breeds? Or why the tiny chihuahua, despite its small stature, seems to have as much personality as the large, stoic St. Bernard? 



In the world of mammals, a larger brain size typically indicates advanced cognition. However, our loyal companions, domestic dogs, seem to defy this logic. 



Dogs have brains that are, on average, 20% smaller than their wild ancestors, the gray wolves. However, domestic dogs showcase a variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-and-human-brains-sync-up-during-eye-contact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive skills</a> that are on par with - and sometimes even surpass - the wolves’ capabilities.



This discrepancy challenges some of our conventional assumptions about the connection between brain size and intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-brains-and-their-size">Dog brains and their size</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.umontpellier.fr/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montpellier</a>, the University of Zurich, Naturhistorisches Museum Bern, and many other institutions recently embarked on a study to decipher the canine mystery.



The team set out to examine the potential link between breed function, behavior, and relative endocranial volume (REV) - an indicator of relative brain size.



The study included data from 1,682 dogs across 172 breeds, offering a diverse sample. A consistent method of measuring endocranial volumes was used across all dogs, ensuring reliable and accurate results.



Breed categorization was done based on traditional functions outlined by the American Kennel Club, with further analysis of phylogenetic clades. This comprehensive approach allowed the researchers to assess how historical and genetic factors play a role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-shrinking-brain-size-was-partially-caused-by-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain morphology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-correlation-or-causation">Correlation or causation?</h2>



The results showed a noteworthy correlation between relative endocranial volume and breed function, body size, phylogenetic clade, and cranial shape. 



However, an interesting twist emerged - the correlation between cranial shape and REV was surprisingly weak. It turns out that skull shape alone is not a strong predictor of the size of the brain within.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-behavior-and-brain-size">Dog behavior and brain size</h2>



Surprisingly, relative endocranial volume was found to increase with fear, aggression, attention-seeking, and separation anxiety, yet was found to decrease with trainability.



Curiously, our tiny toy breeds, typically bred for companionship, possess the largest relative brain sizes compared to their body mass.



In contrast, working breeds, often selected for complex tasks like guarding, rescue, and policing, exhibit the smallest relative endocranial volume.



This inverse relationship suggests that complex skills, traditionally associated with higher cognition, don't necessarily require larger brains in dogs. What's more, cooperative behaviors showed no significant correlation with relative endocranial volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessment-tools-and-behavioral-traits">Assessment tools and behavioral traits</h2>



The researchers used the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ), covering a broad spectrum of temperaments, from trainability to various forms of aggression and fear responses.



The study’s intriguing findings reveal the intricate relationship between a dog's brain structure, behavior, and breed. It suggests the incredibly adaptability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-slower-helps-dogs-understand-what-humans-are-saying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> size under domestication and the pressures of artificial selection.



The project was led by Dr. Anne-Claude Gingras of the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, whose extensive work in the field of canine behavior and morphology played a significant role in this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-breeding-and-training">Implications for breeding and training</h2>



The research findings have significant implications for both breeding practices and training methodologies. 



Understanding the relationship between brain size, behavior, and breed function can refine breeding strategies to enhance specific traits without relying solely on physical attributes. 



For instance, selecting for desirable behaviors such as sociability or ease of training could be more effectively achieved by considering a breed's endogenous cognitive tendencies rather than focusing only on size or strength. 



Moreover, trainers could tailor their techniques based on a deeper awareness of the intrinsic behavioral propensities associated with different breeds, maximizing the potential of each dog through customized training regimes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dog-brains">Future research on dog brains</h2>



The study opens new avenues for research into canine cognition, emphasizing the complexity of the relationship between brain morphology and behavior. 



Future investigations could expand the range of behaviors examined, incorporating modern techniques such as neuroimaging to delve deeper into the functional aspects of canine brains. 



Longitudinal studies might explore how domestic dogs' cognitive abilities evolve over time and in response to different environmental influences or societal changes. 



Additionally, comparative studies across other domesticated species may yield insights into the broader processes governing brain evolution in response to domestication. 



Through continued exploration, scientists can deepen our understanding of the domestication process and the unique capacities of our canine companions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0342" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dog breed behavior linked to brain size

Have you ever wondered why dog brains exhibit such a...

Scientists have recently described a new species of hermit crab that is sure to capture the fascination of both the scientific community and the general public.



Strigopagurus fragarchela, or Strawberry Claws as it is fondly known, is a large hermit crab species that sports a distinctive crimson hue on the tips of its claws and waling legs. Named after its vibrant, red appendages, the crab looks as if it got caught red-handed - or rather red-clawed - in a strawberry patch.



The scientific title of this new hermit crab <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-did-billions-of-crabs-vanish-from-the-bering-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> is a clever blend of the Latin form of "strawberry" (fragaria) and "chela." The name highlights a unique feature of this creature - its bright red claws and walking legs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-the-hermit-crab">Uncovering the hermit crab</h2>



Peter Davie, an Honorary at <a href="https://www.museum.qld.gov.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queensland Museum</a>, and Dr. Marissa McNamara, the Collection Manager, are the scientists behind the discovery of this unique species of crab.



They found it lurking in relatively deep waters, around 120-260 meters below the surface, off the coast of south-eastern Queensland. And, in recognition of its distinct appearance, it has been given the common name "strawberry-clawed hermit."



According to Dr. McNamara, Strawberry Claws' distinctiveness doesn't end with its vibrant color.



She noted that the strawberry-clawed hermit possesses a unique method of producing underwater sound, something called stridulation, which is akin to the natural music that cicadas play above water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hermit-crabs-of-australia">Hermit crabs of Australia </h2>



The experts knew instantly, upon discovering the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/billions-of-snow-crabs-vanished-due-to-rising-ocean-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crab</a>, that they were on to something special. The identification of Strigopagurus fragarchela brings an exciting addition to its genus. 



Australia seems to be the stronghold for this family of hermit crabs. The land down under boasts four endemic species, and among these, two species are exclusively found in Queensland.



There is still much to learn about these unique hermit crabs. Most of their ecology remains a mystery, as they have only been collected in trawler catches.



However, the crabs undoubtedly play a crucial role in enriching the biological diversity of the continental shelf communities off south-eastern Queensland.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insight-into-hermit-crab-behavior">Insight into hermit crab behavior</h2>



The behavior of hermit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-mollusk-glowing-sea-slug-found-in-the-deep-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crabs</a> such as Strawberry Claws provides a rich avenue for scientific inquiry. Hermit crabs do not create their shells but instead repurpose shells discarded by gastropods.



This behavior not only highlights their resourcefulness but also their role in the ecosystem in recycling valuable calcium carbonate material. 



Recent observations indicate that strawberry-clawed hermits are particularly discerning when choosing their homes, often selecting shells that complement and enhance their striking appearance.



This preference suggests a sophisticated level of decision-making that could offer insights into the cognitive abilities of these crustaceans and make them valuable subjects in behavioral studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-studies">Conservation and future studies</h2>



With the discovery of Strigopagurus fragarchela, attention turns to its conservation status and what measures might be needed to ensure its survival.



The influence of deep-sea fishing and potential climate change impacts on this species are currently unknown. 



Future studies are essential to develop a deeper understanding of their habitat requirements, ecology and life cycle. Collaboration between marine biologists, ecologists, and conservationists is crucial to formulating strategies that can protect these fascinating creatures. 



By preserving their environment, we not only safeguard Strawberry Claws but also contribute to the health of marine ecosystems as a whole. This new discovery serves as a catalyst for continued exploration and conservation in the vast, largely unexplored underwater worlds of Australia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-untapped-mysteries-of-the-ocean">Untapped mysteries of the ocean</h2>



Queensland Museum CEO, Dr. Jim Thompson, has expressed high praise for the contributions of Peter Davie and Dr. Marissa McNamara. They made use of museum specimens of other Strigopagurus hermit crabs to support the identification of the new species.



"Our natural history collections are more than just preserved specimens - they are vital tools for&nbsp;<a href="https://phys.org/tags/scientific+discovery/">scientific discovery</a>, conservation and public education," Dr. Thompson said.



"The work of the scientists and researchers at Queensland Museum helps in providing a record of our state's biodiversity for future generations."



The discovery of the strawberry-clawed hermit crab is a fascinating reminder of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-life-100-new-sea-creatures-found-in-chile/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">untapped mysteries</a> our oceans hold.



We need to celebrate these curious and vital components of our rich biodiversity as we continue to explore the wonders of our natural world. After all, who knows what else is waiting to be discovered?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.museum.qld.gov.au/collections-and-research/memoirs/nature-65/mqm-n65-7-davie-mcnamara" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Memoirs of the Queensland Museum – Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Queensland Museum 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Strawberry Claws: The hermit crab that sings underwater

Scientists have recently described a new species of hermit crab...

Researchers recently provided the first experimental evidence that hints at a trigger for social learning in the wild, particularly in birds.



Their study of great tits (Parus major) led to the discovery that immigration can make birds pay close attention to their peers' activities, which leads to the swift adoption of useful behaviors. 



Interestingly, it is a long-assumed theory that immigration is a fundamental factor that boosts strategic social learning in birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pioneers-of-social-learning">Pioneers of social learning</h2>



A lot of animals learn from one another, especially in the wild. A new study has now focused on social learning in a specific bird species, the great tit.



These birds gained fame in the 1920s when they began to open foil milk bottle lids to feed on the cream inside them.



People across Europe started to find their milk bottles raided by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-birds-commit-to-caring-for-young-males-abandon-family-life/">bird</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-birds-commit-to-caring-for-young-males-abandon-family-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">s</a>, a behavior that spread rapidly and led scientists to speculate that these birds were learning from each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secret-of-bird-learning">Secret of bird learning</h2>



Research in 2015 by Lucy Aplin, then at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>, addressed this speculation in an experiment on a population of great tits in an English forest.



The results revealed that these birds learned how to free food from a puzzle box by mimicking others. This supported the theory that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-have-regional-accents-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> were probably passing on this thieving behavior to the rest of their flock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-logic-behind-social-learning-in-birds">Logic behind social learning in birds</h2>



"Paying attention to what others are doing gives you the chance to see whether a new behavior is beneficial, or potentially dangerous. Copying it means that you too can reap the reward," explained study lead author and postdoctoral researcher Michael Chimento, who worked with Aplin's team.



This notion fits well into the framework of survival instincts present in wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/translocated-birds-can-learn-the-local-songs-to-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, where learning and adopting advantageous behaviors could spell the difference between life and death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-catalyst-of-learning-in-the-wild">Catalyst of learning in the wild</h2>



Chimento and Aplin wanted to identify a specific trigger or component that could propel social learning. Theoretical models suggested that animals should change their social learning strategy when faced with new environments. 



Essentially, an animal in a new habitat may be more inclined to learn from others. However, this theory had not been experimentally tested in non-human animals until the current study.



The team formulated an experiment, using an automated puzzle box system, to test this hypothesis. They first created experimental social groups of wild-caught great tits.



Each group had a tutor bird that was trained to access food from a puzzle box by pushing the door either left or right.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immigrant-birds-adapt-to-new-methods">Immigrant birds adapt to new methods</h2>



The scientists also simulated an immigration event. Birds trained to push right were transferred to aviaries where resident birds were using the left-hand solution, and vice versa. 



Most "immigrant" birds switched their method immediately. They adopted the resident solution on their first try, suggesting social learning was at play.



Interestingly, these immigrant birds were not only moved to a location where residents were getting better food; their visual environment was also dramatically altered. 



The scientists changed the foliage in the experimental aviaries, which proved to be a game-changer for learning. Immigrant birds moved to locations where the vegetation was not changed were much slower to learn the behaviors of the local birds. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-survival-strategy">Critical survival strategy</h2>



This fascinating study provides the first experimental evidence showing the powerful impact of immigration on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-bird-sheds-light-on-the-evolution-of-vocal-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals learn</a> from one another.



In nature, animals are frequently moving from one environment to another, so it is advantageous to have a strategy for discerning useful and maladaptive behaviors in new places.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research </h2>



The implications of this research extend beyond avian social learning and touch upon ecosystem dynamics as a whole. 



When animals, such as great tits, migrate and adapt quickly to new surroundings by learning from resident species, it affects the composition and interaction patterns within ecosystems.



This behavior supports biodiversity and enhances the resilience of ecosystems by enabling a variety of species to coexist, despite changes in environmental conditions or the introduction of new species.



Understanding these dynamics can inform conservation strategies, and highlight the role of social learning in ecosystems that are facing climate change and habitat destruction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-learning-and-human-parallels">Social learning and human parallels</h2>



Remarkably, the patterns of social learning observed in birds find parallels in human behavior, particularly in how knowledge and cultural practices are spread across communities. 



Like the great tits, humans often adapt to new environments by observing and mimicking the behaviors of others. This capability has been crucial in our evolution, allowing communities to adapt rapidly and thrive in diverse and changing environments.



The study of social learning in birds, therefore, offers valuable insights into the evolutionary mechanisms that have shaped not only avian species but also human society. Such studies illustrate the interconnectedness of all life and the shared strategies that underpin survival and adaptation.



Our understanding of social learning in animals can contribute significantly to preserving biodiversity and ensuring species survival. 



With such experimental evidence, we can better understand the coping mechanisms and adaptive behaviors animals employ in their constantly changing environments.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002699" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Immigrant birds learn useful behaviors from their neighbors

Researchers recently provided the first experimental evidence that hints at...

Every day, we share our cities with an array of wildlife. From birds and insects to squirrels and raccoons, these creatures navigate the concrete jungles alongside us. 



But in Los Angeles, a global city of over 18 million people, there's another species sharing the living space - the elusive mountain lion. 



A recent study from the University of California (UC), Davis, Cal Poly Pomona, and the National Park Service highlights an intriguing aspect of urban wildlife. 



The researchers found that mountain lions of Los Angeles are shifting their activities, avoiding typically human-frequented spaces to maintain a safe distance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-habits-of-mountain-lions">Changing habits of mountain lions</h2>



As urban centers grow, wildlife is increasingly adapting to human proximity. The study revealed that mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honoring-the-king-of-the-jungle-on-world-lion-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lions</a> in areas with higher levels of human recreation were more nocturnal than their counterparts in secluded regions.



The cats in more remote places preferred being more active during dawn and dusk, showing a stark contrast in their activity patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexibility-in-mountain-lion-activity">Flexibility in mountain lion activity</h2>



Ellie Bolas is Ph.D. candidate in the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucdavis.edu%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a> Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology and the study's lead author.



"This flexibility we see in mountain lion activity is what allows us to share these natural areas together. Mountain lions are doing the work so that coexistence can happen," said Bolas.



From 2011 to 2018, the research team monitored 22 mountain lions living in the Santa Monica Mountains and the surrounding region. 



These mountain lions, captured and fitted with GPS and accelerometer collars, provided crucial data that was analyzed alongside a global database of GPS-tracked human activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-impact-on-mountain-lions">Human impact on mountain lions</h2>



"The study shows how humans may be affecting wildlife in less obvious ways than killing them with vehicles," noted Seth Riley, branch chief for wildlife at Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area.



According to Riley, it is remarkable that a large felid predator still persists in one of the world's largest urban areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-lions-responding-to-humans">Mountain lions responding to humans</h2>



In the most active recreational area, Griffith Park, mountain lions acted differently compared to those in the lesser active Santa Susana Mountains and Los Padres National Forest. 



Generally, female lions were more active closer to sunrise and during daylight hours, likely to strategically avoid male lions who posed threats to them and their kittens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nocturnal-mountain-lions">Nocturnal mountain lions</h2>



Two male mountain lions living in small, isolated natural areas with many trails and high levels of human recreation were found to be the most nocturnal. 



Both of these cats occupied two of the smallest home ranges ever recorded for male adult lions. P41, the study's most nocturnal lion, lived in the Verdugo Mountains, a small range spanning several cities.



P22, known as the "Hollywood Cat," preferred to keep a low profile despite the fame he earned after crossing two busy freeways to find a home in active Griffith Park. He was the second most nocturnal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steller-sea-lions-threatened-by-rising-mercury-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lion</a> in the study.



P22's story demonstrates how, when faced with increased human activity, mountain lions actively avoid human contact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-humans-can-help-these-big-cats">How humans can help these big cats</h2>



While mountain lions show remarkable adaptability, coexistence isn't a one-way street. We can contribute by understanding that dawn or dusk is prime time for mountain lion activity, and by being extra cautious when driving at night.



Urban areas pose various challenges for mountain lions, including busy roadways, wildfires, rodenticide exposure, low genetic diversity, and fragmented habitats.



"Even something as innocuous as recreation can add to these other stressors, potentially altering the amount of energy they have to expend for hunting and other needs," said Bolas.



"Coexistence is happening, and it’s in large part because of what mountain lions are doing."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peaceful-human-wildlife-coexistence">Peaceful human-wildlife coexistence </h2>



In the quest for peaceful human-wildlife <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fhuman-wildlife-overlap-is-rapidly-rising-across-the-globe%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coexistence</a>, this research offers a ray of hope. It's impressive how mountain lions, magnificent creatures who are integral to the ecosystem, are making changes to their behavior for a shared existence with humans.



Their adaptation serves as a gentle reminder of the resilience of nature and the potential for coexistence if both humans and wildlife are willing to adjust.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320724003744?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mountain lions cleverly change their habits to avoid humans

Every day, we share our cities with an array of...

The,Great,Lakes,,Aerial,Turquoise,Ocean,Photo,From,Clear,Sky,

Scientists have uncovered a disturbing twist in how climate change affects our oceans, revealing that tiny changes at the bottom of the food chain can have massive impacts on most fish populations.



The findings of a recent study highlight the intricate workings of the ocean's food web and how it's more vulnerable to warming temperatures than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-ocean-creatures-big-fish-impact">Tiny ocean creatures, big fish impact</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-heatwaves-have-complex-effects-on-phytoplankton-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phytoplankton</a> are tiny, plant-like organisms that float around in oceans, seas, and lakes. Even though you can't see them without a microscope, they're incredibly important. 



They use sunlight to make their own food through photosynthesis, just like plants do on land. In the process, they produce a huge amount of the Earth's oxygen -- some estimates say up to half of it. 



These little guys are the starting point of the food chain in aquatic environments, feeding small fish, shrimp, and other marine creatures.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-from-africa-sparked-a-massive-phytoplankton-bloom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phytoplankton</a> also play a big role in absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping to regulate our planet's climate. But they're sensitive to changes in their environment, like warming waters.



When climate models predict that warming oceans will reduce phytoplankton levels by 16% to 26% in regions like the North Atlantic, it's a cause for concern.



But here's where it gets alarming: the study found that this seemingly modest drop in phytoplankton could slash the ocean's capacity to support fish by a staggering 38% to 55%. That's more than double the initial decrease in phytoplankton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-phytoplankton-and-the-hidden-amplifier">Phytoplankton and the hidden amplifier</h2>



Dr. Angus Atkinson from the <a href="https://pml.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plymouth Marine Laboratory</a> and Dr. Axel Rossberg of <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University</a> of London led the research team behind this discovery.



They took a straightforward approach by examining real-world data on plankton sizes from oceans, seas, and lakes around the globe. 



By looking at the sizes of plankton, they could determine how efficiently energy moves up the food chain -- from tiny phytoplankton to the fish we rely on.



This amplification effect hinges on a surprising twist: temperature, often blamed for food web disruptions, appears to play a secondary role. 



Instead, the key driver is the overall amount of phytoplankton, which governs how efficiently energy flows from tiny plankton to larger fish.



"Our global analysis sheds light on a hidden vulnerability," explained Dr. Atkinson. "We were surprised to find temperature didn't directly affect food web efficiency. Instead, we see ecosystems <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapting to warming</a> by changing plankton size. "



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutrients-the-unsung-hero">Nutrients: The unsung hero</h2>



In the open ocean, nutrients come from deeper waters. As the surface warms, it becomes more layered, making it harder for these nutrients to reach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/spectacular-phytoplankton-bloom-in-the-north-atlantic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton at the top</a>.



"Close to shore or in lakes, excess nutrients from land can cause imbalances like harmful algal blooms," notes Dr. Rossberg. 



"But at the vast scales relevant to climate change, it's the lack of nutrients from deeper waters that becomes the major bottleneck."



To clarify, warming oceans, seas, and lakes impact fish indirectly by reducing nutrient supply from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-legacy-decades-old-ddt-found-in-deep-sea-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deeper waters</a>, ultimately shrinking phytoplankton size and hindering energy transfer throughout the food web.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-impact-for-ocean-fish">Real world impact for ocean fish</h2>



When phytoplankton numbers change, the impact can ripple through the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystem</a>, impacting everything from water quality to the abundance of fish.



This isn't just a problem for the fish; it's a problem the planet. Many communities around the world depend on fishing for food and livelihood. 



The study highlights the need to consider climate change impacts when managing fisheries.



"Global averages can mask the true picture," explains Dr. Atkinson. "Some of the most significant projected declines are in areas with concentrated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-stocks-are-collapsing-globally-as-overfishing-continues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing activities</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



So, what can we do about it? The researchers suggest a multi-pronged approach to ensure sustainable fisheries in the face of climate change. 



"We need a combination of data on plankton size structure and sophisticated computer simulation models to design truly 'climate-smart' ocean protection strategies," concludes Dr. Rossberg. 



"By understanding the hidden amplifiers within the food web, we can better safeguard the future of our oceans and the vital resources they provide."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oceans-fish-and-the-global-food-chain">Oceans, fish, and the global food chain</h2>



To sum it all up, these scientists found that even a small drop in phytoplankton levels due to warming oceans can massively reduce fish populations. 



They discovered that it's not just the temperature rise itself causing problems, but the decrease in nutrients reaching these tiny organisms. 



This leads to smaller plankton and less efficient energy transfer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-awakening-arctic-food-webs-are-transforming-from-green-to-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">up the food chain</a>, which is bad news for fish and, by extension, us.



This study underscores underscores the interconnectedness of Earth's ecosystem. Tiny changes at the bottom can have huge impacts at the top. 



It's a reminder that we need to pay attention to even the smallest players in the ecosystem if we want to protect the health of our planet. 



By understanding these hidden mechanisms, we can work towards smarter strategies to safeguard our oceans and the communities that rely on them.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-44406-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Oceans and lakes will soon be unable to support fish populations

Scientists have uncovered a disturbing twist in how climate change...

In a refreshing attempt to understanding animal consciousness and emotions, a group of researchers from various disciplines have come together to share their thoughts.



The research team was led by Dr. Marcela Benítez, assistant professor of anthropology at Emory University. 



"As far as we know, this is the first assessment of how animal behavior researchers across a range of disciplines think about emotions and consciousness in non-human animals," said Professor Benítez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-animal-emotions">Quantifying animal emotions</h2>



The research shows that a majority of the researchers ascribed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-emotions-evoke-different-responses-in-dogs-and-pigs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions</a> to non-human primates (98%), mammals (89%), birds (78%), and even to octopus, squids, and cuttlefish (72%), and fish (53%). 



Incredibly, sentiments are even expressed towards invertebrates (71%) and insects (67%).



Anthromorphism - projecting human experiences onto <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-feel-our-emotions-through-our-heart-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> - and anthropodenial - the denial of any human characteristics in animals - were identified as hazards in animal behavioral research.



Surprisingly, 89% of the respondents thought anthropodenial was more problematic compared to only 49% who thought anthromorphism posed a risk. "That seems like a significant shift," said Professor Benítez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-animal-emotion-studies">History of animal emotion studies</h2>



The question of whether animals experience emotions has kept thinkers busy since Aristotle and Descartes. 



Charles Darwin also addressed this topic, writing that “the lower animals, like man, manifestly feel pleasure and pain, happiness and misery.” 



However, mid-20th-century behavioral theorists dismissed the study of animal emotions since these feelings were seen as scientifically unquantifiable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-study-of-animal-cognition">The study of animal cognition</h2>



The late primatologist Frans de Waal, an emeritus professor of psychology at Emory, revolutionized the study of animal cognition through his profound studies. 



"Frans de Waal definitely helped kick open the door," said Benítez, crediting him for enabling new scientists to question the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inner lives of animals</a>.



Matthew Zipple, a neurobiologist at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>’s Laboratory for Animal Social Evolution and Recognition, is the paper's first author. Emory postdoctoral fellow Mackenzie Webster and philosopher Caleb Hazelwood were also part of the team.



Professor Benítez, whose research focuses on cooperation and other social behaviors in capuchin monkeys, recognizes the influence of de Waal's work in her career.



"A key component of cooperation often involves forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recognizing-emotions-in-horses-can-improve-their-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional bonds</a> with one another. So, I can’t shy away from considering emotions in my research," she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survey-on-animal-emotions">Survey on animal emotions</h2>



To examine researchers' perceptions on animal emotions, Professor Benítez and her team developed a meticulous survey that was distributed to graduate school programs in animal behavior research across various disciplines.



The respondents included several specialities - behavioral ecologists, evolutionary biologists, neuroscientists, cognitive psychologists, biological psychologists, and more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-defining-emotion-in-animals">Challenges in defining emotion in animals</h2>



Towards the end of the survey, respondents were asked to define "emotion."



“I don’t have a clear definition either,” said Benítez. “I see emotions as a sort of internal process in responding to external stimuli that has an impact on how a situation is perceived. I go to the most basic definition because that allows us to explore that capacity in non-human primates.”



Animal studies present unique challenges. A key issue in lab experiments is replicating the animal's natural environment. In the wild, it's difficult to design and control the experiment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-solutions-for-age-old-challenges">Innovative solutions for age-old challenges</h2>



Professor Benítez is pioneering a new approach to bridge this gap. She co-directs the Capuchins de Taboga Costa Rica project, which studies both captive and wild capuchins.



Her team is using AI techniques, facial recognition software, and touch screen computers on presentation platforms in the wild to better understand capuchin monkey behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethical-implications-of-animal-studies">Ethical implications of animal studies</h2>



The exploration of animal consciousness and emotions extends beyond the realms of science and ethics, challenging the moral considerations and treatment of animals across various settings. 



Researchers must navigate complex ethical terrains, balancing scientific inquiry with the welfare and respectful treatment of the animals involved. 



The understanding that animals might possess emotions akin to humans necessitates humane treatment protocols and raises questions about the ethical implications of using animals in research, entertainment, and agriculture. 



As research in this field progresses, there remains an ongoing dialogue regarding the responsibility of scientists to advocate for policies that protect animal rights while advancing scientific knowledge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-animal-emotion-research">The future of animal emotion research</h2>



Looking ahead, the future of animal emotion research promises to integrate even more advanced methodologies and cross-disciplinary collaborations that push the boundaries of our understanding. 



As AI and machine learning continue to evolve, these technologies offer new ways of analyzing and interpreting animal behaviors at unprecedented scales, providing deeper insights into their emotional lives. 



Additionally, promoting collaborations between behavioral scientists, technologists, ethicists, and policymakers can help develop innovative approaches that are scientifically rigorous and ethically sound. 



Embracing these future directions can drive the field toward more holistic understandings of non-human animals, ultimately transforming how society views and interacts with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-animal-day-2024-building-a-legacy-of-compassion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>.



“We’ve only scratched the surface of exploring what animals are capable of experiencing,” said Professor Benítez.



“Understanding the evolution of emotions is integral to understanding our own ancestry. In what ways are we a unique species? It’s an exciting time as new methods may help us better understand how an animal may be feeling and how that links to the decisions they make.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241255" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Animals, possibly even insects, have emotions

In a refreshing attempt to understanding animal consciousness and emotions,...

The planet keeps surprising us with its hidden wonders, even in a time when we thought we had seen it all. The latest surprise is a gigantic coral organism, so immense that it can be seen from space, concealed below the waters of the Solomon Islands.



This colossal coral has a staggering circumference of 183 meters. It's not a simple, singular life form, but an intricate collection of individual coral polyps. 



The massive coral system is estimated to have been growing and expanding for the past three to five centuries.



The location of this underwater marvel? The region of the western <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-coral-reefs-have-naturally-increased-their-heat-tolerance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific</a>, often referred to as the "coral triangle." 



The scientists who have brought this hidden gem to light are members of the National Geographic Pristine Seas team.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-massive-coral">Significance of the massive coral</h2>



As active as a bustling city, yet as quiet as a vast desert, this formation is a haven teeming with an array of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1-8-million-species-are-yet-to-be-identified-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a>, including various fish, crabs, and shrimps.



It isn't just a large rock but a living, pulsating ecosystem that's mostly brown with splashes of vivid yellows, blues, and reds. This magnificent coral is lovingly referred to as the "Pavona clavus."



According to Enric Sala, a marine ecologist and explorer in residence for <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic</a>, the discovery of this coral is as monumental as finding the world's tallest tree.



"Just when we think there is nothing left to discover on planet Earth, we find a massive coral made of nearly 1bn little polyps, pulsing with life and color," said Sala.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millions-of-connected-organisms">Millions of connected organisms</h2>



The colossal coral stands in stark contrast to a traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-coral-reefs-crackle-with-the-sounds-of-busy-inhabitants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reef</a>. The latter is a complex network of many coral colonies, whereas this discovery is a standalone entity.



It has grown nonstop with polyps originating from larvae that settled on the seabed and then multiplied into millions of other genetically identical polyps over the centuries.



When the team initially spotted this organism, which is 34 meters wide, 32 meters long, and more than 5 meters high, they mistook it for a shipwreck. 



The expedition’s underwater cinematographer took the plunge more than 12 meters down to the coral and discovered it was, in fact, a Pavona clavus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-discovery-means">What this discovery means </h2>



Ronnie Posala, an officer for the Solomon Islands fisheries ministry, commented on the significance of the discovery. 



“For the people of the Solomon Islands, this mega coral discovery is monumental. It reinforces the importance of our ocean, which sustains our communities, traditions, and future," said Posala.



He emphasizes how such discoveries remind us of our duty to safeguard these natural wonders for their ecological value and the livelihoods and cultural identity they provide.



Eric Brown, a coral scientist for the Pristine Seas expedition, views the giant coral system as an encouraging sign. 



“While the nearby shallow reefs were degraded due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/in-warmer-seas-cold-spells-are-vanishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warmer seas</a>, witnessing this large healthy coral oasis in slightly deeper waters is a beacon of hope," said Brown. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-resilience-and-threats">Coral resilience and threats</h2>



The discovery of this giant coral serves as a powerful reminder of the resilience of our complex marine ecosystems, but also highlights the ongoing threats they face.



Coral reefs worldwide are increasingly impacted by climate change, pollution, and unsustainable fishing practices. 



The Solomon Islands' Pavona clavus, flourishing in slightly deeper waters, may highlight a potential adaptation strategy against warming seas, demonstrating that some corals may survive where others cannot.



Scientists hope that this remarkable find will prompt further research into how deeper-water corals manage to thrive despite changing conditions, potentially offering insights into preserving and protecting more vulnerable shallow reef systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-the-biggest-threats-to-coral-reefs">What are the biggest threats to coral reefs?</h2>



Coral reefs are under significant threat due to a combination of natural and human-induced factors. 



Climate change plays a major role, as rising ocean temperatures cause coral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-heatwave-led-to-massive-coral-bleaching-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching</a> - a process where corals lose their vibrant colors and vital symbiotic algae, often leading to death.



Additionally, increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere contribute to ocean acidification, which weakens coral skeletons and hinders their growth.



Human activities such as overfishing disrupt the delicate balance of reef ecosystems by removing key species that help maintain the health of the coral. 



Pollution further exacerbates the problem, with agricultural runoff introducing excessive nutrients into the water, leading to algal blooms that outcompete corals for sunlight and space. 



Efforts to protect coral reefs focus on addressing these threats through global and local actions, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, implementing sustainable practices, and restoring damaged reef areas.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Largest coral in the world found in the Solomon islands

The planet keeps surprising us with its hidden wonders, even...

In a quiet and picturesque corner of southern Brazil known as Paraíso do Sul, an extraordinary treasure was uncovered -- a fossil so ancient and well-preserved that it may potentially rewrite the narrative of dinosaur evolution.



This remarkable fossil belonged to a dog-sized reptile named Gondwanax paraisensis that roamed the region approximately 237 million years ago. 



This was during the Triassic period -- a time when Earth’s ecosystems were teeming with evolutionary experiments.



As a newly identified species, this fossil holds tremendous potential as a key to unraveling the mysteries surrounding the origin and early development of the oldest dinosaurs.



Although this fascinating discovery has sparked significant intrigue and excitement among paleontologists, the exact position of the fossil in the complex evolutionary tree of life still remains a subject of debate and careful scientific scrutiny.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-history-written-in-stone">Dinosaur history written in stone</h2>



In the realms of science, every fossil discovery is like a puzzle piece that can help us better understand our past. And when it comes to the world of paleontology, there are still many puzzles waiting to be solved.



Gondwanax paraisensis walked on four legs and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwanax#/media/File:Gondwanax_paraisensis.png" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">was 39 inches in length</a>, with a long tail. It belonged to an extinct group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-climate-change-drove-the-rapid-evolution-of-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> known as silesaurids. These were not true dinosaurs, but are considered a closely related sister group to the dinosaurs.



However, this newly discovered fossil is one of the oldest silesaurids found anywhere in the world, and it may lead scientists to challenge currently accepted theories about the lineage and early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-may-have-become-warm-blooded-180-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of dinosaurs</a>.



"The most important part of this finding is its age,” said Rodrigo Temp Müller, the sole author of the study and a paleontologist at <a href="https://www.ufsm.br/orgaos-de-apoio/sai/welcome-to-ufsm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Santa Maria</a> in Brazil. “Because it's so old, it gives us clues as to how dinosaurs came to be."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-currently-accepted-dinosaur-evolution-theory">Currently accepted dinosaur evolution theory</h2>



Scientists think dinosaurs first appeared about 230 million years ago during the Triassic period. They evolved from earlier reptiles and quickly diversified into a bunch of different species. 



Over time, dinosaurs became the dominant land animals, filling all sorts of ecological roles. Some grew to massive sizes like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra-new-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered-in-spain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sauropods</a>, while others became fierce predators like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>. 



It's wild to consider how they adapted and evolved unique features like horns, armor, and even feathers over millions of years.



One of the coolest things we've learned is that not all dinosaurs went extinct -- birds are actually their modern descendants. 



Birds evolved from small, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathered theropods</a>, meaning every time you see a pigeon or a hawk, you're looking at a living dinosaur. 



This evolutionary link is supported by numerous fossil discoveries that show similarities in skeletal structures, feather patterns, and nesting behaviors. 



Additionally, ongoing research continues to uncover how dinosaurs interacted with their environments and each other, shedding light on their complex social behaviors and survival strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-lineage-of-questions">A lineage of questions</h2>



There is an ongoing debate among paleontologists about where silesaurids fit in terms of dinosaur evolution. Were they actual dinosaurs or were they just closely related ancestors?



The answer to this question is not straightforward. Some scientists believe that silesaurids are a sister group to dinosaurs, implying that they share a common ancestor but evolved separately.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Gondwanax-paraisensis_history-of-dinosaurs_illustration_credit-Gondwana-research_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Gondwanax-paraisensis_history-of-dinosaurs_illustration_credit-Gondwana-research_1s.webp" alt="Illustration showing the evolution of dinosaurs on the Gondwana continent of ancient Earth. Credit: Gondwana research" class="wp-image-1950311"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration showing the evolution of dinosaurs on the Gondwana continent of ancient Earth. Credit: Gondwana research</figcaption></figure>



Others, however, hypothesize that some silesaurids may have evolved into ornithischians -- <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/isle-of-wight-fossils-suggest-that-europe-had-unique-plant-eating-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivorous dinosaurs</a>, such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/armor-was-a-boomerang-trait-in-the-story-of-dinosaur-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stegosaurus</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triceratops-dinosaurs-seem-to-have-developed-complex-social-structures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triceratops</a>, that possessed a bird-like pelvic structure.



Understanding silesaurids could potentially lead to a better understanding of what physical traits contributed to the success of early dinosaurs.



However, solving this puzzle has not been an easy task as many fossils of silesaurids are found incomplete or fragmented, making it difficult for scientists to reach consensus regarding the position of silesaurids in the evolutionary tree of dinosaurs. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-clues-about-the-history-of-dinosaurs">New clues about the history of dinosaurs </h2>



Physician Pedro Lucas Porcela Aurélio, who discovered the new fossil in 2014, was hit by an indescribable feeling. "Being the first human to touch something from 237 million years ago is extraordinary," he remarked.



When Aurélio handed over the fossil to the paleontologists in 2021, it was encased in hard rock with only the vertebrae visible. 



Surprisingly, Gondwanax was found to have three vertebrae in its hips, unlike its relatives who only had two. This difference suggested that this reptile may have been more dinosaur-like than previously assumed.



If this hypothesis is confirmed, it would not only extend the history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-bird-hipped-dinosaurs-evolve/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ornithischians</a> (bird-like dinosaurs) by up to ten million years, but it would also significantly alter our understanding of dinosaur origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Despite the enthusiasm around the discovery, scientists still need more fossil evidence to confirm this theory. 



Steve Brusatte, a paleontologist from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a>, highlighted this need for further exploration. 



"I wish I could say that this new silesaurid fossil solves the riddle once and for all," he said. "But for me, it is still an open question."



We will be waiting eagerly for more pieces of this ancient puzzle to surface. Until then, the mystery of the dog-sized reptile continues to linger.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X24002764" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rare Triassic fossil discovery may rewrite the history of dinosaurs

In a quiet and picturesque corner of southern Brazil known...

Roughly 233 million years ago, Earth's continents were fused into one massive landmass, and life as we know it was on the brink of transformation due to a one-million-year period of rain called the Carnian Pluvial Episode (CPE).



An international team of scientists has found evidence of this significant extinction event, which appears to have paved the way for dinosaurs to become the dominant creatures on Earth.



Involved in this important research are Dr. Jacopo Dal Corso from the <a href="https://en.cug.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">China University of Geosciences</a> at Wuhan and Professor Mike Benton from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>. 



Their collaborative efforts have pieced together a pivotal moment in our planet's history that reshaped life both on land and in the oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carnian-pluvial-episode">Carnian Pluvial Episode</h2>



Back in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-dinosaurs-benefited-from-changes-in-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Triassic period</a>, all the continents were joined together in a supercontinent known as Pangea, surrounded by the vast Panthalassa Ocean. The interior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangea</a> was mostly dry and arid, with rainfall occurring mainly near the coastal regions. 



This dry spell took a dramatic turn when a layer of dark gray rock was discovered in Austria's Northern Limestone Alps in the 1970s by geologists Schlager and Schollnberger. 



This layer indicated wet conditions sandwiched between arid periods, suggesting a global climate event -- the Carnian Pluvial Episode.



So, what caused this sudden shift to a wetter climate? The main culprit appears to be massive volcanic eruptions in the Wrangellia Province, an area that now includes parts of Alaska and British Columbia. 



These eruptions released enormous amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-rocks-reveal-new-details-about-earths-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> into the atmosphere. 



"The eruptions peaked in the Carnian," notes Dr. Jacopo Dal Corso. "They were so huge, they pumped vast amounts of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, leading to spikes of global warming."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangea-biodiversity-and-evolution">Pangea, biodiversity, and evolution</h2>



The supercontinent known as Pangea joined together almost all of Earth's landmasses into one massive landmass. 



Imagine all the continents we know today -- North America, South America, Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica -- snapped together like pieces of a giant puzzle. 



Pangea formed around 335 million years ago during the late Paleozoic era and dominated the planet until it began to break apart about 175 million years ago. 



This massive gathering of land had a huge impact on the climate, sea levels, and the distribution of plants and animals across the globe.



As Pangea started to split apart, it set the stage for the continents to drift to their current positions through the process of plate tectonics. 



This breakup led to the formation of the Atlantic Ocean and reshaped ecosystems, creating new environments for species to evolve and adapt. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mass-extinction-and-new-beginnings">Mass extinction and new beginnings</h2>



The surge in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/report-earth-is-headed-for-an-irreversible-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> caused global temperatures to rise by about 5 to 7 degrees Fahrenheit, amplifying evaporation from the seas and triggering increased rainfall worldwide. 



This climate chaos led to significant biodiversity loss. Many species couldn't adapt to the rapid environmental changes, resulting in a mass extinction event. But nature abhors a vacuum. 



As some species disappeared, new ones emerged to fill the gaps, leading to ecosystems that began to resemble those we see today.



"The new floras probably provided slim pickings for the surviving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-with-high-body-temperatures-often-become-herbivores/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivorous reptiles</a>," says Professor Mike Benton. 



"We now know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-triassic-fossil-gondwanax-paraisensis-may-rewrite-history-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs originated</a> some 20 million years before this event, but they remained quite rare and unimportant until the Carnian Pluvial Episode hit. It was the sudden arid conditions after the humid episode that gave dinosaurs their chance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-emerge-from-the-carnian-pluvial">Dinosaurs emerge from the Carnian Pluvial</h2>



As the climate shifted back to drier conditions, dinosaurs seized the opportunity to thrive. This period also saw the rise of the first turtles, crocodiles, lizards, and even the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/incredible-discovery-some-mammals-attacked-dinosaurs-and-they-often-won-the-battle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earliest mammals</a>. 



The expansion of conifer forests created new habitats, and these emerging animal groups diversified life on land in remarkable ways.



The oceans weren't spared from the upheaval. The Carnian Pluvial Episode marks the beginning of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-save-coral-reefs-with-selective-breeding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern coral reefs</a> and the appearance of many groups of plankton. 



These changes indicate significant shifts in ocean chemistry and the carbonate cycle, affecting the entire marine food chain and leading to new forms of marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-a-sixth-mass-extinction">Recognizing a sixth mass extinction</h2>



Until now, scientists had identified five <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">major mass extinctions</a> over the past half-billion years. These events dramatically reshaped life's trajectory on Earth. 



"So far, paleontologists had identified five 'big' mass extinctions in the past 500 million years of the history of life," says Dr. Dal Corso. 



"We have identified another great extinction event, and it evidently had a major role in helping to reset life on land and in the oceans, marking the origins of modern ecosystems."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-this-carnian-pluvial">Lessons from this Carnian Pluvial</h2>



The Carnian Pluvial Episode offers valuable insights into how massive volcanic eruptions and the resulting climate shifts can have far-reaching consequences. 



The release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide led to global warming, increased rainfall, and environmental upheaval. 



In our current era, human activities are raising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2023-climate-change-report-record-high-temperatures-greenhouse-gases-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas levels</a>, leading to climate change. Studying events like the CPE can help us understand how ecosystems respond to rapid environmental changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-volcanic-events">Massive volcanic events</h2>



Dr. Dal Corso emphasizes the scale of these ancient volcanic events, saying, "The eruptions were so huge, they pumped vast amounts of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, and there were spikes of global warming." 



His observations highlight how natural events can dramatically alter our planet's climate.



"I had noted a floral switch and ecological catastrophe among the herbivores back in 1983 when I completed my PhD," Professor Benton notes.



His decades of work illustrate how scientific understanding evolves, building on clues from various fields to piece together Earth's complex history.



Learning about events from millions of years ago requires collaboration across multiple scientific disciplines, including geology, paleontology, and climate science. 



Discoveries like the Carnian Pluvial Episode showcase the importance of interdisciplinary research in deepening our understanding of Earth's past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



As we face our own environmental challenges today, looking back at events like the Carnian Pluvial Episode can inform our actions. 



If natural volcanic activity could cause such drastic changes, it raises questions about the impact of human-induced climate change. 



How might life on Earth adapt -- or struggle to adapt -- in the face of current environmental shifts?



The story of the Carnian Pluvial Episode demonstrates Earth's resilience and ability to recover and evolve after catastrophic events. 



A period of massive volcanic eruptions and climate upheaval set the stage for the rise of dinosaurs and the formation of ecosystems that continue to influence life today. 



As we continue to explore our planet's history, each discovery offers a new perspective on the resilience and adaptability of life on Earth.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2109895118" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

One million years of heavy rain triggered Earth's era of dinosaur dominance

Roughly 233 million years ago, Earth's continents were fused into...

Researchers recently revealed a stunning new species of sea slug glowing in the ocean's darkest depths. Known as the "mystery mollusk" or&nbsp;Bathydevius caudactylus, this nudibranch inhabits the ocean's midnight zone, one of Earth's least-explored realms.



This discovery is more than just a new name on a species list - it's an illuminating dive into our planet's vast, hidden ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-mollusk-in-the-midnight-zone">Mystery mollusk in the midnight zone</h2>



The "mystery mollusk," Bathydevius caudactylus as the scientists officially named it, inhabits the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/highly-unusual-bacteria-discovered-in-deep-sea-corals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean's deep abyss</a>, also known as the midnight zone.



But this isn't just about a new species - it's about an exciting lifeline into understanding our planet's largest habitat in more depth.



Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (<a href="https://www.mbari.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBARI</a>) Senior Scientist Bruce Robison steered this explorative venture.



“Thanks to MBARI’s advanced underwater technology, we were able to prepare the most comprehensive description of a deep-sea animal ever made," noted Robison.



"We've invested more than 20 years in understanding the natural history of this fascinating species of nudibranch. Our discovery is a new piece of the puzzle that can help better understand the largest habitat on Earth."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-mystery-mollusk">Identifying the mystery mollusk</h2>



This unusual sea creature was first spotted in the year 2000, during an expedition using the institute's remotely operated vehicle (ROV) named Tiburon. It was found gliding through the waters offshore of Monterey Bay at a depth of 2,614 meters (8,576 feet).



Confusion arose when the team initially struggled to identify this creature due to its anomalous appearance - a voluminous hood, a flat tail fringed with numerous, finger-like projections, and a set of colorful internal organs.



But after years of research and countless ROV sightings, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-pigs-unicumbers-strange-stunning-creatures-discovered-abyssal-plains-ccz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mystery</a> was solved - this strange creature is, in fact, a nudibranch or sea slug.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="rLItWTv9qr-4019991-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-nudibranch-unlike-any-other">A nudibranch unlike any other</h2>



The mystery mollusk isn't your ordinary nudibranch. It's the first of its kind known to dwell in the immense open waters of the bathypelagic zone, a region 1,000 to 4,000 meters (3,300 to 13,100 feet) below the ocean surface.



Also, the sightings of this fascinating creature span the Pacific coast of North America, from Oregon to as far south as Southern California. Plus, similar creatures spotted by NOAA researchers in the Mariana Trench hint at the mollusk's potentially widespread existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-techniques-of-the-sea-slug">Survival techniques of the sea slug</h2>



Surviving in such harsh environments is no easy feat. How does the mystery mollusk manage? Interestingly, it has evolved unique survival strategies.



For instance, unlike most sea slugs that feed by rasping prey off the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-life-100-new-sea-creatures-found-in-chile/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seafloor</a>, it uses its cavernous hood to trap crustaceans, much like a Venus flytrap plant would do.



Moreover, to avoid predators, it has a clear body that blends with the surrounding waters and can emit a bright bioluminescence to deter and distract hungry predators. 



“When we first filmed it glowing with the ROV, everyone in the control room let out a loud ‘Oooooh!’ at the same time. We were all enchanted by the sight,” said MBARI senior scientist Steven Haddock.



“Only recently have cameras become capable of filming bioluminescence in high-resolution and in full color. MBARI is one of the only places in the world where we have taken this new technology into the deep ocean, allowing us to study the luminous behavior of deep-sea animals in their natural habitat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nudibranch-family-tree-expands">Nudibranch family tree expands</h2>



Beyond its captivating appearance and survival tactics, what really stood out during the research was the mollusc's genetic uniqueness. 



Detailed examination of specific gene sequences emphasized that the mystery mollusk is distinct enough from other known nudibranchs to merit the creation of a new family, Bathydeviidae.



"What is exciting to me about the mystery mollusk is that it exemplifies how much we are learning as we spend more time in the deep sea, particularly below 2,000 meters," said Haddock.



"For there to be a relatively large, unique, and glowing animal that is in a previously unknown family really underscores the importance of using new technology to catalog this vast environment. The more we learn about deep-sea communities, the better we will be at ocean decision-making and stewardship.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wealth-of-deep-sea-discoveries">Wealth of deep-sea discoveries</h2>



This discovery is just one exciting piece in the puzzle of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea exploration</a>. MBARI's state-of-the-art technology has unveiled over 250 previously unknown deep-sea species to date, encouraging us to plunge deeper into these fascinating, otherworldly realms.



“Deep-sea animals capture the imagination. These are our neighbors that share our blue planet. Each new discovery is an opportunity to raise awareness about the deep sea and inspire the public to protect the amazing animals and environments found deep beneath the surface,” said Robison.



Indeed, each new discovery brings us one step closer to fully understanding and protecting our fascinating blue planet. And with this latest revelation of the mystery mollusk, we get to marvel at another fascinating dweller of the deep.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967063724001845?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Deep Sea Research</a>.



Image/ Video Credit: MBARI



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mystery mollusk: Glowing creature found in the deep ocean

Researchers recently revealed a stunning new species of sea slug...

Usually, we see ants forming a single file, following a scent trail to a food source and returning back to their nest. However, what happens when there are multiple food sources available? 



Well, the ants in this scenario create a network of trails connecting their nest to all the available food sources. This is the conclusion of a fascinating new study from Florida State University.



Bhargav Karamched, an assistant professor of mathematics at Florida State University (FSU), is the lead researcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research </h2>



"Social insect behavior has fascinated the biological community for a long time. The collective behavior of insects can be used to achieve more complicated outcomes than possible for individuals," noted the researchers.



"This is especially important for ant species that rely on communication via pheromone to coordinate activity."



Working in <a href="https://www.fsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FSU</a>’s Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Karamched and his team have created a pioneering model that explains the phenomenon of trail formation to multiple food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-with-multiple-food-sources">Ants with multiple food sources</h2>



"The power of mathematics is that we can devise models that reproduce experimentally observed data and make concrete predictions about what will happen next," Karamched noted.



“In this case, we uncovered something that hasn’t been described well by other models: if an ant has access to multiple food sources from its nest, it will initially make multiple trails to each of the sources.”



The research has unveiled how ants, when presented with multiple food sources, initially make multiple trails to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">each source</a>.



Graduate student and study lead author Sean Hartman expressed his lifelong interest in mathematics which led him to pursue research in this field.



“I was intrigued by ant trail research that Dr. Karamched shared with me and became interested in pursuing further research on it and creating models based on this previous work,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secret-behind-the-ants-food-hunt">Secret behind the ants' food hunt</h2>



For ants, foraging is not just a daily activity, it's a necessity for their survival. They use chemical pheromones for self-organization. 



Once a food source is detected, the ant secretes these chemicals as a trail marker for its fellow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-destabilizing-ant-plant-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a>. 



Karamched's team factored this behavior into their computational simulations which also showed that ants eventually prefer the food source closer to their nest in an environment with multiple sources.



The researchers divided <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-ant-colonies-drove-the-evolution-of-worker-castes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> into two groups: foragers who wander in search of food, and returners who head straight for the nest after finding food. 



“These subpopulations behave differently, as foragers tend to wander around in search of food while returners always return directly to the nest after finding food, making their motion less stochastic or random," Karamched explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-pheromones">The role of pheromones</h2>



The research team considered the concentration of pheromones secreted by the ants - the higher the concentration, the stronger the scent trail for others to follow. 



Interestingly, ants returning from a food source close to the nest secrete fewer pheromones. Hartman's coding simulations produced insights into this pheromone-based decision-making process.



“Once my code was fully tested and accurate, multiple trail formations became distinct and were easily understandable,” Hartman said. 



“It was so cool to see how equidistant food sources could maintain multiple food trails as an equilibrium. If one food source was just slightly closer to the ants’ nest, the ants would eventually form one singular trail to the closest source. It was at this moment that it felt all our hard work finally paid off.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-chemical-signals-to-communicate">Using chemical signals to communicate</h2>



The model devised by Karamched's team isn't just limited to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-turn-to-cannibalism-recycle-bodies-for-colony-disease-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a>. Its simplicity and focus on pheromone gradients make it applicable to other organisms and biological systems that communicate using pheromones. 



This could include bacteria, slime molds, other insects, fish, and even some reptiles and mammals.



According to Karamched, the fundamental pheromone concentration gradient is the underpinning factor that analyzes collective behavior. 



“From a microbial level to complex organisms, using this chemical signaling to communicate allows certain organisms to coordinate activity on huge spatial scales, which is fascinating.”



The seemingly simple act of ants foraging for food, decoded with mathematics and simulations, offers new insights into the world of these hardworking insects.



The study is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00285-024-02136-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Mathematical Biology</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ants create chemical trails to guide their friends to food

Usually, we see ants forming a single file, following a...

Dogs have moved from kennels to the coziest corners of our homes, carving out an irreplaceable role in our hearts. They are no longer "just pets"- dogs are friends, family, guardians, and even considered children to some. 



Recent research from the Department of Ethology at Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE) examines these relationships, shining a light on how societal trends and personal owner profiles shape the care provided to dogs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-dog-relationships">Human-dog relationships</h2>



In Western cultures, the shift in human-dog relationships is remarkable. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-feel-our-emotions-through-our-heart-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pooch</a> has ascended the status ladder to become man's best friend, a cherished family member, or even a furry dog child. 



This change is so pronounced that up to two-thirds of dog owners affirm their dog to be more important than any human in their lives.



Why has humanity's friendship with dogs strengthened so intensely? 



A considerable factor could be the demographic transition of the last few decades, evident through smaller families and declining birth rates. 



As people feel increasingly lonely and socially isolated, dogs have emerged as comforting companions, filling a void left by human contact. But how does this trend affect the daily lives of dogs? That's exactly the question for which ELTE researchers sought answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-dogs-so-lovable">What makes dogs so lovable?</h2>



In their quest to identify why dogs are so treasured, <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELTE</a> researchers analyzed questionnaire data from approximately 800 dog owners. 



The results? A resounding 97.6% of owners relished the physical contact with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, while 93.7% preferred the unconditional love their canines provided, and 88.4% admired the aesthetics of their four-legged friends. 



However, the percentages varied when it came to social interactions generated by dogs, with 24.3% of owners not finding it beneficial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roles-of-dogs-in-families-and-beyond">Roles of dogs in families and beyond</h2>



The study allowed owners to assign numerous roles to their dogs - friend, family member, child, colleague, domesticated animal, or security guard.



"We found three distinct profiles of owners whose dogs played diverse social and practical roles," said Laura Gillet, PhD student at the Department of Ethology and lead author of the study.



For example, some owners saw their dogs in dual roles - as colleagues and security guards, and as their most cherished companions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-parents-and-companion-dogs">Dog parents and companion dogs</h2>



Another group of owners, tagged "dog parents," saw their dogs in human-like roles without any practical functions. There was also a group of owners who kept dogs primarily for companionship, albeit having a greater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-speech-changes-when-we-talk-to-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional distance</a> from their pets.



The researchers also factored in the type of dogs owned. For instance, dogs with dual roles were from breeds known for their working abilities, such as Border Collie, Belgian Shepherd Dog, and German Shepherd Dog. 



Owners keeping dogs for companionship preferred the Mudi, the English Cocker Spaniel, and the Labrador Retriever breeds, and were generally older. 



"Dog parents," on the other hand, preferred Border collies, Vizsla, Boxer, and Dachshund, and were more likely to house their dogs indoors only.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-should-dogs-be-part-of-family">Should dogs be part of family?</h2>



The researchers also collected data about the behavioral problems in dogs, often seen as indicators of canine welfare. 



However, no matter the roles owners attributed to their dogs, no association was found between these roles and the perceived behavioral problems in dogs.



This finding suggests that attributing human-like roles to dogs had no negative impact on their well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-dynamics-of-dogs-and-owners">Changing dynamics of dogs and owners</h2>



The bottom line? Dogs can assume various roles in our lives, offering distinct benefits. This unique research methodology unravels the intricacies of the dog-human bond and the implications it might have on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-simple-technique-instantly-reduces-heat-stress-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs' daily lives</a>. 



Younger owners, in particular, appear to forge stronger emotional ties with their dogs and more commonly refer to them as their children than the older generations. 



This generational shift in how we perceive our relationship with dogs demands more exhaustive research, not just for the well-being of our four-legged friends, but to understand what it says about our evolving families and societies.



Dogs have indeed become more to us than mere pets. They've become companions that walk with us through life's highs and lows, offering comfort and joy. 



As we unravel the dog-human dynamic further, it's clear that our furry friends are here to stay, not just in our homes, but also in the deepest corners of our hearts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169809524005398?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atmospheric Research</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Friends, family members, and guardians: Dogs are more than just pets

Dogs have moved from kennels to the coziest corners of...

The lifeline of our oceans is in danger. A recent study warns us about the impacts of global warming on marine life, with plankton populations at significant risk. 



The study points out a straightforward, yet frequently undervalued reality that if we don't act quickly, vast amounts of marine life could be on the brink of extinction within this century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plankton-struggle-with-rapid-warming">Plankton struggle with rapid warming</h2>



The research examines the world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiny ocean dwellers</a> known as plankton, which are more important than one might think. 



For the first time, the researchers compared how these tiny creatures responded to significant global warming in the past with how they might react to similar conditions anticipated by the end of our century.



The revelations were rather disturbing. It seems that plankton are struggling to keep up with the current rate of temperature increases. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plankton-cannot-adapt-quickly-enough">Plankton cannot adapt quickly enough</h2>



Dr Rui Ying, the lead author of the study, led this project during his PhD work in marine ecology at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>. 



“The results are alarming as, even with the more conservative climate projections of a 2°C increase, it is clear plankton cannot adjust quickly enough to match the much faster rate of warming which we’re experiencing now and looks set to continue," said Dr. Ying.



“Plankton are the lifeblood of the oceans, supporting the marine food web and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-plankton-play-a-big-role-in-the-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a>. If their existence is endangered, it will present an unprecedented threat that would disrupt the whole marine ecosystem and have devastating, wide-reaching consequences for marine life and also human food supplies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-the-future-by-looking-at-the-past">Predicting the future by looking at the past</h2>



To arrive at these conclusions, the scientists developed a new model to analyze how plankton behaved 21,000 years ago, during the last Ice Age.



They compared this with how the plankton might behave under future climate conditions. This approach, which focused on a specific plankton group that has survived through the ages, provides unique insights and an impressive level of accuracy.



“The past is often considered key to understanding what the world could look like in the future. Geological records showed that plankton previously relocated away from the warmer oceans to survive," explained Dr Ying.



“But using the same model of ecology and climate, projections showed the current and future rate of warming was too great for this to be possible again, potentially wiping out the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-tiny-ocean-creatures-overlooked-critical-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">precious organisms</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-issue-of-global-warming">Broader issue of global warming</h2>



This research brings attention to the broader issue of global warming and our collective responsibility to curb its effects on plankton and overall marine ecosystems.



The Paris Agreement was a worldwide commitment to keep the increase in global average temperatures well below 2°C (3.6°F) above pre-industrial levels and strive to limit the increase to 1.5°C (2.7°F).



However, a recent United Nations report indicates that the world may face as much as 3.1°C (5.6°F) warming if governments do not act more decisively to reduce carbon emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-global-climate-action">Need for global climate action</h2>



Study co-author Daniela Schmidt is a professor of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol and a celebrated marine ecologist. She has led multiple Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>) reports and her insights are critical to understanding the climate crisis.



“This work emphasizes the great risks posed by the dramatically fast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate and environmental changes</a> the world is now facing. With these worrying trends set to worsen, there will be very real consequences for our ecosystems and people’s livelihoods, including fishing communities," said Schmidt.



"So, the message is clear - all nations must collectively and individually step up efforts and measures to keep global warming to a minimum.”



With the ocean’s lifeblood under threat, it’s time to act. If tiny plankton are at risk, the entire marine world - and our food supply - could be, too.



The research on plankton tells us that it does not have to be this way - the world can still limit global warming. But in order for that to happen, every nation needs to step up and take action.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08029-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Plankton at risk: Global warming threatens the ocean's lifeline

The lifeline of our oceans is in danger. A recent...

Turtles are fascinating reptiles known for their distinctive shells, which serve as both armor and protection. They've been around for over 200 million years, making them some of the oldest living creatures on Earth. 



You can find turtles in a variety of environments, from the depths of the ocean to freshwater ponds and even on land. Their ability to adapt to different habitats has allowed them to thrive across the globe, with hundreds of species showcasing a wide range of sizes, colors, and behaviors.



And where does this impressive ability to adapt come from? Apparently, it's their genome, which is proving to be very different from that of most other animals studied so far.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-genetic-blueprints">Insights into genetic blueprints</h2>



DNA molecules, with their long strands of nucleotides, carry extensive genetic data essential for life. How this genetic blueprint is stored in cells influences how it is read and used.&nbsp;



During cell division, DNA is tightly coiled around proteins, forming chromatin structures within chromosomes. 



After division, the chromosomes relax, and chromatin loosens, creating unique folding and looping patterns that determine which genes are activated or repressed. 



New research led by <a href="https://www.iastate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Iowa State University</a> offers insights into these processes, with implications for understanding evolution and potentially aiding biomedical research.



Study senior author Nicole Valenzuela is a professor of ecology, evolution, and organismal biology at Iowa State University.&nbsp;



“The three-dimensional structure of the chromatin when it’s folded matters for gene regulation. Where chromatin physically sits in the nucleus matters,” said Valenzuela.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chromosome</a> folding remains a bit of a black box. We’ve learned a lot about it, but it’s still just the tip of the iceberg.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-chromatin-in-gene-regulation">Role of chromatin in gene regulation</h2>



In the post-division interphase stage of the cell cycle, the chromatin’s shape and location impact gene expression by bringing distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> regions into close contact.&nbsp;



For example, enhancers (DNA segments that promote gene expression) and gene promoters (regions that initiate transcription) can interact more readily in open, accessible regions of chromatin.&nbsp;



On the other hand, DNA in tightly packed chromatin regions remains less active. 



Through analyzing these contact points, researchers have developed models to map chromatin configurations across various species, such as humans, mice, birds, and more recently, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtles-with-unique-features-are-most-likely-to-go-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-discovery-in-turtle-genomes">Unique discovery in turtle genomes</h2>



In a recent paper published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/gr.279443.124" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genome Research</a>, Valenzuela’s team described the chromatin arrangement in the genomes of two turtle species, the spiny softshell and northern giant musk turtles, uncovering a structure previously unobserved in other organisms.&nbsp;



Chromosomes have two essential elements: the centromere, a constriction point, and telomeres, which cap each chromosome end. In humans, chromosomes occupy separate regions in the nucleus.&nbsp;



However, in some animals, like marsupials, centromeres cluster, while in birds, telomeres come together.&nbsp;



Turtles, interestingly, are the first species where both telomeres and centromeres align near each other, suggesting a unique chromatin arrangement.



“It’s possible this is the ancestral condition of amniotes, from which mammals, birds, and reptiles evolved in different patterns,” Valenzuela noted.&nbsp;



“The turtles may be showing us what existed at the beginning, shedding light on the evolution of vertebrate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genomes</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-genomes-and-biomedical-science">Turtle genomes and biomedical science</h2>



Uncovering the chromatin structure in turtles and how it adapts to environmental changes could be valuable for biomedical science.&nbsp;



For example, some turtle species can survive weeks without oxygen, which could have implications for treating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-blood-type-determine-your-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strokes</a>. 



Similarly, understanding how certain turtles withstand extreme cold might inform techniques for cryogenic preservation of human tissues.



“We want to understand more about why different lineages are different in some aspects and why they’re the same in others, what parts we share and what parts differ,” Valenzuela explained.&nbsp;



“If we can reconstruct the evolutionary history of the changes that have taken place, we will be able to tell much more about how the differences in the packaging of the DNA and the folding of chromosomes might be affecting the traits we’re interested in, how genes are regulated, and how vertebrate genomes evolve.”



Additionally, understanding turtles’ chromatin structure could aid conservation efforts, offering insights into how environmental changes impact their biology and potential adaptations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Valenzuela’s lab plans to extend their research to study more turtle species, adding to the current work on spiny softshell and northern giant musk turtles. 



Her team has already gathered data on four additional species, aiming to see if similar chromatin structures appear in genomes across different turtle lineages. 



The researchers are also interested in comparing turtle chromatin organization to that of other reptiles, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-ecology-shaped-250-million-years-of-crocodile-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodiles</a>, lizards, and snakes, to explore whether they share structural patterns.



To gain deeper insights, the team will study liver organoids - lab-grown tissue mimics they have developed for three turtle species. 



These organoids offer a simplified view of liver tissue, allowing the researchers to observe how chromatin folding might influence cellular function. 



Future work will include advanced mapping techniques that provide high-resolution chromatin data, helping to clarify how 3-D chromatin structures change over time and under various environmental conditions.



“To really do genotype-to-phenotype mapping, we have to get to this level of complexity,” Valenzuela concluded.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Turtles have genomes unlike any other animal studied so far

Turtles are fascinating reptiles known for their distinctive shells, which...

Two years of severe drought in the State of Amazonas is having a devastating impact on one of the Amazon's noteworthy achievements - the sustainable economy based on catching the gargantuan pirarucu fish. This sustainability is now facing a dangerous headwind.



Almost 6,000 people residing by the rivers in Amazonas State, Brazil, are legally permitted to fish for this mammoth creature.



Regrettably, they have witnessed a dramatic decrease in pirarucu catches, combined with escalating costs. This has led to a widespread call for governmental support, and the urgent need to devise a strategy to adapt to the demands of our changing climate.



In the previous year, the catch reached only 70% of the 100,443 fish quota sanctioned by the government.



As we are in the height of the current year's season (which runs from June to November) many communities are yet to commence their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> due to the prevailing conditions. The outlook for this year's catch is far from optimistic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tale-of-the-pirarucu">The tale of the pirarucu</h2>



Commencing in the Mamiraua region 25 years ago, managed fishing of the pirarucu has seen significant expansion. 



The successful management of the resource saved the Amazon's largest fish from becoming extinct and is now a vital source of income for locals in 10 sustainable conservation units and eight Indigenous territories. These areas boast negligible deforestation rates.



The giant pirarucu fish, that can weigh up to 200 kilograms (440 pounds), were historically resistant to climate changes, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>.



However, today's low water levels have left Amazon fishers stranded, unable to transport their catch from isolated lakes to major rivers and cities.



In several areas, water levels decreased so rapidly that the transport connection was severed before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-summer-fishing-shrinks-atlantic-salmon-size-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing season</a> even started.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amazon-fishers-feel-the-impact">Amazon fishers feel the impact</h2>



In the São Raimundo community in the Medio Jurua region, fishing is commencing with a two-month delay, reflecting the current widespread situation. 



To mitigate the impact, Coletivo Pirarucu, an organization representing 2,500 families living by the river, along with Indigenous families, has called for an extension of the fishing season until the end of January.



Even major rivers are not spared. As a result, navigation has been difficult, resulting in escalating costs and uncertainty amongst fishers.



The journey to transport fish from Carauari, a principal pirarucu producer, to the largest city of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smallest-pollution-particles-affect-rainfall-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon</a>, Manaus, usually takes up to four days. However, during the drought's peak, this journey extended to ten days, and the transport cost doubled.



According to researcher Adalberto Luis Val from the <a href="https://www.gov.br/inpa/pt-br" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute for Amazonian Research</a>, even the robust pirarucu is not immune to climate change. 



“No fish can regulate body temperature. Then there's water scarcity. As its level drops, you start to get a high amount of suspended material, leading to sludge build-up. It sticks to the gill area, blocking the processes that occur there," explained Val.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-support-for-amazon-fishers">Seeking support for Amazon fishers</h2>



Coletivo Pirarucu is advocating for fishermen to receive compensation for the losses brought on by climate change.



They issued an open letter last week, expressing their concerns and calling for the development of “climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies.”



At a higher level, James Bessa, a federal official responsible for pirarucu management, confirmed that Ibama, Brazil's environmental body, is collaborating with other public bodies and local fishing associations to minimize the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a>.



Lastly, Adevaldo Dias, a riverine leader and president over the Chico Mendes Memorial, has made a plea for climate justice. 



“The Indigenous and riverine peoples have minimal impact on the environment. We know that conserving the forest benefits both us and those outside it. And when extreme climate events occur, they are the most vulnerable," said Dias.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-uncertain-future-of-the-fishing-trade">The uncertain future of the fishing trade</h2>



The ongoing droughts have raised pressing questions about the sustainability of the pirarucu fishing trade and the resilience of the communities that depend on it. 



Experts fear that without swift and effective intervention, the balance achieved through decades of conservation efforts could unravel.



The challenges faced by riverine and Indigenous communities extend beyond immediate economic hardship; they highlight a deeper vulnerability tied to the changing climate.



Efforts to protect the pirarucu and ensure that its harvest remains a cornerstone of the Amazon's sustainable economy are at a crossroads.



If the current trend continues, the once-thriving pirarucu trade may face further obstacles, impacting food security, local livelihoods, and conservation outcomes.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Amazon drought: Fishers in crisis as their biggest catch disappears

Two years of severe drought in the State of Amazonas...

Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp;



In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp;



Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata) setting the record with a genome size over 50 times larger than that of humans.



This diversity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> size reveals the vast variety of life forms on Earth, but it also raises a fascinating question: If smaller genomes lead to faster, more efficient growth, why do some species have larger genomes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-smaller-genome-sizes">Advantages of smaller genome sizes</h2>



The replication of DNA is essential for cell production and growth, making smaller genomes more efficient as they require fewer resources and time to replicate.&nbsp;



Smaller genomes demand fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a>, especially the DNA-building elements nitrogen and phosphorus, making them ideal for rapid growth and reproduction.



Because of these advantages, it’s not surprising that most species have evolved with relatively small genomes.&nbsp;



However, large genomes persist in some organisms, suggesting that these genomes may confer certain benefits in specific environments, where the costs of carrying extra DNA are outweighed by unique growth advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-large-genome-benefits-in-grasses">Exploring large genome benefits in grasses</h2>



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a> has recently studied the potential benefits of large genomes in grass species. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fairy-circles-kill-all-newly-planted-grasses-deepening-their-mystery/">Grasses</a>, a vast plant family found worldwide from arctic tundras to tropical savannas, vary in genome size, making them an ideal group to examine how genome size affects growth in different conditions.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.20150" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>, examined the growth of various grass species under conditions mimicking their natural environments - high temperatures, low nutrients, and drought. 



The scientists compared growth rates to each species’ genome size and observed that while grasses with smaller genomes generally grew better across most conditions, larger genomes provided advantages in two specific scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-genomes-thrive-in-nutrient-rich-environments">Large genomes thrive in nutrient-rich environments</h2>



The first scenario where larger genomes proved beneficial was in nutrient-rich soils. While low nutrient levels slowed down large-genome grasses, those with large genomes thrived in high-nutrient environments.&nbsp;



Here, the extra DNA content meant larger cells that produced more biomass, such as leaves, which allowed these plants to outgrow and overshadow neighbors with smaller genomes.&nbsp;



In nutrient-poor areas, however, the demands of replicating additional DNA outweighed these benefits, making smaller genomes more favorable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-seasons-and-genome-sizes">Growing seasons and genome sizes</h2>



The second advantage for large-genome grasses occurred in cooler environments, such as temperate regions with lower growing season temperatures.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-grow-more-branches-and-become-bushy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant growth</a> typically has two stages: cell division, where new cells are generated, and cell expansion, where cells swell with water to help the plant grow taller or spread. 



Cool temperatures significantly slow down cell division, but they have less impact on cell expansion.&nbsp;



Consequently, grasses with larger cells, which accompany large genomes, can expand more rapidly by cell enlargement even in cooler weather, outpacing smaller-genome plants that rely on faster cell division in warmer temperatures.



This cell expansion process explains the early spring growth of plants like daffodils and bluebells, which also have large genomes.&nbsp;



These plants perform much of their cell division in warmer months, allowing them to use cell expansion to grow quickly in early spring, well before smaller-genome plants begin to compete for light and nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-diversity">Genome size diversity</h2>



The diversity in genome sizes among grasses may be one reason for their global success, as it allows them to adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions.&nbsp;



While smaller genomes typically support efficient growth, larger genomes offer unique advantages in specific environments, enabling certain species to thrive where others cannot.&nbsp;



This genetic diversity in grasses underscores the importance of variation in supporting species’ survival and adaptability across ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-and-evolutionary-success">Genome size and evolutionary success</h2>



The relationship between genome size and survival is not limited to plants. Our own medium-sized genome has supported humanity’s adaptability, though we don’t face the same nutrient limitations as stationary plants.&nbsp;



Unlike grasses, humans can move to seek out food and resources, which may allow us to bear the metabolic costs associated with our DNA without significant limitation.&nbsp;



This mobility highlights how different species leverage their genetic make-up in conjunction with unique behaviors and environmental interactions to thrive across diverse habitats.



In summary, the role of genome size in evolutionary success is nuanced and complex.&nbsp;



From the efficient replication of small genomes to the adaptability enabled by larger ones, genome size continues to shape the ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-forests-proving-resilient-both-climate-change-human-actions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> and global distribution of life on Earth.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How does genome size impact evolutionary success?

Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in...

Wilderness that was once untouched is rapidly morphing into urban landscapes, evoking changes in animal habitats like never before. Along with climate change, these environmental modifications are ramping up stress factors for animals.



However, a blind spot in research is the exploration of how individual stress levels echo within the group, particularly impacting those untouched by the stressor.



Hanja Brandl, a behavioral biologist from the Cluster of Excellence Collective Behaviour at the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a>, alongside her colleague, Damien Farine (now at <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a>) decided to shed light on this phenomenon.



In an exceptional study, the team examined the stress responses of individual birds and how it influences others in the group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-animal-stress-levels">Analyzing animal stress levels</h2>



Over three segments of four weeks each, Brandl and Farine exposed certain zebra finches in groups to stressors while recording the ripple effects on both stressed and non-stressed individuals within the group.



Their tools? Stress-induced disruptions and a camera. They also tested for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress hormone</a> corticosterone in the birds' tail feathers, adding another layer to their stress analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-is-a-social-contagion">Stress is a social contagion</h2>



What the researchers found was fascinating. 



"Our experiments show that stress responses can spread beyond individuals to other members of their social group, even to those who are not exposed to stress themselves," said Brandl.



In groups with a higher number of stressed birds, the effects on the non-stressed birds were stronger. Non-stressed birds began to behave similarly to the stressed ones, showing changes in activity and behavior. 



This imitation of stressed responses suggests that stress in some birds can spread to others, even if they aren't directly exposed to the stressor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-social-cohesion-and-survival">Stress, social cohesion, and survival</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-simple-technique-instantly-reduces-heat-stress-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> exposure within the group had clear behavioral consequences. 



Groups with a significant number of stressed individuals showed a marked decline in activity among the non-stressed birds. 



In the wild, this could shrink their exploration and access to resources, thus limiting their survival opportunities.



The researchers also noticed changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-friendliest-social-animals-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social behavior</a>. Non-stressed birds within such groups held fewer social bonds, putting more weight on existing relationships.



"Stress in a group could impact its social cohesion. At the same time, a reduction in weak social ties would, in turn, reduce the risk of stress transmission," noted Damien Farine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-stress-in-wildlife">Managing stress in wildlife</h2>



The insights drawn from Brandl and Farine's research hold significant implications for conservation efforts and wildlife management strategies. 



As human-induced environmental changes escalate, understanding the social dynamics of stress in animal populations becomes crucial. 



Managing stress in wildlife not only involves addressing direct environmental pressures but also considering how stress propagates within animal communities.



Conservationists could improve their strategies by promoting conditions that support not only individual well-being but also social cohesion among animals. 



This might involve creating habitats that minimize encounters with stressors and promote social interactions that help buffer individuals against stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-humans">Lessons for humans</h2>



Beyond wildlife conservation, the study offers valuable lessons applicable to human societies. Stress is a pervasive aspect of modern life, with individuals often inadvertently affecting those around them. 



The concept of stress as a social contagion encourages a reevaluation of community dynamics and mutual support systems. 



Just as in animal groups, promoting environments that reduce stress transmission and fortify social connections could enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collective well-being</a>.



These findings highlight the importance of social networks and community engagement in mitigating stress and promoting resilience not just among animals, but across human societies as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-behavior-beyond-stress">Animal behavior beyond stress</h2>



Understanding behavior and stress transmission in bird flocks is just one chapter in the larger narrative of animal behavior.



This study also emphasizes the complexity of animal social behavior and its potential impact on survival tactics. It's no more a solo play; every bird ripple counts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-details-on-the-study">More details on the study</h2>



The study titled "Stress in the social environment: behavioral and social consequences of stress transmission in bird flocks" is recently published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1961" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a> and is available online.



The research was carried out under the auspices of the Cluster of Excellence Collective Behaviour at the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> by Hanja Brandl. During the study, Damien Farine was also affiliated with the Cluster of Excellence, as well as the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Stress is contagious, and this also applies to animals

Wilderness that was once untouched is rapidly morphing into urban...

Sleep experts advise against screen time in bed, cautioning that light from phones and electronic devices can interfere with our natural sleep patterns.&nbsp;



This is one example of how science is becoming more attuned to the wide-ranging health impacts linked to circadian rhythms and our daily sleep-wake cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-artificial-light-and-honeybees">Artificial light and honeybees</h2>



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, San Diego</a> (UC San Diego) has revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-pollution-disrupts-entire-ecological-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial light</a> also disrupts the circadian rhythms of honeybees, posing a risk to their role as pollinators.&nbsp;



“Our research shows just how sensitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honeybees</a> are to changes in their environment, particularly to something as seemingly benign as artificial light,” said lead author Ashley Kim, a PhD student in biology at UC San Diego.&nbsp;



“By disrupting their circadian rhythms, we see clear evidence of reduced sleep periods. This raises significant concerns, not only for bee health but also for the health of ecosystems that depend on them for pollination.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-night-light-and-sleep-disturbances">Night light and sleep disturbances </h2>



Honeybees are key pollinators for many wild plants and agricultural crops, essential for both ecosystem stability and global food security. These bees typically prefer nesting in dark spaces, though a little light enters from the hive entrance.&nbsp;



When bees are exposed to artificial light at night (ALAN), particularly in urban areas, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australian-dragons-reveal-new-clues-about-the-mysteries-of-sleep/">sleep</a> is disturbed, and as temperatures rise, bees may be even more exposed to ALAN.&nbsp;



The growing popularity of urban beekeeping to support bees and their pollination services means more honeybees may be facing these artificial light challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-artificial-light-and-honeybee-behavior">Artificial light and honeybee behavior</h2>



Poor sleep from light exposure impairs bee behaviors crucial for hive health, including their complex communication system called the “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-perform-waggle-dance-to-share-the-location-of-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waggle dance</a>,” which helps bees share information about food sources.&nbsp;



To study this impact, UC San Diego researchers conducted experiments over several years, comparing bees sleeping in darkness with bees exposed to constant light. The results showed that bees in constant light had disrupted sleep, as Kim observed through 24-hour video recordings.



“Even without analyzing the data, you can tell that there was something going on…the bees that were under constant light slept less,” she said.&nbsp;



“The effects of light pollution on biological systems is fairly unknown and something people normally don’t think about, which is why it’s a rapidly evolving field.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-threat-of-light-pollution">Growing threat of light pollution</h2>



“Understanding the factors that affect bee health, such as light pollution, is essential for developing strategies to protect pollinator populations,” said senior author James Nieh, a professor of biology at UC San Diego.&nbsp;



As artificial light now covers over a quarter of the Earth’s surface, the study highlights the urgent need to understand how these disruptions may be harming bees and other pollinators.&nbsp;



Continuous artificial light exposure caused honeybees to sleep less, and their hive-mates disturbed them more frequently compared to bees resting in the dark. In experimental cages, bees under constant light sought darker areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enlace-initiative-in-pollinator-research">ENLACE initiative in pollinator research</h2>



This research also highlights UC San Diego’s ENLACE program, which connects students from Latin America and the U.S. to research global challenges like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-wars-plants-compete-for-space-on-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator</a> health.&nbsp;



Students who participated in the ENLACE initiative, such as Aura Velazquez and Belen Saavedra, contributed as co-authors on the study.&nbsp;



“This project exemplifies the impact of ENLACE, bringing diverse perspectives to address environmental challenges like pollinator health and environmental sustainability,” said Olivia Graeve, ENLACE director and UC San Diego professor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



UC San Diego’s Catalyst Fund recently awarded Nieh and study co-author Benjamin Smarr a grant to extend their research on circadian rhythms to broader environmental and human health issues.&nbsp;



Their project, “Harmonizing the Pulse of Life: Pioneering Circadian Insights for Human and Ecosystem Health at UC San Diego,” will explore the effects of circadian disruptions from bees to entire ecosystems.&nbsp;



“This program fosters interdisciplinary collaboration, bringing together experts in biology, data science, and medicine to address issues like light pollution and its impact on pollinator health,” said Nieh.&nbsp;



The Catalyst Grant reinforces UC San Diego’s commitment to sustainability and human well-being, offering innovative ways to mitigate light pollution’s effects on pollinators and beyond.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Scientific Reports</a>. A preprint can be found on <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.07.03.547605v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioRxiv</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Artificial light disrupts honeybee sleep patterns

Sleep experts advise against screen time in bed, cautioning that...

The fossilized remains of a giant "terror bird," recently discovered in the sandy landscapes of South America's Tatacoa Desert, tells the story of a formidable predator from the Phorusrhacid family.



A new study focuses on these giant, meat-eating predators, providing remarkable insights into the diverse wildlife that roamed the world in very ancient times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-phorusrhacid-s">What are Phorusrhacids?</h2>



Phorusrhacid birds, better known as "terror birds," were some of the most impressive predators to ever walk the Earth. These flightless birds lived in South America from about 60 million to 2 million years ago. 



Standing up to 10 feet tall, they had massive, hooked beaks and really strong legs built for running, Basically, they were the top predators of their time.



Terror birds dominated their environment by hunting small to medium-sized animals. They could sprint at high speeds to chase down prey, using their powerful beaks to deliver lethal strikes. 



Some scientists believe they might have even hunted in packs, although that's still up for debate. Their reign lasted for millions of years, filling the gap left by the dinosaurs' extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leg-bone-of-an-ancient-phorusrhacid">Leg bone of an ancient Phorusrhacid</h2>



At the center of this fascinating narrative is a leg bone. This relic from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-site-in-australia-indicates-abundant-life-during-the-miocene/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miocene</a> epoch, a period dating back around 12 million years, holds within it stories about the ancient birds of prey that roamed the continent.



Dr. Siobhán Cooke is an associate professor of functional anatomy and evolution at the <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> School of Medicine. 



He noted that the size of the bone indicates that this terror bird may be the largest known member of the species identified to date, approximately 5 to 20 percent larger than known Phorusrhacids.



The bone's physical attributes provide an intriguing subplot. It contains deep pits peculiar to Phorusrhacids and potential teeth marks of a prehistoric caiman, Purussaurus.



The physical evidence seems to point to a fatal altercation with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/differences-in-the-mammalian-and-reptilian-brain-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptilian</a> adversary. 



"We suspect that the terror bird would have died as a result of its injuries given the size of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-remains-shed-new-light-on-crocodilian-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodilians</a> 12 million years ago," said Dr. Cooke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-of-phorusrhacid-terror-birds">Distribution of Phorusrhacid terror birds</h2>



The unearthed fossil, found as far north as Colombia, expands our understanding of the geography of terror birds, which have been primarily associated with Argentina and Uruguay.



The research hints at a diverse and thriving ecosystem, markedly different from the landscapes we see now.



This ancient environment, now a desert, was home to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a>, hoofed mammals, gigantic ground sloths, glyptodonts (essentially, gigantic armadillos the size of cars), and terror birds.



The seriema, a modern long-legged bird native to South America, is considered a distant relative of Phorusrhacids.



"It’s a different kind of ecosystem than we see today or in other parts of the world during a period before South and North America were connected," noted Dr. Cooke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-phorusrhacid-terror-birds">Studying Phorusrhacid terror birds</h2>



The discovery opens a window of possibility that additional fossils of terror birds may lie unidentified in museum archives.



"It’s possible there are fossils in existing collections that haven’t been recognized yet as terror birds because the bones are less diagnostic than the lower leg bone we found," said Dr. Cooke.



The fossil also prompts us to envision an environment now lost to time, populated by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elusive-bird-night-parrot-pezoporus-occidentalis-thought-to-be-long-extinct-rediscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-extinct</a> creatures that once dominated the fauna. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/terror-bird_Phorusrhacid_leg-bone_tibiotarsus_credit-Degrange_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/terror-bird_Phorusrhacid_leg-bone_tibiotarsus_credit-Degrange_1s.webp" alt="The end of a terror bird's left tibiotarsus, a lower leg bone in birds equivalent to that of a human tibia or shin bone, dates back to the Miocene epoch around 12 million years ago. Credit: Degrange et al." class="wp-image-1949728"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The end of a terror bird's left tibiotarsus, a lower leg bone in birds equivalent to that of a human tibia or shin bone, dates back to the Miocene epoch around 12 million years ago. Credit: Degrange et al.</figcaption></figure>



"It would have been a fascinating place to walk around and see all of these now extinct animals," noted Dr. Cooke.



This remarkable find, the first of its kind from the site, is a tribute to the rich biodiversity that once adorned our planet. 



It nudges us to view the past through a lens of awe and curiosity, and to appreciate the diversity and beauty of the life forms that populated Earth millions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-terror-bird-s-legacy">The terror bird’s legacy</h2>



The discovery of this massive terror bird sheds light not only on ancient ecosystems but also on the evolutionary story of apex predators. 



The physical characteristics of this bird - its powerful leg bones and sharp beak -- highlight the specialized adaptations that allowed it to thrive in its environment.



These adaptations may have provided the terror bird with the speed and agility to hunt effectively, filling a predatory role in the food chain much like large cats or raptors do today. 



By understanding the terror bird’s evolution, researchers hope to uncover insights into how apex predators adapt to environmental shifts, contributing valuable knowledge to evolutionary biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-discoveries-on-the-horizon">Fossil discoveries on the horizon</h2>



This fossil, potentially one of the largest known of its kind, also serves as a reminder that more discoveries await in the Tatacoa Desert and beyond.



While Colombia is not typically recognized as a hotbed of fossil discovery compared to regions like Argentina or North America, recent findings like this highlight its hidden potential.



Paleontologists are hopeful that ongoing exploration of South American sites will yield further specimens, expanding our understanding of Miocene-era ecosystems. 



This research, along with improved fossil identification techniques, may pave the way for unearthing additional terror bird remains, helping scientists reconstruct the behaviors, habitats, and interactions of these ancient predators.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/spp2.1601" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

"Terror birds" ate meat and dominated the planet long ago

The fossilized remains of a giant "terror bird," recently discovered...

It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in Earth's history between 1.8 billion and 800 million years ago, when life's complexity didn't extend much beyond single-celled organisms.



Apart from the occasional multicellular life form, most of the living species during that time period were simple, unicellular organisms that had minimal requirements for life. 



But don't mistake "boring" for insignificant. This epoch of evolution laid the foundation for the drama of complex multicellularity that would eventually lead to us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-fuel-for-evolution">Energy: Fuel for evolution</h2>



The boring billion period appears to mark a time when the evolution of complex life was delayed and conditions were so stable as to border on stagnant. 



Scientists state that oxygen levels at this time were drastically decreased and conditions were fairly harsh for most forms of life.



A new study by Michael Lynch of <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> has revealed that the transition from unicellular to multicellular life forms would have come at a cost.



Using the water flea, Daphnia, as a <a href="https://phys.org/tags/model+organism/">model organism</a>, the study shows that multicellular organisms require more than a tenfold increase in energy compared with the simpler, unicellular organisms characteristic of the boring billion period. 



"No one doubts that multicellularity can bring substantial advantages to the table, but the privilege of attaining such benefits comes at a steep investment cost," said Lynch, who directs the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fbiodesign.asu.edu%2Fmechanisms-of-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution</a> at ASU.



The study emphasizes the importance of respiration and other metabolic processes in navigating the transition to more complex life forms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-complexity">Cost of complexity </h2>



Every organism, from the smallest bacterium to a human, is driven by energy. Having an entire body made of only one cell reduces the need for energy and nutrients to grow and reproduce. 



But multicellular organisms, like plants, animals, and fungi, have to maintain a multitude of cells in complex tissues, organs and structures. And this places a far higher energy demand on the organism.



As the cell count increases in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular organism</a>, so does the demand on ATP synthase, the molecular machinery in cells that manufactures ATP, the universal energy currency. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1s.webp" alt="A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś" class="wp-image-1950209"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś</figcaption></figure>



Each new cell in a multicellular body is another mouth to feed in terms of energy, and the cost increases with the number of cells.



The findings of the Daphnia study show that metazoans - the group that includes multicellular creatures - need a lot more ATP synthase complexes in each cell than their simpler, unicellular counterparts.



In fact, for every increment in body mass, these organisms require 30 to 50 times more oxygen than simpler, unicellular creatures. This additional oxygen supports the complex needs for metabolism, cellular communication, and tissue maintenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-comes-at-a-price">Size comes at a price</h2>



Growth isn't cheap, particularly for multicellular organisms. 



While larger, unicellular organisms, like some amoebas, become more efficient as they grow, multicellular organisms face unique challenges that require extra energy to sustain their larger sizes and more complex structures.



Given this steep energy price, why did multicellularity evolve at all? 



The answer seems to be that multicellular life offers evolutionary advantages, such as being able to consume unicellular organisms en masse, evade predators, and live in various environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-energy-barriers">Overcoming energy barriers</h2>



To surmount the energetic challenges presented by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-snowball-earth-conditions-drove-evolution-complex-multicellular-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellularity</a>, organisms have developed remarkable adaptations to utilize their resources efficiently. 



One key adaptation is the division of labor between specialized cells, tissues, and organs; this specialization allows for optimized energy usage where cells perform distinct functions more efficiently than they would if they had to carry out all the different life activities.



For example, mitochondria within eukaryotic cells have evolved highly efficient pathways to generate ATP, thus maximizing the energy harvested from different substrates.



Furthermore, the development of vascular systems in plants and circulatory systems in animals allows for the effective distribution of energy resources, and ensures that all cells have access to the oxygen and nutrients necessary to produce energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-boring-billion">Implications of the "boring billion"</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary narrative of the "boring billion" holds powerful implications for modern scientific research. 



This era not only reflects the energy-centric challenges of the past but also informs the fields of synthetic biology, evolutionary biology, and bioengineering.



By studying the metabolic pathways and energy efficiencies developed during this period, researchers can potentially design bio-inspired systems and organisms with enhanced functionalities and sustainability.



Furthermore, insights gained from this epoch's evolutionary innovations could pioneer future advancements in medical therapies, agriculture, and ecosystem management. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This study primarily focuses on aerobic, animal-like organisms. But there's a vast and varied spectrum of life out there, including plants and fungi, and the researchers plan to extend their investigations to these life forms. 



Future insights could shed light on why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biggest-known-space-cloud-of-life-building-complex-chemicals-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life forms</a> took a considerable time to appear and diversify on our planet.



Multicellular life has high energy demands and this study suggests that the constraints of bioenergy could be a universal phenomenon that is applicable to any carbon-based, oxygen-breathing life, no matter where it exists in the universe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2414742121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Boring billion' wasn’t a dull period, it fueled a shift to complex life

It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in...

Ever pondered the extraordinary migratory journeys of birds? 



These feathered wanderers traverse thousands of kilometers, exhibiting an incredible knack for endurance and navigation that almost seems magical. 



In past research, the stars, the Sun and the Earth's magnetic field have all been implicated as means by which birds find their way to faraway places.



A recent study has shed new light on how birds use the magnetic field to navigate, and the findings challenge previously held beliefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-bird-migration">The science behind bird migration</h2>



The research was conducted by scientists from <a href="https://www.bangor.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bangor University</a> in Wales, and focused on the migratory behavior of Eurasian reed warblers, which are small songbirds.



The study presents an intriguing hypothesis: these birds employ only the Earth's magnetic dip and variation to identify their position and set their direction.



This revelation is a significant stride away from the conventional belief that all aspects of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a>, particularly total intensity, are essential to precise navigation. 



For years, it was believed that birds carry a 'map-and-compass' navigation system. They identify their location using this "map," and the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-bats-use-earths-magnetic-field-as-a-compass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">compass</a>" aids in maintaining the correct direction towards their destination.



However, the precise nature of this 'map' has always been a topic of debate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-birds-respond-to-virtual-displacement">How birds respond to virtual displacement </h2>



The experiment involved subjecting the warblers to "virtual displacement."



The birds experienced artificially adjusted values of magnetic inclination (the dip angle of the field lines) and declination&nbsp;(the difference between the direction to the geographic and magnetic poles).



This simulation created the illusion of a geographic relocation while maintaining a consistent total magnetic intensity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-use-certain-cues-to-navigate">Birds use certain cues to navigate</h2>



The results were nothing short of astonishing. Despite the simulated relocation, the birds recalibrated and redirected their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-geese-adapt-by-finding-a-new-migratory-route/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory routes</a> as though they were in an entirely different location. 



This behavior suggests that birds can determine their position and direction using only certain magnetic cues, even if other aspects of the magnetic field, such as total intensity, remain unchanged.



"What's interesting is that these findings reveal that the birds don't necessarily need all components of the Earth's magnetic field to determine their position. They can rely solely on inclination and declination, which are also used in compass orientation, to extract their location," explained Professor Richard Holland, the study's leader, who specializes in animal behavior. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-understanding-of-how-birds-navigate">New understanding of how birds navigate</h2>



These findings indicate that birds are equipped with a sophisticated and adaptable internal navigation system.



This system allows them to adjust to environmental changes, even in situations they've never encountered before.



"It remains to be seen whether birds use the total intensity of the Earth's magnetic field for navigation in other contexts, but what we've shown is that these two components - magnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-birds-know-when-its-time-to-stop-migrating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inclination</a> and declination - are enough to provide positional information," stated Prof. Holland.



This study carves out exciting avenues for further research into animal navigation. It sets a solid foundation for broader biological studies, including into how animals decipher and interact with their environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-advantage-of-magnetic-navigation">Evolutionary advantage of magnetic navigation</h2>



This newfound understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-migration-is-influenced-by-social-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird migration</a> and navigation raises questions about how these magnetic cues evolved and why they became central to avian migration.



The ability to rely on magnetic dip and variation could provide birds with a reliable, all-weather navigation system that ensures their survival across vast distances.



Unlike visual landmarks or celestial cues, magnetic fields are constant and unaffected by weather, providing an advantage in conditions where other methods might fail.



The evolutionary benefits of this specialized navigation system are immense. Birds that migrate successfully are better equipped to find food, suitable climates, and breeding grounds, thereby enhancing their chances of survival and reproduction.



This adaptability suggests that magnetic navigation may have been a critical trait for birds that traverse unpredictable environments, such as oceans or dense forests, where visual or auditory landmarks are scarce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



Moreover, understanding the mechanics behind this capability opens doors to potential applications in biomimicry and navigation technologies. 



Researchers may one day harness the principles behind avian magnetic navigation to develop new, eco-friendly navigation tools or improve current systems used in aviation and marine transport. 



This study highlights how much we still have to learn from nature's most seasoned travelers.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1363" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Birds navigate using clues from Earth's magnetic field

Ever pondered the extraordinary migratory journeys of birds? These feathered...

Celebrated each year on November 19th, World Anteater Day aims to raise awareness about the unique lives of anteaters and the conservation challenges they face.&nbsp;



This day highlights the importance of protecting anteaters and their habitats, particularly as their survival is threatened by habitat destruction, illegal wildlife trade, and road collisions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-of-anteaters">Ecological role of anteaters</h2>



When it comes to the health and balance of the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fhow-can-earths-ecosystems-adapt-to-climate-change%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> they inhabit, anteaters play a crucial role through their specialized diet and behavior.&nbsp;



By consuming large quantities of ants and termites, they regulate the populations of these insects, preventing them from becoming overly abundant and causing ecological imbalances.&nbsp;



This natural pest control helps protect vegetation and soil from the damage that excessive insect activity can cause, such as defoliation and soil degradation.



In their search for food, anteaters often disturb the ground, aerating the soil and promoting nutrient cycling. This activity creates microhabitats that benefit other organisms, including plants and smaller animals, by improving soil quality and fostering biodiversity.&nbsp;



Anteaters also serve as prey for larger predators, making them an integral part of the food web. Their presence is a sign of a healthy ecosystem, highlighting their importance in conserving <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fanimal-tracking-is-crucial-for-preserving-biodiversity%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> and maintaining environmental stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-facts-about-anteaters">Fascinating facts about anteaters</h2>



Anteaters are fascinating creatures with a variety of traits that make them stand out as unique members of the animal kingdom.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-anatomy">Distinct anatomy</h3>



Their long, tubular snouts house tongues that can extend up to two feet, allowing them to probe deep into ant and termite mounds.&nbsp;



These tongues are covered in sticky saliva and can flick up to 150 times per minute, enabling anteaters to consume thousands of insects daily.&nbsp;



Interestingly, anteaters lack teeth and rely on the muscular walls of their stomachs to grind food, which is aided by the sand and dirt they ingest.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-foraging-style">Foraging style</h3>



Anteaters are highly specialized for their diet, with powerful claws to break open hard termite mounds and thick fur to protect them from insect bites.&nbsp;



These animals have poor vision but excellent senses of smell and hearing, which help them navigate and locate prey.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifestyle">Lifestyle</h3>



Despite their solitary nature, they communicate through huffs, snorts, and body language.



Anteaters are also known for their peculiar gait, as they walk on their knuckles to protect their claws.



The giant anteater, the largest species, can grow up to seven feet long, including its bushy tail. The silky anteater, which is the smallest species, is about the size of a squirrel.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anteaters-face-a-range-of-threats">Anteaters face a range of threats</h2>



Many anteater species are threatened by habitat loss and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activity-has-a-strong-effect-on-wildlife-in-remote-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human activities</a>, making their conservation a global priority.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat loss</h3>



Habitat loss is one of the most critical challenges, as deforestation and agricultural expansion reduce the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fsingle-degree-temperature-warming-boreal-forests-wreak-havoc%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>, savannas, and grasslands they depend on.&nbsp;



Urban development fragments their habitats, isolating populations and limiting access to food and mating opportunities.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-nbsp">Human activities&nbsp;</h3>



Road collisions are another major threat, especially for giant anteaters, which often wander across highways in search of food or territory.&nbsp;



The expansion of road networks in their native ranges increases the risk of these deadly encounters.&nbsp;



Furthermore, anteaters are occasionally targeted by hunters for their meat or as trophies - despite their low economic value.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h3>



Wildfires are particularly devastating for anteaters, destroying their habitats and leaving them vulnerable to starvation or predation.&nbsp;



<a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fanimal-extinction-risk-is-heavily-influenced-by-climate-change%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a> exacerbates these issues by altering their ecosystems, making it harder for them to find sufficient food and shelter.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illegal-wildlife-trade-nbsp">Illegal wildlife trade&nbsp;</h3>



Illegal wildlife trade also poses a threat, as some species are captured and sold as exotic pets. Due to their specific care requirements, anteaters should not be kept as pets. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-anteater-day">World Anteater Day</h2>



World Anteater Day emphasizes education about the ecological value of these creatures, inspiring conservation efforts worldwide.&nbsp;



Activities on World Anteater Day often include educational campaigns, fundraising events, and efforts to support <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fprotect.worldwildlife.org%2Fpage%2F53256%2Fdonate%2F1%3Fen_og_source%3DSearchAd_Donation%26ea.tracking.id%3DPaidAd_Google_Membership%26supporter.appealCode%3DAWE2305OQ18492A06630RX%26utm_source%3Dgooglepaid%26utm_medium%3Dcpc%26utm_campaign%3Dwildlife-charities%26gad_source%3D1%26gclid%3DCj0KCQiAi_G5BhDXARIsAN5SX7oTjn7ZmwbhTgSG1LPcKDfdfjLFPsXaiUhN_2QrutNr4Fw35XZUoQYaAk2iEALw_wcB&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife organizations</a> dedicated to the preservation of anteaters and their natural environments.&nbsp;



By educating the public and supporting conservation initiatives, World Anteater Day aims to promote appreciation for these unique animals and encourage collective responsibility for safeguarding their future.&nbsp;



Today is a reminder that every species, no matter how unusual, plays a vital role in the delicate balance of nature.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World Anteater Day: A tribute to nature's unique foragers

Celebrated each year on November 19th, World Anteater Day aims...

Ticks might be small, but their impact on public health is undeniably significant. Known for carrying disease pathogens that they pick up from various hosts, ticks journey does not stop at the grassfield's corner. 



Instead, these tiny creatures hitch rides on migrating birds, taking them thousands of miles away from their regular geographic range. 



Historically, ticks were deterred by the inhospitable climate conditions in distant lands. But the climate crisis, the elephant in our global living room, is rewriting this narrative. 



Now, it's becoming easier for ticks to survive and spread - possibly bringing along new tick-borne diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-fuels-tick-borne-diseases">Climate change fuels tick-borne diseases</h2>



“If conditions become more hospitable for tropical tick <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-legged-ticks-are-naturally-repelled-by-ant-pheromones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> to establish themselves in areas where they would previously have been unsuccessful, then there is a chance they could bring new diseases with them,” said study lead author Dr. Shahid Karim of the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usm.edu%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Mississippi</a>.



With conditions becoming more favorable for these unwelcome guests, there's a good chance they could introduce new diseases to these areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hitchhikers-of-the-animal-kingdom">Hitchhikers of the animal kingdom</h2>



Ticks have proven their efficiency as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-infectious-disease-landscape-is-changing-and-we-must-prepare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease vectors</a> time and again. They act as connecting bridges, enabling diseases from wild reservoirs like Lyme disease to reach humans and domestic animals. 



Bird parasitism, particularly of migratory birds, enables ticks to travel enormous distances. The climate crisis, altering global temperatures, is laying the foundation for ticks to play the role of invasive species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-and-unsettling-shift">Rapid and unsettling shift</h2>



The geographic distribution of tick species is changing at a staggering speed, noted Dr. Lorenza Beati from <a href="https://www.georgiasouthern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Southern University</a>.



To ticks, the climate at their northern destination may soon look more like their home turf. Ticks could likely establish themselves if warmer conditions are coupled with the presence of suitable vertebrate hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-tick-dispersal">Mystery of tick dispersal</h2>



The core study involved meticulous fieldwork, DNA analysis, bird categorization, and mapping to understand tick dispersal's true picture through migrating birds. 



Intriguingly, ticks traveled impressive distances, with some hitting the 5000km mark. Nevertheless, parasitism was unexpectedly low, and most birds carried fewer ticks than anticipated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tick-bacteria-relationship">Tick-bacteria relationship</h2>



Science often uncovers unexpected alliances in nature. In this case, scientists found that Francisella bacteria, the most common type found in ticks, help ticks function and spread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-transmit-more-viruses-to-animals-than-we-catch-from-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a> effectively. 



Interestingly, the second most abundant bacteria were Rickettsia species. These bacteria might have an unknown symbiotic relationship with ticks.



The researchers emphasize the need for continued research in understanding the full impact of bird-assisted tick dispersal.



In particular, they point out the pressing need to unravel whether birds carry tick-borne diseases even when they aren’t hosting ticks. 



If these foreign ticks establish themselves in new regions, they might open doors for existing pathogens to spread or maintain new pathogens in wildlife reservoirs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-range-of-ticks">Expanding range of ticks</h2>



“Not only could these ticks bring new pathogens, but if they manage to establish themselves in the US, they could become additional vectors of pathogens already present in this country or maintain pathogens in wildlife reservoirs which can then become sources of infection,” said Dr. Karim. 



He advises people to protect themselves with insect repellent and carefully check for ticks after walking in tick-infested areas.



Awareness and precaution on ticks and their disease transmission are our most effective tools against these creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-climate-models">The role of climate models</h2>



The integration of climate models into tick research has become increasingly critical as scientists strive to predict future tick distributions and their invasion success. 



These models consider variables such as temperature, humidity, and vegetation - which significantly influence tick survivability and habitat suitability. 



By projecting potential changes in climate and environmental conditions, scientists can assess areas at risk of new tick infestations.



According to Dr. Lorenza Beati, this predictive approach enables proactive measures to mitigate risks related to tick-borne diseases, thereby prioritizing regions for surveillance and intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-threat-of-tick-borne-diseases">Addressing the threat of tick-borne diseases </h2>



Addressing the expanding range of ticks and the increasing threat of tick-borne diseases requires a collaborative global response.



Researchers, public health officials, and policymakers must work together to develop strategies that curb tick proliferation and manage diseases effectively. 



International partnerships can facilitate the sharing of data, resources, and expertise essential for understanding tick dynamics on a global scale.



Moreover, public awareness campaigns and community engagement play a vital role in educating populations on preventive measures, such as the importance of maintaining tick-safe environments and the early detection of symptoms related to tick-borne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-can-prevent-future-pandemics-by-protecting-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a>. 



The tiny bodies of ticks churn large ripples in the world of disease transmission. As climate change inadvertently clears paths for their wide-scale dispersal, our interconnected world is suddenly appearing smaller and more vulnerable.



Through collective efforts, a comprehensive and adaptable approach can be forged to confront the challenges presented by these formidable arachnids.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2024.1472598/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ticks are hitchhiking on birds to spread diseases worldwide

Ticks might be small, but their impact on public health...

Every day, deep within the lush landscapes of Brazil's Serra da Capivara National Park, a fascinating spectacle unfolds. Here, wild bearded capuchin monkeys learn to solve problems and access food by keenly observing other successful members of their social group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-s-smart-enough-to-take-the-banana">Who's smart enough to take the banana?</h2>



A research team from Durham University's Department of Anthropology set up a large box containing food in the park. The box could be accessed by lifting a door or pulling a knob. 



As scientists observed from their treetop offices, they were keen to discover which monkeys would figure out how to access the meal inside the box. And more importantly, they were interested in how this knowledge would <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/immigrant-birds-learn-useful-behaviors-from-their-neighbors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ripple across the group</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-tolerance-and-learning">Social tolerance and learning</h2>



The focus of this study was not the intelligence of the monkeys but the role of social tolerance in the learning process. 



Social tolerance, in this context, refers to who can hang out with whom and who gets access to what goodies, such as food or information. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monkey-see-monkey-learn">Monkey see, monkey learn</h2>



The findings of the study highlighted that the monkeys primarily learned through direct observation.



The researchers found that social tolerance among the monkeys, particularly among those who groomed each other, served as a good indicator of who would <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-availability-influences-social-learning-among-orangutans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learn</a> from who. So, the friendlier the monkey, the better the learner.



Beyond the influence of social tolerance, monkeys who had yet to learn the trick of the box were more likely to observe and potentially learn from successful males in the group. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-learning-in-monkeys">Social learning in monkeys</h2>



This intriguing study was co-supervised by Professor Rachel Kendal of Durham University's Department of Anthropology. 



"Bearded capuchins possess the largest ‘toolkit’ among monkeys, and this is likely due to social learning, enabling skills to be passed down the generations," Kendal notes.



The research team wanted to investigate what influenced who was <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-learning-speed-keeping-pace-with-a-changing-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a> from whom once they had established that social learning was taking place. 



They discovered that socially tolerant individuals, who often groomed or ate together, were more likely to observe each other when interacting with the "puzzle box." This tolerance also affected how information about solving the box problem spread among the group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-ahead-in-the-monkey-world">Getting ahead in the monkey world</h2>



Of course, status matters, even in the monkey world. For instance, even if a monkey has a skill, others may not learn it if the skillful one doesn’t have sufficient status to be observed. 



The flip side holds true as well - if a monkey is intolerant and doesn't allow others to watch him, others won't learn. So, the ability to learn from success is biased towards socially tolerant individuals. 



This is not so different from humans, is it?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-societies">Implications for human societies</h2>



The parallels between the social dynamics of capuchin monkeys and human societies are captivating. 



The study's revelations about social tolerance and observational learning can shed light on how cultural and knowledge transmission occurs in humans. Like our primate cousins, humans rely on social networks to pass down technology, skills, and traditions - helping to maintain societal cohesion.



This research can thus provide valuable insights into the evolution of our cooperative behaviors and the foundational role of social tolerance in cultural development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-social-learning-research">Future social learning research </h2>



Building on these findings, future research could explore the extent to which these learning dynamics apply to other primate species and even other animal groups. 



Comparative studies could help unravel the complexities of social learning environments and further dissect the influence of hierarchy and social bonds. Moreover, integrating this understanding with cognitive neuroscience could illuminate the underlying neurological processes driving social learning. 



This multifaceted approach may ultimately enrich our comprehension of both primate societies and the evolutionary pathways that have shaped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social intelligence</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-this-mean-for-us">What does this mean for us?</h2>



These fascinating findings from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> might shed light on the evolutionary forces involved in primate, including human, cultural abilities. 



Research partners in this project also included Eduardo B. Ottoni of the Institute of Psychology at the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a> and lead authors Camila Galheigo Coelho and Ivan Garcia-Nisa, both former PhD researchers in the Anthropology Department at Durham University.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2322888121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Social bonds drive learning in monkeys and humans alike

Every day, deep within the lush landscapes of Brazil's Serra...

Just imagine a world where humans no longer exist, who would take over? Well, it may not be another mammal. Believe it or not, octopuses could be the ones to dominate Earth after humans. 



Scientists have recently made a riveting claim that these eight-limbed, marine invertebrates could become the dominant species on Earth should homo sapiens vanish from existence. It's an intriguing idea, but how is it possible?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hypothetical-world-without-humans">Hypothetical world without humans</h2>



What if humanity were utterly wiped out through wars or climate change? It's a grim concept but it is fascinating to wonder about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-arms-inspire-more-human-like-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential successors</a> of our civilization.



According to leading experts, octopuses possess the "physical and mental attributes necessary" to evolve into the next civilization-building species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopus-taking-over-humans">Octopus taking over humans</h2>



Tim Coulson, a professor at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>, presents an interesting case for these eight-legged creatures. His argument hinges on the octopuses' "dexterity, curiosity, ability to communicate with each other, and supreme intelligence."



These traits, according to Professor Coulson, equip octopuses with the potential to develop complex tools and methodologies necessary to birth a vast Atlantis-like civilization under the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-not-primates">Why not primates?</h2>



One might think that primates, our closest relatives, have the best shot at stepping into our shoes if we were to vacate the world. They have opposable thumbs, use tools, and walk on two legs, right? But according to Professor Coulson, it's not that simple. 



He reasons that primates would face the same threats that could potentially wipe out humanity and thus are also at risk of extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopuses-competing-with-humans">Octopuses competing with humans</h2>



In an interview with The European magazine, Professor Coulson, who has held positions at institutions like <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a> and <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambridge University</a>, elaborates on why octopuses are a strong contender.



He refers to them as "the most intelligent, adaptable, and resourceful creatures on Earth," lauding their abilities to solve complex problems, manipulate objects, and even camouflage themselves with near-perfect precision.



Their decentralized nervous system and advanced neural structure, coupled with their exceptional problem-solving skills, make octopuses uniquely suited for an unpredictable world. 



Professor Coulson sees these intelligent cephalopods as an underappreciated contender who could step up as the planet's next intelligent species after humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptable-survivalists">Adaptable survivalists</h2>



If humans were to go extinct, most scientists concur that the creature to "replace" us should be dextrous. Dexterity, in this context, pertains to the ability to modify their environment and colonize the planet using complex tools, much like humans.



Octopuses' abilities to distinguish between real and virtual objects, solve puzzles, manipulate their surroundings, and adapt to a broad range of environments make them a viable candidate for future rulers of Earth. 



They are also adept at surviving in harsh conditions and are formidable hunters with a wide variety of prey including clams, shrimp, lobsters, fish, sharks, and even birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopuses-and-human-like-settlements">Octopuses and human-like settlements</h2>



With relatively short lifespans, from between 1.5 to five years, one could argue that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> are on the back foot for the long evolutionary race. But here's a counterintuitive thought. 



What if their hasty reproduction and quick intellectual maturity actually give them an advantage in rapidly changing environments, thereby accelerating their evolutionary progress?



According to our Professor Coulson, while octopuses are unlikely to evolve into land-based animals due to their lack of a skeleton and associated challenges with mobility out of water, they could potentially develop underwater cities and towns akin to human settlements on land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-yes-probable-maybe">Possible? Yes. Probable? Maybe.</h2>



In the end, as Professor Coulson reminds us, these are all just speculations. "It's important to remember that these are just possibilities, and that it's impossible to predict with any degree of certainty how evolution will unfold over extended periods."



However, given the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a>' remarkable intelligence, adaptability, and diverse range of survival strategies, they could indeed emerge as a potential successor to humanity.



Now, whether the octopuses would build vast underwater cities or venture onto land to hunt terrestrial mammals is yet to be determined, and we may never really know.



For now, we will continue to marvel at these fascinating creatures and their potential for becoming the torchbearers of intelligent life on Earth, albeit in the far-flung future.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Octopuses could dominate Earth if humans vanish

Just imagine a world where humans no longer exist, who...

species in Malacanthidae