A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

April marks a seasonal shift, not only on Earth but also in our skies. As flowers bloom and rains arrive, the night sky reveals its own spectacle.



Planets reposition themselves, a meteor shower sparks across the heavens, and a distant cluster of ancient stars invites a closer look. 



Whether you're stepping outside for the first time with binoculars or you’ve mapped constellations for years, this month has something <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/march-2025-stargazing-a-red-moon-and-a-vanishing-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remarkable</a> in store.



As the days grow longer and evenings get warmer, it becomes easier to spend time outdoors. This month, the sky gives back in kind - with planetary pairings, radiant meteors, and a view into the distant halo of our galaxy.



April reminds us that you don’t need advanced equipment or deep knowledge to enjoy the night sky. All you need is curiosity and a clear view.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jupiter-and-mars-brighten-the-april-sky">Jupiter and Mars brighten the April sky</h2>



Early April evenings start strong with Jupiter and the crescent Moon shining close together. This pairing will occur twice - on April 1st and again on the 30th. 



Look west about half an hour after sunset. The two will remain visible for around three hours as the twilight fades into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/january-2025-stargazing-a-parade-of-bright-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">night</a>.



Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system, reflects light steadily. Its brightness makes it easy to spot, even from cities. 



The Moon adds a soft glow, creating a calming, luminous scene. This pairing is short-lived but very memorable.



As April progresses, Mars becomes a dominant feature high in the southern sky. Early in the month, it sits almost exactly between two well-known stars - Procyon and Pollux. 



Mars does not stay still. Its steady movement through the sky makes it an interesting object to track, night by night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-moves-close-to-mars-mid-april">Moon moves close to Mars mid-April</h2>



On April 4th and 5th, the Moon approaches Mars closely. 



They appear side by side, offering a striking contrast. Mars has a reddish hue while the Moon reflects a soft, white light. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-planets-will-align-this-week-during-a-rare-nighttime-spectacle-heres-how-to-see-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pairing</a> may look especially beautiful through binoculars, where both can fit into the same field of view.



These events help build familiarity with the night sky. Noticing where planets sit compared to stars teaches how they move differently. 



Unlike stars, which hold their place, planets shift gradually over weeks. Mars, with its distinct color, becomes easy to follow, once you spot it.



As the evenings grow warmer, step outside, look up, and trace Mars as it arcs across the sky. You’re watching a planet millions of kilometers away, but sharing the same sunlight that warms your own backyard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venus-shifts-into-the-morning-sky">Venus shifts into the morning sky </h2>



In a change from previous months, Venus now rises before the Sun. It has officially moved from the evening sky to the morning. 



At the start of April, it reflects sunlight low on the eastern horizon, just before dawn. As the month advances, it rises earlier and climbs higher each morning.



On April 24th and 25th, Venus will appear with Saturn and a thin crescent Moon. This early-morning gathering will take place low in the east. A clear view of the horizon will be key to catching it.



Mercury might join this scene too. It’s bright but difficult to spot, sitting very low near the horizon. 



Observers in areas without buildings or trees blocking the view have a good chance of finding it. These moments reward those willing to rise early, before the day begins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-april-s-sky-brings-lyrid-meteor-shower">April's sky brings Lyrid meteor shower</h2>



Mid to late April offers another treat - the Lyrid meteor shower. This annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-the-universe-lets-us-travel-back-11-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">event</a> occurs as Earth crosses a trail of dust left by Comet Thatcher. The meteors arrive from a point in the sky called the radiant, located near the constellation Lyra.



The peak occurs overnight on April 21st into the early morning of the 22nd. Under very dark skies, you could see up to 15 meteors per hour. 



They begin appearing after 10:30 p.m. and continue through dawn. The best viewing time is around 5 a.m. when the radiant climbs higher.



A waning crescent Moon will rise at about 3:30 a.m., but since it’s only 27 percent full, it won’t outshine the meteors much. Lie back somewhere safe, face the east, and look straight up. 



Meteors may streak in from any direction. Some Lyrids are known to leave bright trails that linger for a few seconds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteors-and-what-they-tell-us">Meteors and what they tell us</h2>



Lyrid meteors aren’t just a visual spectacle. They also offer insights into the nature of comets. 



When tiny dust particles from space enter our atmosphere, they burn up, creating the bright flashes we see as meteors. NASA uses ground-based cameras, high-altitude aircraft, and even satellites to study them.



Understanding meteors helps NASA predict when showers will be active. It also supports spacecraft safety. Small particles in space can damage instruments, so knowing when Earth will pass through a dense trail is critical. 



Beyond safety, meteor studies shed light on the composition of long-gone comets and the broader history of our solar system.



Each meteor we see is a brief spark from a story that is billions of years old. They may vanish in an instant, but they carry the past into our present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-to-the-distant-cluster-m3">Journey to the distant cluster M3</h2>



April also gives us a chance to see a deep-sky treasure - Messier 3, or M3. This globular cluster contains around 500,000 stars packed tightly together. It sits about 34,000 light-years away, far out in the Milky Way’s halo.



Charles Messier, an 18th-century French astronomer, first recorded M3 in 1764. Mistaking it for a comet at first, he later added it to his list of objects that were not comets. That list became the Messier catalog, a guide now used by amateur and professional astronomers alike.



Through binoculars, M3 appears as a soft, round glow. A small telescope reveals a more detailed patch with a grainy texture. 



Larger scopes begin to show individual stars near the edges. What you’re seeing are some of the oldest stars in our galaxy, many of them over 10 billion years old.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-m3-with-the-big-dipper">Finding M3 with the Big Dipper</h2>



To find M3, look toward the east. Use the Big Dipper’s handle to trace a curve toward Arcturus, one of the brightest stars in the sky. Then look slightly higher and to the left to locate Cor Caroli, another bright star.



M3 lies about one-third of the way between Arcturus and Cor Caroli. Sweep that area slowly with binoculars or a finder scope. 



Once you find it, you’ll spot a soft, spherical glow - the ancient star city. This object is visible even from the edge of town if the skies are dark.



Globular clusters like M3 differ from open clusters such as the Pleiades. They orbit far above and below the Milky Way’s plane. Our galaxy has about 150 of them, each a relic from a time when the universe was young.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-phases-shape-what-we-see-in-the-april-sky">Moon phases shape what we see in the April sky</h2>



As you follow planets and meteors, don’t forget the Moon. Its phases offer a rhythm to the month. Watch as it grows from a sliver to full, then wanes again into another crescent. 



Each phase brings different lighting conditions, ideal for exploring various parts of the sky.



A bright Moon can wash out faint stars and meteors, but it also brings its own beauty. Its changing shape creates new shadows and features on its surface. Through binoculars or a small telescope, craters and ridges come to life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-april-s-sky-invites-everyone-to-explore">April's sky invites everyone to explore</h2>



April’s sky shows the balance between motion and stillness. Planets wander while stars remain fixed. Meteors flash and vanish, while clusters like M3 endure for billions of years. Each night brings a new chapter to read above.



Keep track of celestial events and space missions at <a href="https://science.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA's website</a>. Whether you're gazing up at dawn or after dinner, this month invites you to slow down and look beyond.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What's up in the night sky during the month of April 2025?

April marks a seasonal shift, not only on Earth but...

Modern birds have air-filled cavities in their bones to reduce weight for flight. Interestingly, this feature has also been discovered in dinosaur fossils. 



A new study of alvarezsauridae fossils has identified these same bone features in creatures that roamed the Earth nearly 70 million years ago.



Experts studying these slender dinosaurs uncovered evidence of hollow channels that link to their respiratory systems. 



The results suggest that <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.0160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pneumaticity</a> might have been more common in theropod dinosaurs than previously thought.



This work was led by <a href="https://www.patagonia.com.ar/General+Roca/450_Museo+Patag%C3%B3nico+de+Ciencias+Naturales.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Patagonian Museum of Natural Sciences</a> in Roca, and was founded as a project by the Patagonian Foundation of Natural Sciences. Researchers collaborated across Argentina and China to piece together details of these unusual bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-bones-were-hollow">Dinosaur bones were hollow</h2>



Bird skeletons stand out for their lightweight build. Many have air sacs that extend into bones, helping to manage body temperature, improve respiratory functions, and reduce overall mass.



Scans of these new fossils indicate that such air sacs already existed in some dinosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineages</a>. 



Paleontologists suggest this adaptation might have provided other benefits, particularly in oxygen circulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hollow-bones-helped-dinosaur-breathing">Hollow bones helped dinosaur breathing</h2>



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.284.5423.2137" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have long known that certain dinosaur groups had air pockets in their skeletons. Yet the extent of these cavities in <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/saurischia/theropoda.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropod dinosaurs</a> has been debated.



CT scans of the dinosaur fossil vertebrae uncovered interconnected voids that likely connected to respiratory structures. 



This structural pattern resembles what is seen in living birds, though the ancient dinosaur bones differ in shape and size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-tail-anatomy">Surprising tail anatomy</h2>



One unexpected twist came from the tail region. Internal air spaces showed up as far back as the middle segments, hinting at a more widespread distribution of air pockets than is found in some other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-case-of-the-two-clawed-dinosaur-duonychus-tsogtbaatari/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Specialists in dinosaur fossils and biology have typically focused on the neck and torso regions for signs of air sacs. 



However, seeing as the air sacs extend far into the tail, this raises fresh questions about how these creatures breathed and moved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-random-variability-in-bone-cavities">Random variability in bone cavities</h2>



Another puzzle emerged when the team compared separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specimens</a> of different sizes. They found uneven patterns of diverticula within the same type of vertebrae, suggesting no clear progression of these air pockets.



“This study is an important first step that paves the way for future studies to uncover the extent of pneumatic invasion among alvarezsauridaes, and its macroevolutionary implications,” explained J. G. Meso from The Patagonian Museum of Natural Science.



The authors described this uneven distribution of hollow spaces in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> bones as a seemingly random process that might relate to blood vessel pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-directions-in-dinosaur-research">New directions in dinosaur research</h2>



Scholars comparing these findings to those of other species note that air cavities might show up in surprising places once larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-eggs-found-in-utah-belong-to-multiple-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> datasets are examined.



Some suspect this adaptation appeared in different dinosaur families at various points, rather than following a steady evolutionary path.



With more advanced imaging, experts hope to learn if certain groups gained or lost these hollow spaces over time. This approach could reveal unexpected links between distant branches of the dinosaur family tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-bones-changed-with-evolution">Dinosaur bones changed with evolution</h2>



Lightweight skeletal features might have enhanced efficiency, but no one knows if they aided speed, temperature control, or other factors. 



<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00534.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> of bird flight have shown that reduced bone mass can help modern species, though alvarezsauridaes did not soar.



Further research might clarify whether these air-filled bones played a role in daily activity or growth. Specialists also want to explore how these structures evolved among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-discovered-in-australia-rewrite-dinosaur-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>, scavengers, and other lifestyles within <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/saurischia/coelurosauria.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coelurosaurians</a>.



Scientists remain cautious about comparing ancient air sacs to those of living birds. Different theropod families likely followed various paths to lighten their bones and enhance respiratory function.



Some paleontologists propose that future CT analyses of more fossils could confirm if these features evolved multiple times. Each new discovery brings fresh insights into how dinosaurs thrived in unique environments.



Future research may reveal complex bone cavities in species other than dinosaurs. Ongoing studies will broaden our view of how dinosaurs thrived.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0320121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

First evidence of 'hollow bones' found in dinosaurs, just like modern birds

Modern birds have air-filled cavities in their bones to reduce...

In astronomy, a faint hum often carries hidden information about our universe. Some stars pulse with subtle fluctuations, and those signals can tell us a lot about how the Milky Way was formed. A new study links these gentle waves, or starquakes, to the complex processes taking place inside stars.



This connection offers a richer picture of stellar aging and how matter that is recycled by stars shapes our galaxy’s overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whats-up-in-the-night-sky-during-the-month-of-april-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">design</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starquakes-reveal-stellar-interiors">Starquakes reveal stellar interiors</h2>



Study lead author <a href="https://reporter.anu.edu.au/people/claudia-reyes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Claudia Reyes</a> from <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Australian National University</a> and <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a> Sydney refers to these pulses as musical notes that reflect a star’s true character. 



Researchers measure tiny changes in brightness and convert them into frequencies for closer inspection.



“Starquakes occur in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/proxima-centauri-the-closest-star-to-earth-is-extremely-violent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>, leading to a continuous cycle of brightening and dimming. By carefully observing these tiny fluctuations in brightness, we can listen to a star’s musical rhythm,” explained Dr. Reyes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-red-giant-stars-the-basics">Understanding red giant stars - the basics</h2>



Red giant stars are what happen when a star like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/team-creates-video-showing-the-sun-in-gamma-rays-over-a-14-year-period/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our Sun</a> runs low on fuel. After spending millions or even billions of years burning hydrogen in its core, the star starts to run out. 



When that happens, gravity begins to crush the core, and the outer layers puff outward. 



The star swells up - sometimes hundreds of times larger than its original size - and cools down on the surface, which gives it that reddish glow. It looks calm and glowing, but inside, it’s going through serious changes.



These stars don’t just sit around getting bigger, though. Inside, the core begins fusing helium instead of hydrogen, and the star can go through a few wild phases before it reaches the end of the line. 



Some red giants eventually shed their outer layers, forming beautiful clouds of gas called planetary nebulae. What’s left behind is a tiny, dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf</a> - the star’s former core, still glowing with leftover heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starquakes-help-measure-age-and-fusion">Starquakes help measure age and fusion</h2>



Experts rely on <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-astro-082812-140938" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroseismology</a> to interpret these oscillations, which reflect the density and temperature layers in a star. 



This method can expose details about stellar mass, age, and even the fusion processes occurring deep within.



<a href="http://www2.lowell.edu/users/jch/workshop/drs/drs-p1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar-type stars</a> vibrate in distinct ways depending on their core conditions and chemical makeup. 



By mapping these vibrations, astronomers can place each star on a timeline that reveals its past and hints at potential changes in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-open-cluster-m67">Role of open cluster M67</h2>



A team focused on <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2020/01/aa36691-19/aa36691-19.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">open cluster M67</a>, a stellar gathering believed to have formed from the same giant molecular cloud. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cluster</a> is notable because its stars share similar ages and elements, making comparisons more reliable.



Investigators looked at subgiant and red giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-star-clusters-captured-in-the-extreme-outskirts-of-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> in M67 to capture their shifts in brightness frequencies. 



They spotted a short window when the usual progression of frequencies halted before continuing on a new track.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-clues-about-how-stars-change">New clues about how stars change</h2>



This pause, sometimes referred to as a plateau, highlights a significant adjustment in the star’s internal layers. 



It suggests that certain fusion zones or structural layers might expand or contract in ways that change the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runaway-star-may-be-dragging-a-planet-along-with-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a>’s musical signature.



That insight opens a new door to measuring star ages more precisely. A small shift in frequency can indicate a major transition inside a star, and that transition marks an important milestone in its life cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starquake-timing-and-galaxy-growth">Starquake timing and galaxy growth</h2>



Stars funnel heavy elements into interstellar space once they move beyond certain phases of nuclear burning. 



These elements enrich the raw material that shapes future stars, planets, and even life-supporting systems.



Precise timelines for when stars start and stop various fusion processes help astronomers see the bigger picture of galactic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monster-in-the-shadows-giant-black-hole-emerges-from-cosmic-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formation</a>. 



They can map the chemical trails that lead from one generation of stars to the next, revealing how the Milky Way acquired its current structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-the-sun-s-future">A window into the Sun’s future</h2>



Stars in M67 are sometimes compared to our Sun, but they are in later stages of development. 



By watching their changes, scientists can predict how the Sun’s energy-producing layers might behave many millions of years from now.



Observing the starquake signals from these older siblings can warn us about potential instabilities or shifts in solar output. 



It also reassures us that certain phases will unfold gradually, offering enough lead time to understand any impact on our planetary neighborhood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starquakes-and-stellar-science">Starquakes and stellar science</h2>



The plateau discovery demonstrates how subtle features in starquake data can refine age calculations. 



This improvement benefits large-scale surveys that aim to chart our galaxy’s past by examining countless stars at various evolutionary stages.



Scientists are now combining data from observatories worldwide to see if similar patterns arise in other clusters. 



Each cluster provides a small piece of a larger puzzle, and collectively they help us trace the path of star formation and chemical enrichment across cosmic distances.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08760-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Universal clues found in the musical melodies of 'starquakes'

In astronomy, a faint hum often carries hidden information about...

Hummingbird,With,Flower.,Rufous-gaped,Hillstar,,,Urochroa,Bougueri,,On,Ping

The shift into warmer days often brings a renewed interest in the outdoors. Gardens begin to hum with activity as new blooms appear, and the buzz of local pollinators adds a lively backdrop. The excitement of seeing a hummingbird hovering in your yard can brighten any afternoon.



It’s fitting to recognize that these remarkable birds have captured the attention of Dr. Emily Watkins from the <a href="https://www.audubon.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Audubon Society</a>, whose work highlights simple yard enhancements that can welcome them year after year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quick-and-colorful">Quick and colorful</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hummingbirds</a> weigh less than a nickel, yet they are capable of staying airborne in one spot and sometimes even flying backward. 



Their bright feathers reflect brilliant reds, greens, or purples, depending on the angle of the sunlight. This blend of color and agility has made them a favorite subject of conversation among neighbors who compare sightings around the yard.



When they rest, they often vanish into nearby branches or shrubs. These short breaks let them conserve energy before the next <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hummingbirds-deal-with-their-need-for-flight-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">burst of motion</a>. 



A quick appearance at a flower or a feeder can shift moods, spark a moment of joy, and motivate people to experiment with plants that might catch a hummingbird’s eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tough-and-tiny-travelers">Tough and tiny travelers</h2>



Every garden has its own rhythm, but hummingbirds bring an energy that delights the senses. 



Some people notice that these feathered visitors arrive just when the temperature nudges them to plant new flowers or hang fresh feeders. 



This timing often reinforces the feeling that a new season is officially underway.



These birds use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-adjust-their-wings-to-fly-through-very-tiny-spaces/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">incredible amounts of energy</a> with every wingbeat. Some species manage flights of thousands of miles each year, and certain ones even cross the Gulf of Mexico without a break.



Their wings can beat up to 80 times per second, and they may visit hundreds of flowers in a single day. With such intense demands, they require a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">steady supply of nectar</a> and insects. 



Filling your yard with the right kinds of flowers, such as azaleas, will guarantee that they have a steady supply of both.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-azaleas-yards-and-hummingbirds">Azaleas, yards, and hummingbirds</h2>



Azaleas come in many sizes, with some reaching 15 feet tall and others staying closer to the 3 to 6 foot range. 



Their funnel-shaped blooms are well-suited to a hummingbird’s long bill, making them a practical addition for those hoping to attract these birds. 



Beyond nectar, azaleas can draw insects such as aphids and mites, which make up about 80% of a hummingbird’s diet. 



Observers sometimes choose to pair azaleas with other nectar-rich plants, such as bee balm or salvia, to keep a yard filled with buzzing and fluttering activity throughout the growing season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-science-says">What the science says</h2>



Scientists took a close look at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-hummingbird-day-celebrating-natures-aerial-acrobats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbird sightings</a> across the mainland United States. 



They wanted to see if feeders, nectar-laden flowers, native species, or reduced pavement would affect the chances of hosting these tiny visitors. 



Findings showed that homes with a variety of blooms and regular feeders were more likely to spot hummingbirds, especially if those plantings included native flowers. 



Having less asphalt and concrete around also helped.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204619311284" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">This research</a> spanned both urban and rural regions. Results lined up with established advice from conservation groups that highlight the value of planting native species and preserving pockets of natural habitat. 



By following these suggestions, many homeowners find that their outdoor spaces become more inviting to local wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighborhood-hummingbird-havens">Neighborhood hummingbird havens</h2>



Many communities run programs that set aside open spaces for pollinator-friendly growth. Organizers point to hummingbirds as a symbol of how nature can thrive in a suburban or city environment. 



When property owners plant shrubs that offer both nectar and insect life, those choices can provide a more welcoming stopover for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbird-chick-mimics-a-toxic-caterpillar-to-evade-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traveling birds</a>.



In some areas, city councils partner with environmental groups to develop pollinator corridors. These aim to link multiple gardens into a network of habitats. 



Once enough backyards and public spaces join the effort, hummingbirds can move through neighborhoods more easily. Residents, in turn, share a united project that connects them in a positive way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-hummingbird-yard">Creating a hummingbird yard</h2>



To sum it all up, nationwide observations from the National Audubon Society's study confirm that straightforward gardening steps can do a lot for attracting hummingbirds to your yard. 



A clean feeder with fresh sugar water, replaced every few days, is a quick option for those just starting out. 



Azaleas and other native shrubs provide the natural nectar and insects these birds depend on, giving them the variety they need. 



Small efforts add up across the block, strengthening local greenery and helping these visitors refuel during migration or while raising young.



Some people see these actions as part of a broader push for healthier local ecosystems. Planting for pollinators may also balance out land lost to development. 



Local wildlife officials often applaud neighborhood collaborations because they promote a sense of unity and keep colorful creatures thriving close to home.



Observing one dart through sunlit foliage can lift anyone’s spirits, and these moments often spark an even deeper appreciation of the living world around us.



It's that time of year, the hummingbirds are here.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204619311284" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Landscape and Urban Planning</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How to turn your yard into a haven for hummingbirds

The shift into warmer days often brings a renewed interest...

A,Close-up,Photograph,Of,A,Juvenile,St,Andrew's,Cross,Spider

Whether it’s the constant hum of traffic or the repetitive clamor of construction, the noises produced by modern society can obstruct the abilities of spiders and all other animals to send and receive signals that are crucial for their survival.



Studying how animals pick up information can be hard, but web-building spiders give scientists a special chance to look at how external tools (like spider webs) help filter out the noises they don't care about and receive the signals that are important for their survival.



Now, a team of biologists at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln (<a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNL</a>) has published one of the first known studies demonstrating how one group of animals can react to human-made noise by adjusting its own method of sensing sounds. 



In an article published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2025.02.041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, researchers Brandi Pessman and Eileen Hebets show that funnel-weaving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-reveal-how-cave-creatures-lose-their-vision-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> alter how their silk webs transmit vibrations in response to local noise. 



This finding suggests that the spiders might deliberately change web structure to cope with the auditory chaos surrounding them, ensuring they receive vital cues from potential mates, prey, or predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-noise-and-web-adjustments">Spiders, noise, and web adjustments</h2>



Drawing on lab experiments, the study uncovered a particularly unexpected insight: the way a spider’s web conveys vibrations varies depending on whether its architect was collected from a rural or urban area. 



This discrepancy hints at the idea that prior exposure to noise - possibly even inherited across generations - may influence a spider’s malleability when it comes to spinning webs.



“One of the most interesting things that we found is that urban and rural spiders are reacting differently when they're put into a noisy environment,” said Pessman, a postdoctoral researcher in biological sciences and the lead author of the paper. 



“This means that spiders with different experiences with noise - whether they themselves experienced it or their mothers passed it down to them across generations - respond differently.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spider-webs-as-sensory-extensions">Spider webs as sensory extensions</h2>



It has been well documented that animals such as birds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-calls-and-voices-of-frogs-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> can change their calls or the timing of their vocalizations in the face of increased human noise. 



However, little was known about how animals manage to tweak the way they receive acoustic or vibratory signals.



The main challenge is the hidden nature of most animals’ sensory systems, which are located within their bodies. 



But web-building spiders are unique, as their webs function effectively like external sensory extensions that capture vibrations from the environment.



This distinction makes funnel-weaving spiders, also known as Agelenopsis pennsylvanica, an ideal test group. They rely predominantly on vibratory signals for vital information. 



Their webs connect to various surfaces - trees, rocks, or buildings - capable of transmitting the vibratory noise created by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-get-road-rage-when-exposed-to-traffic-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traffic</a>, industrial activities, and more. 



The research team hypothesized that funnel-weaving spiders might be able to reduce the volume of unwanted or irrelevant vibrations caused by human-related noise, which often shares the frequency range these spiders need for effective communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-in-urban-areas">Spiders in urban areas</h2>



Pessman started by collecting a total of 60 funnel-weaving spiders in and around Lincoln, Nebraska - some from city settings and others from out in the countryside. 



In the lab, the spiders were then placed in controlled environments that were either quiet or noisy as they spun webs over four nights.



Upon completion, the researchers introduced test vibrations into those webs, measuring how energy moved across the silk in different conditions.



They observed that spiders from urban areas tended to build webs that lost more energy in short-distance vibrations across a broader set of frequencies when placed under noisy conditions. 



Interpreted practically, these webs essentially “muffled” environmental noise. This may prevent sensory overload, giving the spiders a clearer signal from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> or other relevant vibrations in their immediate vicinity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-that-are-exposed-to-less-noise">Spiders that are exposed to less noise</h2>



Meanwhile, rural spiders assembled their webs in such a way that energy from biologically important long-distance vibrations was preserved. 



This indicates they might be amplifying or enhancing certain frequency ranges to pick out meaningful vibrations above the background noise.



“Rural spiders are not used to as much noise in their environment,” Pessman said. “When they suddenly get a lot of noise, they might try to 'turn up' the volume in their webs or amplify what's coming in to better hear certain signals above the noise.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Given the role of funnel webs as external sensory structures, these findings open a new window into how animals can adjust the way they receive signals, a research area that had remained largely unclear until now. 



The ability to alter web structure in response to different noise environments could prove vital as human-made noise continues to escalate across the planet.



In the future, the team plans to investigate precisely how the spiders are changing their webs - whether they adjust the tension of certain silk lines, vary anchor points, or adopt an entirely new shape to filter or boost specific frequencies. 



High-speed video of the web-building process, combined with digital tracking methods, will let them delve deeper into these construction nuances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-noise-and-spider-webs">Human noise and spider webs</h2>



“This study really highlights the role of receivers in overcoming environmental noise,” said Hebets, who is a professor of biological sciences at UNL. 



“It opens up entirely new avenues of research. For example, are receivers placing themselves at certain locations in the environment where signals are going to receive less attenuation or overlap of noise?”



By revealing that some species can modify their “sensor” for hearing, the team hopes to inspire more research on how other animals cope with rising noise levels. 



The funnels built by these little invertebrates may seem inconsequential to an urban passerby, but as the study shows, each strand of silk can be precisely tuned to help the spider thrive in a clamorous world.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Spiders build their webs differently when the noise in their neighborhood gets too loud

Whether it’s the constant hum of traffic or the repetitive...

A single bad food experience can be enough to change eating habits for a lifetime. Now, researchers have identified the precise brain region responsible for this powerful type of memory.



This fascinating study offering insights into how the brain links cause and effect when there's a delay between them - like getting sick hours after a meal.



This discovery may not only explain why certain foods suddenly become unpalatable but could also inform research into other lasting memory associations, including those involved in trauma and PTSD.



The new findings come from neuroscientists at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a> who set out to explore the brain mechanisms behind “one-shot learning,” where a single event creates a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-our-brain-form-long-term-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-term memory</a>.&nbsp;



“I haven't had food poisoning in a while, but now whenever I talk to people at meetings, I hear all about their food poisoning experiences,” said lead author Christopher Zimmerman, a postdoctoral fellow at the Princeton Neuroscience Institute.&nbsp;



Inspired by such anecdotes, Zimmerman and his colleagues developed an experiment to understand how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-health-and-diet-nutrition-helps-lower-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> forms food aversions even when illness sets in long after eating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-food-poisoning-in-the-brain">Effects of food poisoning in the brain</h2>



Working in the lab of professor Ilana Witten, Zimmerman began by introducing mice to a new flavor - grape Kool-Aid. “It's a better model for how we actually learn,” he explained.&nbsp;



“Normally, scientists in the field will use sugar alone, but that's not a normal flavor that you would encounter in a meal. Kool-Aid, while it's still not typical, is a little bit closer since it has more dimensions to its flavor profile.”



Mice were trained to poke their noses into a port to receive a drop of the drink. Half an hour later, they were given an injection to induce temporary illness, mimicking food poisoning.&nbsp;



When offered a choice two days later between Kool-Aid and plain water, they strongly avoided the former - evidence that the unpleasant outcome had left a strong impression.&nbsp;



But what most intrigued the team was discovering which part of the brain was responsible for this aversive memory: the central amygdala.



“If you look across the entire brain, where novel versus familiar flavors are represented, the amygdala turns out to be a really interesting place because it's preferentially activated by novel flavors at every stage in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>,” Zimmerman said.&nbsp;



“It’s active when the mouse is drinking, when the mouse is feeling sick later, and then when the mouse retrieves that negative memory days later.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memories-of-food-poisoning-in-the-brain">Memories of food poisoning in the brain</h2>



The central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizard-brain-shapes-social-abilities-in-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amygdala</a> is a small structure located deep within the brain, known for processing emotional learning, particularly fear. 



The amygdala also receives a wide range of sensory information, including taste and smell, making it a logical - but previously unconfirmed - candidate for processing food-related memories.



Zimmerman recalled the thrill of the discovery: “I remember making the plot from the first animal and sharing it on Slack with Ilana. She was at my desk a minute later to talk about how exciting this is.”&nbsp;



That initial result was just the beginning. With more data, the researchers confirmed that the central amygdala plays a central role at every point in the learning process - when the flavor is first encountered, when sickness occurs, and when the memory is retrieved later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-gut-to-the-brain">From the gut to the brain</h2>



To understand how the feeling of illness connects to memory, the team followed clues from earlier studies. They identified specialized cells in the hindbrain that produce a protein called CGRP. 



These cells send direct signals to the central amygdala, forming a neural bridge between the gut and the brain. 



When the researchers stimulated these cells 30 minutes after the mice had tasted Kool-Aid - without inducing actual illness - the mice still developed the same aversion.



Even more striking was the finding that sickness appeared to reactivate the same neurons that had responded to the Kool-Aid in the first place.&nbsp;



“It was as if the mice were thinking back and remembering the prior experience that caused them to later feel sick,” Witten said. “It was very cool to see this unfolding at the level of individual neurons.”



The researchers propose that novel flavors may “tag” neurons in the amygdala, priming them to remain sensitive to signals from the body for several hours after eating.&nbsp;



If the animal then experiences sickness during this window, the brain reactivates the tagged neurons and forges a lasting association between the flavor and the illness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-the-dinner-table">Implications beyond the dinner table</h2>



Although the study focused on food aversion, the findings point to a broader framework for how the brain learns to link events separated by time - a process that's not well understood.&nbsp;



“Often when we learn in the real world, there's a long delay between whatever choice we’ve made and the outcome. But that’s not typically studied in the lab, so we don't really understand the neural mechanisms that support this kind of long delay learning,” Zimmerman said.&nbsp;



“Our hope is that these findings will provide a framework for thinking about how the brain might leverage memory recall to solve this learning problem in other situations.”



In addition to shedding light on everyday behaviors - like swearing off oysters after one bad experience - this research could have implications for how we understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-can-cause-muscle-decline-adult-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trauma</a>. 



Much like food poisoning, traumatic events are often followed by symptoms only after a delay, and yet they still form vivid, persistent memories in the brain.



By identifying the precise brain pathways involved in one-shot memory formation, scientists are a step closer to understanding how such associations are wired - and possibly how they might be rewired in the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08828-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>,



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Food poisoning triggers permanent changes in the brain

A single bad food experience can be enough to change...

Astronomers searching for habitable planets have recently turned their attention to stars known as M dwarfs. Though they are also considered "red dwarf" stars like the Sun, these stars have lower luminosities than the Sun, which makes planets passing in front of them more noticeable to our telescopes.



Because M dwarfs emit less light, they create stronger signals when a planet transits. This setup has boosted efforts to find worlds similar in size to our own.



Scientists have concentrated on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocky planets around M dwarfs</a> because any habitable zone hugs the star more tightly than Earth hugs the Sun. 



Investigations with space missions such as TESS and K2 and ground-based ventures like HARPS and MEarth have fueled a wave of discoveries. 



One well-known highlight is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trappist-1-has-seven-earth-like-planets-that-may-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TRAPPIST-1</a>, situated about 12 light-years away - around 72 trillion miles - from us. Its seven planets, roughly the size of Earth, receive sunlight comparable to what our planet gets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gliese-12-b-has-potential">Gliese 12 b has potential</h2>



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">continued pursuits</a> have uncovered a new object called Gliese 12 b, an exoplanet orbiting a star that is less active than TRAPPIST-1. Researchers think this calmer nature might preserve an atmosphere on the planet’s surface.



According to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>, Gliese 12 b is a “super Earth exoplanet” that is nearly the same size as Earth or slightly smaller.



Masayuki Kuzuhara, a project assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.nibb.ac.jp/en/sections/concurrent/abc1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrobiology Center</a> in Tokyo, has drawn attention to the planet’s significance. 



“We’ve found the nearest, transiting, temperate, Earth-size world located to date,” Kuzuhara enthused. 



“Although we don’t yet know whether it possesses an atmosphere, we’ve been thinking of it as an exo-Venus, with similar size and energy received from its star as our planetary neighbor in the solar system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-dwarf-star-gliese-12">Red dwarf star Gliese 12</h2>



NASA points out that a so-called cool red dwarf star like Gliese 12 is helpful for planet hunting because its planets lie well within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-expands-the-habitable-zone-where-we-may-find-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable zone</a>.



“A smaller star means greater dimming for each transit, and a lower mass means an orbiting planet can produce a greater wobble, known as ‘reflex motion,’ of the star,” the agency said. “These effects make smaller planets easier to detect.”



Gliese 12 itself measures about 27% of the Sun’s size and has surface temperatures at roughly 60% of the solar level. Astronomers also note that the planet completes one orbit in 12.8 days. 



Under the assumption that Gliese 12 b has no atmosphere, they estimate its surface temperature to be around 107 degrees Fahrenheit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitability-of-exoplanet-gliese-12-b">Habitability of exoplanet Gliese 12 b</h2>



The gap between Gliese 12 and Gliese 12 b is only about 7% of Earth’s distance from the Sun. This arrangement exposes the planet to 1.6 times more energy than our home world receives.



According to NASA, the reduced brightness of red dwarf stars lets astronomers pinpoint conditions that might allow liquid water to exist. 



This approach could reveal whether an atmosphere remains intact on a planet that sits so close to its star.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Gliese-12b_habitable-exoplanet_earth-comparison_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Gliese-12b_habitable-exoplanet_earth-comparison_NASA_1s.webp" alt="This artist’s concept compares Earth with different possible Gliese 12 b interpretations, from no atmosphere to a thick Venus-like one. Follow-up observations with NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope will help determine just how much atmosphere the planet retains as well as its composition. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/R. Hurt (Caltech-IPAC)" class="wp-image-1964367"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist’s concept compares Earth with different possible Gliese 12 b interpretations, from no atmosphere to a thick Venus-like one. Follow-up observations with NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope will help determine just how much atmosphere the planet retains as well as its composition. Click to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/R. Hurt (Caltech-IPAC)</figcaption></figure>



“Gliese 12 b represents one of the best targets to study whether Earth-size planets orbiting cool stars can retain their atmospheres - an important step toward understanding habitability across our galaxy,” said Shishir Dholakia, a doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.unisq.edu.au/research/institutes-centres/iaess/centre-for-astrophysics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centre for Astrophysics</a> at the University of Southern Queensland in Australia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Researchers see Gliese 12 b as a strong candidate for shedding light on features that other rocky worlds may share.



“We know of only a handful of temperate planets similar to Earth that are both close enough to us and meet other criteria needed for this kind of study, called transmission spectroscopy, using current facilities,” said Michael McElwain, a research astrophysicist at NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a> in Greenbelt, Maryland. 



“To better understand the diversity of atmospheres and evolutionary outcomes for these planets, we need more examples like Gliese 12 b.”



Scientists plan to keep Gliese 12 b on their radar by gathering data that may indicate the presence or absence of any gases around it. They hope these observations will fill some missing pieces in models of how planetary systems grow.



Special instrumentation on ground-based observatories and data from orbiting platforms could confirm whether that thin blanket of molecules is escaping into space or staying put.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-red-dwarf-angle">The red dwarf angle</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/proxima-centauri-the-closest-star-to-earth-is-extremely-violent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red dwarfs</a> draw sustained attention because of their potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-our-galaxys-planets-could-be-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life-bearing environments</a>. As the smallest and coolest stars, they allow improved chances to detect transits and measure planetary signals with less interference.



These hunts have led to the identification of other neighboring systems, but Gliese 12 b offers a new laboratory to examine factors like temperature, size, and star-to-planet distance in real time.



Some red dwarf planets look scorched and barren, but others may have comfortable conditions. 



Gliese 12 b’s size, short orbital period, and relatively low stellar activity have stirred anticipation among those who track these quiet, cool stars and their companions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The Gliese 12 b announcement highlights the persistence required to identify smaller worlds circling dimmer stars, especially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-small-planets-discovered-orbiting-the-nearest-single-star-to-earth-barnards-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">M dwarfs</a>.



Specialists note that pinpointing Earth-like planets can be challenging, but focused attention on red dwarfs has paid off by producing a fresh batch of observations. 



Whether it reveals a robust protective layer of gases or a barren surface remains to be seen. 



What’s certain is that Gliese 12 b has become one of the most interesting places to watch, offering a potential example of how rocky neighbors might cling to any hint of an atmosphere so close to a red dwarf.



The full study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad3642" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

NASA finds nearby Earth-like exoplanet that could support intelligent life

Astronomers searching for habitable planets have recently turned their attention...

An asteroid named 2024 YR4 stirred up concerns when it was found heading near Earth in December 2024. Early projections pushed scientists to keep a close watch, especially after the International Asteroid Warning Network issued a notification on January 29, 2025.



Those first calculations suggested an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-asteroid-2024-yr4-has-a-chance-of-hitting-earth-in-2032/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact probability</a> of 1.3% on December 22, 2032. Postdoctoral researcher Zuri Gray from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a> was among the early observers who noticed that this object measured somewhere between 40 and 90 meters in diameter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-track-the-asteroid-s-path">Scientists track the asteroid’s path</h2>



“We have been focusing on the asteroid’s precise position and motion, and to analyze its rotation, size and shape,” said Gray. A flurry of observations began in January 2025, and efforts continued through mid-February.



“Our recent observations continue to demonstrate the vital role that <a href="https://www.not.iac.es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nordic Optical Telescope</a> (NOT) plays in planetary defense efforts on a global level,” added postdoctoral researcher Grigori Fedorets.



Astronomers used the 2.5-meter NOT on La Palma for a sharper view. This telescope has proven its worth in detecting objects traveling near <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-large-asteroids-will-pass-near-earth-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asteroid-may-target-the-moon">Asteroid may target the Moon</h2>



Estimates briefly hit 3% probability of an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-would-happen-small-asteroid-hit-earth-nasa-ai-simulation-found-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth impact</a>, the highest ever recorded for an asteroid of this range. Observers encountered a snag with a bright full moon that briefly overwhelmed the asteroid’s glow.



Once new data became available, predictions shifted dramatically and the chance of an Earth impact decreased below 0.001%. The latest calculations, however, revealed a 4% possibility of the asteroid striking the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-learn-composition-of-moons-interior-core-its-not-green-cheese/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a>, bringing new worries for future lunar missions.



“Should the asteroid impact the Moon, the Earth-Moon system could be clouded with particles detached from the Moon and the asteroid, which would potentially threaten the human space infrastructure and operations,” explained Professor Karri Muinonen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-determining-the-actual-size">Determining the actual size</h2>



On March 26, the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> offered detailed infrared observations. This step gave researchers a more precise handle on the asteroid’s diameter, since infrared measurements directly mirror an object’s size.



“The initial diameter estimate of the asteroid was limited to visible light measurements, which depend on both the size and reflectivity of the surface. However, thermal emission at infrared wavelengths is a direct indicator of the size,” noted postdoctoral researcher Eric MacLennan.



“Our first attempt to observe the thermal emission on March 8 was not successful, so it was a relief when the images were transmitted back from the telescope,” said MacLennan. The team's efforts led to a size prediction of between about 46 and 74 meters (150 and 240 feet), with a 95% level of confidence.



This update helps scientists evaluate potential outcomes if 2024 YR4 meets the lunar surface.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-telescopes-refine-asteroid-risk">Telescopes refine asteroid risk </h2>



The University of Helsinki’s fast response at the Nordic Optical Telescope in February stood out. The research offered critical measurements that narrowed the potential risks, compared to information obtained from other similar facilities.



“We were able to very quickly observe the asteroid and refine the estimates for it. The flexible, high-quality, medium-sized astronomical facilities like the NOT are crucial for rapid follow-up of these type of potentially hazardous asteroids,” said Professor Mikael Granvik.



Continuous tracking of the asteroid targeting the moon will last until about April or May 2025. After that, 2024 YR4 will slip beyond Earth-based sensors and remain undetected until its next close pass in 2028.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-broader-concerns">Preparing for broader concerns</h2>



Finland has positioned its <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/do-us-topos-and-national-map-have-a-layer-shows-public-land-survey-system-plss" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Land Survey</a> as the authority for assessing near-Earth object risks. A future <a href="https://aerospace.org/ssi-space-situational-awareness" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Situational Awareness Center</a> is also on the horizon to address threats from space debris, solar activity, and collisions.



“The comprehensive expertise of astronomers at the University of Helsinki in asteroid research is a critical part of the expertise needed at the governmental level to assess the possible impact risks caused by the near-Earth objects for Finland similar to other countries,” said academy research fellow Anne Virkki.



Any <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">object</a> measuring several dozen meters can cause serious regional damage if it collides with Earth’s surface. Though this asteroid’s impact chances have dropped for our planet, the Moon’s 4% possibility highlights a unique scenario.



Studies using the James Webb Space Telescope <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/adc6f0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">confirm</a> that 2024 YR4’s diameter is near 60 ± 7 meters (197 ± 23 feet) . Objects of this size range can produce noticeable disruptions if they collide with a celestial body.



From a policy standpoint, the research demonstrates why repeated observations, collaborative monitoring, and robust modeling are vital.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asteroid-near-earth-tracked-into-2025">Asteroid near Earth tracked into 2025</h2>



Scientists remain ready to gather more information during the asteroid's final observable window in spring 2025. If its path indicates the asteroid will target the moon, efforts to predict any consequences will intensify.



Past events suggest that being able to fine-tune <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predictions</a> depends on timely data. If 2024 YR4 passes near enough in 2026 for the James Webb Space Telescope to lock on again, that could either calm or reignite concerns about any final trajectory shifts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/adc6f0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNAAS Research Notes of The AAS</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Asteroid that once threatened Earth may target the Moon

An asteroid named 2024 YR4 stirred up concerns when it...

<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079404" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-spread-of-butterfly-disease-revealed-in-museum-collections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-make-life-and-death-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a>Every spring, gardens and fields fill the air with rich, floral aromas. But it's more than just a pleasant smell; these plant-released scents play a vital role in the lives of butterflies and moths.



A new <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> study reveals how daily changes in plant aromas influence feeding behaviors among winged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/">insects</a> that belong to the group known as Lepidoptera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-scent-and-insect-diets">Plant scent and insect diets</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, unveils the Salient Aroma Hypothesis.



This new idea proposes that the chemical cues plants release - particularly during the daytime - are instrumental in shaping how specialized, or how flexible, a butterfly or moth becomes in its diet



“This idea provides a new perspective on why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-spread-of-butterfly-disease-revealed-in-museum-collections/">butterflies</a> and moths are picky eaters while others are not,” said Po-An Lin, an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/">National Taiwan University</a>. “It also highlights the critical role of plant volatiles, or scents, in shaping insect-plant interactions and evolutionary adaptations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-picky-eaters-and-their-plant-choice">Picky eaters and their plant choice</h2>



Scientists already knew that many Lepidopterans are surprisingly fussy with their dietary choices.



The insects feed only on specific plant groups that cater to the nutritional or chemical needs of their offspring. Others are the polar opposite, feeding on a broad range of vegetation.



The hypothesis explains these extremes by focusing on how butterflies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-defense-against-the-invasive-spongy-moth-is-fading/">moths</a> use their antennae to detect plant scents. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-scent-and-insect-antennae-size">Plant scent and insect antennae size</h2>



Researchers measured insect antennae on 582 specimens from 94 species and linked size to diet and activity patterns. 



Notably, they found that day-active females in particular had noticeably larger antennae than their nocturnal relatives. This adaptation allows them to detect and process the richer daytime scents in the environment.



“The relationship between antennal size and host plant breadth was very strong,” Felton said. “Larger antennal sizes have been associated with a greater number of sensilla, the sensory structures involved in the sense of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/">smell</a>, thereby increasing the surface area for sensory receptors." 



"The enhanced capacity may be a key adaptation for how certain Lepidoptera have evolved to feed on a limited and specific range of plants."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-cues-and-evolution">Chemical cues and evolution</h2>



The scientists confirmed that most vegetation releases a more varied and abundant blend of volatile compounds during the day, in comparison with the night.



This disparity lines up with the greater complexity observed in the olfactory systems of day-active insects. Daytime feeders use abundant daytime chemical cues to find, identify, and eat the plants that best suit their needs.



“This finding demonstrates how the availability of chemical signals influences the evolution of sensory organs in insects,” Felton said. “It provides a fascinating example of how plants have played a direct role in shaping the evolution of the insects that rely on them.”



The study also traced the evolutionary lineages of butterflies and moths in the Lepidoptera family tree. Researchers mapped species’ daily activity and linked it to host plant preferences to reveal feeding behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-specialization-in-the-daylight">Scent specialization in the daylight</h2>



The outcome is a nuanced picture of insect-plant dynamics. Daytime pollinators, like monarch butterflies, use their large antennae to detect specific plant scents, and this guides them toward a narrow range of host plants. 



“Insect herbivores, such as butterflies and moths, must find the right plants to feed on and, in the case of females, to lay their eggs,” said Professor Lin. “This is a crucial decision because caterpillars depend entirely on the selected plant for survival. 



In contrast, unlike humans, who eat a variety of foods to stay healthy, many insect herbivores specialize in just a few plant species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-diets-in-the-nighttime-quiet">Broader diets in the nighttime quiet</h2>



Nocturnal moths like the Polyphemus, encounter fewer distinct plant aromas in the dark. Without rich scent cues to guide them, these insects are less likely to lock in on a single preferred food source. Their evolutionary solution? Broaden their diet to improve their odds of survival.



By revealing how something as subtle as the timing and volume of plant odors can direct dietary choices, this study expands our understanding of ecological networks.



The research highlights the delicate interplay between insect sensory capabilities and plant chemistry, laying the groundwork for future research into how these relationships shape biodiversity across ecosystems.



----- Like what you read? Subscribe to our newsletter for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



 Check us out on EarthSnap, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and&nbsp;<a href="http://earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>. -----

Scents of survival: How plant aromas shape insect diets

Every spring, gardens and fields fill the air with rich,...

Modern science has been sounding alarms about the sixth mass extinction, prompted by both climate shifts and human activities. Experts note that over 10% of China’s vascular plant species already face serious threats to their survival.



One research team decided to look deeper into the ancient past for guidance. They wondered if palynology - the study of fossil and modern spores and pollen - might offer essential insights that more traditional fossil records sometimes miss.



Professor Xiaomin Fang from the <a href="http://english.itpcas.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research</a>, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, is one of the leading scientists behind this effort.



Professor Fang <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468265925000228" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collaborated</a> with several experts to compare ancient pollen patterns with modern biodiversity trends, hoping to understand the best ways to protect plants in a changing climate.



“Plant spores and pollen offer a solution - they are abundant, well-preserved, and can fill gaps left by macrofossils,” explained Professor Fuli Wu, a Cenozoic pollen specialist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pollen-reveals-plant-history">Why pollen reveals plant history</h2>



Scientists become frustrated when partial fossil finds fail to reveal the bigger picture of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-dont-all-plants-grow-everywhere-across-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant evolution</a>. In contrast, pollen grains tend to remain intact in soil layers.



Pollen grains hold indicators of ancient species distributions that might otherwise vanish without a trace. This broader coverage helps to fill in the puzzle of how plant distributions expanded, shrank, or relocated across different landscapes through time.



Pollen grains also reflect environmental conditions. Their presence highlights specific humidity levels, temperature tolerance, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-plants-cant-outrun-climate-change-on-their-own/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> changes. This offers a peek at the long-term responses of plants, and guides efforts to predict future transformations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-biodiversity-and-winter-temperatures">Plant biodiversity and winter temperatures </h2>



The team tested five metrics designed to capture how many pollen types occur in a given region. They cross-checked these metrics with modern data on angiosperms (flowering plants) to see which values aligned best.



“Our results show that the Shannon-Wiener and the Berger-Parker <a href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Gettysburg_College/01%3A_Ecology_for_All/22%3A_Biodiversity/22.02%3A_Diversity_Indices" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">indices</a> most closely matched modern diversity patterns, making them optimal tools for reconstructing past biodiversity," explained Dr. Yuxuan Jiang, the study’s lead author.



"Moreover, we found climate strongly influenced diversity, with coldest-month temperatures being the dominant factor, followed by annual precipitation."



The researchers discovered that these indices were more sensitive to changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant communities</a> than other measures. They compared present-day vegetation maps with pollen data to confirm their findings.



The matches were surprisingly close, hinting that fossil pollen could do more than fill historical gaps - it could predict what might occur when winters become harsher or rain patterns shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-winters-shape-plant-biodiversity">Cold winters shape plant biodiversity </h2>



“Our work highlights the importance of winter temperatures in shaping plant biodiversity. This insight should guide conservation strategies, particularly under climate change,” noted Dr. Wu.



Freezing conditions appear to limit which plants can thrive, especially in places without reliable precipitation and heat. If winter extremes worsen, more plant groups may struggle to survive. 



That possibility has practical meaning for farmers, conservationists, and policy teams who must decide how to guard against escalating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">threats</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-affects-community-strength">Rainfall affects community strength</h2>



Annual rainfall is another major force. Drier regions tend to support fewer plant varieties, and subtle shifts can tip ecosystems from forest to grassland or even desert. Some parts of China already wrestle with intense dryness, and any dip in seasonal rains could speed up <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> loss.



Heavier rainfall, on the other hand, often encourages plant growth and pollinators. That boost can ripple through entire ecosystems, helping soils stay healthy and forests stay lush.



Based on the pollen data, the threshold of 400 mm (16 inches) annual precipitation is a strong line separating more vibrant plant communities from less diverse ones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollen-predicts-future-changes">Pollen predicts future changes</h2>



Pollen grains in sediment layers capture changes over thousands or even millions of years. By analyzing pollens from these layers, researchers can draw parallels between past global warming phases and what may soon unfold here on Earth.



This allows them to test theories about how quickly plants adapt or migrate when temperatures and rainfall patterns become unfavorable.



Many earlier studies relied on scattered leaf or stem fossils, but those did not always cover broad timeframes or extensive geographic zones. Pollen opens a window into overlooked periods and places, revealing critical turning points in the march of plant evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-survival-in-a-changing-climate">Plant survival in a changing climate</h2>



Using the <a href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Gettysburg_College/01%3A_Ecology_for_All/22%3A_Biodiversity/22.02%3A_Diversity_Indices" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shannon-Wiener and Berger-Parker indices</a>, researchers can sift through ancient samples with more confidence. 



Preservation efforts could then target hotspots where unique plant species once flourished but are now at risk. By mapping pollen patterns and comparing them to precipitation and cold snaps, decisions can be grounded in data that reflect real, long-term trends.



Such insight may also inform future reforestation or seed-bank programs. Officials could select species that handle temperature drops and uncertain rainfall in ways proven effective in similar ancient climates. This method, blending past patterns with modern conditions, may offer a survival roadmap.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468265925000228?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Diversity</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Pollen records reveal winter’s role in plant biodiversity

Modern science has been sounding alarms about the sixth mass...

The universe is full of powerful forces, but few are as mysterious as the high-speed jets that blast out from supermassive black holes. 



These plasma jets, emerging from the centers of certain galaxies known as active galactic nuclei (AGN), shoot across space at nearly the speed of light. 



Scientists have long sought to understand how they form, why they accelerate, and what role magnetic fields play in shaping them.



A new study led by experts from the <a href="https://www.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/2169/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy</a> (MPIfR) in Germany and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (IAA-CSIC) in Spain is shedding light on these questions.



Using detailed radio observations of 16 different AGN, the research team looked deeper than ever before - right up to the region near the black hole where these powerful jets originate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-network-of-radio-telescopes">Global network of radio telescopes</h2>



The team relied on data collected during the 2017 campaign of the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT), a global network of radio telescopes that together form a virtual Earth-sized observatory. 



Known for capturing the first-ever image of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-black-hole-m87-captured-in-an-unexpected-spin-shift/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole in the galaxy M87</a>, the EHT offers unmatched resolution. It’s capable of resolving structures just outside the black hole's event horizon.



In this study, researchers compared the EHT’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/highest-resolution-eht-black-hole-images-ever-taken-usher-in-new-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultra-high-resolution observations</a> with previous images taken by the Very Long Baseline Array and the Global Millimeter VLBI Array. These older observations captured the jets at much larger scales.



By combining data across different frequencies and resolutions, the scientists pieced together a more complete picture of how these jets evolve from their starting point near the black hole to the vast stretches of interstellar space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zooming-in-on-black-hole-jets">Zooming in on black hole jets</h2>



“Our findings challenge long-standing assumptions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-jet-crashes-into-an-unidentified-object/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how jets behave</a>,” said Jan Röder, who led the research team.



“By analyzing a sample of sixteen active galactic nuclei, we were able to reduce the influence of individual peculiarities and obtain a broader picture of jet behavior.”



Traditionally, jets were thought to follow a simple pattern. The most common model describes them as cone-shaped, with plasma moving at a constant speed while the magnetic field and plasma density decrease with distance. 



Astronomers would expect to predict the appearance and behavior of jets based on this model, but the new findings indicate otherwise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-picture-of-jet-behavior">Broader picture of jet behavior </h2>



Röder noted that the basic model cannot be a perfect description for all jets - most likely, only for a small fraction. "The dynamics and sub-structure of jets are intricate, and observational results can suffer greatly from astrophysical degeneracies."



"For example, we know that many jets appear to accelerate. Either the plasma itself accelerates, or it can be an effect of geometry: if the jet bends, it may point at us more directly, giving the impression of faster movement,” said Röder.



Project co-leader Maciek Wielgus from IAA-CSIC explained that by using a sample of sixteen active galactic nuclei, the team was able to get a broader picture of the behavior of jets, compared to just looking at individual sources. "This way, the results are less prone to influence from their respective unique properties."



The experts also noticed something interesting about jet brightness. As the plasma moved farther from the black hole, its brightness typically increased. This suggests that the jet may be accelerating, or that some other energy-related process is taking place as it travels outward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-changes-in-black-hole-jets">Tracking changes in black hole jets</h2>



One key to understanding these jets lies in the “middle ground” - the space between what the EHT sees and what older arrays reveal. 



“The Global Millimeter VLBI Array operating at 3.5 mm wavelength provides the key information between the highest resolutions achieved by the EHT and the more general picture of jets provided by the Very Long Baseline Array," noted Eduardo Ros, the European Scheduler of the GMVA.



"This was evident in the case of M87, as presented by RuSen Lu and collaborators in April 2023."



These overlapping observations allow scientists to track how black hole jets change across distance and time. They also help identify where existing models fall short - especially when it comes to how jets accelerate or interact with their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-acceleration-mechanism">Understanding the acceleration mechanism </h2>



Even with this new data, some mysteries remain. The idea that brightness increases with distance contradicts older theories and opens the door for new ones. While this could be due to changes in jet structure, more research is needed.



“More studies are needed to fully understand the acceleration mechanism, the flow of energy, the role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plasma-can-bend-magnetic-fields-into-unique-shapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> in jets of active galactic nuclei, and their geometries," said Röder. 



He noted that the expanding EHT array will play an important role in the future discoveries on these fascinating objects. Collaboration will continue to play a crucial role as well.



“These results are based on the ongoing work of the EHT and are confirmed by the Global Millimeter VLBI Array studies. They demonstrate the importance of global partnerships, cutting-edge technologies and persistent research for scientific progress,” said J. Anton Zensus, director at MPIfR and founding chair of the EHT collaboration.



“With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-telescopes-can-directly-detect-signs-of-alien-life-in-exoplanet-atmospheres/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new telescopes</a> and the next generation of networks, we will continue to deepen our understanding of these fascinating cosmic phenomena.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/03/aa52600-24/aa52600-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Speed or illusion? The mystery of accelerating black hole jets

The universe is full of powerful forces, but few are...

Storm forecasting has traditionally relied on studying atmospheric conditions. However, new research shows that ground surface conditions, especially soil moisture, can also be crucial for predicting severe storms.



This research, led by meteorologist Dr. Emma Barton of the&nbsp;UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology&nbsp;(<a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UKCEH</a>), reveals that differences in soil moisture over large areas can significantly influence storm patterns. 



The findings have the potential to improve early warning systems, particularly in tropical regions affected by climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-soil-moisture-on-storms">Impact of soil moisture on storms</h2>



The researchers found that soil moisture contrasts across hundreds of kilometers increase rainfall and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-storms-create-temporary-lakes-in-the-sahara-desert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storm</a> size. This increase ranges from 10 to 30% based on the region and storm size.



These findings provide crucial insight into mesoscale convective systems, which cause flash floods and mudslides in regions with large populations, including Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Australia.



“Mesoscale convective systems are some of the most intense thunderstorms on the planet, and are increasing in <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/monster-storm-spawns-severe-weather-across-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">severity</a> due to climate change," noted Dr. Barton.



"Rising temperatures could increase the contrast between wet and dry areas of soils, further intensifying thunderstorms in already severely impacted regions."



Understanding how soil moisture interacts with storm activity is essential for improving both short-term storm forecasting and long-term projections. This knowledge will enable better warnings for communities, allowing them to prepare for approaching storms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-storm-examples">Real-world storm examples</h2>



The study’s findings are particularly relevant in regions where severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shorter-storms-bigger-impact-rising-flood-risks-in-a-warmer-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a> have become more common due to climate change. 



Last year, Africa experienced its worst storm season in years. From June to September, West and Central Africa faced devastating flooding, resulting in over 1,000 deaths, the displacement of more than 500,000 people, and the destruction of 300,000 homes.



In Argentina, a severe storm in March 2025 claimed 13 lives and displaced over 1,000 people. It also caused significant damage to infrastructure, including roads and bridges. Similarly, in Bengal, India, a thunderstorm in March 2024 left hundreds injured and caused widespread damage to homes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-soil-moisture-before-storms">Observing soil moisture before storms</h2>



This new study utilized two decades of satellite data, combined with soil moisture and storm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rain-and-snow-are-difficult-to-forecast-at-near-freezing-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> records, to understand storm patterns across several regions. 



The analysis showed that soil conditions influencing rainfall can be observed two to five days before storms. This would allow for advance warnings of flash flooding and give communities time to prepare.



Early warnings could help people move to safer areas or take preventive actions, such as clearing drains. These preparations are crucial for minimizing the damage caused by severe weather events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-focus-in-meteorology">Shifting focus in meteorology</h2>



"Meteorologists tend to focus on atmospheric conditions to predict weather patterns. But, as a growing amount of evidence shows, we should also consider what is happening on the land surface to improve forecasting,” noted Dr. Cornelia Klein, study co-author and meteorologist at UKCEH.



The researchers found that soil moisture differences can create contrasts in air temperatures, which in turn can cause stronger shifts in wind speed and direction at higher altitudes. This turbulence helps storms grow and produce more rainfall over larger areas. 



The study also observed similar soil moisture patterns in other regions such as China, Australia, and the US Great Plains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-to-improve-storm-forecasting">Tools to improve storm forecasting</h2>



In the next phase of the research, scientists will focus on understanding how soil moisture affects storms differently in various regions. This means they will study how soil moisture contrasts in different places and how it influences the behavior of storms in those specific areas.



The researchers will also use advanced climate models to predict how global warming might make storms stronger and more intense in the future. These models will help scientists better understand how changing temperatures affect storm patterns and rainfall.



UKCEH is working on creating new computer tools to improve short-term storm predictions. These tools will be able to forecast storms up to six hours ahead of time. This is crucial for giving communities more time to prepare for severe weather.



These new tools will help meteorological agencies provide more accurate and timely storm warnings, especially in regions like Africa. In these areas, satellite data is already used to monitor weather conditions, including soil moisture and atmospheric changes. By incorporating these new tools, meteorologists will be able to give more reliable warnings.



As a result, communities in tropical and other vulnerable regions will be better prepared to handle the growing risk of severe storms. This research and the technology being developed will help save lives, reduce damage, and improve overall storm preparedness.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-025-01666-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

How soil moisture can predict severe storms

Storm forecasting has traditionally relied on studying atmospheric conditions. However,...

An international team of researchers took advantage of a rare chance encounter to explore a massive new expanse of seafloor exposed by the breakup of an Antarctic ice shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea.&nbsp;



On January 13, 2025, an iceberg named A-84 - which was the size of the city of Chicago - broke off from the George VI Ice Shelf, which sits along the Antarctic Peninsula. 



This event uncovered roughly 209 square miles (540 square kilometers) of seafloor that had previously been concealed under floating ice.



The team arrived aboard <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Schmidt Ocean Institute</a>’s R/V Falkor (too) at this newly exposed site on January 25, making them the first to study such a large underwater area that had previously been covered by an ice shelf.&nbsp;



Their effort marks the first large-scale interdisciplinary exploration of geologic, oceanographic, and biological features hidden beneath an extensive floating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-glacier-retreat-in-the-arctic-signals-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> front.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapidly-shifting-expedition-goals">Rapidly shifting expedition goals</h2>



Co-chief scientist Patricia Esquete is a researcher in the <a href="https://www.cesam-la.pt/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Environmental and Marine Studies</a> (CESAM) and the Department of Biology (DBio) at the <a href="https://www.ua.pt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Aveiro</a> in Portugal.&nbsp;



"We seized upon the moment, changed our expedition plan, and went for it so we could look at what was happening in the depths below,” said Esquete.



“We didn’t expect to find such a beautiful, thriving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-environmental-stress-strengthens-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>. Based on the size of the animals, the communities we observed have been there for decades, maybe even hundreds of years.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor-study_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor-study_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="The newly exposed Antarctic seafloor also allowed the team to gather critical data on the past behavior of the ice sheet. The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass over the last few decades due to climate change. Credit: Alex Ingle / Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963228"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The newly exposed Antarctic seafloor also allowed the team to gather critical data on the past behavior of the ice sheet. The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass over the last few decades due to climate change. Credit: Alex Ingle / Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



Originally, the science mission did not include venturing beneath a freshly fractured portion of the ice shelf. 



However, the movement of this newly calved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-iceberg-that-broke-away-from-antarctica-sparks-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg</a> offered a rare opportunity to explore a site that, until recently, had never been examined by any human.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-seafloor-reveals-lush-communities">Antarctic seafloor reveals lush communities</h2>



Using Schmidt Ocean Institute’s remotely operated vehicle, ROV SuBastian, the science team spent eight days surveying the seafloor at depths down to 1,300 meters (4,265 feet).&nbsp;



The experts discovered an unexpectedly rich ecosystem that was teeming with corals, sponges, icefish, giant sea spiders, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> - an indication that marine life can flourish under ice-covered regions of the Antarctic in ways not previously documented.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_octopus-resting_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_octopus-resting_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="An octopus rests on the seafloor 1150 meters deep, in the Bellingshausen Sea off Antarctica, at an area where the shelf break and slope are cut by several underwater gullies. Credit: ROV SuBastian / Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963224"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An octopus rests on the seafloor 1150 meters deep, in the Bellingshausen Sea off Antarctica, at an area where the shelf break and slope are cut by several underwater gullies. Credit: ROV SuBastian / Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



According to the researchers, these observations offer insight into how ecosystems function beneath the Antarctic ice sheet.&nbsp;Such an ecosystem has seldom been accessed. 



Earlier findings, notably by <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a> researchers in 2021, revealed possible bottom-dwelling life beneath ice, but the present study marks the first time an ROV survey has thoroughly documented wide areas of this vibrant seabed.



The experts were surprised by the large biomass and biodiversity in the ecosystem and suspect they have discovered several new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-marine-life-survives-in-darkness">How marine life survives in darkness</h2>



Deep-sea ecosystems generally depend on nutrients trickling down from surface waters. However, these Antarctic seafloors had been buried under ice some 150 meters (nearly 500 feet) thick for centuries.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_Sponge_Anemone_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_Sponge_Anemone_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="A large sponge, a cluster of anemones, and other life is seen nearly 230 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963226"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A large sponge, a cluster of anemones, and other life is seen nearly 230 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



With no direct sunlight, how such abundant organisms manage to feed is still uncertain. The scientists propose that ocean currents under the ice may be funneling essential nutrients to these communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-ice-sheet-behavior">Antarctic ice sheet behavior</h2>



Apart from their ecological discoveries, the international group - which included scientists from Portugal, the United Kingdom, Chile, Germany, Norway, New Zealand, and the United States - examined geological samples to gain knowledge about past changes in the Antarctic ice sheet.



The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass for decades in response to climate change.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_modis-satellite-view_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_modis-satellite-view_NASA_1s.webp" alt="The MODIS Corrected Reflectance satellite imagery showing the iceberg calved from George VI Ice Shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea on 19 January 2025. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963222"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The MODIS Corrected Reflectance satellite imagery showing the iceberg calved from George VI Ice Shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea on 19 January 2025. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



“The ice loss from the Antarctic Ice Sheet is a major contributor to sea level rise worldwide,” said co-chief scientist Sasha Montelli of <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>, who is also a 2019 Schmidt Science Fellow.&nbsp;



“Our work is critical for providing longer-term context of these recent changes, improving our ability to make projections of future change - projections that can inform actionable policies. We will undoubtedly make new discoveries as we continue to analyze this vital data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-samples-from-the-antarctic-seafloor">Samples from the Antarctic seafloor </h2>



During this mission, the team collected both biological and geological samples. 



In addition, they deployed autonomous underwater vehicles, called gliders, to analyze how meltwater from the ice shelf impacts the region’s physical and chemical properties.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/antarctic-iceberg_Solitary-Hydroid_unseen-ecosystem_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/antarctic-iceberg_Solitary-Hydroid_unseen-ecosystem_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="A solitary hydroid drifts in currents approximately 380 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Solitary hydroids are related to corals, jellyfish, and anemones, but do not form colonies. Credit: SOI" class="wp-image-1963895"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A solitary hydroid drifts in currents approximately 380 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Solitary hydroids are related to corals, jellyfish, and anemones, but do not form colonies. Click image to enlarge. Credit: SOI</figcaption></figure>



Preliminary measurements hinted at high biological productivity and strong meltwater flow from the George VI ice shelf, providing further context for how such deep-sea populations may thrive in these surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-part-of-a-larger-global-initiative">Part of a larger global initiative</h2>



The expedition is part of Challenger 150, a global cooperative dedicated to deep-sea biological study, and recognized by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (<a href="https://www.ioc.unesco.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IOC/UNESCO</a>) as an Ocean Decade Action.&nbsp;



This alignment ensures that findings from the George VI Ice Shelf breakage feed into broader international efforts to understand and safeguard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.



“The science team was originally in this remote region to study the seafloor and ecosystem at the interface between ice and sea,” noted Schmidt Ocean Institute’s executive director, Jyotika Virmani.&nbsp;



“Being right there when this iceberg calved from the ice shelf presented a rare scientific opportunity. Serendipitous moments are part of the excitement of research at sea - they offer the chance to be the first to witness the untouched beauty of our world.”



Looking ahead, the researchers plan to continue analyzing the collected data for insights into both ice sheet behavior and the unique marine life that has flourished unseen for centuries beneath the ice.&nbsp;



With accelerating climate change, the study’s findings about species adaptability and the resilience of Antarctic habitats carry implications for future conservation and policy decisions on a global scale.



<a href="https://schmidtocean.photoshelter.com/galleries/C0000QszlkoaNkKU/G0000p4LRtGEAfWo/I0000X_S5KjUr4QU/FKt250110-20250126-IceScanningCollectionAndIcebergViewing-Ingle-0202-jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">See more of the photos taken on this mission by the Schmidt Ocean Institute here...</a>



Images Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ecosystem never seen by humans discovered after iceberg breaks away from Antarctica

An international team of researchers took advantage of a rare...

Human activity is rapidly altering ecosystems, leading to biodiversity loss and the decline of animal cultures. This includes behaviors acquired through social learning - known as cultural behaviors. These are crucial for species adapting to change.



"Cultural behaviors range from the songs of whales to the tool use of primates," said Ammie Kalan of the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Victoria</a>.



"These adaptations to environmental change not only benefit the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, but also provide important insights into the origins of behavior and learning across species. However, shrinking global animal populations pose a challenge to what we can still hope to learn."



Cultural behaviors such as tool use enhance survival. They help species exploit food, water, and mates. These behaviors also shape ecosystems by promoting flexibility and adaptation. But many animals that show these skills face extinction, risking the loss of valuable behavioral insights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-pass-down-a-cultural-legacy">Animals pass down a cultural legacy</h2>



Tool use is one of the most visible cultural traits. Tools create physical artifacts that remain long after the behavior has ended. This makes tool use easier to study than behaviors like communication or play.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> like chimpanzees, capuchins, and macaques, habitual tool use is passed down socially. They use stone tools as hammers and anvils, creating lasting marks on the landscape. These tools often gather in the same spots over generations, forming what researchers call “technological landscapes.”



Tools show how animals teach, learn, and innovate. They also help scientists interpret early human behavior, especially when comparing ancient stone tools with those made by primates today. Some stone flakes made by monkeys even mimic tools once thought exclusive to human ancestors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-tools-complicate-human-history">Animal tools complicate human history</h2>



Recent research has shown that nonhuman primates can produce stone flakes unintentionally. 



These resemble early human tools and challenge long-held views about our ancestors' intelligence. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine animals</a> like otters also use stone anvils, suggesting coastal archaeological finds could be nonhuman.



This overlap forces researchers to refine how they interpret ancient sites. They must now separate human and animal material culture with care. Comparative research across species helps clarify which behaviors are truly human and which are not.



"These uniquely complex creatures are threatened with extinction, highlighting the urgent need to protect and conserve them and their way of life," noted Lydia Luncz of the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/institutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-digital-preservation-matters">Why digital preservation matters</h2>



Removing tools from the wild can damage animal cultures. These objects help pass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-size-and-cancer-risk-surprising-new-details-have-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> from one generation to the next. Instead of removing them, researchers now use digital tools.



Technologies like laser scanning and 3D modeling let scientists record tools without disturbing ecosystems. These digital records are detailed, shareable, and ideal for long-term study. They allow for global collaboration without risking the loss of rare materials.



Some tools are made from vegetation and degrade quickly. Others, like stone, survive longer and create clearer evidence of cultural habits. Digital preservation captures both types and helps maintain a full record of animal behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-cultures-not-just-species">Protecting cultures, not just species</h2>



There’s no global plan to protect animal material culture. Most artifacts survive only if found in protected areas. That’s not enough. To preserve these cultures, animals must have access to the resources they use—like specific stones or plants.



Efforts like the United Nations Convention on Migratory Species (<a href="https://www.cms.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CMS</a>) have started to include cultural protections. They’ve taken steps to preserve behaviors in chimpanzees and sperm whales. These moves show a growing respect for the social knowledge of animals.



Recognizing animal cultures expands how we see conservation. It’s not just about survival. It’s about honoring shared evolutionary stories and keeping the legacy of other species alive. These stories teach us about learning, creativity, and resilience in the natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-cultural-legacy-of-animals">Preserving the cultural legacy of animals</h2>



As ecosystems change, time is running out to record and protect the behaviors of wild animals. Their cultures reflect a rich history shared with us. These are not just curiosities. They are keys to understanding intelligence, adaptation, and social bonds.



Protecting the cultural legacy of animals honors more than science. It honors a living connection between species - one that still shapes the world we all share.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adj3716" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Saving the cultural legacy of wild animals

Human activity is rapidly altering ecosystems, leading to biodiversity loss...

Most people have never seen a civet, let alone heard of one. Yet these elusive, cat-like mammals play an irreplaceable role in the web of life across Africa and Asia. 



On April 4th each year, conservationists, researchers, and animal lovers come together to celebrate World Civet Day - an initiative launched in 2024 by The Civet Project Foundation.



This day marks a turning point for civet awareness. Long overlooked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife conservation</a>, civets now have a voice. Their habitats, behaviors, and unfortunate exploitation are being discussed more widely, pushing them out of the shadows. 



World Civet Day is not just about admiration - it’s about action, compassion, and education.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-of-civets">The world of civets</h2>



Civets are small, nocturnal mammals belonging to the family Viverridae. Their appearances vary by species, but most civets have a long, slender body, masked faces, and ringed tails. Although they look somewhat like cats, civets are more closely related to mongooses and hyenas.



They live in forests, grasslands, and even city outskirts across India, Southeast Asia, and parts of Africa. Civets feed on fruits, insects, and small vertebrates. 



One of their most important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological roles</a> is seed dispersal. By eating fruits and excreting seeds in different areas, civets help maintain forest diversity. They also help control insect populations. In short, civets are silent ecological engineers.



But despite their usefulness to the environment, civets face mounting threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-lurking-in-the-shadows">Threats lurking in the shadows</h2>



The biggest danger to civets comes from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a>. Habitat loss, urban encroachment, and deforestation have taken a toll on their populations. 



Some species, like the Malabar civet, are now critically endangered. Others remain poorly studied, slipping through the cracks of conservation priorities.



Civets have long been forgotten in mainstream conservation. But they are key players in our ecosystems, and we owe them more attention.



Beyond environmental destruction, civets are victims of direct exploitation. One of the most infamous examples is their involvement in the luxury coffee trade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dark-side-of-civet-coffee">The dark side of civet coffee</h2>



Kopi Luwak, or civet coffee, is one of the most expensive coffees in the world. It is made using beans that have passed through a civet’s digestive system. This process supposedly improves the flavor, making the beans smoother and less acidic.



Originally, civet coffee was rare because it relied on beans collected from wild civet droppings. But rising global demand turned this niche product into an industry. 



Today, many civets are captured, caged, and force-fed coffee cherries in cramped and unsanitary conditions. These animals often suffer from malnutrition, stress, and early death.



Ethical concerns are growing louder. Researchers and animal welfare organizations have repeatedly called for bans on caged civet coffee farms. Yet in many countries, the trade continues unchecked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-world-civet-day-stands-for">What World Civet Day stands for</h2>



World Civet Day shines a spotlight on these issues. It urges individuals and institutions to consider the ethical costs of consumerism. More importantly, it gives civets the recognition they deserve as vital members of our shared environment.



The Civet Project, which started the initiative, uses the day to promote awareness through talks, exhibitions, and social media campaigns. Their mission is twofold: to educate people about civets and to advocate for their protection in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-success-stories-offer-hope-for-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild</a> and in captivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-research-and-rescue">Role of research and rescue</h2>



Academic researchers are now giving civets more attention. Studies focus on their diet, territory, reproductive behavior, and role in seed dispersal. 



Conservation organizations partner with zoos and local authorities to rescue civets from illegal captivity and rehabilitate them for return to the wild.



Zoos such as Hoo Zoo and Dinosaur World in the UK hosted educational events for the first World Civet Day, showing the public how civets live and why they matter. Meanwhile, grassroots conservationists are pushing for civet-friendly laws in India, Indonesia, and the Philippines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-help-civets-on-world-civet-day">Help civets on World Civet Day</h2>



World Civet Day is not only for scientists or conservationists. Everyone has a role to play. Choosing not to buy civet coffee can protect animals from cruelty. Supporting eco-tourism helps preserve their natural homes. Sharing facts and updates online spreads <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-using-technology-to-protect-our-natural-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">awareness</a>.



Organizations like&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thecivetproject.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Civet Project</a>&nbsp;work year-round to protect civets. You can follow and support their efforts.



By making ethical choices, raising awareness, and respecting wildlife, you help ensure civets have a safe future. These quiet forest dwellers deserve to thrive in the wild places they help sustain.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World Civet Day 2025 reveals the dark side of a luxury coffee

Most people have never seen a civet, let alone heard...

Staying awake when tired feels like walking through fog. For humans, missed sleep dulls our thinking, slows our reflexes, and clouds our focus. Yet we often push through. In the wild, though, the price of sleep deprivation can mean life or death. 



Animals have evolved strange and clever sleep strategies to manage this. Birds, in particular, display some of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fascinating adaptations</a> in the animal kingdom.



One of their most intriguing tricks is the ability to sleep with one eye open. This behavior lets birds keep half their brain alert while the other half rests deeply. It’s a survival skill. But what happens when even this isn’t enough?



A new study on European jackdaws reveals the limits of this behavior. It shows that, when pushed too far, even birds that sleep with one eye open may give in to full, vulnerable rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-art-of-asymmetric-sleep">The art of asymmetric sleep</h2>



Sleep takes many forms across species. In humans, we move through stages like REM and non-REM sleep in 90-minute cycles. Our brains rest in waves, switching between deep rest and vivid dreams. 



Birds follow a similar pattern but in shorter segments. They rest in bursts, adjusting their rhythm to match their surroundings.



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decoding-evolution-how-birds-can-help-us-prevent-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> go even further by sleeping asymmetrically. This means one half of the brain stays awake while the other half slips into non-REM sleep. 



Ducks often use this trick to remain watchful while still getting rest. The open eye faces out, keeping a lookout for danger. The closed eye faces inward, allowing that side of the brain to recharge.



This type of sleep helps birds navigate dangerous environments. It allows them to remain partially conscious without fully sacrificing rest. But this ability isn’t as powerful as full, deep sleep. It provides protection but not full restoration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-deep-sleep-matters-for-birds">Why deep sleep matters for birds</h2>



Asymmetric sleep helps with safety, but it’s not always enough. Deep non-REM sleep clears waste from the brain and helps consolidate memory. It recharges the system. 



Doing this with only one hemisphere takes longer and isn’t as effective. That’s why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> still need periods of symmetrical sleep, when both brain hemispheres rest at the same time.



Researchers have long wondered how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> decide when to use one sleep type over another. What triggers the shift? When does safety win, and when does the need to recover push past the risk?



The new study on jackdaws brings these questions closer to answers. By observing how these birds recover from sleep loss, scientists uncovered a tipping point. When deprived of sleep, the jackdaws gave up their asymmetric sleep patterns. 



They chose full, deep sleep in both hemispheres, even though it made them more vulnerable to threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exhausted-birds-choose-deep-sleep">Exhausted birds choose deep sleep</h2>



The research, led by scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence and the <a href="https://www.rug.nl/research/gelifes/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences</a>, focused on how jackdaws balance safety and sleep. Other studies have shown that many animals use flexible sleep strategies in tough conditions. 



Great frigatebirds sleep mid-flight using one side of the brain. Mallard ducks sleep with one eye open when they’re at the edge of their group. Northern fur seals also sleep asymmetrically when floating in the ocean.



Humans aren’t so different. On the first night in a new place, one half of our brain often stays more alert than the other. It’s a kind of natural night watch. But unlike birds, we don’t have the ability to fully control this process or keep one eye open at will.



In jackdaws, sleep deprivation shifted the balance. The birds spent more time in deep, symmetrical sleep, especially early in the night. They needed to recover fast, and asymmetric sleep wasn’t enough.



“Sleep is a dangerous part of life for many animals, as it leaves them exposed to all kinds of risks,” noted Niels Rattenborg, group leader at the <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a>.



“Some birds can function surprisingly well on far less sleep than we can, but even that strategy appears to have its limits. We have found that when they’re tired, jackdaws are more likely to sleep deeply – even if that means becoming more vulnerable." 



"Observing how birds navigate the trade-off between vigilance and sleep may help us better understand sleep in general.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-jackdaw-brain">Inside the jackdaw brain</h2>



To explore how the birds managed their sleep after deprivation, researchers tracked nine jackdaws using EEG recordings. These scans measured brain activity during different sleep phases. 



The team wanted to know which parts of the brain rested more deeply, and how that might relate to the bird’s behavior when awake.



Their findings were revealing. Some areas of the brain slept more deeply than others, suggesting that parts that had been more active during the day needed more rest at night. For example, areas linked to vision and decision-making showed stronger sleep signals. The hippocampus, associated with memory, showed less change.



This selective rest could help birds recover without completely losing awareness. But when exhaustion built up, even this wasn’t enough. Deep, full-brain sleep took over. The birds prioritized recovery over safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-strategies-are-shaped-by-evolution">Sleep strategies are shaped by evolution</h2>



“Our findings reveal that even the highly flexible sleep strategies used by jackdaws have limits,” said Peter Meerlo, a group leader at the Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences.



“That tells us something fundamental about sleep: it’s not just a passive state, but a behavior shaped by both evolution and environmental demands."



"The study offers a fresh perspective on how animals balance the need for sleep with the risk of predation or other threats – and could help us better understand how sleep loss affects brain function more broadly, including in humans.”



Sleep isn’t just a biological requirement. It’s a behavior shaped by millions of years of challenge and change. Animals like jackdaws show us the trade-offs involved in survival. They sleep lightly when they can, but give in when they must.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-humans-can-learn-from-jackdaws">What humans can learn from jackdaws</h2>



This research on jackdaws goes beyond bird behavior. It speaks to something shared across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. The need to rest. The limits of endurance. And the invisible costs of staying awake too long.



Even the most flexible sleepers hit a wall. The jackdaws remind us that sleep is not optional. Whether in the trees or in our beds, recovery matters. Our brains, like theirs, have limits – and sometimes, the only way to recover is to truly switch off.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00293-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tired birds sleep more deeply, trading safety for rest

Staying awake when tired feels like walking through fog. For...

Each year, billions of animals migrate in search of better conditions. These journeys shape ecosystems, drive evolution, and challenge individual survival. 



Migration, however, is not a simple instinctual response. It demands a blend of physical traits and behavioral choices. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, even a subtle anatomical difference - like eye size - can influence who migrates and who stays behind.



Recent research from <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> reveals that the European roach (Rutilus rutilus), a common freshwater fish, shows a surprising link between eye structure and migration behavior.



Specifically, roach that migrate between lakes and streams tend to have larger pupils than those who remain year-round in a single habitat. This physical feature helps them see better in murky water and boosts their ability to find food, a vital edge in the energy-intensive act of migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-a-fish-migrate">What makes a fish migrate</h2>



Roach are partial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-fish-species-are-facing-double-trouble/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrants</a>. That means only some individuals in a population leave the lake each winter to enter connected streams. 



The rest stay put, braving seasonal changes in place. This difference in behavior offers researchers a unique lens through which to understand how physical traits affect life strategies.



The research team, led by biologist Kaj Hulthén, tracked more than 2,000 roach across two Danish lakes - Loldrup Sø and Søgård Sø - over several years. 



They photographed the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-freshwater-fish-toward-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, implanted each one with a tiny transponder, and monitored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a> using underwater antennas placed at stream inlets and outlets.



“We started by taking photos of the fishes’ eyes and then followed the migration patterns of 2,000 individual roaches over several years and in two different lakes by using implanted electronic transponders,” said Hulthén, who is a biology researcher at Lund University.



“It was shown that roach that migrated had larger pupils relative to individuals that chose to stay in the lake throughout the year.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-size-matters-for-fish-that-migrate">Eye size matters for fish that migrate</h2>



Larger pupils allow more light into the eye, improving vision in low-light conditions. For roach, this visual boost helps detect tiny prey like zooplankton. Using simulations, the researchers showed that roach with larger pupils could see farther - especially in dim twilight conditions, when many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> feed.



Even a 1-4% increase in pupil diameter led to as much as a 5% increase in the volume of water a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> could visually scan.



That matters because in aquatic environments, visual range often dictates feeding success. These small gains are enough to help migratory roach gather the energy reserves they need before entering food-poor winter streams.



In twilight, detection range for 1 mm prey reached up to 20 cm - enough for practical foraging. The advantage fades under starlight but remains relevant during dusk and dawn, which are key feeding times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-now-to-survive-later">Feeding now to survive later</h2>



Migrating roach face a trade-off. Streams have fewer predators but offer less food. To survive the winter, migrants must build up fat stores beforehand. Larger pupils may be a tool to gather more food before departure and to stay active longer each day by foraging in low light.



This connection between eyesight and feeding has deep evolutionary roots. Eye size reflects both opportunity and cost. Bigger eyes offer better vision, but they require more energy to build and maintain. For a migrating roach, the benefits seem to outweigh the cost.



“The fact that migrating individuals have an improved ability to detect visual objects such as zooplankton indicates strong selection for effective food searches. This is crucial to cover the energy needs that migration requires," said Hulthén.



"These results correspond well with previous research, which showed that migrating roach with insufficient energy reserves run a higher risk of dying in the streams."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-with-big-eyes-are-likely-to-migrate">Fish with big eyes are likely to migrate</h2>



In both study lakes, researchers found a clear pattern: roach with larger relative pupil sizes were more likely to migrate. 



The correlation was strongest in Søgård Sø, where murkier water creates a dimmer visual environment. This suggests that visual demands may vary by location, shaping individual behaviour accordingly.



On average, migrant roach in Søgård Sø had pupils 4.2% larger than residents. In Loldrup Sø, the difference was smaller at 1.1%. While modest, these changes are functionally significant. Larger pupils helped fish see better, especially in the dim light that dominates northern winters.



Roach are planktivores. They feed on small, fast-moving prey that require sharp eyesight to detect. Under experimental conditions, fish given more food before winter were more likely to migrate, did so earlier, and stayed in streams longer. Those with less food died more often. 



This supports the idea that strong visual skills, like those enabled by larger pupils, help fish meet their energy needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-migratory-syndrome-takes-shape">A migratory syndrome takes shape</h2>



The study’s findings contribute to a growing view that migration is not just a behavioral choice. It’s a full-body strategy involving vision, body shape, energy storage, and risk-taking.



Together, these traits form a “migratory syndrome” - a suite of characteristics that help fish survive the challenges of moving between habitats.



The eye, often taken for granted in ecological studies, now appears central to this survival kit. By enhancing foraging efficiency, it helps determine who has the resources to leave and who stays behind.



“Roach play an important role in the ecosystem. By understanding why some individuals migrate and other don’t, we can gain a deeper insight into how fish populations respond to environmental changes, which in turn could affect both fish stocks and the lake dynamics as a whole,” said Hulthén.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-eyes-can-change-shape">Fish eyes can change shape</h2>



Whether these differences in eye morphology are genetic or a response to the environment remains unknown. 



However, past studies show that fish eyes can change shape depending on food availability and predator pressure. That means both nature and nurture could play roles in shaping eye size and which fish migrate.



Interestingly, the benefits of bigger eyes seem to matter most in moderate turbidity. In very clear water, all fish see well. In extremely dark or muddy water, vision may become useless. This window of usefulness hints at why migration-related eye differences show up more clearly in some lakes than others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-size-and-fish-migration">Eye size and fish migration</h2>



Roach migration has ecological ripples beyond the fish themselves. Migrants affect predators, prey, and nutrient cycles. 



Understanding how physical traits like pupil size influence migration choices can help scientists predict how fish populations may respond to environmental change.



In this study, a tiny difference in pupil size revealed a key factor in migratory success. It highlights the tight link between form, function, and behavior.



Eyes, often symbols of awareness and insight, prove once again to be more than just windows to the world—they are tools of survival, helping fish decide whether to stay or go.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.70015" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bigger pupils help migrating fish survive

Each year, billions of animals migrate in search of better...

Insects quietly run the world. They pollinate crops, recycle organic matter, and feed countless animals. Despite their importance, scientists know very little about how most insect species are doing. 



There are about one million known insect species. Yet only 1% - roughly 12,100 species - have been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>). Among these, around 20% face threats of extinction.



Monitoring efforts have mostly focused on butterflies, dragonflies, and bumblebees in North America and Europe. Other regions, especially Africa, Asia, and South America, remain largely unstudied. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global picture</a> of insect health is still blurry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-plan-to-track-insect-declines">Urgent plan to track insect declines</h2>



To address this, scientists from the UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology (<a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UKCEH</a>) and the Zoological Society of London (<a href="https://www.zsl.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZSL</a>) propose a broader method. Their goal is to act quickly before climate change, pollution, land use shifts, and invasive species cause irreversible harm.



The new method integrates several ways of studying insects. It includes long-term tracking of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> and abundance, comparisons across different habitats, structured expert input, and controlled experiments. The researchers believe this mix offers a more complete view than any single approach.



Dr. Rob Cooke is an ecological modeler at UKCEH and joint lead author of the study.



“We need to find out whether insect declines are widespread and what’s causing them. The challenge is like a giant jigsaw puzzle where there are thousands of missing pieces, but we do not have decades to wait to fill these gaps and then act,“ noted Dr. Cook.



“There is a lot of interest in monitoring charismatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-farming-insect-waste-reshapes-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> such as bees and butterflies, but few people care about the supposedly unpleasant insects, even though they too provide benefits for us." 



"For example, earwigs feed on aphids and other garden pests while cockroaches eat decaying material and keep soils healthy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-insect-monitoring-system-that-works">An insect monitoring system that works</h2>



The framework combines time series trends, such as counting how butterfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> shift over a decade. It also uses spatial comparisons to see how insects vary between forests, grasslands, or farms. 



Researchers conduct experiments that test insect responses to threats, like removing pesticides or invasive species from certain areas. When hard data is missing, they gather expert judgments to predict how insects may react to different pressures.



This layered approach lets scientists make more informed decisions while still being open about gaps and uncertainties. It balances speed and precision in a way that single-method studies cannot match.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-for-insect-inclusion">Case for insect inclusion</h2>



“Insects are an incredibly important part of our ecosystems, pollinating around 80% of flowering plant species and vital for 35% of global food production, yet they are undervalued and understudied,“ noted Dr. Charlotte Outhwaite of ZSL’s <a href="https://www.zsl.org/what-we-do/institute-of-zoology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Zoology</a>, joint lead author of the study.



“With a million described species it would take too long to figure what works best for each species. Instead we want to find large-scale actions that benefit the most insects. For this, we need to use all the available information we have.”



To meet this goal, the scientists propose using known responses from well-studied insects to estimate how lesser-known species might respond under similar conditions. This gives policymakers a usable way forward, even if some data is still missing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-phase-of-the-glitrs-project">Next phase of the GLiTRS project</h2>



The new framework will now guide the Global Insect Threat-Response Synthesis (GLiTRS) project. Researchers aim to model insect responses to major threats across many environments. 



By combining all sources of data - field studies, expert insights, and experiments - they hope to build a reliable picture of insect health worldwide. This new framework doesn’t pretend to be perfect.



But it offers something we desperately need: a way to understand insect declines in real time, using every piece of information available. It also shows how science can adapt when faced with complex, global challenges.



Insects have been quietly supporting life on Earth for hundreds of millions of years. Now they need our attention. The question is not whether we care, but whether we will act before it's too late.



The project is backed by the&nbsp;Natural Environment Research Council (<a href="https://www.ukri.org/councils/nerc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NERC</a>). It involves teams from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>, and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq2110" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Very little is known about 99% of all insects on Earth

Insects quietly run the world. They pollinate crops, recycle organic...

A newly discovered species of parasitic wasp that lived alongside dinosaurs nearly 100 million years ago may have evolved a bizarre and highly specialized mechanism to trap other insects and turn them into unsuspecting incubators for its offspring.&nbsp;



Preserved in amber, the wasp appears to have used a Venus flytrap-like structure on its body to grasp potential hosts, offering scientists a fascinating glimpse into prehistoric parasitic behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parasitic-wasp-like-no-other">Parasitic wasp like no other</h2>



The species, Sirenobethylus charybdis, was identified from 16 remarkably preserved specimens found in Cretaceous-period amber from Myanmar’s Kachin region. The research describes a novel grasping appendage located on the abdomen of the female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-find-inside-the-eye-of-a-tiny-wasp-megaphragma-viggianii/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a>.



“When I looked at the first specimen, I noticed this expansion at the tip of the abdomen, and I thought this must be an air bubble. It’s quite often you see air bubbles around specimens in amber,” said Lars Vilhelmsen, study co-author and a curator at the <a href="https://snm.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum of Denmark</a>.&nbsp;



“But then I looked at a few more specimens and then went back to the first one. This was actually part of the animal.”



The structure’s purpose quickly intrigued the research team, especially once they observed its mobility across different specimens. 



"Sometimes the lower flap, as we call it, is open, and sometimes it’s closed,” Vilhelmsen said. “It was clearly a movable structure and something that was used to grasp something.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-wasp-like-a-venus-flytrap">Ancient wasp like a Venus flytrap</h2>



While nothing quite like this structure exists among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stick-and-leaf-insects-have-all-evolved-the-same-basic-body-parts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern insects</a>, the researchers found the best comparison in an entirely different kingdom: the Venus flytrap.&nbsp;



“There’s no way you can know how an insect that died 100 million years ago was living. So you look for analogs in modern insect fauna. Do we have anything among wasps or other groups that looks like this?” Vilhelmsen said.&nbsp;



“And there’s no real analog within insects. We had to go all the way out of the animal kingdom into the plant kingdom to find something that remotely resembled this.”



Although the structure resembles a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/well-built-fences-keep-predators-from-harming-livestock/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a>’s trap, the team believes it was not used to kill. Instead, they propose that the wasp used it to seize other insects just long enough to lay eggs into their bodies.&nbsp;



Once released, the unwitting hosts would carry the wasp larvae, which would eventually consume them from the inside out. According to Vilhelmsen, the likely hosts were flying insects of similar size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-ancient-parasitism">A window into ancient parasitism</h2>



Modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-have-a-new-weapon-to-defend-against-parasitic-wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parasitoid wasps</a> engage in comparable reproductive strategies. For instance, cuckoo wasps lay their eggs in the nests of other species, leaving their offspring to feed on the host’s young.&nbsp;



Yet the unique abdominal trapping mechanism seen in Sirenobethylus charybdis has no true parallel in living insects, adding to its mystery.



The amber in which the fossils were preserved provided an exceptionally detailed view of the wasp’s anatomy. In addition to Sirenobethylus charybdis, other remarkable finds from Myanmar amber have included everything from dinosaur tails and ancient spiders to crab and ant fossils.&nbsp;



The specimen of this wasp was purchased by a fossil collector and later donated to <a href="https://eng.cnu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Capital Normal University</a>’s Key Laboratory of Insect Evolution and Environmental Changes in 2016.



However, the use of Myanmar amber in scientific research has become controversial in recent years due to ethical concerns surrounding the country’s political instability and military conflicts. 



Some paleontologists have called for a halt on studying these specimens until issues around their provenance and trade are resolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speculation-over-the-wasp-s-flytrap">Speculation over the wasp’s flytrap </h2>



The peculiar form and function of Sirenobethylus charybdis has captured the attention of entomologists and paleontologists alike. Phil Barden, an associate professor at the <a href="https://www.njit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Jersey Institute of Technology</a> who studies amber fossils, described the wasp as a “Cretaceous weirdo.”&nbsp;



“This is significant because there are around a million known insect species - even with all of that living diversity, there are still lots of unexpected surprises in the fossil record that are beyond imagination,” he said.



While Barden acknowledges the wasp flytrap hypothesis as “plausible,” he also expressed caution, noting it remains speculative.&nbsp;



“There appears to be clear evidence that the abdominal components would have had range of motion. There are also a number of setae, or hairs, that look to be in the right position to detect hosts and potentially immobilize them.”&nbsp;



Still, Barden suggested alternative possibilities, such as using the structure to sense prey in the soil or even to transport young wasps.



He also questioned why Sirenobethylus charybdis would need such a structure at all when many living parasitoid wasps rely solely on stingers or mouthparts to capture and manipulate hosts. This makes the discovery all the more intriguing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-questions-and-new-possibilities">Unanswered questions and new possibilities</h2>



Vilhelmsen and his team believe a key clue lies in the wasp’s reproductive anatomy. The egg-laying organ, or ovipositor, is located directly adjacent to the clasping structure, supporting the theory that the mechanism was used during reproduction.&nbsp;



Yet all the known specimens are female, so scientists can’t rule out other functions, such as roles in mating.



“This is something unique, something I never expected to see, and something I couldn’t even imagine would be found,” Vilhelmsen said. “It’s a 10 out of 10.”



With every amber discovery, paleontologists inch closer to understanding the rich complexity of ancient ecosystems. And sometimes, as in the case of Sirenobethylus charybdis, they uncover something so strange and unexpected it defies comparison even among the millions of species alive today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-025-02190-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Qiong Wu



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Parasitic wasp had a 'flytrap' for snatching its victims

A newly discovered species of parasitic wasp that lived alongside...

In the waters of Southeast Asia, broadclub cuttlefish have a unique method for surprising unwary crabs. These color-shifting predators blur the line between stealth and spectacle by passing dark stripes down their head and arms during the last few seconds of a hunt.



This discovery comes from a recent study led by Dr. Matteo Santon, an expert in the University of <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bristol’s School of Biological Sciences</a>. The researchers examined a dynamic camouflage tactic that challenges previous ideas about how animals remain hidden while moving.



"Maintaining camouflage while moving is a challenge faced by many predators. Some exploit background motion to hide while hunting, and others may use coloration and behavior to generate motion noise that impairs detection or recognition," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuttlefish-camouflage-distracts-prey">Cuttlefish camouflage distracts prey</h2>



The experts recorded cuttlefish targeting crabs and noticed a striking display that seems to distract the prey’s motion-detection system. They introduced a high-contrast moving pattern that travels down the predator’s body, starting when the cuttlefish is about 3.2 ft from its target.



By harnessing strong downward motion cues, the cuttlefish weaken the usual signals that alert the crab to danger.



“Camouflage has predominantly been studied as an adaptation that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-ocean-buffet-big-fish-are-surprisingly-reliant-on-the-twilight-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> use to hamper their detection or recognition from predators, and almost exclusively focused on still prey as motion tends to disrupt camouflage,” said Dr. Santon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-crabs-miss-cuttlefish-attacks">Why crabs miss cuttlefish attacks</h2>



Most crabs rely on clues like looming shapes to signal an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attack</a> is coming. This approach makes sense when a predator’s silhouette expands as it nears. 



The broadclub cuttlefish undermines that system by overlaying downward stripes, obscuring the expansion cue and sowing confusion in the crab’s visual network.



Stripes seem obvious to our eyes. But to a crab with limited visual resolution, the repetitive downward flow acts like static that clouds the predator’s actual speed and position.



The scientists tested this effect with lab experiments that displayed animated shapes on screens, confirming that the moving pattern often dulled the crabs’ defensive reactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-camouflage-on-the-move">Using camouflage on the move</h2>



“Most cuttlefish rely on stealth to sneak up on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-hunting-fishing-connect-humans-with-nature-or-reinforce-superiority-complex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a>. Due to their fast color-changing skin, these remarkable animals have a wider range of options than most when it comes to camouflage while moving,” said Dr. Martin How, senior author from the University of Bristol.



These <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2008.0270" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">color-changing</a> animals can shift at a moment’s notice to blend with seafloor textures or dazzle potential victims. This flexibility lets them adapt to different conditions, whether they need to hide against coral or outsmart prey with moving stripes.



Broadclub cuttlefish frequently hold their arms out when they mount these final attacks on crabs. This flattened pose reduces the expected radial cues of an oncoming shape. 



The rhythmic stripes flow down the arms, overshadowing any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unlikely-allies-octopuses-cooperate-with-fish-to-catch-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clues</a> that might give away the cuttlefish’s real approach path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-cuttlefish-camouflage">Insights into cuttlefish camouflage </h2>



Some predators blend in by matching seaweed sway or drifting shadows. Others rely on sudden bursts of speed or chaotic patterns that throw off a target’s aim. 



Broadclub cuttlefish have raised the bar by adding a directional motion pattern that contradicts what prey typically expect from an approaching threat.



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sneaky-fish-use-sharks-like-moving-shields-while-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting</a> approach offers new insights into the way motion-based camouflage can evolve in complex habitats. The wide range of cuttlefish skin patterns suggests there may be more to learn about how they choose between different tactics for different targets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-motion-based-camouflage-strategies">Motion-based camouflage strategies</h2>



The researchers speculate that other cephalopods may use comparable tricks. The team has also considered that certain crab species become desensitized to repetitive passing stripes after repeated exposure.



Further research could clarify how widespread these motion-based strategies are among ocean predators that rely on color adaptation.



Field researchers are excited to see if conditions like light levels, water clarity, and the presence of competing predators push cuttlefish to alter their camouflage displays in real time. Such flexibility might shape how prey species respond and whether they can develop new defenses.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr3686" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cuttlefish use camouflage to stalk unsuspecting crabs

In the waters of Southeast Asia, broadclub cuttlefish have a...

With claws nearly the size of a human forearm and arms that looked like barbecue tongs, a recently discovered dinosaur is turning heads - and raising eyebrows. 



Resembling a mashup of a sloth, a giraffe, and Edward Scissorhands, this unusual creature roamed the Earth millions of years ago. Thanks to an incredible fossil find in Mongolia, we are now getting a much clearer picture of its strange anatomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-a-two-clawed-dinosaur">Discovery of a two-clawed dinosaur</h2>



The dinosaur, discovered by paleontologists from the <a href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a> and Mongolia’s Institute of Paleontology, has been named Duonychus tsogtbaatari in honor of its impressive claws. “Duonychus” means “two claws” in Greek.



What sets this find apart is the remarkable preservation of a claw sheath that is made of keratin, the same material as our fingernails. The sheath reveals that the dinosaur’s claw was much longer than its bone structure alone would suggest.



“It’s close to a foot (30 cm) in size,” said paleontologist Darla Zelenitsky, an associate professor at the University of Calgary in Canada. "This is by far the biggest claw preserved for a dinosaur that has that keratinous sheath on it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-claws-but-not-so-ferocious">Big claws, but not so ferocious</h2>



Duonychus tsogtbaatari belonged to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/therizinosaur-with-scissor-like-claws-discovered-in-the-uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therizinosaur</a> group of dinosaurs, which is part of the broader theropod family. This family also includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>.



"Therizinosaurs were a group of herbivorous/omnivorous theropod dinosaurs that lived in Asia and North America during the Cretaceous Period. These theropods are notable for their three-fingered hands sporting large claw-like unguals," noted the researchers.



Unlike most theropods, which were primarily carnivorous, therizinosaurs evolved into plant eaters, with adaptations such as a small head, a beak-like mouth, and leaf-shaped teeth suited for processing vegetation.



Their most striking characteristic was their massive claws, which could reach up to a meter in length and were likely used for defense and foraging.



Fossils of therizinosaurs, such as Therizinosaurus from Mongolia, have revealed a fascinating evolutionary history that connects them to other theropods, despite their unusual anatomy.



The therizinosaur lineage is closely related to feathered dinosaurs and even modern birds, with evidence suggesting that they were covered in feathers, which may have played a role in insulation or display.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprising-discovery">A surprising discovery</h2>



"Here, we describe a new and unusual species of the therizinosaurid Duonychus tsogtbaatari, recovered from the lower Upper Cretaceous Bayanshiree Formation of the Gobi Desert of Mongolia," wrote the researchers.



Standing about 10 feet (3 meters) tall and weighing around 573 pounds (260 kilograms), Duonychus likely used its massive claws to forage by grasping tree branches and pulling down vegetation.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/dinosaur_two-clawed_Duonychus-tsogtbaatari_reconstructed-skeleton_credit-Science_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/dinosaur_two-clawed_Duonychus-tsogtbaatari_reconstructed-skeleton_credit-Science_1s.webp" alt="Reconstructed skeleton (Courtesy of Genya Masukawa) and selected elements of Duonychus tsogtbaatari gen. et sp. nov. Credit: iScience (2025)" class="wp-image-1963839"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Reconstructed skeleton (Courtesy of Genya Masukawa) and selected elements of Duonychus tsogtbaatari gen. et sp. nov. Click to enlarge. Credit: iScience (2025)</figcaption></figure>



Its hands had only two large fingers, which is an oddity among dinosaurs. While scientists believe those claws were mainly used to grab plants, they may have also served other purposes - like showing off or defending against threats.



“They weren’t predators, but they could defend themselves with those claws. They were big and very sharp,” said Zelenitsky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-like-sloths-but-with-attitude">Like sloths, but with attitude</h2>



The best modern comparison for these claws might be found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sloths-are-struggling-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sloths</a>, whose curved nails help them cling to tree limbs, noted Zelenitsky. But Duonychus adds a prehistoric twist.



The preservation of the keratin sheath is a rare scientific win. Most dinosaur fossils don’t include this detail, which makes the discovery particularly valuable.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/dinosaur_two-clawed_Duonychus-tsogtbaatari_graphic-illustration_credit-Science_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/dinosaur_two-clawed_Duonychus-tsogtbaatari_graphic-illustration_credit-Science_1s.webp" alt="Duonychus tsogtbaatari graphical illustration. Credit: iScience (2025)" class="wp-image-1963837"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Duonychus tsogtbaatari graphical illustration. Click to enlarge. Credit: iScience (2025)</figcaption></figure>



“I’ve seen fragments from other specimens from the Gobi, but never a whole sheath like this,” said David Hone, a paleontologist at Queen Mary University of London, who was not part of the study. 



"The kind of preservation here, which is common to the vast majority of dinosaur bearing formations, doesn’t usually preserve keratin."



Hone emphasized that there's a murky relationship between the bone and keratin structures, so this specimen helps scientists understand better how the claw really looked and functioned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-clawed-dinosaur-with-giant-arms">Two-clawed dinosaur with giant arms</h2>



Therizinosaurs are often compared to the character Edward Scissorhands, thanks to their long, scythe-like claws. Duonychus takes the comparison even further, with its two-fingered limbs.



“But this one is unique in having only two fingers on each of its giant arms, so they really do look like oversized tongs you might use when barbequing,” said Steve Brusatte, a professor of paleontology at the University of Edinburgh who was not involved in the study.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parrot-like-dinosaurs-adapted-new-arms-as-they-migrated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Two-fingered dinosaurs</a> were relatively rare. While T. rex also had just two fingers, its stubby arms weren’t all that useful. In contrast, Duonychus used its limbs actively in daily life, especially when it came to feeding.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/dinosaur_two-clawed_Duonychus-tsogtbaatari_dig-site_credit-Science_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/dinosaur_two-clawed_Duonychus-tsogtbaatari_recreation_credit-Science_1s.webp" alt="Localities of Late Cretaceous therizinosaurs and excavation of Duonychus tsogtbaatari gen. et sp. nov. Credit: iScience" class="wp-image-1963841"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Localities of Late Cretaceous therizinosaurs and excavation of Duonychus tsogtbaatari gen. et sp. nov. Click to enlarge. Credit: iScience</figcaption></figure>



“But whereas T. rex probably wasn’t using its pathetic little arms for much, and definitely not for combat or subduing prey, these therizinosaurs were using them as an integral part of their feeding strategy,” said Brusatte.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dinosaur-like-no-other">A dinosaur like no other</h2>



The fossil was uncovered in Mongolia’s Gobi Desert and included not just the iconic claws but also parts of the spine, tail, hips, arms, and legs.



This gives paleontologists a much more complete view of the dinosaur’s overall structure. And like other therizinosaurs, it likely had feathers, adding yet another layer to its strange appearance.



“This is yet another example of a wonderful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dinosaur-comptonatus-chasei-most-complete-discovered-unique-traits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new dinosaur</a> that we couldn’t have dreamed ever existed if we didn’t find its fossils,” said Brusatte.



From its sloth-like claws to its feathered body and awkward gait, Duonychus tsogtbaatari is a reminder that the past was far weirder - and far more interesting - than we might expect.



Details of the study were published in the online journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00401-8?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2589004225004018%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">iScience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dinosaur species discovered with just two claws, baffling scientists

With claws nearly the size of a human forearm and...

Butterfly collections often attract museum visitors with their vivid colors and delicate beauty. But behind the glass, these specimens hold more than just aesthetic value. A new study from the University of Georgia (UGA) shows how they can reveal patterns of disease that have gone unnoticed for decades.



The researchers focused on Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE), a microscopic parasite. It infects butterflies during their caterpillar stage when they eat plant leaves contaminated with spores. The infection doesn't always kill but causes severe weakness. This can prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-effect-in-reverse-climate-change-turns-havens-into-traps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> from completing long migrations.



“A lot of people don’t think about butterflies as getting sick, but butterflies and other insects can be host to microbes that cause problems for them,” said Sonia Altizer, a professor in UGA’s <a href="https://ecology.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Odum School of Ecology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-museum-butterflies-reveal-parasite-spread">Museum butterflies reveal parasite spread</h2>



The team examined nearly 3,000 specimens from five major museums, including the <a href="https://naturalhistory.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Museum of Natural History</a>. 



These included <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-mate-preferences-shift-with-slight-brain-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> collected as early as 1832. The oldest known OE infection found dated back to 1909. That’s 60 years before scientists first described the parasite in literature.



Five out of 61 butterfly species tested positive for OE. Among them were monarchs, queens, and Jamaican monarchs. This is the first report of OE infection in the Jamaican monarch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-old-butterflies-for-disease">Testing old butterflies for disease</h2>



Studying these delicate specimens required precision. The researchers used fiber swabs to collect scale samples from the butterfly’s body. The swabs were then examined under a microscope. When infected, the museum butterflies’ bodies carry visible spores of the parasite.



The experts focused on milkweed butterflies because of their worldwide presence. These butterflies eat toxic milkweed plants, which helps protect them from predators. Monarchs and queens belong to this group and are already known carriers of OE.



The study found infected butterflies from every continent except Antarctica. But the infections weren’t evenly spread. Some populations showed no infection, even within the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-country-without-butterflies-rapid-decline-in-u-s-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



“There were a lot of places where these species were sampled with no infection, even though there were other places where they were,” noted Altizer. “There was a lot of geographic variation within each species as to where infections were detected.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-selective-parasite">A selective parasite</h2>



Despite OE’s global reach, only a few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> seemed to suffer from it. The parasite showed up in just five butterfly species, all from the Danaus genus. This raises questions about why OE doesn’t infect other groups.



The answer may lie in parasite specialization. Spores from monarchs appeared darker and larger than spores from other butterflies. This suggests each OE strain may evolve to match its host species.



A related study led by Maria Luisa Müller-Theissen looked at how these infections crossed between monarchs and queens. Monarchs could catch OE strains from both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, while queens only reacted to their specific strains. Monarchs also showed worse symptoms than queens.



“If you put monarchs and queens side by side, the monarchs tend to outcompete the queens for food,” said Altizer. “The queens compensate for that by being more resistant to parasites and tougher in other ways.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-museum-samples-and-butterfly-health">Museum samples and butterfly health</h2>



Museum collections offer an unmatched opportunity to study long-term ecological trends. In this study, the specimens allowed researchers to detect infection patterns over nearly 200 years.



“No one person could go all around the world and look at all these different species in a reasonable amount of time and money,” Altizer said. “But we can go to a museum and access samples from all over the world going back decades or longer and get information from these animals.”



By analyzing historical samples, scientists gain insight into butterfly health and disease evolution. This work helps explain how OE spreads and which species are most at risk.



The findings could support future butterfly conservation efforts, especially for monarchs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-museum-specimens-and-butterfly-conservation">Museum specimens and butterfly conservation</h2>



The research offers a deeper view into butterfly health, showing how long OE has persisted in wild populations. With climate change and habitat fragmentation on the rise, butterflies face increasing stress.



Identifying where and how OE infections spread can support global efforts to protect vulnerable species. Museum specimens, long seen as passive records of biodiversity, now serve as active tools for scientific discovery.



Ultimately, the research shows how studying the past can lead to better understanding - and protection - of our natural world.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/een.13426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Entomology</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Global spread of butterfly disease revealed in museum collections

Butterfly collections often attract museum visitors with their vivid colors...

Plastic waste is everywhere - in oceans, in soil, in the food we eat, and now, possibly, inside unborn life. A new study has shown for the first time that microplastics, which have long been known to pollute ecosystems, can enter fetal tissue in cats, even during the earliest stages of pregnancy.



What was once thought of as an environmental threat has now emerged as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airborne-microplastics-where-they-come-from-and-where-they-go/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential risk</a> to reproduction itself.



Published in PLOS ONE, the study examined eight stray cats in the early stages of pregnancy. The researchers found plastic fragments in five out of the sixteen tissue samples - placentas and fetuses - raising questions that reach far beyond the feline world.



These findings add to the growing global evidence that microplastic contamination has crossed into some of the most sensitive biological spaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-found-in-cat-fetuses">Microplastics found in cat fetuses</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.unipr.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Parma</a> conducted the study on pregnant stray cats admitted as part of a population control program. 



All the animals were in early gestation - between 15 and 30 days - making the findings even more unsettling. Using a chemical technique known as Raman spectroscopy, the team discovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-in-the-brain-alarming-new-details-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic</a> fragments in fetal tissues from two cats and in placental tissues from three others.



"The discovery of microplastics in early pregnancy raises new concerns for animal and human health," said Ilaria Ferraboschi, the lead researcher.



The team found 19 particles in total. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-chewing-gum-may-be-full-of-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particles</a> measured under 10 microns and displayed various colors. The identified pigments included Mars Red, Alcian Blue, and Burnt Umber, all of which are common in commercial plastic products.



Seven of these particles were confirmed as polyethylene, while the rest were considered suspect microplastics due to pigment presence alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stray-cats-show-real-world-microplastics-risks">Stray cats show real-world microplastics risks</h2>



Cats served as a real-world model for unintentional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-microplastics-are-disrupting-photosynthesis-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental exposure</a>. Unlike lab animals, these stray cats lived freely, hunting prey and occasionally eating commercial pet food. 



This provided a natural snapshot of how widespread microplastics have become. Despite living outdoors, they were still contaminated - proving that exposure does not require direct contact with plastic packaging or processed food.



To ensure accuracy, researchers used a completely plastic-free protocol for collecting and processing samples. They stored all materials in glass containers and filtered liquids through ultra-fine membranes. 



Even their surgical instruments were metal to avoid introducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/filter-feeders-transform-microplastics-into-a-bigger-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic particles</a> during examination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-placenta-is-no-longer-a-barrier">Placenta is no longer a barrier</h2>



One of the most vital roles of the placenta is to act as a gatekeeper. It protects the fetus from harmful substances, allowing only essential nutrients to pass through. 



This study challenges that understanding. The particles detected in fetal tissues suggest that plastic fragments can cross the placental barrier within the first month of pregnancy.



This is not the first time microplastics have been found in reproductive tissues. Human studies have previously detected them in placentas and amniotic fluid. But until now, the presence of microplastics in fetal tissue had not been demonstrated in real-world, non-laboratory conditions so early in gestation.



"Microplastics should not be part of fetal development - this is a clear signal for global change," Ferraboschi stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-inside-matters-everywhere">What happens inside matters everywhere</h2>



The health risks of microplastic exposure remain poorly understood, but animal research has begun to reveal potential effects. 



In rodents, microplastics have altered reproductive cycles, decreased sperm quality, and led to hormone imbalances. Fetal mice exposed in utero developed metabolic disorders and impaired muscle and organ development.



Polystyrene particles in particular have shown toxic effects on ovaries and uterine tissue, sometimes leading to fertility loss. Exposure also disrupts immune balance during pregnancy, which could lead to complications such as miscarriages or premature births. 



These findings suggest the risk may not just be developmental but immunological as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-sources">The hidden sources</h2>



Microplastics enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact. They have been detected in air, bottled water, tap water, seafood, and even vegetables.



In fact, processed foods tend to carry more microplastics than unprocessed ones. Chicken nuggets, for instance, contain more particles than plain chicken breasts.



Even the air is not safe. Indoor environments contain airborne microplastics, which can be inhaled and which settle on food and other surfaces. The presence of plastic in human lungs, hearts, and blood is now documented.



The contamination of fetal tissues suggests that microplastics are not just present - they are active and mobile inside the body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-are-more-than-a-cat-problem">Microplastics are more than a cat problem</h2>



Though the study focused on cats, the implications of microplastics exposure are wider. If plastics can enter the womb of a stray cat, they likely do so in other species as well - including humans.



The small size of the detected particles allows them to travel through blood vessels and enter organs. Once inside, they may trigger immune responses or interfere with tissue development.



Cats were a convenient starting point, but they offer a glimpse into a larger issue. Their environmental exposure mirrors that of other urban animals and, by extension, humans. This link makes them a useful biological indicator of the risks we all face.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-step-must-be-action">Next step must be action</h2>



The study on stray cats doesn’t answer all questions, but it makes one thing clear: microplastics can reach where we least expect them. 



The researchers urge governments and industries to reduce plastic use and find safer materials for food packaging, clothing, and other consumer goods.



The placenta’s permeability to plastics - combined with the recognized reproductive toxicity of some plastics - makes this more than an ecological issue. It is now a health concern that begins before birth.



Ferraboschi’s team calls for international cooperation, improved monitoring, and deeper research into the long-term effects of prenatal microplastic exposure. For now, their study offers one of the earliest warnings that plastic pollution has reached the beginning of life itself.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0320694" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cats reveal hidden danger of microplastics to unborn life

Plastic waste is everywhere - in oceans, in soil, in...

Latin America’s rainforest inhabitants have long surprised scientists with their varied calls. Now, research shows that when it comes to yodeling, some monkeys outperform even the famed Alpine singers of Austria and Switzerland. 



This work provides fresh information about primate vocal abilities and offers new clues about how their unique anatomy shapes the way they produce sounds.



Experts from Anglia Ruskin University (<a href="https://www.aru.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ARU</a>) and the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a> spearheaded the study, which examined monkeys’ intricate calls through a mix of CT scans, computer simulations, and field observations. 



The findings indicate that special throat structures called vocal membranes - once present in human ancestors - give these animals an extra gear for producing surprising frequency shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-yodeling-the-basics">Understanding yodeling - the basics</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simulation-reveals-the-evolution-of-alpine-ice-over-120000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yodeling</a> is that wild, echoing singing style where the voice flips rapidly between a low chest voice and a high head voice. It started in the Swiss Alps as a way for herders to communicate across mountains. 



Yodeling works by quickly switching between two vocal registers: the chest voice (your normal speaking or singing voice) and the head voice (a lighter, higher voice often used for falsetto). 



That flip between the two is called a register break, and it creates the signature “yo-de-lay-ee-hoo” sound. 



Instead of smoothing over the transition like most singers try to do, yodelers emphasize it -leaning into that sudden, jumpy switch to create the bouncing, echo-like effect.



Physically, it’s all about control and timing. The vocal cords stretch and tighten to hit those high head voice notes, then loosen again for the chest voice. 



It takes breath support from your diaphragm, clear enunciation, and a bit of vocal agility to bounce back and forth fast enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yodeling-monkeys-and-vocal-membranes">Yodeling monkeys and vocal membranes</h2>



Primates such as monkeys and apes have thin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-affects-the-sensory-abilities-of-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocal membranes</a> above their vocal folds, which humans lost over time. Researchers have long wondered how these membranes benefit non-human primates. 



The new study shows that these delicate tissue bands introduce “voice breaks” that pop up when sound production shifts from the vocal folds to the membranes. 



This feature results in rapid changes in pitch, reminiscent of Alpine yodeling or Tarzan’s iconic yell.



<a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/1066689" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click here to listen to the world's best yodelers...</a>



New World monkeys from Mexico to Argentina appear to have the largest vocal membranes of all primates, indicating a key role in their communication. 



The study captured the calls of species like black and gold howler monkeys, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capuchin-monkeys-use-clever-tools-to-access-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tufted capuchins</a>, black-capped squirrel monkeys, and Peruvian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-monitoring-will-help-protect-endangered-spider-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spider monkeys</a> at La Senda Verde Wildlife Sanctuary in Bolivia. 



The data revealed that these vocal membranes add dramatic leaps in pitch that are rarely matched by humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-ranges-and-ultra-yodels">Wider ranges and “ultra-yodels”</h2>



“These results show how monkeys take advantage of an evolved feature in their larynx - the vocal membrane - which allows for a wider range of calls to be produced, including these ultra-yodels,” explained Dr. Dunn from ARU.



Some of these calls cross frequency intervals up to five times larger than what the human voice can achieve. 



While people who yodel typically stay within one octave, the study found that certain New World monkeys can exceed three octaves.



“This might be particularly important in primates, which have complex social lives and need to communicate in a variety of different ways," Dr. Dunn continued. 



"It’s highly likely this has evolved to enrich the animals’ call repertoire, and is potentially used for attention-grabbing changes, call diversification, or identifying themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vocal-variety-of-monkey-yodeling">Vocal variety of monkey yodeling</h2>



“This is a fascinating example of how nature provides the means of enriching animal vocalization, despite their lack of language,” noted Dr Herbst from the University of Vienna.



“The production of these intricate vocal patterns is mostly enabled by the way the animals’ larynx is anatomically shaped, and does not require complex neural control generated by the brain.”



In basic terms, the vocal membranes introduce a kind of instability that makes way for abrupt changes in pitch. By switching between membranes and folds, monkeys add a unique flair to their vocal repertoire. 



This could help them communicate across thick rainforest environments, where distant calls must pierce a chaotic soundscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-humans-do-it-differently">How humans do it differently</h2>



“Our study shows that vocal membranes extend the monkey's pitch range, but also destabilize its voice. They may have been lost during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human evolution</a> to promote pitch stability in singing and speech,” explained Professor Tecumseh Fitch, also from the University of Vienna.



Humans prioritize a steady tone, which is crucial for clear speech. These membranes might have vanished from our lineage because, while they allow dramatic pitch shifts, they also create less consistent vocalization. 



By losing them, our ancestors may have gained better control over speech patterns and articulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-monkey-yodeling-matter">Why does monkey yodeling matter?</h2>



The investigation offers a fresh perspective on the relationship between anatomy and communication. Researchers highlight how small structures in the larynx can produce unexpectedly large acoustic effects. 



That knowledge could inform future studies on how primate species negotiate dense habitats with loud, competing noises. 



It also highlights that monkeys rely on more than simple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toothed-whales-use-vocal-fry-to-catch-their-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocal folds</a> to make themselves heard. In the wild, these calls can travel large distances, allowing social groups to stay in contact or mark their territory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-have-we-learned">What have we learned?</h2>



Because of this discovery, scientists now better understand why monkeys in the Americas are capable of surprising pitch changes that exceed standard human vocal ranges. 



The presence of expanded vocal membranes sets these species apart and explains how yodel-like calls evolved outside of the Alpine region. 



At the same time, the research adds to ongoing work on how speech and language developed in our own evolutionary line.



There is still much to learn about these remarkable calls. Each insight brings us closer to appreciating the astonishing variety in primate communication and offers another reminder that humans, for all our talk, are not the only animals with vocal tricks up our sleeves.



-----



<a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/1066689" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click here to listen to the world's best yodelers...</a>



Senior author Dr Jacob Dunn, Associate Professor in Evolutionary Biology at Anglia Ruskin University (ARU) in Cambridge, England, was joined by colleagues at the University of Vienna, including lead author Dr Christian T. Herbst of the Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Biology and Professor Tecumseh Fitch, an expert in human vocal evolution.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rstb" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Monkeys are the world's best yodelers, and that includes humans

Latin America’s rainforest inhabitants have long surprised scientists with their...

As climate change reshapes landscapes across the world, native species face growing challenges. 



Rising temperatures, altered water flows, and shifting ecosystems already disrupt many habitats. At the same time, biological invasions involving non-native species that move into new areas introduce added stress.



Until now, these two threats have mostly been studied in isolation. However, recent work by researchers at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> suggests that combining these forces reveals deeper risks.



Native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-plants-cant-outrun-climate-change-on-their-own/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> may lose more than just space - they may face extinction under the pressure of both climate and invaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threat-to-native-species">Threat to native species</h2>



The study, published in the journal Global Change Biology, begins to close the gap between climate science and invasion biology.



“Climate change and biological invasions are increasingly affecting ecosystems globally,” said Ivan Arismendi, an associate professor in Oregon State’s Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Sciences. 



“It’s critical to understand their combined impacts so that we can anticipate and adapt management strategies that account for shifting interactions between native and non-native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-places-are-prime-targets-for-invasive-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.”



The team focused on freshwater fish species in the Pacific Northwest, where warming waters and shifting rivers have changed aquatic habitats. Arismendi and his colleagues, Guillermo Giannico and Arif Jan, developed ecological niche models.



These models use environmental data to predict where species might live under current and future conditions. Their goal was to understand how overlapping habitats could intensify threats to native fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-forces-fish-to-higher-ground">Warming forces fish to higher ground</h2>



The researchers studied two invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-native-species-are-spreading-at-an-exponential-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, namely smallmouth bass and northern pike, and two native species, the redband trout and bull trout.



These fish currently occupy different regions, but warming climates are pushing them all toward higher elevations, where colder water remains. Unfortunately, this movement may force them into closer contact, with serious consequences.



“Cold water refuges in upstream areas will serve as converging zones for native and non-native fishes,” said Jan, a doctoral student at Oregon State. 



“Past research has documented predatory interactions toward salmonids by smallmouth bass and northern pike, where their habitat overlaps. This means potential year-round predation and competition pressures during the early life stages of salmonids.”



The team found that future climate conditions will reduce suitable habitats for all four species. But more alarming was the increase in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-non-native-species-are-saving-themselves-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> overlap. In these shared zones, invasive species may outcompete or prey upon native ones, pushing already vulnerable populations closer toward collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-native-species-disappear-invasives-take-over">Native species disappear, invasives take over</h2>



This situation is not hypothetical. Similar patterns have already emerged in places like southeastern Alaska, where native salmonids have disappeared from areas invaded by northern pike. 



The combination of climate-driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/freshwater-crisis-one-in-four-species-faces-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> loss and biological pressure creates a dangerous feedback loop. As conditions worsen, natives lose the space and time they need to adapt or recover.



The implications of this research reach beyond the Pacific Northwest. As temperatures rise and weather patterns shift globally, many regions will experience similar overlaps between native and non-native species. 



The model developed by Oregon State researchers can help other scientists and managers assess risks elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planning-with-smarter-conservation-tools">Planning with smarter conservation tools</h2>



“This study highlights the need for integrated management strategies that address both direct and indirect effects of interactions among species,” said Giannico, a professor of fisheries at Oregon State. 



He emphasized that the framework used in this study is simple and cost-effective. It can help conservation teams prioritize areas for early detection of invasive species and focus resources where they are most needed.



Rather than reacting to individual threats, this new approach allows planners to anticipate problems before they escalate. It opens the door to broader ecological forecasting, where climate models and biological data work together. With better tools, conservation can become more proactive and efficient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-challenges-and-an-uncertain-future">Growing challenges and an uncertain future</h2>



While the study deals with fish, its lessons apply across ecosystems. Forests, grasslands, and wetlands all face pressure from changing climates and invasive species. 



As these challenges grow, species will shift, compete, and in some cases, vanish. Understanding how these forces interact gives us a chance to intervene.



The Oregon State researchers offer a glimpse of a future that is both uncertain and urgent. Their work reminds us that climate change does not act alone. It invites disruption. When non-native species follow, the result can be devastating. 



But with clear science and thoughtful planning, we may still help native species survive the changes ahead.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70040" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Native fish species are facing 'double trouble'

As climate change reshapes landscapes across the world, native species...

North America's smallest falcon, the American Kestrel, has captivated bird watchers and biologists for generations. Its striking plumage and swift, graceful flight add beauty to skies across the continent.



Yet, despite the kestrel's visibility and wide distribution from Alaska to Argentina, this tiny raptor has experienced a steady and troubling decline in population since the 1970s.



Scientists have searched for decades to pinpoint the cause. Theories range from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a> to pesticide use, but no single factor explains the pattern across all regions. In the Northeast, where kestrel numbers have dropped most sharply, the mystery has deepened.



A new study published in the Journal of Raptor Research brings a rare spark of clarity. It finds that fledgling kestrels in this region are surviving at higher-than-expected rates, which offers an unexpected twist to the ongoing search for answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-falcon-survival-rates">Tracking falcon survival rates</h2>



The research involved a comprehensive assessment of kestrel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>. For the first time, researchers tracked both juvenile and adult kestrels across multiple seasons, including winter. This matters because previous studies primarily focused on the nesting season alone.



Breeding kestrels face many known challenges. Raising chicks demands energy, coordination, and suitable nesting habitat. But only a portion of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-mammals-show-how-humans-influence-animal-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> actually breeds each year. Many younger birds - those still learning to hunt and navigate - do not yet breed.



These juveniles, along with adults during migration and winter, form blind spots in kestrel research. The current study begins to fill those gaps, offering a more complete picture of the annual life cycle of kestrels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-falcon-survival-against-the-odds">Falcon survival against the odds</h2>



​Dr. Mercy Melo and a team of scientists from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.hawkmountain.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hawk Mountain Sanctuary</a>, The Smithsonian, and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> designed a bold field experiment.​



The experts equipped 202 kestrels with lightweight radio transmitters between 2021 and 2023. The team tagged 146 fledglings from across the Northeast United States and 56 adult birds from both Pennsylvania and Florida.



These transmitters recorded each bird’s movements for six months. This time window captured the critical early weeks when juveniles first leave the nest, as well as the overwintering period for adults. 



Historically, kestrels experience their highest mortality during these months, especially juveniles who must suddenly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survive</a> without parental support.



Yet the findings upended that expectation. Despite lacking experience in how to forage and avoid danger, many fledglings survived remarkably well.



“Our study documented very high survival rates for juveniles across the eastern states, with some sites even boasting one hundred percent survival,” said Dr. Melo. This phase of post-nesting independence had never before been studied so closely, and the data bring both relief and new questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-hazards-are-the-biggest-threats">Human hazards are the biggest threats</h2>



In contrast to the encouraging news about juveniles, adult kestrels faced steeper odds - especially those overwintering in Pennsylvania. These birds showed significantly lower survival rates than their Florida counterparts.



Human-related hazards emerged as the top threats. Confirmed causes of death in adults included collisions with vehicles and entrapment in buildings, both frequent dangers for birds navigating developed landscapes.



This difference between regions suggests winter falcon survival depends not just on climate, but on how much risk the environment imposes. Urbanization, road networks, and even the design of buildings can spell danger for kestrels hunting in low-light winter conditions.



Florida, with its warmer temperatures and possibly fewer urban threats, offered safer overwintering options.



These adult deaths shift focus away from fledglings as the weak link in kestrel survival. Instead, they suggest that certain overwintering regions may present survival bottlenecks, especially for adults already worn down by breeding or migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-current-data-on-falcon-survival">Current data on falcon survival </h2>



While the survival rates of fledglings in their first few weeks is promising, their fates after leaving the nesting area still remain unknown.



Once these young birds dispersed beyond the transmitter’s range, they were no longer trackable. This means their survival during migration and overwintering is still a mystery.



However, by confirming that fledgling survival at early stages is higher than assumed, the study helps redirect attention. 



If juveniles are doing well in the Northeast, other stages of the life cycle - especially adult migration and wintering - may be where declines are most acute. These findings sharpen the questions that future studies should ask.



“Understanding the factors influencing the American Kestrel population decline will help kestrels but will also improve our understanding of other declining species,” said Dr. Melo. For example, grassland songbirds, which share many habitats with kestrels, face similar pressures and may benefit from similar research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deeper-significance-of-the-study">Deeper significance of the study</h2>



American Kestrels may be small, but they play a large ecological role. As top predators of insects, rodents, and small birds, they help regulate populations across open landscapes. The consequences of their decline ripples outward, affecting the balance of local ecosystems.



Moreover, their wide range and relative visibility make them excellent indicators of environmental change. When kestrels struggle, it signals trouble not just for raptors but for entire ecological communities. This is especially true in open habitats, such as prairies, grasslands, and farmlands, where biodiversity is shrinking fast.



“We hope this article entices researchers to adopt collaborative approaches across geographical regions,” said Dr. Melo. That call reflects the study’s deeper significance: kestrels won’t be saved by isolated efforts.



Their survival hinges on better cooperation among scientists, conservationists, and policy-makers who can act across regions and seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-story-of-falcon-survival">A story of falcon survival</h2>



This study doesn’t answer every question, but it shifts the compass. The research shows that fledgling kestrels in the Northeast may not be as vulnerable as previously believed. 



The study also highlights that adults, particularly those overwintering in human-dominated landscapes, face growing threats.



As research continues, tracking kestrels throughout all life stages - and across all landscapes - will be key. Understanding their migration paths, habitat choices, and human-made hazards will help explain the long-term trends.



The kestrel’s story is still evolving, but this study has brought it into sharper focus. With each new discovery, researchers are getting closer to understanding how this colorful falcon might survive against the odds.



The study is published in the <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-raptor-research/volume-59/issue-2/jrr2414/Juvenile-and-Adult-Survival-Estimates-of-American-Kestrels-Throughout-the/10.3356/jrr2414.full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Raptor Research</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Falcon survival rates surprise scientists amid their decline

North America's smallest falcon, the American Kestrel, has captivated bird...

Tuna and swordfish hunt far beyond the surface. They dive deep into the ocean’s twilight zone - a layer of dark, cold water about 800 meters below the surface - to feed. Until now, no one really knew how important this zone was to their survival.



In new research from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), scientists show that this deep layer isn't just a snack stop. It’s a major food source. 



The study shows that three big <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> - bigeye tuna, yellowfin tuna, and swordfish - obtain more than half their diet from the twilight zone. That’s a surprising dependence on such a hidden region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-the-ocean-s-twilight-zone">Importance of the ocean's twilight zone</h2>



This finding could change how we think about both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish conservation</a> and commercial fishing. If fishing expands into the twilight zone, it may risk the food supply of valuable surface-dwelling predators.



“There is increasing interest in commercial fishing in the ocean’s twilight zone,” said Ciara Willis, the study’s lead author.



“If we start heavily fishing that layer of the ocean, our study suggests that could have profound implications for tuna and swordfish, which are very reliant on the twilight zone and are highly valuable existing fisheries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-twilight-zone">What is the twilight zone?</h2>



The twilight zone - or mesopelagic layer - lies between 200 and 1,000 meters (656 to 3,281 feet) deep. It’s sandwiched between the sunlit upper waters and the dark, midnight zone below. Despite its lack of sunlight, the twilight zone teems with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-freshwater-fish-toward-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.



“This is a really understudied region of the ocean, and it’s filled with all these fantastic, weird animals,” said Willis.



Its biomass could reach 10 billion tons - far outweighing what swims near the surface. The surface ocean, Willis noted, is “a thin soup,” offering little to big predators. The twilight zone, by contrast, presents “the deep ocean buffet,” full of dense pockets of fish and squid.



Every night, twilight creatures migrate upward to eat, then return before daylight. Bigeye tuna dive frequently during the day, while yellowfin dive less often. Swordfish follow the nightly up-and-down movement of prey.



“We’ve known for a long time that these fish and many other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> feed on twilight zone prey,” said Willis. “But the extent to which they rely on this deep-sea food web for their forage has been unclear.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-clues-in-fish-tissue">Finding clues in fish tissue</h2>



Stomach content analysis only offers a snapshot. Willis wanted to know what these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> had eaten over months. She and her team worked with fishermen in New Jersey and Florida to collect tissue samples from commercial catches.



They focused on essential amino acids - building blocks of protein that come from the base of the food chain. These amino acids carry a unique carbon signature, depending on whether they originate from phytoplankton in the sunlit zone or microbes in the deep.



“One of the hypotheses we had was that we’d be able to distinguish the carbon isotopic signature of the shallow ocean, which would logically be more phytoplankton-based, versus the deep ocean, which is more microbially based,” said Willis.



By analyzing these carbon signatures, the team could estimate whether a fish had been feeding more on shallow or deep-sea organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-diet-of-predators">Deep diet of predators</h2>



The researchers studied tissue from over 120 fish. They found that 50 to 60 percent of their diet came from ocean's twilight zone sources. Bigeye tuna showed the most consistent deep-sea reliance. Swordfish and yellowfin tuna were more varied.



“We saw the bigeye tuna were far and away the most consistent in where they got their food from,” noted Willis.



“Whereas the swordfish and yellowfin tuna were more variable. That means if you start having big-scale fishing in the twilight zone, the bigeye tuna might be the ones who are most at risk from food web effects.”



The concern isn’t just about catching the predators. It’s about removing their prey. Many twilight zone fish aren’t eaten by people but are used in fishmeal and fish oil. This commercial demand could strip a crucial food source from valuable predator species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-of-deep-sea-fishing">Threats of deep sea fishing</h2>



“If predatory fish like tunas have 50 percent reliance on twilight zone food webs, and we start heavily fishing that region, that could lead to uncertainty around the profitability of tuna fisheries,” said Willis.



“So we need to be very cautious about impacts on the twilight zone and the larger ocean ecosystem.”



The twilight zone holds secrets vital to ocean life. Any plan to harvest from it must consider the deep, invisible links that bind predators to prey.



This research was part of the&nbsp;Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's <a href="https://twilightzone.whoi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Twilight Zone Project</a>, supported by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.audaciousproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Audacious Project</a>&nbsp;at TED. 



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/82/3/fsaf028/8090274" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICES Journal of Marine Science</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Deep ocean buffet: Big fish are surprisingly reliant on the twilight zone

Tuna and swordfish hunt far beyond the surface. They dive...

On a breezy spring morning, a birch tree sways quietly in the forest. Its leaves, soft and green, shimmer under the sun. But look closer - at the very tip of one leaf sits a creature smaller than a grain of rice. It is motionless, but this caterpillar is not resting. It is guarding its kingdom.



Researchers recently revealed that these barely visible hatchlings of the two-lined hooktip moth (Falcaria bilineata) are among the world’s smallest territorial animals. 



These neonate warty birch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-and-caterpillars-have-a-great-working-protection-relationship-until-it-isnt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillars</a> may not roar or bite, but they have their own language - a rhythm of vibrations. And they use it to hold their ground.



“We had noticed that tiny warty birch caterpillars produced vibrations,” said Jayne Yack of <a href="https://carleton.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carleton University</a>, who first observed this behavior in 2008.



That discovery opened a door into a hidden world of buzzing boundaries, leaf-top wars, and high-stakes survival - all played out on a stage smaller than your thumbnail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-caterpillars-build-a-territory">Where caterpillars build a territory</h2>



When the eggs of the warty birch caterpillar hatch, the tiny neonates - only 1 to 2 mm (0.04 to 0.08 inches) long - begin their journey across the leaf.



They don’t settle in the middle or near the stem. Instead, they crawl toward the tip. In a controlled lab setup, the researchers found that nearly 90% of these caterpillars selected the leaf tip within 24 hours of hatching.



This spot becomes their home. Each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillars-inherit-food-preferences-through-their-blood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillar</a> lays down a silk mat, feeds around it, and stays put. They avoid the very end of the tip, which remains green and untouched. 



Feeding scars mark the borders of the caterpillar's territory. This feeding area stretches about 11 mm from the tip, but the actual defended zone - the core area of movement - is much smaller, around 8 mm².



Despite their size, these hatchlings don’t share. They live alone, and their behavior reveals that they are actively defending this micro territory from intruders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-caterpillars-defend-their-territory">How caterpillars defend their territory</h2>



Unlike larger animals, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillar-noses-can-lead-to-safer-ways-to-protect-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillars</a> can’t bark, charge, or fight. Instead, they communicate through vibrations. Their signaling language includes two main sounds: buzz scrapes and drums.



A drum is a sharp strike against the leaf with the front of the body. Buzz scrapes are more complex, involving simultaneous body shaking and rear-end scraping using specialized oar-like hairs.



These signals occur in rapid bursts called bouts. A single bout contains about five signals and lasts just over two seconds. Caterpillars produce these signals while stationary or when another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillars-can-stop-their-bleeding-in-seconds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillar</a> comes close.



“The sounds produced by these caterpillars are not audible to humans, so we had to use specialized equipment to pick up the vibrations,” said Yack. Using laser vibrometry and macro video, the researchers recorded these silent broadcasts.



These vibrations are not accidental. They are messages - warnings, claims of ownership, and possibly even decoys meant to confuse or threaten.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clashes-without-contact">Clashes without contact</h2>



The team at Carleton University conducted 18 staged encounters between resident caterpillars and newcomers. The results painted a vivid picture of non-violent conflict resolution.



Before an intruder arrived, residents signaled rarely - about 1.6 times per minute. But once another caterpillar appeared on the same leaf, the rate jumped to almost seven signals per minute.



If the intruder crossed into the defended territory, the resident’s signaling exploded to over 24 signals per minute.



Sometimes, the intruder fled without contest. Other times, the resident, after a period of frantic buzzing, launched itself off the leaf tip while hanging from a silk thread - a behavior known as “lifelining.” This escape was always triggered by physical contact. The resident never jumped when alone.



Even with these dramatic scenes, no trial ended with both caterpillars sharing space. In 71% of cases, the original resident remained the victor, reclaiming their leaf tip once the intruder left or was driven away by vibrations alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-the-leaf-tip">Advantages of the leaf tip</h2>



The choice of location isn’t random. The leaf tip may offer better nutrition. Young leaves, especially the tips, often contain fewer plant defenses like trichomes. For fragile hatchlings, a tender patch of food could be the difference between growth and starvation.



But nutrition might not be the only reason. The tip of the leaf could serve as a perfect escape platform. Predators - like spiders or beetles - typically approach from the base of the leaf. Sitting at the tip gives the caterpillar more time to detect the threat and jump.



There’s also a mechanical advantage. Studies suggest that leaf tips vibrate more intensely than other parts. By signaling from the tip, the caterpillar’s buzzes may travel farther or feel stronger. 



This might make a tiny resident seem bigger and more threatening than it is, especially to other insects or predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillars-send-constant-warning-signals">Caterpillars send constant warning signals </h2>



In some cases, the caterpillar signals even when no rival is on the leaf. This could serve as a general warning - an announcement that the space is occupied.



Researchers propose that such signals might help caterpillars space themselves out on a single tree branch. Instead of fighting, they vibrate. It’s a low-risk way of keeping personal space in a crowded environment.



Intriguingly, these signals might not just deter fellow caterpillars. Their complex structure - made of buzzes, scrapes, and beats - resembles the vibratory displays of some jumping spiders.



These displays often mimic dangerous threats. It’s possible that the caterpillars are copying these patterns to confuse or scare away would-be predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-quiet-warnings">Power of quiet warnings</h2>



This study may be the first to show a hatchling insect using complex vibratory signals to defend a tiny space. 



Unlike most insects that fight or bite to hold territory, these caterpillars rely on pure communication. Their soft bodies would not survive physical aggression. Instead, they buzz, scrape, and, if needed, dangle away from danger.



What seems like a quiet leaf to us is actually a tense battlefield - an arena of invisible signals and tactical retreats.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/228/7/jeb249796/367459/Buzzing-boundaries-tiny-caterpillars-vibrate-to" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

These incredibly tiny caterpillars defend the world's smallest territory

On a breezy spring morning, a birch tree sways quietly...

Every evening, as the sun dips below the horizon, thousands of bats surge out of caves and take to the skies. For those who have watched it up close, the spectacle is unforgettable - dark wings blur together in motion that is so dense, it can seem fluid.



Yet amidst this chaos, one mystery remains: how do they all manage to avoid collisions? Despite emerging in massive numbers from tight spaces, bats almost never crash. 



“The bats don’t run into each other,” noted Aya Goldshtein from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a>. “Even in colonies of hundreds of thousands of bats all flying out of a small opening.”



Goldshtein, along with colleagues Omer Mazar and Yossi Yovel, explored this question in a new study that was led by scientists from Tel Aviv University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-mid-air-traffic-control">The mystery of mid-air traffic control</h2>



Bats rely heavily on echolocation to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-have-acoustic-mental-maps-to-navigate-total-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">navigate</a>. They emit high-frequency calls and interpret the returning echoes to “see” the world around them. 



But when thousands of bats are calling at the same time, those signals should interfere with each other. This phenomenon, known as “jamming,” should make it nearly impossible to distinguish useful echoes from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-noisy-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noise</a>.



It’s like trying to have a conversation at a crowded party where everyone is shouting at once - a problem that researchers refer to as the “cocktail party nightmare.” 



And yet, despite the chaos, accidents between bats are almost nonexistent. "You’re almost excited when you witness one,” said Goldshtein.



Past studies offered a few clues. In the lab, scientists noticed that bats flying in small groups shifted their call frequencies slightly. This seemed to help avoid jamming, but didn’t fully explain how large colonies manage to avoid mid-air collisions, night after night.



According to Yovel, the missing piece was a real-world perspective. "No one had looked at this situation from the point of view of an individual bat during emergence. How can we understand a behavior if we don’t study it in action?” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-bats-as-they-navigate">Tracking bats as they navigate</h2>



To address this, the team collected data directly from wild bats as they emerged from a cave in Israel’s Hula Valley. 



Using a mix of high-resolution location tracking, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-use-death-metal-growls-to-extend-their-vocal-range/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultrasonic</a> recording, and computer modeling, the researchers recreated the experience of a single bat as it navigated the crowd.



Over the course of two years, they tagged multiple greater mouse-tailed bats with tiny trackers that recorded their position every second. 



Some trackers included microphones to record echolocation calls and ambient sound from the bat’s perspective. All data collection took place on the same nights that the bats were released.



One challenge remained. The tagged bats were released just outside the cave, so the team lacked data from the exact moment the bats exited the cave - where crowding is at its peak.



To fill in this gap, Mazar developed a computer model that simulated the initial emergence. The simulation drew on the real tracking and audio data to map each bat’s path for two kilometers across the landscape.



“The simulation allows us to verify our assumptions of how bats solve this complex task during emergence,” said Mazar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bats-beat-the-noise">How bats beat the noise</h2>



What the team found was surprising. In the first seconds after exiting the cave, 94 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-share-social-information-through-echolocation-calls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">echolocation calls</a> were jammed.



But by five seconds in, that number dropped significantly. The bats weren’t just spreading out - they were also adjusting how they echolocated.



First, they moved out of the densest part of the group, giving themselves more space while still staying within the broader colony. Second, they changed their calls to be shorter, softer, and at higher frequencies.



This shift in behavior raised another question. Wouldn’t increasing the number of calls just add to the noise? Not necessarily, said the team - especially when you look at it from the bat’s perspective.



“Imagine you’re a bat flying through a cluttered space. The most important object you need to know about is the bat directly in front. So you should echolocate in such a way that gives you the most detailed information about only that bat," explained Mazar.



"Sure, you might miss most of the information available because of jamming, but it doesn’t matter because you only need enough detail to avoid crashing into that bat.”



In other words, bats aren’t trying to hear everything. They’re focused on gathering just enough information to make it safely past the bat that is right ahead of them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-adapt-to-avoid-crashes">Bats adapt to avoid crashes</h2>



The researchers believe the key to these findings was observing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-advice-leave-bats-alone-if-we-want-to-prevent-future-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats in their natural environment</a> - not in the lab.



“Theoretical and lab studies of the past have allowed us to imagine the possibilities,” said Goldshtein. “But only by putting ourselves, as close as possible, into the shoes of an animal will we ever be able to understand the challenges they face and what they do to solve them.”



This study shows how bats overcome intense auditory clutter and avoid crashes with fine-tuned behavior, which they adapt in real-time.



It’s not about cutting through all the noise - it’s about focusing on just enough of the right noise to stay safe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2407810122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How bats navigate rush hour without crashing into each other

Every evening, as the sun dips below the horizon, thousands...

Every year, humpback whales in the southeastern Pacific make a long and difficult journey. They travel up to 10,000 kilometers from Central and South America to their feeding grounds in Antarctica.



But how do they know when it's time to leave? According to new research, these whales rely on both real-time changes in their environment and long-term memories of past ocean conditions to time their migrations.



The study, led by scientists from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a>, used eight years of satellite tracking data collected between 2009 and 2016. The team tracked 42 humpback whales tagged near Costa Rica, Panama, and Ecuador.



By following the whales' movements southward to Antarctica, the researchers hoped to understand what cues triggered their annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-use-memory-to-time-their-journey">Whales use memory to time their journey</h2>



The study revealed that whales respond to local cues such as sea surface temperature and food availability.



But they don’t rely solely on current conditions. They also seem to remember when food was most abundant in the Southern Ocean during previous years.



That memory, combined with what’s happening around them, helps them decide when to go.



“They seem to know that changes happening in their immediate environment are linked to conditions thousands of kilometers away,” said Professor Virginie Millien. “This allows them to fine-tune their migration, so they arrive just as their food supply peaks.”



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-reproduction-is-linked-to-krill-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Krill</a>, a small crustacean, is the whales’ main food source in Antarctica. Each year, krill populations bloom during a specific seasonal window. 



For centuries, whales have timed their migration to match this pattern. But that rhythm is now being disrupted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-whales-keep-up-with-climate-change">Can whales keep up with climate change?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/krill-face-a-double-whammy-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warmer oceans</a> and changes in sea ice are beginning to shift the timing of the krill bloom. Even though whales are adjusting their departures, climate change may be moving too fast for them to keep up.



“We don't know how long they'll be able to keep up,” said Millien. “Every year since 2016 has been the warmest on record, and that pattern is speeding up. At some point, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-memories-feeding-sites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory-based</a> strategy may no longer work.”



The study also revealed notable differences in how males and females migrate. Male humpbacks tend to travel more quickly and take direct paths. 



In contrast, females - especially those with calves - stick to the coast. Their route is slower but possibly safer, giving their young time to rest and stay away from predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delicate-balance-of-marine-ecosystems">Delicate balance of marine ecosystems </h2>



These findings have important implications for conservation. As ship traffic increases along coastal routes, so do the dangers whales face.



Collisions with vessels and disturbances to their migration corridors can have serious effects on whale populations.



“This research provides the data needed to inform conservation efforts,” said Hector Guzman of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. “It's not just about protecting whales; it's about preserving the delicate balance of marine ecosystems.”



The researchers emphasize the need to safeguard migration routes and feeding zones, especially as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-warming-climate-will-change-the-humpback-whales-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate continues to shift</a>. Protecting these areas doesn’t just benefit whales - it supports the entire marine food web.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-whales-matter-more-than-ever">Why whales matter more than ever</h2>



Whales are amazing animals that help keep oceans and seas healthy. As they move, whales consume food and excrete waste - assisting with the distribution of nutrients in the water body.



This enables the growth of phytoplankton and other microscopic plants which take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. Thus, whales make a direct contribution to the food webs of the ocean and the climate on land.



Their existence also boosts biodiversity, creating new feeding opportunities for other marine creatures that depend on nutrient-rich zones. 



If whale populations are decimated, the productivity of the ocean will decline. As waters undergo more drastic changes, the survival of humpback whales is crucial.



Observations of humpback whales provide researchers with insights into the limits of ecosystem resilience and the measures needed to prevent collapse. From this perspective, protecting whales becomes a priority, along with assessing the overall health and stability of the oceans.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-87489-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Whales in hot water: Will climate change disrupt their migration?

Every year, humpback whales in the southeastern Pacific make a...

Butterflies have always captured human imagination. Their delicate wings, bright patterns, and graceful flight inspire poetry, art, and science. Beyond their beauty, butterflies play vital roles in ecosystems as pollinators and as part of complex food webs. But a new climate warning has emerged. 



A Yale-led global study suggests their mountain homes — long thought to be safe havens — are becoming death zones. Climate change, once a distant threat, is now closing in fast.



The study, published in Nature Ecology and Evolution, provides the first global analysis of butterfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-genome-has-barely-changed-after-250-million-years-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> and climate risk. It exposes a crisis unfolding in silence, high in the world’s mountain ranges. 



And it paints a troubling picture not only for butterflies but for insect life as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reverse-butterfly-effect">The reverse butterfly effect</h2>



The phrase “butterfly effect” describes how a small action, like a butterfly flapping its wings, can lead to large consequences — like a hurricane across the world. This study shows something more haunting: a global storm threatening <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-mate-preferences-shift-with-slight-brain-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> themselves.



According to the researchers, mountain habitats that once offered protection may now become population traps. These zones are warming fast. 



With nowhere higher to go, butterflies may run out of suitable conditions. Species adapted to cooler, narrow temperature bands will suffer most.



Even more concerning, the study points to a critical data gap. While scientists have long tracked changes in birds, mammals, and plants, insects - though far more numerous - have been overlooked in global biodiversity models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-butterfly-data-reveals-climate-danger">Global butterfly data reveals climate danger</h2>



To understand how butterflies might respond to climate change, Yale ecologist Walter Jetz and entomologist Stefan Pinkert led a team of researchers. They compiled phylogenetic and geographic data for over 12,000 butterfly species around the globe. 



​Jetz directs the&nbsp;<a href="https://bgc.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale Center for Biodiversity and Global Change</a>, while Pinkert, now at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.uni-marburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Marburg</a>&nbsp;in Germany, previously worked at Yale as a postdoctoral associate.​



Their work revealed that two-thirds of butterfly species live in tropical and subtropical mountains. These regions hold 3.5 times more butterfly hotspots than lowlands. 



But this concentration also increases risk. Mountains are warming quickly, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-country-without-butterflies-rapid-decline-in-u-s-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that evolved in specific temperature zones may not adapt in time.



The study predicts that 64% of the thermal niche space used by tropical butterflies will disappear by 2070. As climate zones shift upward and shrink, many butterflies will lose their homes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-puts-butterflies-at-risk">Climate change puts butterflies at risk</h2>



Jetz explained the danger with both urgency and admiration.



“The diversity, elegance, and sheer beauty of butterflies impassion people worldwide. Co-evolved with host plants, butterflies form an integral part of an ecologically functioning web of life," said Jetz.



“Unfortunately, our first global assessment of butterfly diversity and threats finds that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>’ fascinating diversification into higher-elevation environments might now spell their demise, with potentially thousands of species committed to extinction from global warming this century.”



Pinkert shares this concern, especially as someone who has spent years studying insects. 



“As an entomologist, I am committed to informing the public about the distribution of insect diversity and targeted ways to protect it. Our results are insightful from an ecological point of view but unfortunately also very alarming,” noted Pinkert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-expose-a-conservation-blind-spot">Butterflies expose a conservation blind spot</h2>



The findings reveal a sharp contrast between butterflies and other well-known animals. Conservation plans today often rely on patterns seen in birds or mammals. 



But insects show very different responses. Their diversity and rarity do not follow the same geographic rules. As a result, current protection strategies might miss critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> habitats.



The authors note that, until now, no global assessment of climate threats for any insect group existed. Butterflies offer the first test case — and the results demand a rethink. 



Butterflies are far more than pretty wings. They act as indicators of environmental health. Their decline signals deeper ecological instability.



Pinkert emphasized the scale of the project. “This research was made possible by many years of mobilizing various global data and newly developed integrative approaches, all aimed at filling this critical information gap for at least one insect taxon,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explore-climate-threat-to-butterflies">Explore climate threat to butterflies</h2>



While the results are stark, the researchers still see a path forward. Protection of key butterfly habitats, especially in the tropics, must become a priority. 



Connecting these areas with migratory corridors can help species survive shifting climates. This strategy will require better insect data, broader conservation planning, and faster emissions cuts.



Jetz points to a global tool already in use — the Map of Life, a database he directs that tracks species distributions worldwide.



“A reduction of carbon emissions, combined with proactive identification and preservation of key butterfly habitats and migratory corridors, will be key to ensuring that much of butterfly diversity survives to benefit future generations,” Jetz said.



The study’s co-authors include Nina Farwig of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.uni-marburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Marburg</a>&nbsp;and Akito Kawahara of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>. Support came from the&nbsp;Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.moore.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>, and the&nbsp;<a href="https://eowilsonfoundation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E.O. Wilson Biodiversity Foundation</a>.



To view the findings and explore butterfly distributions in more depth, visit the <a href="https://mol.org">Map of Life</a>. As butterflies face mounting pressure, the need to act has never been clearer. 



Their quiet struggle on mountain peaks is not just a story about insects. It’s a signal to humanity that time is running out.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02664-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Butterfly effect in reverse: Climate change turns havens into traps

Butterflies have always captured human imagination. Their delicate wings, bright...

For decades, tool use was seen as the hallmark of human evolution. Later, researchers began to notice this skill in chimpanzees, crows, and even sea otters. But one group remained conspicuously absent from this conversation - fish.



They were thought to be too simple, too instinct-driven, and too limited in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive ability</a>. That belief no longer holds.



A new study has revealed something remarkable: several wrasse species have been observed using hard surfaces to break open prey. 



These behaviors don’t just challenge assumptions - they expand the very definition of what it means to be intelligent.



Dr. Juliette Tariel-Adam, the study’s lead author from Macquarie University, has spent years watching these small but clever reef fish. Her team tracked and recorded behaviors that were previously dismissed or unnoticed.



"Tool use is typically associated with humans, but this behavior is proof that fish are far cleverer than they get credit for," said Dr. Tariel-Adam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-use-tools-to-smash-prey">Fish use tools to smash prey</h2>



Wrasses are colorful reef fish found in warm oceans across the world. In this study, several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-evolve-rapidly-by-switching-between-simple-and-complex-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> were observed picking up crabs, mollusks, and brittle stars in their mouths and striking them against rocks or coral heads. 



This behavior is known as “anvil use,” a form of tool use that allows the fish to access prey they otherwise couldn’t consume.



The wrasses showed clear intentionality. They didn’t just drop their prey. They positioned it, swung their bodies with force, and adjusted their angles between strikes. They seemed to know what they were doing. This wasn’t random behavior - it was targeted, practiced, and often successful.



The study documented 16 new observations across five species within the New World Halichoeres group. Three of those species had never been seen using tools before. Two others were suspected to use tools, but now video evidence confirms this.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-use-across-oceans">Tool use across oceans</h2>



These discoveries were made possible by a community <a href="https://fishtooluse.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">science initiative</a> called Fish Tool Use. 



Through social media outreach, emails, and public engagement, the research team gathered videos and reports from divers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> enthusiasts. 



The observations came from Brazil, Colombia, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and beyond.



All five species observed belong to a closely related group in the Labridae family, the second most species-rich group of marine fish. 



The team believes this behavior may have evolved in a common ancestor and persisted across related species.



Alternatively, anvil use may have emerged multiple times independently - a question that future research may help to answer.



"With these newly discovered tool-using species, it becomes clear that many species of wrasses use tools that we previously didn't know about," said Dr. Tariel-Adam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexibility-of-fish-tool-use">Flexibility of fish tool use</h2>



One surprise in the study was the absence of laterality. In primates and crows, tool use often involves a dominant hand or claw. 



Wrasses, however, appeared to use both sides of their bodies equally. In video analyses, they struck with either side depending on their position in the water.



This flexibility might offer an advantage. While lateralized tool use can be efficient, it also limits an animal’s options when environment or position changes. 



Wrasses, on the other hand, can exploit anvils in any orientation, giving them a broader range of usable surfaces.



In addition, wrasses used many different types of anvils. Rocks, coral heads, rubble, even a live conch shell - all served the same purpose. They did not show strict preferences. They adapted to what was around them.



This suggests not only cognitive flexibility but a level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-deep-sea-fish-survive-the-crushing-depths-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental awareness</a> as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-competition-on-the-reef">Food and competition on the reef</h2>



Using tools to break open hard prey is not without its costs. The action requires energy, especially when it involves several powerful strikes. 



Videos show the fish sometimes lose their grip or need to readjust by spitting out and re-securing their prey. Despite this, the behavior is consistently successful.



Sometimes, other fish circle the scene. In 12 of 19 observations, nearby fish either attempted to steal food or got chased away. In one case, a juvenile wrasse stole a brittle star from an adult just after it had broken off a piece. Tool use brings not only food, but attention - and not always the good kind.



Still, the benefits seem to outweigh the risks. Access to shelled prey means more food options and better nutrition. 



For smaller wrasses, who might not have the jaw strength to crack shells without help, this strategy opens a new dietary path. It allows them to eat prey that would otherwise be unavailable to them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-puzzle-of-tool-use">Evolutionary puzzle of tool use</h2>



The study’s results open a new chapter in animal cognition. Fish now join a growing list of tool-using animals that includes primates, parrots, octopuses, wasps, and crabs. But why have only some species developed this behavior?



Tool use is likely influenced by ecological pressures - scarce food, competition, or environmental structure. In the case of wrasses, their diverse habitats, sharp learning skills, and wide range of prey may all play a role. Yet, the exact reasons remain unclear.



Professor Culum Brown, senior author of the study and head of Macquarie University’s Fish Lab, believes this behavior sheds light on the broader story of intelligence in the animal world. 



"They demonstrate flexible and dexterous tool use, expanding our understanding of tool use evolution in the animal kingdom," noted Professor Brown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The researchers want to see more. Most documented tool use events are still opportunistic. Controlled studies - where prey is offered in experimental settings - could bring new insights.



The team hopes to receive more submissions from the public, helping them fill the gaps in geography and species data.



Those interested can contribute through Fish Tool Use, where divers and marine observers are encouraged to share footage or descriptions of wrasse behavior. With more data, scientists can explore whether anvil use is common across the family or limited to just a few clever species.



For now, wrasses have made one thing clear: we’ve underestimated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-vessels-most-industrial-fishing-activity-is-not-publicly-tracked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>. Not only are they smart, but they’re capable of innovation, planning, and creative problem-solving. 



Tool use may no longer be the preserve of a few gifted animals. It may be far more widespread - if we only care to look.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-025-02633-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral Reefs</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some clever fish use tools to crack open prey

For decades, tool use was seen as the hallmark of...

Offshore wind farms are picking up speed around the world. Their expansion is a big part of the push to reduce emissions and respond to the climate crisis. But as this clean energy source expands, so do the concerns about how offshore wind farms might affect marine life.



A new study suggests that the places most suitable for offshore wind energy are often the same places where seabirds and marine mammals go to feed.



The research was conducted by experts at the University of Alicante, in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.umh.es/?lang=EN" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miguel Hernández University of Elche</a>, the University of Murcia, and the Complutense University of Madrid.



The teams findings raise a red flag: without careful planning, wind farms could unintentionally harm some of the ocean’s most vulnerable species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-location-of-offshore-wind-farms">Location of offshore wind farms </h2>



Building <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-turbines-are-displacing-bats-from-their-forest-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turbines</a> at sea may seem less intrusive than building them on land. Some impacts are positive. For example, wind farms often restrict fishing activity, which can create a kind of unofficial sanctuary for marine life. 



However, the negatives can’t be ignored. Turbines introduce underwater noise, disrupt habitats, and increase the risk of collision for birds.



“From the planning stages through to operation, offshore wind turbines can affect wildlife in many ways.” explained Professor Juan Manuel Pérez-García, who has previously researched the impact of onshore wind farms on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/renewable-energy-is-the-latest-threat-to-bird-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird populations</a>.



The study makes one thing clear: it’s not enough to pick windy spots. We need to understand which marine life might be put at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-marine-hotspots">Predicting marine hotspots</h2>



One of the biggest hurdles in offshore development is knowing where wildlife is most active. 



“We can’t monitor every animal in the sea, so we need to estimate where they’re likely to be using mathematical models,” noted Professor Pérez-García.



The team created these estimates by looking at marine food webs. From tiny phytoplankton up to fish and top predators like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-most-endangered-seabirds-are-also-threatened-by-plastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seabirds</a> and marine mammals, the food chain offers clues about where feeding is most likely to occur.



Interestingly, the study found that biomass matters more than biodiversity. “It’s not fish diversity that matters most, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/without-strong-action-global-fish-stocks-could-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomass</a>: having a large amount of available food is more important than having a variety of species,” said Professor Pérez-García.



Some animals eat plankton directly, while others eat the fish that rely on plankton. Either way, food-rich areas are magnets for hungry wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-farms-and-marine-life-hotspots">Wind farms and marine life hotspots</h2>



Using this information, the researchers built global risk maps by layering biodiversity hotspots over wind potential zones. The overlap was striking - especially in the Northern Hemisphere.



In contrast, there appeared to be less overlap in the Southern Hemisphere, though the team warns this could be due to limited data rather than lower risk.



“These risk maps are a key tool to foresee potential conflicts between conservation and energy development,” said Professor Pérez-García. “The goal isn’t to slow down the energy transition, but to make it compatible with biodiversity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-marine-life">Protecting marine life</h2>



One troubling finding is that many of the high-risk zones identified in the study fall outside existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine protected areas</a> (MPAs). This means that, as it stands, many wildlife-rich areas don’t have the legal protection needed to withstand large-scale development.



The researchers recommend expanding MPAs and making them stronger. They also urge governments to build “exclusion zones” where conservation takes priority. 



These decisions, they argue, should be guided by scientific data - not politics or convenience.



“We need to understand what species are doing, where they go, and where their resources are,” noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-tools-and-smarter-planning">Better tools and smarter planning</h2>



Technology can help. For example, attaching GPS trackers to seabirds allows scientists to see where they go, how they fly, and whether they’re avoiding or interacting with wind farms.



Some birds, it turns out, steer clear of the turbines. But scientists now need to dig deeper: are these birds also missing out on food? Could marine mammals be affected in similar ways?



Understanding these patterns will be key to balancing clean energy with ecosystem health.



This research serves as a reminder: renewable energy must also be responsible energy. With better tools and smarter planning, it’s possible to power the future without dimming the lives of the species that call the oceans home.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479724037940" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Environmental Management</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Offshore wind farms threaten marine life hotspots

Offshore wind farms are picking up speed around the world....

Dancing,Under,The,Sun,(ants,Know,To,Play,Games,,Scientific

Questions about the vastness of our world can leave us speechless. How many stars twinkle in our galaxy? How many grains of sand stretch across the Sahara? How many ants roam the Earth?



For a long time, most questions like these seemed unanswerable. Yet, as research methods evolve, and with the emergence of AI and machine learning models, scientists have begun to solve these mysteries that not long ago seemed unsolvable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-seems-to-love-ants">Earth seems to love ants</h2>



Because estimating insect numbers can unlock important ecosystem insights, many experts throughout history have tried to count particular insect species and map their habitats, aiming to understand why these creatures flourish in certain places but remain scarce in others.



Biologists Sabine Nooten and Patrick Schultheiss from <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg</a> have devoted their work in this particular study to one of nature’s most resilient insects - ants.



There are about 22,000 known ant species worldwide. Their success hinges on their social structure, with certain members handling reproduction and others focusing on tasks like caring for offspring, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-specialized-medical-surgeries-on-injured-friends/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing the sick</a>, or gathering food.



Ants have no commander at the helm. They rely on collective activity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-employ-safeguards-social-distancing-to-prevent-spread-of-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">swarm intelligence</a>. Individual neurons in a human brain cannot do much on their own, yet the combined power of those neurons is amazing. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-have-a-communications-system-that-closely-resembles-mental-telepathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ant colonies</a> mirror that principle. They can create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-use-chemical-trails-to-guide-their-friends-to-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intricate trail networks</a>, use their bodies as bridges, and “farm” fungi or aphids. Some colonies even outperform humans in certain cooperative cognition tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-distribution-and-diversity-on-earth">Ant distribution and diversity on Earth</h2>



The study indicates that ants prefer tropical and subtropical climates. In forests, many nest among the leaves on the ground. In arid regions, they bustle across the exposed soil. 



These details help ecologists see how temperature, vegetation, and rainfall might affect ant populations. 



The team hopes to see more work done on factors shaping where ants thrive, especially as temperatures shift around the world.



With such immense numbers, ants bring both positive and negative outcomes. 



They can keep ecosystems healthy by recycling nutrients, and they sometimes form alliances with plants or insects in ways that boost local biodiversity. 



But not all interactions are benign. In certain places, invasive ants like fire ants harm native species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-far-reaching-influence">Far-reaching influence</h2>



Ants carry soil, move seeds, and alter many parts of their surroundings. Per hectare, ants move up to 13 tons of soil mass per year, and this movement can help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-farming-ants-work-hard-to-maintain-healthy-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keep nutrients cycling</a>. 



Their love of seeds means they spread some plants far beyond the mother plant’s reach. 



Scientists note that understanding the number of ants worldwide can help guide future conservation strategies, because it highlights areas that might need special attention to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protect the ecological balance</a>.



In addition to soil turnover, these insects also break down decaying materials, providing valuable services that enrich soil fertility. 



Forest regeneration often benefits from the constant churning of organic matter, and ants are key contributors. Such varied roles mean they hold ecological power disproportionate to their size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-to-count-earth-s-ants">Time to count Earth's ants</h2>



The tireless team of scientists, led by Nooten and Schultheiss, analyzed data from 489 smaller studies on ground-dwelling and tree-dwelling ants to create a large database of their global population. 



This approach offered a structured look at where ants flourish and in what numbers they appear. When they crunched the numbers, they found something remarkable.



“According to our estimates, the global ant population is 20 x 10 to the power of 15 - that is, 20 quadrillion animals. That is a 20 with 15 zeros, which is hard to grasp and appreciate," Nooten explains. 



The combined mass of these insects is also astonishing. 



According to Schultheiss, the total number of ants “exceeds the combined biomass of wild birds and mammals and corresponds to about 20 percent of humanity’s biomass,” a discovery that shows how vital ants can be in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-fill-a-150-year-gap-in-biodiversity-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems everywhere</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-earth-and-climate-change">Ants, Earth, and climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">As climates change</a>, scientists want to see how these creatures will shift their ranges. The research by this group was the first large-scale attempt at a quantitative overview of ant populations, and it points to many open questions about potential challenges. 



While ants have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thrived across continents</a>, altering habitat structures and climate could place pressure on species that are less adaptable.



In some areas, people view ants as pests. Yet these insects, when kept in balance, offer many unseen benefits. 



For instance, their tunnels can help water infiltration in soil. They also serve as prey for various animals, creating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-ants-art-science-sustainable-food-source-ant-cuisine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">links in the food chain</a>. 



Problems usually arise when invasive ants enter habitats and drive out local species that have no defenses against them. Fire ants, for example, can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-hold-a-grudge-against-aggressive-rivals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upend an entire environment</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-left-to-learn">What's left to learn?</h2>



Researchers are enthusiastic about finding methods to analyze trends, such as how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-not-properly-adapting-to-warming-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature extremes</a> might affect ants’ movements. 



Data from global, long-term monitoring can reveal how different species cope with droughts, hurricanes, or shifting seasons. There is also interest in exploring how farmland changes ant presence over time.



Moving forward, the team underscores the importance of refining data on these insects. By revisiting ecosystems that have been studied before, experts can learn whether ants have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-ants-use-earths-magnetic-field-for-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">settled in new zones</a> or left older ones. 



Such targeted work could inform farmers about pest control, point out regions at risk of invasion by harmful ant species, and guide decisions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-ants-make-a-huge-contribution-to-forest-regeneration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat restoration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Ants seldom top the list of creatures people think about. Yet they have an outsized role in shaping our surroundings. 



Their ability to transform habitats, redistribute resources, and affect local biodiversity suggests a need for more research. 



Different species often have specialized tasks, whether caring for aphids or forging trails that other creatures can follow. 



Learning about ant numbers brings these impacts into view, providing clues on how to preserve balance in fragile areas.



It also encourages reflection on how many hidden factors <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-destabilizing-ant-plant-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keep our ecosystems intact</a>. Though small, ants tackle responsibilities that otherwise would need a range of other organisms to manage. 



By studying these insects, scientists glean insights about resilience, adaptability, and the intricate web of life holding everything together.



Ants, often overlooked, deserve a central place in our discussions about the natural world. They shape environments, help distribute seeds, and are more populous than most of us imagined. 



Whether admired for their social complexity or managed for their potential risks, these insects illustrate how even the tiniest creatures can shift large-scale processes.



The full study, “The abundance, biomass, and distribution of ants on Earth,” was published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2201550119" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How many ants live on Earth at any given time? The number is astounding

Questions about the vastness of our world can leave us...

species in Leiognathidae

News coming your way