A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Autumn,Blooming,Purple,Chrysanthemum,Flowers,Covered,With,Snow.,Frozen,Flowers

The world is changing, and so is the climate. Sudden temperature drops, unexpected frosts, and shifting weather patterns challenge ecosystems in many ways. 



For plants, these changes are especially harsh. Unlike animals, they cannot migrate, seek shelter, or generate body heat in cold weather. Instead, they rely on internal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-warming-alters-plant-germination-and-disrupts-ecosystem-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptations to survive</a>.



Varvara Dikaya at <a href="https://www.umu.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umeå University</a> explored this challenge in her doctoral research. She studied a protein which plays a key role in plant adaptation to low temperatures.



The findings reveal that this protein participates in multiple signaling pathways, enabling plants to survive harsh conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-response-strategies-of-plants">Cold response strategies of plants </h2>



Unlike animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shaded-plants-capture-light-beyond-the-visible-spectrum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> cannot seek warmth or migrate. Their survival depends on internal mechanisms that adjust to temperature shifts. 



Past research focused on molecules like amino acids and sugars, which help prevent freezing. Scientists also studied core temperature-response mechanisms, but many crucial components remained unknown.



Dikaya’s <a href="http://umu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:1933796" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> uncovers a missing piece of this puzzle - RNA splicing. This process determines which proteins are produced in plant cells, directly impacting cold response strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-rna-splicing-the-basics">Understanding RNA splicing - the basics</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-cells-communicate-with-each-other-through-rna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA</a> splicing is like an editing process for your genes, making sure your cells get the right instructions to build proteins. 



When a gene gets copied into RNA, it includes extra sections called introns that don’t actually code for anything useful. 



Before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA can do its job</a>, the cell cuts out these introns and stitches together the remaining pieces, called exons. 



This process turns a raw RNA transcript into a polished, ready-to-go messenger RNA (mRNA) that cells can use to make proteins.



Sometimes, cells splice RNA in different ways, mixing and matching exons to produce multiple proteins from the same gene. 



This alternative splicing is why our relatively small number of genes can make such a huge range of proteins. When splicing goes wrong, though, it can lead to diseases like cancer and genetic disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-splicing">The role of splicing </h2>



"Splicing acts as a central hub controlling the information flow from DNA to RNA, defining which proteins are synthesized from a certain gene," explained Dikaya, who is a doctoral student in the Department of Plant Physiology at Umeå University and <a href="https://www.upsc.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umeå Plant Science Center</a>.



Her research focused on PORCUPINE, a protein discovered when scientists observed that plants with a mutation in this gene became unusually cold-sensitive. The mutation's spiky shoot tips inspired the name.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-temperature-drops">Impact of temperature drops</h2>



"The PORCUPINE mutant appears normal under ambient temperature conditions but cannot develop properly in the case of even a mild temperature drop," the team noted.



"Already at 16 degrees, the mutant grows shorter roots with increased root hair density and much smaller rosettes than normal. This is very special,."



Dikaya’s work reveals that cold temperatures trigger an increase in PORCUPINE RNA in cells. This suggests that the plant produces more of this protein to cope with the stress. 



However, PORCUPINE is not just a passive responder. It actively participates in the spliceosome, a complex that processes RNA before it transforms into proteins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-player-in-rna-processing">Key player in RNA processing</h2>



PORCUPINE is not just a responder to cold; it is an active participant in RNA processing. 



This protein is part of the spliceosome, a complex molecular machine that modifies RNA before it is translated into proteins. Without proper RNA splicing, plants cannot produce the proteins they need to survive.



By studying PORCUPINE’s role in the spliceosome, Dikaya and her team discovered that it influences multiple genetic pathways. 



Some of these pathways control how plants sense and react to cold temperature shifts. Others regulate growth patterns that determine whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> can withstand stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-network-of-cold-responses">A network of cold responses</h2>



Dikaya and her colleagues identified several genes controlled by PORCUPINE, all of which influence how plants respond to temperature changes. Her research highlights how intricate these responses are, involving multiple overlapping pathways.



"Our findings show the complexity of the cold response in plants. It is important to understand all aspects and identify fundamental mechanisms that could be applied later on in a practical manner," Dikaya noted.



"Such knowledge will be essential to create more resilient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioelectric-future-harnessing-the-natural-energy-of-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> capable of withstanding environmental challenges in the future, even though it is still a long way to go."



Her work provides a deeper understanding of how plants adjust to fluctuating temperatures. This knowledge could pave the way for crops that can better withstand future climate uncertainties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-cold-resistant-plants">Future of cold-resistant plants</h2>



The challenges of climate change are not going away, and neither is the need for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/phantom-nutrient-the-secret-force-that-fuels-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilient crops</a>. 



If researchers can harness the knowledge gained from studies like Dikaya’s, they may be able to develop plant varieties that thrive despite temperature fluctuations.



Although there is still much to learn, this research brings us one step closer to understanding the intricate mechanisms that allow plants to survive. In the years ahead, discoveries like this could reshape agriculture and help ensure food security in a changing world.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Plants have an amazing ability to 'rewire' themselves to survive winter

The world is changing, and so is the climate. Sudden...

The,Oort,Cloud,Is,A,Theoretical,Cloud,Of,Predominantly,Icy

It is easy to think of our solar neighborhood as a tight little cluster of planets, but the reality is far more expansive. Beyond Neptune, a crowd of frozen bits and pieces lingers in the Kuiper Belt, yet that is only the start of our Sun’s extended family. 



Farther out - about 9.3 trillion miles away - sits the Oort Cloud, which some refer to as the outermost boundary of the Solar System. 



This region is believed to hold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eris-and-makemake-icy-dwarf-planets-in-our-own-solar-system-may-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">countless icy objects</a> that still feel the Sun’s pull, no matter how faint. Many have viewed this area as a scattered collection, with most of its bodies quietly resting in near isolation. 



However, according to a recent study, there is a surprising spiral pattern in the inner Oort Cloud that runs much deeper than a random sprinkling of frozen debris.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-oort-cloud-the-basics">Understanding the Oort Cloud - the basics</h2>



The Oort Cloud is usually divided into two zones. The outer part stretches in a spherical shell and starts at around 10,000 astronomical units from the Sun.



The inner Oort Cloud begins closer in - roughly 1,000 astronomical units out - and forms what was once considered a disc-shaped region.



Scientists have long believed that the outer shell experiences more disruptions from passing stars, while the inner zone is held together by the Sun’s gravity. 



Some of the comets that swing through the inner <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-solar-systems-journey-through-the-milky-way-may-have-altered-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar System</a>, including long-period comets, can be traced to these distant reaches.



Its outer boundary marks a sort of transition point where the Sun’s Hill sphere merges with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-enormous-fermi-bubbles-discovered-towering-above-and-below-our-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Milky Way</a>’s gravitational influence. Astronomical models show that the outer Oort Cloud is only loosely connected to the Sun. 



Meanwhile, this weaker binding is precisely why small tugs from passing stars, and even the galactic tide, can change the direction of these icy residents. Some comets then slip free, heading inward to light up our skies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-heliosphere">Looking beyond the heliosphere</h2>



Efforts to see deep into this region face an obvious hurdle: these objects are far, faint, and spread across enormous distances. 



No spacecraft to date has gone anywhere near the middle of this domain, though a few probes have passed into interstellar space. 



Despite the limited observations, researchers note that the outer Oort Cloud may supply short-period comets, while the inner region tends to stay stable because it is less exposed to disturbance from wandering stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-pattern-in-the-oort-cloud">Spiral pattern in the Oort Cloud</h2>



A fresh round of modeling from a team of astronomers, led by <a href="https://www.boulder.swri.edu/~davidn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">David Nesvorný</a> of the Southwest Research Institute (<a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SWRI</a>) in the US., sheds new light on this hidden zone.



The work included simulations spanning 4.6 billion years, starting from the Solar System’s formative days. 



These tests factored in the Sun’s gravitational pull, influences from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-solar-systems-journey-through-the-milky-way-may-have-altered-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Milky Way</a>, and the complex dance of the comets themselves.



“As the galactic tide acts to decouple bodies from the scattered disk it creates a spiral structure in physical space that is roughly 15,000 astronomical units in length,” writes Nesvorný. “The spiral is long-lived and persists in the inner Oort Cloud to the present time.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/oort-cloud_solar-system_diagram_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/oort-cloud_solar-system_diagram_NASA_1s.webp" alt="Scientists think the Oort Cloud is a giant spherical shell surrounding the Sun, planets and Kuiper Belt Objects. It's like a big, thick bubble around our solar system, made of icy, comet-like objects. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1961969"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists think the Oort Cloud is a giant spherical shell surrounding the Sun, planets and Kuiper Belt Objects. It's like a big, thick bubble around our solar system, made of icy, comet-like objects. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



The spiral pattern is about 15,000 astronomical units wide, or around 1.4 trillion miles from one end to the other. It also appears to have a tilt of roughly 30 degrees relative to the usual plane of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our Solar System</a>. 



That tilt and the elongated swirl may trace back to the galaxy’s own gravitational pulling, which could have twisted and shaped the inner Oort Cloud soon after the Solar System’s birth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-spiral-formation">Surprising spiral formation</h2>



The simulations suggest that, early in the Solar System’s history, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/streaming-instability-hypothesis-altjira-system-kuiper-belt-hubble-three-body-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bits of icy debris</a> were scattered and then gradually coaxed into a spiral alignment in the Oort Cloud by galactic forces. 



Although random passes by neighboring stars can yank certain comets out of their orbits, the main spiral appears to endure. 



This means that a hidden pattern might be circling at the far edge of our Sun’s direct domain.



Researchers revisited earlier simulations to see if they had missed hints of this structure. They found that the same spiral formation popped up even when they ran tests under slightly different assumptions. 



This recurring clue led them to propose a lasting swirl in the inner Oort Cloud that does not break down easily.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The idea of a giant spiral twisting beyond the planetary region may spark questions about direct observations. The models suggest that seeing it in action, as a whole, is nearly impossible with current technology. 



The objects out there reflect too little light, and their motions unfold over such a long timeframe that it is not practical to watch them shift. 



Still, the pattern aligns with what has been learned about the faint comets that occasionally travel inward.



There is a sense that these findings might offer a peek into how the Sun’s outer family has evolved since the very beginning. 



A stable spiral implies that the interplay between our star and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> is more delicate than once assumed. 



Some comets will always break away from that remote territory, but enough remain to preserve this structure for eons to come.



The full study was published on the preprint server <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2502.11252" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Unknown spiral structure discovered at the edge of our solar system

It is easy to think of our solar neighborhood as...

Galaxies don't float around at random. They line up along strands of cosmic filaments, sometimes stretching millions of light-years, that shape how stars and other structures form across the universe. 



These strands link galaxies in a pattern that astronomers call the cosmic web. By observing this vast network, researchers learn how galactic neighborhoods emerge, grow, and fuel new stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-filament-connections">Cosmic filament connections</h2>



Astronomers have long suspected that this web exists because nearly 85% of all matter in the universe appears to be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-if-it-exists-has-a-strictly-limited-lifetime-new-study-says/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, a form of matter that does not interact with light in a direct way. 



Computer simulations suggest that this invisible substance gathers into filaments under the pull of gravity. 



Gas follows these filaments, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-seen-creating-their-own-food-gases-x-rays-fascinating-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feeding galaxies</a> nestled where strands intersect. Until recently, only hints of that gas emerged through absorption signatures. 



Detecting the faint glow of the most abundant element, hydrogen, remained a challenge.



This fascinating research was led by Davide Tornotti, Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://en.unimib.it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Milano-Bicocca</a>, in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics (<a href="https://www.mpa-garching.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPA</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-definition-detailed-images">High-definition detailed images</h2>



A new investigation offered a closer look at a filament linking two galaxies that existed when the universe was about 2 billion years old. 



Each galaxy hosts an active supermassive black hole. The team targeted these objects with an instrument named <a href="https://www.eso.org/sci/facilities/develop/instruments/muse.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MUSE</a> (Multi-Unit Spectroscopic Explorer) on the Very Large Telescope (<a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VLT</a>) in Chile. 



They devoted hundreds of hours to gather data from a single region of the sky. This ambitious effort allowed them to capture a detailed picture of a cosmic filament spanning roughly 3 million light-years.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/cosmic-web-filaments_3-million-light-years_universe_credit-Mailand-Bicocca_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/cosmic-web-filaments_3-million-light-years_universe_credit-Mailand-Bicocca_1s.webp" alt="The image shows the diffuse gas (yellow to purple) contained within the cosmic filament connecting two galaxies (yellow stars), extending across a vast distance of 3 million light-years. Credit: Davide Tornotti/University of Milano-Bicocca" class="wp-image-1961951"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The image shows the diffuse gas (yellow to purple) contained within the cosmic filament connecting two galaxies (yellow stars), extending across a vast distance of 3 million light-years. Credit: Davide Tornotti/University of Milano-Bicocca</figcaption></figure>



That high-definition image, reported in Nature Astronomy, indicates that the gas forming this strand supplies vital ingredients for star formation. 



For the first time, researchers traced its boundary with precise detail. 



They confirmed that the gas inside the filament appears to be connected directly to the gas within the host galaxies, illuminating how these immense structures contribute to the evolution of galaxies across cosmic time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pinpointing-faint-light">Pinpointing faint light</h2>



"By capturing the faint light emitted by this filament, which traveled for just under 12 billion years to reach Earth, we were able to precisely characterize its shape," explains Tornotti. 



"For the first time, we could trace the boundary between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colliding-galaxy-clusters-stir-up-hot-sloshing-gas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas residing in galaxies</a> and the material contained within the cosmic web through direct measurements."



Such clarity reflects the cutting-edge design of MUSE. Its ability to split incoming light into many wavelength channels helps astronomers detect emissions usually lost in the glare of brighter sources. 



The study team matched their observations against supercomputer simulations from MPA. 



"When compared to the novel high-definition image of the cosmic web, we find substantial agreement between current theory and observations," Tornotti adds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cosmic-filaments-matter">Why cosmic filaments matter</h2>



These results support the notion that galaxies rely on these filaments for fresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supplies of gas</a>. 



The strands appear to be a backbone for how structure arises, guiding both dark matter and regular matter into clusters of stars. 



Such conclusions also highlight the synergy between observational campaigns and theoretical models.



The data show that, at least in this case, the shape and density of the gas nearly match what cosmologists predict. 



By confirming this match, scientists gain new confidence in their models of how dark matter shapes galaxies. 



It also suggests that more discoveries like this one may be around the corner as advanced telescopes refine their methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



"We are thrilled by this direct, high-definition observation of a cosmic filament. But as people say in Bavaria: 'Eine ist keine' - one doesn't count," MPA staff scientist Fabrizio Arrigoni Battaia exclaimed.



"So we are gathering further data to uncover more such structures, with the ultimate goal of having a comprehensive vision of how gas is distributed and flows in the cosmic web." 



These words from Battaia highlight the continuing effort to capture the faint glow of additional strands, offering a path to understand how galaxies replenish their star-making material.



Refining this view of large-scale gas networks could reshape our picture of cosmic activity. 



By tracing these filaments in different parts of the sky, researchers can confirm whether galaxy formation truly follows the same pattern everywhere. 



Each new finding builds on the last, revealing how galaxies maintain and renew themselves. Observers see a chance for deeper insights into the elusive connections that govern the biggest structures known.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-filaments-and-future-exploration">Cosmic filaments and future exploration</h2>



To sum it all up, high-resolution views of the cosmic web might once have seemed like a distant vision. They are now moving into focus, showing how gas behaves across millions of light-years. 



This single observation campaign has sharpened humanity’s understanding of the engine that drives galaxy growth. 



It underscores how dedicated, patient efforts can shed light on some of the faintest signals in the cosmos, giving a glimpse into the hidden architecture that shapes everything we see in the night sky.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2406.17035">Nature Astronomy</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

First high-def image of the 'cosmic web' shows hidden universal highways

Galaxies don't float around at random. They line up along...

When it comes to blending into their surroundings, nature has produced many masters of disguise. From the chameleon’s shifting hues to the arctic hare’s seasonal coat change, camouflage is an essential survival tool in the wild. But one of the most remarkable camouflage experts might not be the first to come to mind - the squid.



Along with their cephalopod relatives like octopuses and cuttlefish, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-and-squid-senses-linked-to-human-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squid</a> have an extraordinary ability to alter their skin color almost instantly. This unique trait has helped them evade predators and hunt effectively for millions of years, dating back to the age of the dinosaurs.&nbsp;



However, despite their long evolutionary history, much about the mechanisms behind this ability remains a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-details-about-squid-camouflage-nbsp">New details about squid camouflage&nbsp;</h2>



Leila Deravi, an associate professor of chemistry and chemical biology at <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University</a>, is working to change that. Her recently published study reveals new insights into how squid camouflage operates.&nbsp;



The research demonstrates that squid possess specialized organs that function similarly to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-recycle-solar-cells-sustainably-with-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar cells</a>, generating energy that powers their remarkable skin transformations.&nbsp;



The findings not only advance the understanding of these fascinating creatures but could also influence the development of new materials and technology for human use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-of-squid-camouflage">The science of squid camouflage</h2>



Deravi has spent years studying cephalopods, captivated by their unique biological abilities. Her Biomaterials Design Group at Northeastern focuses on uncovering the mechanics of squid camouflage, with the goal of applying these natural processes to innovative materials.



More recently, her team has concentrated on chromatophores, the specialized pigmented structures responsible for a squid’s ability to change <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-got-their-colors-150-million-years-before-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">color</a>. This focus led to a groundbreaking discovery.



Chromatophores are tiny, pigmented organs embedded in the squid’s skin. These structures are surrounded by muscle fibers controlled by neurons, allowing the animal to open and close pigment sacs in response to its environment.



Working alongside another type of skin cell, called iridophores, chromatophores produce a broad range of colors. While chromatophores contain red, yellow, and brown pigments, iridophores reflect greens and blues, giving squid the ability to create a full spectrum of colors in a fraction of a second.



“To have something sense the colors around it and distribute [them] within hundreds of milliseconds is really insane,” Deravi said. “It’s not something that’s easy to do, especially in a living system that’s under water.”



Scientists have long believed that chromatophores function much like pixels on a digital display, simply reflecting colors as needed. But Deravi’s latest research shows that these structures do much more than act as mere colorants - they actually sense and generate energy from light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squid-s-organic-solar-cells">Squid’s organic solar cells</h2>



Her study reveals that chromatophores operate as light-sensitive energy converters, much like solar cells. This capability allows squid to harness external <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioluminescence-emerged-in-animals-540-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light</a> and transform it into energy that assists in their camouflage process.



“It can see whatever light is on the outside and convert that light into energy and then harvest that energy to help distribute camouflage,” Deravi explained.



To test this theory, her research team constructed a squid-powered solar cell. Using conductive glass, semiconductors, electrolytes, and pigmented nanoparticles extracted from squid chromatophores, they created a circuit capable of responding to light.&nbsp;



By exposing the circuit to simulated sunlight, they measured the energy output to determine whether the chromatophores could genuinely generate electrical current.



“We found that the more granules you put into there, the higher the photocurrent response is,” Deravi said.&nbsp;



“It’s a direct indication that the pieces of the chromatophore are actually converting the light from the sun’s simulated light to the voltage, which can complete the circuit and then be harvested, potentially, for a power supply in the animal.”



This marks the first time that scientists have directly linked the chromatophores of a cephalopod to an energy-generating function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-squid-camouflage-nbsp">Secrets of squid camouflage&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how cephalopods achieve their dynamic camouflage could have broad applications beyond marine biology.&nbsp;



Deravi’s lab has already translated their discoveries into practical uses, such as developing wearable UV sensors to help prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melanoma-has-been-replaced-as-the-deadliest-form-of-skin-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin cancer</a>. Her startup, Seaspire, is also exploring how these findings could lead to more environmentally friendly and effective sunscreens.



Squid’s ability to distribute color efficiently with minimal energy consumption could also inspire advancements in wearable technology.&nbsp;



Today’s wearable electronics must balance size, weight, and power usage. Studying how squid utilize their natural solar cells might provide clues for designing more energy-efficient, interactive materials.



“The squid might be the key to developing a truly ‘living digital skin,’” Deravi suggested.



She envisions a future where wearable technology mimics the adaptability of squid skin, seamlessly responding to environmental changes without relying on bulky batteries or complicated circuitry.



“If you think about fully wearable stuff, you just have to think about how to make it the most energetically favorable in order to be fully interactive with the surroundings,” Deravi said. “We’re trying to tap into what the blueprint is that the animal uses to do this and how that correlates to adapting to the environment as well.”



As scientists continue to unlock the secrets of squid camouflage, their discoveries may lead to transformative new technologies - taking inspiration from nature’s own evolutionary genius.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/tc/d4tc04333b" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Materials Chemistry C</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How squid power their amazing camouflage abilities

When it comes to blending into their surroundings, nature has...

A recent study confirmed that the Antarctic ozone layer is currently healing, as a result of global efforts to reduce ozone-depleting substances.&nbsp;



The study demonstrates that joint international measures - in particular, the phase-out of chemicals that damage the ozone layer - have led to a meaningful restoration of this critical atmospheric shield.



Scientists, including the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> team that led the current study, have previously detected indications of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/burning-up-of-satellites-severely-harms-ozone-recovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ozone recovery</a>.



However, this new study is the first to provide strong statistical evidence that the improvement is primarily driven by the reduction of ozone-depleting substances, rather than factors like natural weather fluctuations or rising greenhouse gas levels in the stratosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recovery-of-the-ozone-hole">Recovery of the ozone hole</h2>



“There’s been a lot of qualitative evidence showing that the Antarctic ozone hole is getting better. This is really the first study that has quantified confidence in the recovery of the ozone hole,” said study co-author Susan Solomon, a professor of environmental studies and chemistry at MIT.&nbsp;



“The conclusion is, with 95 percent confidence, it is recovering. Which is awesome. And it shows we can actually solve environmental problems.”



Solomon worked on this project with lead author and graduate student Peidong Wang and contributors from multiple other research institutions.&nbsp;



The team’s findings offer strong support for the success of international policy interventions - specifically the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1987-ozone-treaty-had-an-unexpected-benefit-for-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Montreal Protocol</a>, which curbed the production of ozone-depleting substances such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-ozone-hole-over-antarctica-nbsp">Seasonal ozone hole over Antarctica&nbsp;</h2>



Within the Earth’s stratosphere, ozone is a naturally occurring gas that acts as a sort of sunscreen, protecting the planet from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation.&nbsp;



However, in 1985, scientists discovered that a seasonal “hole” in the ozone layer developed over Antarctica each austral spring - letting in greater quantities of dangerous UV rays.&nbsp;



By 1986, Solomon, then a scientist at the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA), led expeditions that identified CFCs as the chief culprit in stratospheric ozone loss. The Montreal Protocol, enacted in 1987, aimed to gradually eliminate these chemicals worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-and-human-caused-changes-nbsp">Natural and human-caused changes&nbsp;</h2>



“While detecting a statistically significant increase in ozone is relatively straightforward, attributing these changes to specific forcings is more challenging,” Wang said.&nbsp;



In past studies, although ozone levels in the Antarctic region seemed to be improving, scientists struggled to confirm just how much of that recovery was driven by reductions in CFCs as opposed to natural weather variability - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-climate-shifts-date-back-250-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a>, La Niña, or the polar vortex - or the effects of rising greenhouse gases.



To tackle these uncertainties, the researchers adopted a “fingerprinting” method, originally developed by Nobel Prize-winning scientist Klaus Hasselmann for distinguishing the impacts of human-caused climate change from natural fluctuations in the climate system.&nbsp;



The MIT-led team adapted this fingerprinting to separate human-driven ozone gains from other atmospheric noise.



They began by running climate simulations for various scenarios: a hypothetical world where greenhouse gases did not rise, a world where ozone-depleting substances were not phased out, and other alternative pathways.&nbsp;



In these virtual settings, they examined how ozone levels would shift, both over time and with seasonal changes. By comparing these model outcomes, the scientists identified a characteristic signal of ozone healing - an unmistakable pattern that occurred only when CFCs were curbed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-fingerprint-in-the-data">Distinct “fingerprint” in the data</h2>



The researchers then combed through 15 years’ worth of satellite observations of the Antarctic ozone hole. 



Step by step, they tested whether the actual data exhibited the predicted pattern of recovery - a fingerprint tied specifically to the global phase-out of CFCs. The match was impressively strong.



“After 15 years of observational records, we see this signal to noise with 95 percent confidence, suggesting there’s only a very small chance that the observed pattern similarity can be explained by variability noise,” Wang said.&nbsp;



“This gives us confidence in the fingerprint. It also gives us confidence that we can solve environmental problems. What we can learn from ozone studies is how different countries can swiftly follow these treaties to decrease emissions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-the-healing-ozone-hole">Lessons from the healing ozone hole</h2>



The study’s findings imply that if these trends persist, the Antarctic ozone hole could eventually close for good.&nbsp;



“By something like 2035, we might see a year when there’s no ozone hole depletion at all in the Antarctic. And that will be very exciting for me,” Wang said. “And some of you will see the ozone hole go away completely in your lifetimes. And people did that.”



From a broader perspective, the ozone hole’s gradual healing stands as a success story for international cooperation on an environmental crisis.&nbsp;



At the height of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/use-of-banned-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-increasing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CFC use</a>, aerosol propellants, refrigerants, and other industrial processes threatened to erode Earth’s UV shield to dangerous levels. Rapid science-based policymaking in the form of the Montreal Protocol turned the tide, demonstrating that even large-scale environmental challenges can be confronted.



The researchers consider this a timely lesson for today’s leaders, as the world grapples with complex ecological problems, including climate change.&nbsp;



By illustrating how robust, evidence-based treaties can drive positive, global-scale outcomes, the current work highlights both the vulnerability of Earth’s atmosphere and the power of coordinated human action.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08640-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The ozone layer is healing - will the hole disappear for good?

A recent study confirmed that the Antarctic ozone layer is...

A team of engineers has recently created a breakthrough prosthetic hand that can deftly handle everyday objects, from plush toys to water bottles, adjusting its grip to avoid damaging them.&nbsp;



In doing so, the experts have introduced a novel hybrid approach to robotic hands, merging rigid and soft elements in a way that mimics the human hand’s unique design.



The innovative research was conducted in the Neuroengineering and Biomedical Instrumentations Lab at <a href="https://neuroengineering.bme.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a>. The team previously developed an electronic “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-tech-will-track-emotions-through-changes-in-our-skin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin</a>” with a humanlike sense of pain in 2018. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prosthetic-hand-with-sensing-capabilities-nbsp">Prosthetic hand with sensing capabilities&nbsp;</h2>



The new hand features a multi-finger setup made of rubberlike polymers over a rigid, 3D-printed skeleton. 



Its three layers of tactile sensors, modeled after the layers of human skin, go beyond simple contact detection to identify textures, shapes, and the precise force needed to pick up various items.



“The goal from the beginning has been to create a prosthetic hand that we model based on the human hand’s physical and sensing capabilities - a more natural prosthetic that functions and feels like a lost limb,” said Sriramana Sankar, a Johns Hopkins biomedical engineer who led the work.&nbsp;



“We want to give people with upper-limb loss the ability to safely and freely interact with their environment, to feel and hold their loved ones without concern of hurting them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-soft-and-rigid-elements">Bridging soft and rigid elements</h2>



In prosthetic technology, robotic hands have often been either too stiff to safely handle fragile objects or too soft to manage heavier ones. This new device tackles that issue by combining a pliable exterior with an internal frame.&nbsp;



The soft, air-filled finger joints can accommodate delicate items without crushing them, while the solid core provides the stability needed to lift or grip sturdier materials.



“We’re combining the strengths of both rigid and soft <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-with-space-to-think-will-become-more-useful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robotics</a> to mimic the human hand,” Sankar explained.&nbsp;"The human hand isn’t completely rigid or purely soft - it’s a hybrid system, with bones, soft joints, and tissue working together. That’s what we want our prosthetic hand to achieve.”&nbsp;



Sankar noted that this is new territory for robotics and prosthetics, which haven’t fully embraced this hybrid technology before. “It’s being able to give a firm handshake or pick up a soft object without fear of crushing it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-the-sensation-of-touch-nbsp">Restoring the sensation of touch&nbsp;</h2>



Another central focus is restoring a sensation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-hidden-way-that-humans-feel-and-sense-touch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">touch</a> to individuals with upper-limb loss. The device employs machine learning algorithms to process signals from the artificial receptors embedded in its fingertips.&nbsp;



These signals merge with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-fuels-neuron-growth-through-muscle-signals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle</a> activity from the forearm to guide grip strength, finger positioning, and overall dexterity.



“The sensory information from its fingers is translated into the language of nerves to provide naturalistic sensory feedback through electrical nerve stimulation,” Sankar said. “Each of its soft air-filled finger joints can be controlled with the forearm’s muscles.”



For many prosthesis users, regaining the ability to “feel” objects is equally as important as being able to hold them.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifelike-prosthetic-hands-nbsp">Lifelike prosthetic hands&nbsp;</h2>



According to Nitish Thakor, a Johns Hopkins biomedical engineering professor who directed the work, any <a href="https://youtu.be/dnPrY7xA08c" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifelike prosthetic hand</a> must incorporate three major components. 



First, sensors need to detect what the hand is touching; second, the system must convert that data into nerve-like signals; and third, the user’s nerves have to receive those signals as if they come from a natural limb.



“If you’re holding a cup of coffee, how do you know you’re about to drop it? Your palm and fingertips send signals to your brain that the cup is slipping,” Thakor said.&nbsp;



“Our system is neurally inspired - it models the hand’s touch receptors to produce nervelike messages so the prosthetics’ ‘brain,’ or its computer, understands if something is hot or cold, soft or hard, or slipping from the grip.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-successful-tests-on-everyday-objects">Successful tests on everyday objects</h2>



In controlled lab experiments, the researchers tested the new hand’s performance on 15 ordinary items, ranging from stuffed animals and dish sponges to pineapples and sturdy cardboard boxes. 



These trials showed the hand deftly recognized each object’s characteristics and adjusted its grip accordingly.



The team reported a success rate of 99.69% in handling these items without error, a marked improvement over existing prosthetic hands.&nbsp;



One notable demonstration involved the hand lifting a fragile plastic cup filled with water using only three fingers - without denting the cup or spilling the liquid.



Although the prototype represents a major step toward prostheses that blend humanlike sensitivity and adaptability, the researchers emphasize that the system is still in early development.&nbsp;



Stronger grip forces, additional sensors, and more durable materials are among the enhancements they envision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-prosthetics">What's next for prosthetics?</h2>



Thakor also sees this hybrid approach to dexterity benefiting not just amputees but the broader robotics field. 



Robots that can handle delicate objects, such as glassware or soft materials, while still possessing the strength for more demanding tasks will be vital in settings ranging from warehouses to healthcare facilities.



“This hybrid dexterity isn’t just essential for next-generation prostheses,” Thakor said. “It’s what the robotic hands of the future need because they won’t just be handling large, heavy objects. They’ll need to work with delicate materials such as glass, fabric, or soft toys.”&nbsp;



“That’s why a hybrid robot, designed like the human hand, is so valuable - it combines soft and rigid structures, just like our skin, tissue, and bones.”



As this technology matures, it could lead to more natural prosthetics that let users regain a full range of motion and sensation.&nbsp;



The engineers hope that the progress made here will spur further refinements, ultimately resulting in prosthetic hands that can handle everything from a gentle handshake to a firm grasp of heavier objects - all while preserving a truly humanlike sense of touch.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adr9300" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Future of prosthetics: Bionic hand 'knows' what it’s touching

A team of engineers has recently created a breakthrough prosthetic...

The universe is in a constant state of motion, shaped by gravity, collisions, and the unseen force of dark matter. Galaxy clusters - the largest gravitationally bound structures in the cosmos - contain vast amounts of hot gas, providing an ideal laboratory to study these interactions.



Scientists have long theorized that cluster mergers drive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/80-million-pixels-reveal-the-brilliance-of-a-star-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic evolution</a>, but finding direct evidence has remained a challenge.



A recent breakthrough by the <a href="https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/xrism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">XRISM</a> collaboration has changed this. By examining X-ray data from the XRISM satellite, astronomers have uncovered large-scale flows of hot gas in the core of the Centaurus Cluster. 



The findings confirm that galaxy cluster collisions trigger a process known as “sloshing,” where hot gas moves in vast waves within the cluster.



This not only explains how clusters evolve but also provides a long-sought answer to a puzzling question - why does the gas in these clusters remain hot when it should have cooled long ago?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immense-gravitational-forces">Immense gravitational forces </h2>



Galaxy clusters are massive cosmic structures held together by dark matter. 



Astronomers have theorized that the immense gravitational forces between galaxies and galaxy clusters drive their growth through mergers and collisions. However, direct evidence for this has been lacking.



The discovery of sloshing gas in the Centaurus Cluster provides the strongest confirmation yet of these dynamic interactions.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-structure-in-universe-is-1-4-billion-light-years-long-quipu-superstructure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clusters</a> do not exist in isolation. They move, collide, and merge over billions of years, shaping the structure of the universe. 



When two clusters interact, their hot gas - known as the intracluster medium (ICM) - does not remain static. Instead, it is disturbed by these colossal encounters, triggering massive flows that propagate throughout the cluster.



This movement plays a crucial role in maintaining the high temperatures observed in these systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hot-gas-movement-in-a-galaxy-cluster">Hot gas movement in a galaxy cluster</h2>



The international XRISM (X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission) collaboration has observed the Centaurus galaxy cluster with the XRISM satellite, launched in 2023 by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (<a href="https://global.jaxa.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAXA</a>). 



The onboard spectrometer, called Resolve, features advanced precision spectroscopy, allowing for the accurate identification of gas velocities.



Looking at the core of the Centaurus Cluster, including the central galaxy NGC 4696, the experts discovered for the first time a bulk flow of hot gas traveling around 130 to 310 kilometers per second in the line-of-sight from Earth.



They were also able to create a map of how the velocity varies at locations away from the center. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-direct-evidence-of-sloshing-gas">First direct evidence of sloshing gas </h2>



A task team led by Professor Yutaka Fujita from <a href="https://www.tmu.ac.jp/english/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tokyo Metropolitan University</a> and Professor Kosuke Sato from the <a href="https://www.kek.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">High Energy Accelerator Research Organization</a> analyzed the data. 



The team compared their findings with simulations and found that the observed gas movement matched a process known as “sloshing.”



This phenomenon occurs when hot gas, also called the intracluster medium (ICM), moves due to collisions with other galactic clusters. Their research provides the first direct evidence of this kind of “sloshing.” 



It confirms a long-standing hypothesis about how galaxy clusters evolve over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sloshing-gas-keeps-clusters-hot">Sloshing gas keeps clusters hot</h2>



This breakthrough does not just confirm a theoretical concept. It also provides a missing piece in understanding how galaxy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-origins-of-young-star-clusters-traced-to-three-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clusters</a> maintain their extreme temperatures. 



The discovery that gas flows inside clusters act as a natural heat transport mechanism solves a major astrophysical mystery.



The study also solves a long-standing unsolved mystery for astronomers of how such bright X-ray emitting gas stays hot. 



Theoretically, such intense radiation should entail a loss of energy, leading to cooling of the gas; this is known as radiative cooling. The time scale over which this cooling should occur is shorter than the age of the cluster, but observations so far suggest that, somehow, the gas manages to stay hot. 



These new findings present an elegant solution to this problem. If the gas in the cluster core can “slosh,” involving vast bulk flows of gas to-and-fro around the center, energy can be transported to the core through a mixing process, keeping the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-glittering-galaxies-captured-in-the-antlia-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas</a> hot and the emissions bright. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-astrophysics">The future of astrophysics</h2>



These remarkably precise measurements are a significant leap forward in our understanding of the formation and evolution of galactic clusters.



With years still left in the XRISM mission, the world of astrophysics eagerly awaits more insights into the changing nature of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-seen-creating-their-own-food-gases-x-rays-fascinating-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



The ability to measure gas velocities with such high precision opens new doors for studying not just galaxy clusters but also other cosmic phenomena. Understanding how energy moves through space and how massive structures interact over time can help refine models of the universe’s evolution.



Future missions may build upon XRISM’s discoveries, using even more advanced technology to observe larger and more distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-galaxies-found-in-the-depths-of-the-spiderweb-protocluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clusters</a>. 



By continuing to study the motion of hot gas, astronomers hope to deepen their understanding of how the universe’s largest structures are shaped by time, gravity, and unseen forces.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08561-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: JAXA



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Colliding galaxy clusters stir up hot, 'sloshing' gas

The universe is in a constant state of motion, shaped...

T cells play a crucial role in the body's fight against cancer, acting as the immune system's frontline defenders. 



However, scientists are still uncovering the many ways in which cancer weakens these vital cells, and limits their ability to attack malignant growths.



In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://amsterdamumc.org/en/organization/amsterdam-umc.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amsterdam UMC</a> and <a href="https://www.moffitt.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moffitt Cancer Center</a> have explored how leukemia disrupts the "energy management" of a patient's T cells.



Their findings provide fresh insights into why immune responses falter, and open the door to potential breakthroughs in cancer treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-t-cells-the-basics">Understanding T cells - the basics</h2>



T cells are like the body’s personal security team, constantly on the lookout for invaders like viruses, bacteria, and even cancer cells. 



These immune system warriors come from the bone marrow but mature in the thymus (hence the “T” in their name).



 Once they're fully trained, they patrol the bloodstream, ready to recognize and attack anything that doesn’t belong. 



Some T cells act like detectives, identifying threats, while others go full attack mode, destroying infected cells before the problem spreads.



T cells don’t just fight infections also help the immune system remember past enemies. That’s why vaccines work - they train T cells to recognize specific threats so the body can respond faster next time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-crisis-in-t-cells">Energy crisis in T cells</h2>



In their study, the researchers examined chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) - the most prevalent form of leukemia in the Western world. They discovered that contact with CLL cells leads to a severe energy crisis in T cells.



Their findings not only shed light on the persistent challenge of treating this disease, particularly in elderly patients, but also potentially open up new avenues for the development of more effective treatments.



Unique to their research was the focus on T cell energy management, an aspect that is often overshadowed by the race to improve cancer cell identification by our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reprogramming-the-immune-system-to-attack-cancer-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune system</a>.



T cells are critical elements in the body's internal defense mechanism and understanding how and why they falter is vital to improving cancer therapies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fueling-the-fight-against-cancer">Fueling the fight against cancer</h2>



The research team discovered that healthy T cells dramatically increase their cholesterol and fat absorption immediately after identifying their targets.



The fuel derived from this process enables these cells to multiply and maintain their offensive against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cancer-thrives-on-human-stress-as-it-spreads-throughout-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a> proliferation.



However, they lose this crucial ability when they come into close proximity with leukemia cells, thus undermining their effectiveness.



This critical finding supports the results of a parallel study that was conducted by the same team. It was shown that in CLL patients, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mitochondria-cells-batteries-leaking-causes-inflammation-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mitochondria</a> - providers of energy for cellular functions - operate sub-optimally.



The impairment of the mitochondria reduces the ability of T cells to attack cancer cells effectively. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recharging-t-cells-for-greater-effectiveness">Recharging T cells for greater effectiveness</h2>



The researchers succeeded in re-energizing T cells in a promising attempt to enhance their operational efficiency. 



By utilizing an existing drug that affects energy management, they were able to significantly improve the effectiveness of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-cancers-defense-against-itself-using-novel-car-t-therapy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CAR T-cell therapy</a>, a treatment involving the redirection of a patient's own T cells against cancer cells.



"We hope this discovery will lead to improved success of CAR T-cell treatment in the future," shared Javier Pinilla-Ibarz M.D., Ph.D, the Senior member at Moffitt Cancer Center.



"This discovery brings us one step closer to making CAR T-cell treatment more successful for a greater number of patients."



More importantly, it opens the door for exploring similar strategies in other cancers where immune cells struggle to sustain their attack. 



By addressing the energy crisis in T cells, the team hopes to enhance immunotherapy across a wider range of cancers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-horizons-in-cancer-treatment">New horizons in cancer treatment</h2>



The researchers are ambitiously developing solutions to outsmart the disruptive effects of CLL on T cell energy management. 



The objective is to modify specific genes, thus making these immune cells more resistant and ensuring the continuous functionality of their fuel supply and "engine."



And the scope of this research extends far beyond CLL; if successful, the approach could be applied to the treatment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-linked-to-32-cancer-types-that-could-drive-40-of-cases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">other cancers</a>, expanding the reach and effectiveness of immunotherapy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



An international clinical trial has already shown promising results, revitalizing hope for more effective treatments. 



It demonstrated that combining a drug that reduces leukemia cell count, with a procedure that attracts T cells to cancer cells significantly increases the effectiveness of treatment.



This approach essentially tackles the cancer cells first, ensuring the body's immune functioning isn't initially compromised by the disease. 



It presents the potential for combination therapies that can be much more effective in battling various types of cancers.



Arnon Kater, professor of Translational Hematology at Amsterdam UMC, concluded that cancer's impact on immune cell metabolism disrupts the efficient energy supply that is critical for immune function.



These findings, therefore, have the potential to enhance existing treatments significantly, and bring us one step closer to winning the battle against cancer.



The full study was published in <a href="https://ashpublications.org/blood/article/doi/10.1182/blood.2024025525/535766/The-MURANO-study-final-analysis-and-retreatment" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blood Journal</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Study learns how cancer cells highjack the immune system

T cells play a crucial role in the body's fight...

Humans instinctively attempt to revive unconscious individuals through first aid. A recent study suggests that mice display similar behaviors in an emergency.



Researchers from the Keck School of Medicine at USC observed that when a mouse became unresponsive, its companion reacted in ways that accelerated recovery.



For years, scientists have questioned whether animals exhibit emergency responses toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-offer-first-aid-to-unconscious-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unconscious peers</a>. 



“But this study is the first time we’re seeing a first responder-like behavior in mice,” noted Li Zhang, the study’s principal investigator and a professor of physiology and neuroscience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mice-act-in-an-emergency">How mice act in an emergency</h2>



The study recorded how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-mice-turn-to-female-mice-to-avoid-fights-keep-social-peace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a> engaged with unconscious peers using a machine-learning-based analysis. 



Their responses escalated from sniffing and grooming to more forceful actions such as biting the mouth or tongue and pulling it out. These behaviors resembled emergency actions seen in humans, such as clearing airways.



Wenjian Sun, the study’s first author and research associate at Keck School of Medicine’s <a href="https://keck.usc.edu/zilkha/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute</a>, said that he had never seen this behavior from mice before.



“The behavior was especially unique due to its similarity to how humans behave in emergency responses,” said Sun.



The discovery was made unexpectedly during an unrelated experiment. The pattern of escalating responses strongly suggested an instinctive effort to revive the unconscious peer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reviving-actions-and-their-impact">Reviving actions and their impact</h2>



The emergency response shown by these “helper mice” had measurable effects. 



Huizhong Tao, a professor of physiology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-new-way-to-suppress-fear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neuroscience</a> and co-author of the study, noted that mice targeting the mouth and tongue of an unconscious peer often sped up recovery.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mice_perform-first-aid_credit-USC_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mice_perform-first-aid_credit-USC_1s.webp" alt="In two independent studies, W. Sun et al. and F. Sun et al. showed that mice exhibit stereotyped behaviors toward unconscious conspecifics, escalating from sniffing and grooming to licking of the head and tongue pulling, which accelerated recovery from unconsciousness. Credit: USC/Science" class="wp-image-1961947"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">In two independent studies, W. Sun et al. and F. Sun et al. showed that mice exhibit stereotyped behaviors toward unconscious conspecifics, escalating from sniffing and grooming to licking of the head and tongue pulling, which accelerated recovery from unconsciousness. Credit: USC/Science</figcaption></figure>



This behavior was not aggressive. The researchers found that once an unconscious mouse regained awareness, it displayed normal tongue function.



The study also showed that the behavior occurred primarily between familiar pairs and was rare when a mouse was simply sleeping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxytocin-drives-the-emergency-response">Oxytocin drives the emergency response</h2>



Using neural imaging and optogenetics, researchers explored the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mouse-with-two-dads-survives-to-adulthood-major-implications-for-same-sex-human-couples/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain activity</a> linked to these responses. 



Zhang and the team found that oxytocin neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus showed increased activity when mice encountered an unconscious partner. Oxytocin, commonly associated with bonding, appeared to play a key role in triggering the emergency response.



Oxytocin neurons responded differently based on whether the partner was unconscious or active. Specific neurons activated during particular actions, such as tongue-pulling. 



The study also demonstrated that stimulating oxytocin neurons increased reviving behaviors, while blocking oxytocin signaling reduced them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-instinct-across-species">A shared instinct across species</h2>



The findings suggest that reviving behaviors may be common among social species. The study showed that mice reacting to unconscious peers acted instinctively in an emergency situation rather than out of mere curiosity. 



The behavioral sequence resembled emergency responses seen in other animals, including primates.



The researchers believe this behavior helps maintain group cohesion and increases survival chances in social species. Tao pointed out that future studies will investigate whether mice exhibit even more complex responses over longer periods.



This discovery sheds light on prosocial instincts in mammals, highlighting how emergency behaviors may have evolved to strengthen social bonds and improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-decisions-are-shaped-by-optimistic-and-pessimistic-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prosocial-behavior-in-animals">Prosocial behavior in animals</h2>



The research team plans to conduct further studies to explore whether mice exhibit even more complex behaviors over extended periods. 



Tao believes this discovery provides an exciting opportunity to investigate the biological foundations of empathy and social assistance in animals.



Future experiments will examine how these emergency responses develop, whether they vary between different strains of mice, and if similar behaviors occur in other rodent species. 



Researchers also aim to explore whether these behaviors can be influenced by external factors, such as changes in social environment or hormonal manipulation.



Understanding the neural mechanisms behind prosocial behaviors in animals may have broader implications for human health. 



Studying how oxytocin influences emergency responses could lead to insights into conditions where social behaviors are impaired, such as autism or social anxiety disorders.



In addition to Sun, Zhang, and Tao, the study included contributions from Guangwei Zhang, Junxiang J. Huang, Can Tao, and Michelle B. Seo of Keck School of Medicine.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq2677" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mice perform first-aid and save unconscious peers in emergencies

Humans instinctively attempt to revive unconscious individuals through first aid....

Scientists have determined that around 14 million years ago, our Solar System traveled through a densely populated galactic region and might have experienced increased interstellar dust, which could have influenced Earth’s climate and left signals in geologic layers.



An international research team has uncovered this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journey</a> through the Orion star-forming complex, part of the Radcliffe Wave structure.



The experts propose that the Solar System’s passage through this zone could have briefly compressed the heliosphere - the protective bubble surrounding our planetary system - and delivered a greater influx of cosmic material into Earth’s vicinity.&nbsp;



“Imagine it like a ship sailing through varying conditions at sea,” explained Efrem Maconi, lead author and doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>. 



“Our Sun encountered a region of higher gas density as it passed through the Radcliffe Wave in the Orion constellation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-system-s-passage-through-orion">Solar System’s passage through Orion</h2>



Using data from the European Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gaia mission</a>, along with spectroscopic observations, Maconi’s team concluded that this crossing took place about 14 million years ago. 



“This discovery builds upon our previous work identifying the Radcliffe Wave,” said João Alves, professor of astrophysics at the University of Vienna and co-author of the study.&nbsp;



The Radcliffe Wave itself is a large-scale, thread-like formation composed of interlinked star-forming zones, of which the Orion complex is a crucial component.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/milky-way_solar-system_Radcliffe-wave_credit-Harvard_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/milky-way_solar-system_Radcliffe-wave_credit-Harvard_1s.webp" alt="The Radcliffe wave. The clouds that comprise this structure are highlighted in red and superimposed on an artist's illustration of the Milky Way. The location of the Sun is highlighted by the yellow dot. Credit: Alyssa A. Goodman/Harvard University" class="wp-image-1961655"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Radcliffe wave. The clouds that comprise this structure are highlighted in red and superimposed on an artist's illustration of the Milky Way. The location of the Sun is highlighted by the yellow dot. Credit: Alyssa A. Goodman/Harvard University</figcaption></figure>



“We passed through the Orion region as well-known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-origins-of-young-star-clusters-traced-to-three-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star clusters</a> like NGC 1977, NGC 1980, and NGC 1981 were forming,” noted Professor Alves.&nbsp;



“This region is easily visible in the winter sky in the Northern Hemisphere and summer in the Southern Hemisphere. Look for the Orion constellation and the Orion Nebula (Messier 42) - our solar system came from that direction!”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-that-may-still-be-detectable">Changes that may still be detectable</h2>



During that galactic encounter, Earth would have been exposed to extra amounts of dust. 



The scientists propose that such material may have penetrated the planet’s atmosphere, depositing layers that might still be detectable in core samples or other subterranean records. 



“While current technology may not be sensitive enough to detect these traces, future detectors could make it possible,” said Professor Alves.



This timing roughly correlates with the Middle Miocene Climate Transition, a period marking Earth’s shift from a warm, fluctuating climate to a cooler, more stable one marked by extensive ice formation in Antarctica.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interstellar-dust-and-earth-s-climate-nbsp">Interstellar dust and Earth's climate&nbsp;</h2>



Though many factors, including changes in carbon dioxide levels, likely dominated the world’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-to-earths-ancient-climate-to-predict-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> shifts, the authors entertain the notion that cosmic dust from the Orion crossing might have played a supporting part.



“While the underlying processes responsible for the Middle Miocene Climate Transition are not entirely identified, the available reconstructions suggest that a long-term decrease in the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide concentration is the most likely explanation, although large uncertainties exist,” Maconi explained.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/milky-way_Orion-belt_credit-ESA-NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/milky-way_Orion-belt_credit-ESA-NASA_1s.webp" alt="The Orion Belt. Davide De Martin &amp; the ESA/ESO/NASA Photoshop FITS Liberator" class="wp-image-1961651"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Orion Belt. Davide De Martin &amp; the ESA/ESO/NASA Photoshop FITS Liberator</figcaption></figure>



“However, our study highlights that interstellar dust related to the crossing of the Radcliffe Wave might have impacted Earth’s climate and potentially played a role during this climate transition."&nbsp;



Maconi noted that, in order to alter the Earth’s climate, the amount of extraterrestrial dust on Earth would need to be much bigger than what the data so far suggest. He said that future research will explore the significance of this contribution.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-changes-vs-modern-warming">Past changes vs. modern warming</h2>



The experts emphasized that while the Solar System’s trip through Orion may have corresponded with a significant climate phase, it cannot explain the rapid temperature rise currently seen.&nbsp;



Any climate effect from interstellar dust would have taken place slowly, unlike the abrupt, human-caused changes unfolding in the present era.



"It’s crucial to note that this past climate transition and current climate change are not comparable since the Middle Miocene Climate Transition unfolded over timescales of several hundred thousand years," said Maconi. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/milky-way_Orion-constellation_Vienna_Credit-Harvard_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/milky-way_Orion-constellation_Vienna_Credit-Harvard_1s.webp" alt="The Orion constellation. The main stars of this constellation are connected by straight blue lines and some of them are labelled by their name. The Orion Nebula (M 42) is identified by the red square. Credit: Stellarium (GNU), Edited by Efrem Maconi" class="wp-image-1961653"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Orion constellation. The main stars of this constellation are connected by straight blue lines and some of them are labelled by their name. The Orion Nebula (M 42) is identified by the red square. Credit: Stellarium (GNU), Edited by Efrem Maconi</figcaption></figure>



"In contrast, the current global warming evolution is happening at an unprecedented rate over decades to centuries due to human activity."



Still, the notion that cosmic events can appear in Earth’s geological and climatic record opens fresh opportunities for interdisciplinary studies.&nbsp;



Astronomers, geologists, and paleoclimatologists could cooperate more closely to discern whether certain geological anomalies or isotopic variations align with the ancient crossing identified in this work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-influences-on-earth-s-climate">Subtle influences on Earth's climate </h2>



“This study is important because it adds a small puzzle piece to the recent history of the Solar System, helping to place it in the context of the Milky Way. We are inhabitants of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>,” said Professor Alves.&nbsp;



“The European Space Agency’s Gaia Mission has given us the means to trace our recent route in the Milky Way’s interstellar sea, allowing astronomers to compare notes with geologists and paleoclimatologists. It’s very exciting.”



Going forward, the team plans to investigate the specific cosmic environment that the Sun encountered throughout its voyage, focusing on how repeated passages through dense star-forming pockets might intermittently shape Earth’s geological past.&nbsp;



By integrating the latest measurements of cosmic dust, radiometric dating, and climate modeling, they hope to build a clearer narrative of how galactic movements intersect with planetary evolutions.&nbsp;



This research highlights that while Earth's climate is shaped by forces on our planet, the Sun’s journey through the galaxy can also exert subtle yet fascinating influences.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202452061" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's journey through the Milky Way may have altered our climate

Scientists have determined that around 14 million years ago, our...

Long before the first rays of sunlight brushed the California horizon, an extraordinary homecoming took place. The U.S. military’s experimental space plane, the X-37B, touched down in secrecy, its journey ending just as mysteriously as it began. 



After spending 434 days orbiting Earth, the un-crewed vehicle returned to <a href="https://www.vandenberg.spaceforce.mil" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vandenberg Space Force Base</a>. Only hours later did officials acknowledge the event, leaving the world once again questioning the true purpose of this enigmatic program.



This was no ordinary spacecraft mission. Launched in December 2023 from NASA’s <a href="https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kennedy Space Center</a>, the X-37B carried no astronauts - only classified experiments. <a href="https://www.spacex.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SpaceX</a> provided the lift into orbit, but after that, the miniature shuttle’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-spacecraft-set-out-to-drill-for-water-on-the-moons-south-pole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activities</a> remained largely hidden from public view.



Now back on solid ground, its journey fuels speculation about what tests and technologies were refined during its extended stay above the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-military-space-plane-returns">Military space plane returns </h2>



Unlike traditional crewed missions, this space plane slipped into the sky without public fanfare. No live-streamed countdown, no astronauts waving goodbye. 



The X-37B’s launch was marked only by the fire of its rocket engines as it left Earth behind. What followed was more than a year of silent travel, its purpose known only to those with the highest security clearance.



When it finally returned, there was no grand welcome. The spacecraft glided through the darkness, unseen by most, until its wheels met the runway in the pre-dawn hours. The U.S. <a href="https://www.spaceforce.mil" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Force</a> released no immediate statements. 



Only later did images surface - grainy photos of the black-and-white vehicle resting on the airstrip, an unspoken testament to its long and mysterious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-a-planet-k2-22b-disintegrating-at-a-speed-never-seen-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">voyage</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-achievement-revealed">Key achievement revealed</h2>



Each mission by the X-37B adds another layer to its reputation as one of the most advanced unmanned spacecraft in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-majestic-rings-will-vanish-next-week-ring-plane-crossing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">existence</a>.



This time, the military emphasized a key achievement: the ability to change orbits using atmospheric drag rather than burning large amounts of fuel. This technique, if perfected, could allow spacecraft to operate with greater endurance while maintaining the agility to adjust their paths as needed.



"It's an exciting new chapter in the X-37B program," stated program director Lt. Colonel Blaine Stewart.



Though details remain scarce, the ability to shift orbits efficiently hints at future advancements in both reconnaissance and long-duration spaceflight. The implications for national security and scientific research could be profound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-the-limits-of-space-exploration">Pushing the limits of space exploration</h2>



The X-37B program has been in operation since 2010, with each mission pushing the limits of unmanned space endurance. While this most recent flight lasted 434 days, previous ones have stretched even longer, with a 908-day mission holding the record.



The vehicle itself is small by spacecraft standards, measuring just 29 feet in length with a wingspan of nearly 15 feet. Its design resembles a miniature version of NASA’s retired space shuttles, though the X-37B operates entirely without human crew. 



Boeing engineers crafted it for repeated use, making it one of the few reusable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spaceship-thruster-technology-fueled-by-any-type-of-metal-could-fly-indefinitely/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> planes in existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrecy-of-the-military-space-mission">Secrecy of the military space mission</h2>



A recently released image from 2024 captures a rare perspective from the spacecraft itself. Taken by the X-37B’s onboard camera, the photograph showcases Earth as seen from high Earth orbit. 



Though beautiful, the image also raises questions. What experiments were conducted in such a remote region of&nbsp;space? What new technologies were tested on the&nbsp;military space plane, far from prying eyes?



With secrecy surrounding much of the mission, speculation runs wild. Some believe the vehicle is testing new surveillance systems. Others suspect advancements in satellite deployment or military-grade communications technology. 



Whatever the case, its prolonged stay in orbit suggests complex research that could shape the future of space operations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-frontiers-of-technology">New frontiers of technology </h2>



What lies ahead for the X-37B remains unknown to all but a select few. 



The lessons learned from this mission will likely inform future flights, pushing the boundaries of what is possible in long-term, unmanned space travel. Each journey seems to last longer, venture farther, and test new frontiers of technology.



For now, the&nbsp;military space plane&nbsp;sits safely back on Earth, its secrets locked away. But it will not stay grounded forever. 



Somewhere in the future, a new&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-will-search-for-signs-of-life-on-jupiters-icy-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space mission</a>&nbsp;awaits, another launch in the darkness, another journey without an audience, and another silent return to a world eager for answers.



Image Credit: United States Space Force.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What was it doing? U.S. space plane returns after 14 mysterious months

Long before the first rays of sunlight brushed the California...

With their beak-like flowers and vibrant colors, Heliconia plants are a striking presence in tropical landscapes. But beyond their visual appeal, these captivating plants serve a vital ecological role and are emblematic of the tropical biosphere.



Heliconia plants have now entered the danger zone, with new research indicating that nearly half of these species are on the brink of extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-fieldwork-data">Decades of fieldwork data </h2>



The research was focused on data from the world's herbaria - time capsules of botanical history.



"The data that is stored in the herbarium is a scientific treasure that makes a project like this feasible," explained Gary Krupnick, a botanist who heads the Plant Conservation Unit at the <a href="https://www.si.edu/museums/natural-history-museum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History</a>. 



The researchers analyzed decades' worth of fieldwork data, preserved in the form of thousands of dried specimens and meticulous labels, to assess the conservation status of Heliconia <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-plants-on-earth-could-be-saved-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-of-heliconia-plants">Ecological role of Heliconia plants </h2>



Encompassing 187 species related to bananas, the majority of Heliconia plants are rainforest dwellers in tropical Central and South America. Their roles go way beyond their spectacular visual appeal.



They act as precious nectar stations for bats and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sipping-on-nectar-hummingbirds-consume-a-surprising-amount-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a>, who in turn act as pollinators for many Heliconia species, playing a major part in the propagation of these plants. 



Yet, their very splendor has put them at risk of overexploitation and poaching. Habitat loss, invasive species, and climate change further compound the threats they face.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-heliconia-s-survival">Mapping Heliconia’s survival</h2>



Despite the adverse conditions that limited in-person access to the herbarium during the pandemic, the researchers made the most of the fully digitized Heliconia specimens available online.



This precious information, coupled with a tool called GeoCAT (Geospatial Conservation Assessment Tool), allowed the research team to calculate crucial factors like the size of the Heliconia's range and the number of plants in various areas. 



The experts also explored how human activities have impacted forest cover in these areas, which Heliconia populations inhabit protected regions, and which species can potentially be reintroduced into the wild from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">botanical gardens</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threatened-heliconia-species">Threatened Heliconia species </h2>



The findings were anything but encouraging. Of the 187 Heliconia species, 47 percent are threatened with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-extinction-threatens-the-future-of-medicine-and-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a>.



Most of these endangered species are found in few wild protected areas, and a relatively small number of these exist outside their native ranges. 



Furthermore, many of these species are adapted to fragile environments like high-altitude cloud forests, which are particularly susceptible to change.



The team identified 45 Heliconia species that are top priorities for additional protection.



“This study provides a blueprint for how to save this group of plants, starting with this list of priority species,” Krupnick said. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raising-public-awareness">Raising public awareness</h2>



The researchers are committed to raising public awareness about the challenges facing the Heliconia genus. Their goal is to encourage responsible tourism to help curb unsustainable demand for these plants.



Their efforts will not merely save these vivid symbols of the tropics, but will also spur the conservation of other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-is-declining-at-a-steady-rate-across-germany/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered plant</a> species.



Despite the grim data, the researchers noted that there is a glimmer of hope. "Now that we know the conservation status of every one of the 187 species of Heliconia, we can construct a coherent plan of how to protect them,” said John Kress, an emeritus curator at the museum and one of the authors of the new study.



This study highlights the urgent need for enlightened conservation strategies to preserve our remarkable yet vulnerable biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-botanical-gardens-a-lifeline-for-heliconia">Botanical gardens: A lifeline for Heliconia</h2>



As wild Heliconia populations decline, botanical gardens are stepping in as vital sanctuaries. These living collections safeguard rare species, providing a backup for reintroduction efforts when conditions allow.



By cultivating Heliconia in controlled environments, scientists can develop sustainable propagation methods and help preserve the genetic diversity of the plants.



Beyond conservation, botanical gardens raise public awareness through education and partnerships with local organizations. 



However, not all Heliconia species thrive outside of their native habitats, which poses challenges for their long-term preservation. Advanced seed banking and propagation techniques must be explored to secure the future of these rainforest icons.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Half of the world's Heliconia species are at risk of extinction

With their beak-like flowers and vibrant colors, Heliconia plants are...

There's a fascinating dynamic that is happening in the animal kingdom - specifically among Guinea baboons. A recent study shows that female Guinea baboons have a peculiar attraction to males showcasing unique foraging skills.



Experts from the <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/en/institutes/leibniz-institutes-all-lists/german-primate-center-leibniz-institute-for-primate-research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Primate Center - Leibniz Institute for Primate Research</a> conducted investigations on two baboon groups in Senegal’s scenic wilderness and one under close observation at Nuremberg Zoo.



The researchers made a discovery that deepens our grasp of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-ties-influence-the-social-behavior-of-aging-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal social behavior</a>: animals are quite aware of their group members' skills, and they use this knowledge to make social choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attraction-based-on-benefits">Attraction based on benefits</h2>



The experts trained one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-baboons-invest-more-time-in-relationships-with-females/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">male baboon</a> in each group to operate a unique food box. These 'specialized' males became the group's exclusive providers of an additional food source. Curiously, this elevated status attracted the females' attention.



They spent more time with these special males, groomed them more, and even acted aggressively towards other females in the group. 



However, once the food box and the extra food was out of the equation, the females' enamored behavior diminished. This suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/guinea-baboons-give-females-more-freedom-and-authority/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">females</a> were acting based on immediate advantages - not on a comprehensive evaluation of the males' capabilities.



On the other hand, males in the group, despite also gaining from the extra food, showed no significant change in their behavior towards the expert forager. This could hint at lower competition among male Guinea baboons for food sources controlled by their counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baboons-favor-immediate-gains">Baboons favor immediate gains </h2>



The study sheds light on the pragmatic side of partner selection among Guinea baboons. The choice is not driven by a long-term evaluation of a male's capabilities, but rather by the immediate benefits they can gain from him.



"Our experiment is the first to identify the type of mechanism, i.e. outcome- or competence-based, underlying skill attribution in a wild non-human primate. As such, our results provide a unique insight into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baboons-may-offer-clues-to-early-human-social-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of complex skill attribution in humans," said William O-Hearm, the lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enormous-research-potential-of-zoos">Enormous research potential of zoos</h2>



Before the field work in Senegal, initial tests were conducted on Guinea baboons at Nuremberg Zoo - one of the few European facilities housing the species and a long-time collaborator of the Primate Research Institute. 



The controlled conditions of the zoo made it possible for the researchers to observe baboons closely and test feasible fieldwork ideas.



Lorenzo von Fersen, the zoo's Curator of Research and Species Conservation, emphasized the significance of conducting research in controlled environments. 



"The decisive factor for this study was the opportunity to work with the Guinea baboons at Nuremberg Zoo under controlled conditions. Such research approaches are not only scientifically valuable, but also enrich the animals' lives by providing them with cognitive challenges that enhance their natural abilities,” said von Fersen.



Jörg Beckmann, biological director and deputy director of the zoo, noted that zoos have enormous research potential and also offer information about their individuals that is often not available in the wild, as well as expertise that is important when working in the field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guinea-baboons-and-social-intelligence">Guinea baboons and social intelligence </h2>



The findings of this study extend beyond Guinea baboons, offering valuable insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-intelligence-did-not-evolve-due-to-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of intelligence</a> and social decision-making across species. 



By demonstrating that baboons recognize and respond to the skills of their peers, the research supports the idea that social animals - including early human ancestors - may have developed similar cognitive strategies for survival and resource acquisition.



The researchers suggest that such pragmatic decision-making could have played a role in the evolution of human intelligence. 



In ancestral human societies, individuals who could assess the competencies of others - whether in hunting, tool-making, or leadership - would have had a distinct advantage in forming beneficial social bonds.



This concept aligns with theories in evolutionary biology that emphasize the role of cooperation, reciprocity, and resource control in shaping complex social structures.



Moreover, this study highlights how non-human primates, like baboons, continue to challenge our understanding of cognition. 



As research progresses, scientists hope to uncover even more parallels between human and primate decision-making, further bridging the gap between our species and our closest relatives in the animal kingdom.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2925" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Guinea baboons prefer mates with skills

There's a fascinating dynamic that is happening in the animal...

Bird songs fill forests with rich melodies, signaling territory, attracting mates, and fostering communication within flocks. These sounds are not static; they change over generations, much like human languages and music.&nbsp;



New research from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> sheds light on the evolution of bird songs, revealing the significant influence of population dynamics. 



The experts analyzed over 100,000 bird songs, highlighting how movement, age, and turnover shape song <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-generated-birdsongs-may-shed-new-light-on-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a>.



The researchers spent three years collecting over twenty thousand hours of recordings from great tits (Parus major) in Oxfordshire. This population has been monitored for 77 years as part of the Wytham Great Tit study.



The goal was to understand which songs gain popularity, which disappear, and how song repertoires evolve over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-song-evolution-with-ai">Tracking song evolution with AI</h2>



To analyze song changes, the researchers developed an AI model capable of recognizing individual birds based on their songs. 



This technology enabled them to measure song differences between birds and track variations across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-and-evolution-shape-the-unique-sounds-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



The results revealed that birds of the same age share more similar repertoires, while mixed-age communities exhibit greater cultural diversity.



Song turnover accelerates when birds leave or die, as young newcomers adopt and introduce new song types.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-s-age-and-song-retention">Bird's age and song retention</h2>



Older birds play a key role in preserving songs that are fading from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-turn-bird-dreams-into-captivating-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



While young birds drive change by adopting new song types, older individuals act as "cultural repositories" of past songs. 



This dynamic mirrors how grandparents remember songs unfamiliar to younger generations.



However, age alone does not determine song change. The experts found that when birds mix more due to increased movement and immigration, they adopt common songs, which slows the rate of song evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-song-traditions">Local song traditions</h2>



Birds that stay close to their birthplace maintain distinctive song cultures, much like isolated human communities develop unique dialects. 



Areas with less movement tend to retain more varied and unique song traditions.



Newcomers usually integrate into local song traditions rather than introducing completely new tunes. However, they often learn more songs, enriching the local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">musical landscape</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-evolution-in-bird-songs">Cultural evolution in bird songs</h2>



“Just as human communities develop distinct dialects and musical traditions, some birds also have local song cultures that evolve over time,“ noted lead researcher Dr. Nilo Merino Recalde from the University of Oxford.



“Our study shows exactly how population dynamics - the comings and goings of individual birds - affect this cultural learning process, influencing both song diversity and the pace of change.”



This study is the first to extensively examine the role of demography in shaping cultural diversity in a wild animal population. 



By using a large dataset of individual song variations, it provides insights into both bird behavior and the broader implications of demographic changes on cultural evolution in animal species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



The findings could have important implications for conservation efforts by showing how population shifts influence cultural traditions in birds. The complete dataset is now publicly available for further research.



“Our work here shows, once again, that tracking individuals over their lives allows us to understand so much of the way that different processes interact in natural populations," noted Professor Ben Sheldon from the University of Oxford, who leads the long-term study in <a href="https://www.wythamwoods.ox.ac.uk/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wytham Woods</a>.



"It’s thrilling to think that we can explain the acoustic landscape we hear in the woods each spring in terms of the result of the cumulative combination of individual movements and survival over many years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bird-song-research">Future of bird song research</h2>



This study opens new possibilities for research into animal communication and cultural transmission. 



By integrating artificial intelligence and long-term field studies, scientists can now explore how different species develop and maintain their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finch-beaks-and-bird-songs-a-new-story-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique traditions</a>.



Future studies could examine whether similar patterns exist in other songbird species or even in non-bird animals that use vocalizations for communication. 



The findings also raise intriguing questions about how climate change and habitat destruction might impact song evolution by altering population structures and migration patterns.



By continuing to study how birds learn and modify their songs, researchers can gain deeper insights into the connections between social behavior, cultural traditions, and environmental change. 



These discoveries not only help us appreciate the complexity of bird communication but also provide a window into the broader forces shaping life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00150-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Birds learn songs like humans learn languages

Bird songs fill forests with rich melodies, signaling territory, attracting...

Pollination happens everywhere, but most people don’t notice it. Small creatures like bees, butterflies, birds, and bats carry pollen between plants, helping them grow. Without pollinators, flowers wouldn’t turn into fruit, and seeds wouldn’t spread. They do more than help plants reproduce - they keep nature healthy, support animals, and help produce food.



But here’s the problem - many of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-pollinators-boost-the-nutritional-value-of-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> are vanishing. Climate change, habitat destruction, and industrial farming are wiping out species at an alarming rate.



Their disappearance isn’t just an issue for farmers. It affects forests, grasslands, and even city parks, where pollinators keep plant life going. When they decline, entire ecosystems suffer, and the food supply becomes more fragile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinator-s-role-in-plant-reproduction">Pollinator's role in plant reproduction</h2>



Plants depend on pollination to grow and multiply. Around 85% of wild plant species and more than 70% of cultivated crops rely on pollinators for reproduction. Without pollinators, many plants would fail to produce fruits or seeds.



“In most of the studies conducted on this issue across the world, plants were found not to bear fruit if no pollinator was present,“ noted Maddi Artamendi, a researcher at the University of the Basque Country (<a href="https://www.ehu.eus/en/en-home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UPV/EHU</a>).



“Studies of this type have been mostly conducted on crop species, but that does not give a true picture, since the diversity of pollinators is going to decrease, is already decreasing, but is not going to disappear completely."



“What is more, wild plants were also taken into consideration as well as crop plants. We wanted to approach the subject from a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">realistic perspective</a>.”



Her research challenges the idea that only crops suffer from pollinator loss. Wild plants are equally affected, and their decline could disrupt entire ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-pollinator-decline">Impact of pollinator decline</h2>



A study by Artamendi and Ainhoa Magrach, an Ikerbasque Research Professor at Butler County Community College (<a href="https://www.bc3.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BC3</a>) highlights the need to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-pollinators-wild-bees-boosts-food-supply-income/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator diversity</a>. 



The researchers stress the urgency of addressing factors that reduce pollinator numbers. The study found that a decrease in pollinators negatively affects plant reproduction, reducing fruit quantity, seed numbers, and fruit weight. Wild plants suffer more from pollinator loss than cultivated plants.



Self-pollinating plants also benefit from diverse pollinators. “Showing that it is very beneficial for these plants to exchange pollen,” explained Artamendi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-pollinators-and-plant-reproduction">Wild pollinators and plant reproduction</h2>



The study reveals that wild pollinators contribute more to plant reproduction than domestic pollinators, such as honey bees. A decline in wild pollinators significantly harms plant reproductive success.



The loss of invertebrate pollinators is more severe than that of vertebrates. Nocturnal pollinators are disappearing faster than diurnal pollinators. The decline of wild pollinators is greater than that of domestic pollinators. 



These findings highlight the urgent need to protect a wide range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-wars-plants-compete-for-space-on-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-of-pollinators">Decline of pollinators </h2>



To understand pollinator decline, Artamendi and Magrach conducted a meta-analysis of 207 studies from 46 countries. This type of analysis combines data from multiple studies, allowing researchers to find broad patterns.



“We analyzed research done across the world. We had to bear in mind that there are different varieties of plants depending on the climate, that the influence on one plant or another may have been different, and how large the sample was, etc.,“ explained Artamendi.



“We took into account many variables so that all the pieces of research could be compared, and that is how we achieved a real, quantifiable result.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-a-broader-perspective">Need for a broader perspective</h2>



The researchers concluded that all pollinators, both wild and domestic, play a vital role in plant reproduction.



“We cannot focus on domestic pollinators alone. There are more pollinators, and we saw that they are all of great importance in the reproductive success of plants and in maintaining plant diversity," the team noted.



"We should not focus just on crop plants and domestic pollinators, the view has to be opened out.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pollinator-protection-matters">Why pollinator protection matters</h2>



The decline of pollinators is not just an environmental issue - it’s a crisis that could reshape entire ecosystems. This study reinforces the importance of protecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> to keep nature thriving and ensure stable food production.



By taking action now - whether through conservation efforts, policy changes, or individual choices like planting pollinator-friendly gardens - humanity can help slow this decline. Protecting pollinators means protecting life itself.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02595-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Pollinators are disappearing, and it’s bad news for plants

Pollination happens everywhere, but most people don’t notice it. Small...

Researchers examining British Labrador retrievers have identified multiple genes connected to canine obesity. The investigations revealed that these same genes, including one called DENND1B, are associated with obesity in humans as well.&nbsp;



The findings mark a significant advance in understanding how biological mechanisms in dogs can shed light on human weight regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-linked-to-obesity">Genes linked to obesity </h2>



The gene DENND1B emerged as the strongest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-obesity-difficult-to-reverse-it-starts-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>-linked variant in Labradors. DENND1B was found to have a direct impact on a brain pathway responsible for regulating the energy balance in the body, called the leptin melanocortin pathway. 



Four additional genes showing a weaker association with canine obesity were likewise mapped to human genes.



Study co-first author Alyce McClellan is an expert in the <a href="https://www.pdn.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience</a> at the University of Cambridge.



“These genes are not immediately obvious targets for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-linked-to-unexpected-benefits-and-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weight-loss drugs</a>, because they control other key biological processes in the body that should not be interfered with. But the results emphasise the importance of fundamental brain pathways in controlling appetite and body weight,” said McClellan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-body-s-energy-regulation-system">The body's energy regulation system </h2>



An essential outcome of the research was confirming that DENND1B is present not only in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/probiotics-help-overweight-dogs-shed-pounds/">dogs</a> but also in humans, where it is linked to obesity.&nbsp;



By focusing on this gene in Labrador retrievers, scientists could zero in on how it impacts the body’s energy regulation system. They hope the insights gained from working with dogs will help clarify how certain neural pathways affect human eating behaviors and metabolic processes.



The researchers stress that while these genes are important for understanding appetite and weight gain, they do not present a straightforward target for obesity treatments. This is because the relevant genes are tied to other crucial functions in the body; tampering with them might create unwanted side effects.&nbsp;



Instead, the study highlights the complexity of regulating appetite and energy balance at a genetic level, reinforcing the importance of the leptin melanocortin pathway - a well-known system controlling satiety and hunger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-motivation-and-obesity-risk">Food motivation and obesity risk</h2>



Among the most striking findings, the researchers noted behavioral differences in dogs that carry the genes most strongly associated with obesity.&nbsp;



“We found that dogs at high genetic risk of obesity were more interested in food,” said co-first author Natalie Wallis, a researcher in the same department.



“We measured how much dogs pestered their owners for food and whether they were fussy eaters. Dogs at high genetic risk of obesity showed signs of having higher appetite, as has also been shown for people at high genetic risk of obesity.”



This link between genetic risk and food motivation underscores a significant parallel with human cases: individuals who harbor certain genetic profiles may experience stronger cravings for food and need more discipline to maintain healthy body weight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-counteracting-genetic-obesity-risks">Counteracting genetic obesity risks</h2>



Interestingly, the study showed that even Labradors with a high genetic propensity for obesity could stay slim if their owners enforced rigorous diet and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-in-a-pill-is-now-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise</a> routines. This is similar to what happens in humans.&nbsp;



People carrying particular genetic variants are more prone to weight gain, yet they can avoid obesity by strictly controlling their caloric intake and staying active.



“Studying the dogs showed us something really powerful: owners of slim dogs are not morally superior. The same is true of slim people. If you have a high genetic risk of obesity, then when there’s lots of food available you’re prone to overeating and gaining weight unless you put a huge effort into not doing so,” said senior author Eleanor Raffan, a scientist at Cambridge.



“By studying dogs we could measure their desire for food separately from the control owners exerted over their dog’s diet and exercise. In human studies, it’s harder to study how genetically driven appetite requires greater willpower to remain slim, as both are affecting the one person.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-broader-issue-of-obesity">The broader issue of obesity</h2>



The current obesity crisis is affecting both people and their pets. Between 40-60% of domestic dogs are believed to be overweight or obese, a situation mirrored in humans. The problems range from heightened risk of chronic illnesses to reduced quality of life.&nbsp;



Because dogs live alongside people and share many of the same dietary and lifestyle influences, they serve as a strong model for studying how genetics interacts with the environment to determine body weight.



In this project, researchers gathered data from pet owners, measuring each dog’s body fat and “greediness,” then collecting saliva samples to analyze DNA.&nbsp;



Comparing various obesity markers with each dog’s genetic makeup allowed them to pinpoint which genes correlated with weight gain. The most powerful variant, DENND1B, was tied to about 8% more body fat in the dogs carrying it.



Subsequent tests confirmed that the same gene variants also show relevance to weight issues in human populations, particularly in groups where single genetic alterations can cause severe, early-onset obesity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-steps-for-owners-nbsp">Practical steps for owners&nbsp;</h2>



Given that dogs with high-risk genes are especially food-motivated, the researchers advise owners to spread out daily food rations or use puzzle feeders that slow consumption. They also suggest choosing nutrient compositions that help dogs feel full longer.&nbsp;



Parallel recommendations exist for people, highlighting the benefits of portion control, diet quality, and strategies to combat overeating cues.



“This work shows how similar dogs are to humans genetically. Studying the dogs meant we had reason to focus on this particular gene, which has led to a big advance in understanding how our own brain controls our eating behavior and energy use,” Raffan said.



The scientists consider these discoveries a springboard for deeper investigations into how genes shape appetite and metabolism, in both animals and people.&nbsp;



While the genes identified here may not be immediate targets for obesity drugs, they provide essential clues about the biochemical pathways that drive weight gain. This, in turn, might eventually guide more refined strategies for managing and preventing obesity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.ads2145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Humans and dogs share genes linked to obesity

Researchers examining British Labrador retrievers have identified multiple genes connected...

Butterflies are currently disappearing in the United States with alarming speed. A new study estimates that overall butterfly abundance in the continental United States dropped by 22% between 2000 and 2020. 



Researchers warn that without immediate action, these vibrant insects - essential for pollination, nutrient cycling, and food webs - could continue to vanish at a rate with unsettling consequences for ecosystems and agriculture alike.



“Action must be taken,” said Elise Zipkin, a professor of quantitative ecology at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> and a co-author of the paper. “To lose 22 percent of butterflies across the continental U.S. in just two decades is distressing and shows a clear need for broad-scale conservation interventions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-largest-ever-compilation-of-butterfly-data">Largest-ever compilation of butterfly data</h2>



In the past, scientists have typically focused on one species (like the monarch) or on a limited geography. This study, however, brings together more than 76,000 surveys of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grassland-butterflies-declining-all-over-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly populations</a> spanning the lower 48 states.&nbsp;



The researchers incorporated data from 35 separate monitoring programs and compiles records of over 12.6 million butterflies, enabling analysts to develop a nationwide snapshot of butterfly abundance trends and species richness.



To clarify changes, the research team examined 554 different species, comparing population sizes in 2000 with those in 2020. They discovered that for every five butterflies present at the start of the century, only four remained after two decades.&nbsp;



The average annual decline of 1.3% highlights the widespread nature of the downturn, with fewer butterflies appearing in backyards, open meadows, and nearly everywhere in between.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-decline-of-butterflies">Increasing decline of butterflies</h2>



Nick Haddad, a professor of integrative biology at Michigan State and one of the study’s co-authors, has been closely involved in charting the precarious state of U.S. butterflies. He combines scientific expertise with a practical, on-the-ground perspective.&nbsp;



While many declines involve species we rarely encounter, Haddad stresses that losses can also be noticed close to home.



“My neighbors notice it,” Haddad said. “Unprompted, they’ll say, ‘I’m seeing fewer butterflies in my garden, is that real?’ My neighbors are right. And it’s so shocking.”



Such observations confirm broader findings: average people are detecting changes in butterfly abundance without relying on official numbers. Now, large-scale data affirm that this anecdotal evidence reflects a genuine, countrywide shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-definitive-study-on-u-s-butterflies">The definitive study on U.S. butterflies</h2>



“This is the definitive study of butterflies in the U.S.,” said Collin Edwards, the study’s lead author. “For those who were not already aware of insect declines, this should be a wake-up call.”



“We urgently need both local- and national-scale conservation efforts to support butterflies and other insects. We have never had as clear and compelling a picture of butterfly declines as we do now.”



Edwards, formerly a postdoctoral research associate at <a href="https://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University, Vancouver</a>, now works with the <a href="https://wdfw.wa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife</a>.&nbsp;



He and his colleagues designed methods to integrate sometimes-variable data sets. By analyzing changes in “butterfly abundances, they aimed to see how species fared individually, regionally, and collectively.



Though the Pacific Northwest seemed to buck the national trend by showing a 10% overall gain in butterfly numbers, that apparent uptick is traced mainly to a single species, the California tortoiseshell, which had a population spike unlikely to last.&nbsp;



Elsewhere, the standard pattern of decline holds true, demonstrating that the national losses are part of a deeper, multi-regional shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-solutions">Urgent need for solutions</h2>



By studying 554 species, the team highlights just how widespread the problem is. Many species had never been systematically analyzed at such a scale. The numbers show that 13 times more species declined than increased, with 107 species losing over half their populations.



According to Zipkin and Haddad, butterflies are more than fluttering symbols of freedom and beauty. They serve as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-expansion-linked-to-global-decline-of-wild-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> - alongside bees and flies - supporting a portion of the country’s agriculture and a source of food for numerous animals, including birds.&nbsp;



Indeed, bird populations have dropped by nearly three billion over the last 50 years, at a rate that parallels butterfly declines.



The researchers highlight that policymakers and the public should view these insects not just as ornaments but as key contributors to ecological balance.&nbsp;



If butterflies continue to disappear, pollination services may weaken, predator-prey relationships will be altered, and many plants reliant on butterfly pollination could suffer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-past-findings-nbsp">Lessons from past findings&nbsp;</h2>



Haddad’s earlier work, published in 2024 in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0304319" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>, determined that insecticide use was a leading cause of butterfly mortality. Although habitat destruction and climate change are also major factors, the findings suggest that widespread pesticide application does extraordinary harm.&nbsp;



Profligate use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-decline-in-american-midwest-linked-to-insecticides/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insecticides</a> - often deployed as a sort of “insurance” by farmers - can, ironically, result in minimal gains in crop yields while doing maximum damage to insect populations.



Haddad believes that a shift to more strategic, evidence-based pesticide use would give many butterfly species a fighting chance to rebound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowing-the-decline-of-butterflies">Slowing the decline of butterflies </h2>



Zipkin describes the current data as a strong warning to national leaders: “People depend on plants, microbes, and animals for the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. Yet, we are losing species at rates that rival the major mass extinction events on our planet,” she said.



Zipkin said that the United States can take meaningful steps, from local habitat management to large-scale legislative action, to protect not just butterflies but the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> that underpins human health and well-being.&nbsp;



Edwards hopes individuals and local governments will commit resources to planting pollinator-friendly vegetation, curtailing pesticide use, and supporting land conservation measures.



While time is short, the researchers remain cautiously optimistic: the data highlight just how urgent the task is, but it also provides a roadmap for remedying the losses.&nbsp;



Through improved policy, targeted restoration programs, and mindful insecticide management, the decline of these “fluttering symbols” might be slowed, or even reversed - restoring butterflies to gardens, fields, and wildlands across the nation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp4671" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

A country without butterflies: Rapid decline in U.S. populations

Butterflies are currently disappearing in the United States with alarming...

For the first time, researchers have used satellite collar data alongside specialized cameras to observe maternal denning in polar bears. This stage, when mothers give birth and remain in dens with their cubs, has long remained a mystery.



Studies have shown that the length of time mothers spend in dens impacts cub survival. However, scientists had little understanding of why they stay so long or what they do during that period. Until now, tracking devices had not been tested against direct observations of the bears.



Study lead author Louise Archer is a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto Scarborough</a>.



“The Arctic's warming two to four times faster than the rest of the world, humans are expanding into areas that might be important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-cubs-are-emerging-earlier-from-dens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear</a> denning, and we know they're sensitive to disturbance during this time,” said Archer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-denning-in-polar-bear-survival">Role of denning in polar bear survival</h2>



Denning begins when pregnant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-polar-bear-day-keeping-moms-and-cubs-safe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bears</a> dig out snow dens to give birth. Cubs are born tiny and vulnerable, and the den shields them from the harsh Arctic cold as they nurse and grow rapidly. 



During this time, mothers lose nearly half their body weight. Even after emerging, they do not immediately return to hunting. Instead, they stay near the den for several weeks, engaging in activities that seem more critical than eating.



Historically, researchers observed denning through binoculars, then remote cameras, and now satellite collars. Each method has its limitations. Satellite collars, which track location, activity, and ambient temperature, have become more common. 



However, most collars only record data every few hours, making it difficult to capture short-term behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-polar-bears-for-six-years">Tracking polar bears for six years</h2>



In a six-year study, Archer and her colleagues tracked 13 polar bears from the Barents Sea subpopulation. They placed cameras outside of nine dens in Svalbard, Norway, while also using satellite collars.



Comparing the two methods revealed differences of several days to over a week in estimating key denning stages.



Each time the experts collected collar data, they matched it with corresponding camera images to confirm bear activities. 



The team then built three statistical models. These allow researchers to use collar data to predict not just what the bears are doing, but what they will likely do. The models forecast breakout times, den emergence patterns, and final polar bear departures.



One model also considers how temperature changes affect the behavior of mothers and cubs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-and-den-emergence-patterns">Temperature and den emergence patterns</h2>



“Collars do a good job at picking out these broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-doesnt-stick-to-polar-bear-fur-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a>, like when the bears first come out of the den and when they depart. We found they corresponded pretty well to what we were seeing on camera,” said Archer. "But it was difficult to tease out the finer scale behaviors we saw on camera.”



Bears almost always emerged during daylight, with trips averaging 27 minutes. Some lasted under a minute, while others extended to nearly eight hours. Mothers brought their cubs outside about half the time, usually staying within 40 meters of the den. 



Warmer temperatures increased the likelihood of polar bears leaving the den and prolonged their outdoor stays. The longer it had been since their first breakout, the more frequently they emerged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-denning-for-cubs">Importance of denning for cubs</h2>



The data suggests that this period near the den helps cubs adapt to the outside world. Other research has found that a faster departure after breaking out reduces cub survival rates. If cubs do not spend enough time near the den, their chances of survival decrease.



“The Arctic is a really fast-changing area. We've got a lot of sea ice being lost, so seeing what polar bears are doing and how they're responding to these changes gives us an insight into what we might expect in other parts of the Arctic down the line,” said Archer.



She recently completed a study linking a decline in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear populations</a> to shrinking sea ice caused by climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-polar-bear-research">Future of polar bear research</h2>



This study involved researchers from <a href="https://polarbearsinternational.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polar Bears International</a>, <a href="https://sandiegozoowildlifealliance.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance</a>, and the <a href="https://www.npolar.no/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Polar Institute</a>. 



By improving tracking methods, scientists hope to gain a clearer picture of polar bear behavior in and around dens and the challenges they face.



Continued monitoring will provide valuable insights into how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> adapt to their rapidly changing environment.



The study is published in the <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jwmg.22725" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Wildlife Management</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Polar bear cub survival depends on this little-known den behavior

For the first time, researchers have used satellite collar data...

Rainbow,Trout,Caught,And,Released,In,The,Boise,River,In

Farmed fish are often viewed with suspicion, while wild-caught varieties are more likely to be perceived as healthy and pure. Seafood shoppers everywhere debate the differences and weigh their options carefully.



A fresh scientific review points to an unexpected conclusion. Various pollutants can accumulate in fish, and wild-caught individuals appear to experience greater exposure to these. 



This perspective is shared by <a href="https://orcid.org/0009-0001-6007-8622" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Isabel  Casanova-Martínez</a>, a scientist who works under the auspices of several Spanish research institutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-heavy-metals">Understanding heavy metals</h2>



Many people recognize that <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/heavy-metal-blood-test/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heavy metals</a> pose a threat for food safety. 



These substances include elements like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elevated-mercury-levels-discovered-in-dolphins/">mercury</a>, <a href="https://periodic-table.rsc.org/element/33/arsenic" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arsenic</a>, lead and others that can build up in tissue (bioaccumulate) over time. Certain types can be risky to humans if present in large amounts.



Researchers found that wild-caught fish carried an average mercury concentration of 0.06 micrograms per gram, while farmed fish had about half that, at 0.038 micrograms per gram. 



They also found arsenic levels of 3.26 micrograms per gram in wild fish, compared with 1.23 micrograms per gram in farmed varieties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ddt-and-other-pollutants">DDT and other pollutants</h2>



A lesser-known concern is <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/ddt-brief-history-and-status" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DDT</a>, which was once a widely used pesticide. Even though it was banned in many places years ago, traces can still linger. These residues can find their way into aquatic environments and accumulate in fish.



The review indicates around 196.48 nanograms per gram of DDT in wild-caught samples, whereas farmed fish had about 44.64 nanograms per gram. 



The findings suggest differences in how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-small-fish-whole-reduces-cancer-risk-in-women/">fish</a> come into contact with old pesticide deposits, possibly due to habitat or feeding patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-fish-fare-better">Why some fish fare better</h2>



Fish produced through aquaculture may face stricter oversight in terms of feed and water conditions. 



Organizations like the <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/fao-flagship-publications/the-state-of-world-fisheries-and-aquaculture/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> note that this method continues to expand faster than other food sectors. Many producers track feeds and test water more regularly than ever.



Heavy metals can be introduced through industrial pollution, runoff, or other sources in natural waters. 



Filtered tanks or closely monitored pens could mean fewer contaminants find their way into farmed species, although no method removes the risks entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-risks-and-caution">Real-world risks and caution</h2>



The <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-health" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a> has identified mercury as being among the top chemicals of concern for public health, especially for expectant mothers and small children. 



High concentrations have been <a href="https://www.epa.gov/mercury/health-effects-exposures-mercury">tied</a> to neurological issues and developmental problems in infants.



Safe daily or weekly seafood intake is still possible, but guidelines vary depending on a person’s overall health. 



Experts often urge pregnant women to be particularly careful about the consumption of large, predatory fish as they are known to harbor elevated mercury levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-nutrition-and-contaminants">Balancing nutrition and contaminants</h2>



Eating fish brings many benefits. It offers protein, omega-3 fatty acids, and important minerals. 



<a href="https://www.fishwatch.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a> underscores that fish are a valuable food, but also acknowledges that consumers should stay informed about possible contaminants.



Some nutrients, like <a href="https://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/se.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">selenium</a> and <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Zinc-HealthProfessional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zinc</a>, vary based on the fish’s environment and diet. 



Farmed diets often include formulated feeds that are designed to control final nutrient profiles. Wild species gain nutrients from ecosystems that are less predictable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leading-author-s-viewpoint">Leading author’s viewpoint</h2>



"Rather than pitting wild fishing against aquaculture, our review demonstrates that both sectors can coexist and help meet the world’s seafood needs safely," concluded Dr. Casanova-Martínez, lead author of the study.



"Still, ongoing research and improvements in feed and environmental monitoring are essential for safeguarding public health." 



These observations reflect the broader consensus that both systems are vital for feeding populations. Each approach has benefits and drawbacks that require further attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-regulation-matters">Why regulation matters</h2>



Regulatory bodies set maximum allowed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-100-million-americans-exposed-to-contaminated-drinking-water/">contaminant levels</a> to keep consumers safe. Many fish samples in both categories fall within established safety margins. 



Continuous oversight helps the public gain confidence in what ends up on their plates.



Authorities also caution special populations. Small children and pregnant individuals may need more careful advice about portion sizes, fish types, and heavy meal frequency. 



Public health agencies need to adjust recommendations when new evidence emerges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-consumers">What’s next for consumers</h2>



Aquaculture often employs best practices to reduce pollutants, yet wild-caught products remain popular for taste and tradition. 



People can choose a balanced approach, selecting a mix of fish sources and staying updated on guidelines for safer consumption.



Additional studies on feed technology and water filtration are ongoing. Research may reveal improved methods to cut contaminants and maintain fish quality in coming years.



Concerns about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heavy-metal-pollution-threatens-marine-life-and-human-health/">heavy metals</a> and legacy pesticides should not overshadow the nutritional value of fish. 



Instead, consumers should be making informed choices by identifying reputable suppliers and following health advisories to ensure they reduce the intake of unwanted substances.



Individuals looking for more detail can consult government websites or speak with healthcare providers for tailored advice. Monitoring official recommendations about fish intake can also safer meal planning.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956713525000891" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Control</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why eating farmed fish may be safer than eating fish caught in the wild

Farmed fish are often viewed with suspicion, while wild-caught varieties...

A recent study offers a clearer picture of which amphibians and habitats face the greatest threat from rising temperatures.&nbsp;



Amphibians are notably fragile in a warming world due to their dependence on external sources to regulate body heat, with more than 40% of species already classified as endangered. As entire populations vanish, the ripple effects throughout ecosystems could be devastating.



“We wanted to better understand the risk climate change poses to amphibians, and so put together the most comprehensive compilation of heat tolerance limits to date,” said lead author Patrice Pottier, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-tolerance-limits-of-amphibians-nbsp">Heat tolerance limits of amphibians&nbsp;</h2>



Amphibians, being ectotherms, cannot generate enough internal heat on their own and therefore depend on the environment to maintain suitable body temperatures.&nbsp;



Given how little data existed on their ability to endure higher heat levels, the UNSW team aggregated thousands of measurements, representing hundreds of species.



“Heat tolerance limits are the maximum temperature amphibians can tolerate before their physiological systems fail,” Pottier said.



The experts applied a statistical method called data imputation to estimate values for species that have not been directly studied.



“In this case, it predicts heat tolerance limits for species we do not have data for by looking at how heat tolerance is linked to factors like habitat type, environmental temperature, and evolutionary history,” Pottier explained.



By doing so, the scientists developed a comprehensive catalog of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-temperature-threshold-can-the-human-body-handle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat thresholds</a> covering about 60% of all known amphibian species. This overview highlights where warming poses the greatest risk and which animals might be most vulnerable to local extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amphibians-are-already-under-strain">Amphibians are already under strain</h2>



The research team examined the environmental conditions amphibians encounter in different microhabitats - on land, in trees, or in water - and then compared these conditions to each species’ calculated heat tolerance limits.&nbsp;



“We found that 104 out of 5,203 species - 2% - are already exposed to overheating in shaded terrestrial conditions. And a 4°C global temperature increase could push 7.5% of species beyond their physiological limits,” Pottier said.



The experts also discovered that the areas most at risk do not necessarily line up with latitude alone, a finding that revises earlier assumptions.



“It has previously been often assumed that species closer to the equator are at greater risk from overheating due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-draining-nutrients-from-the-oceans-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> than those in temperate regions. However, our study found that tropical species in the Southern Hemisphere are the most impacted by overheating events, while non-tropical species are more impacted in the Northern Hemisphere,” Pottier explained.



As a result, relying on a one-size-fits-all pattern like latitude to assess threats may overlook specific places and species already pushing against their tolerable heat boundaries.



“Assuming that all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical species</a> are more vulnerable than temperate species can be misleading. What matters is assessing if the area is going to experience extreme heat events relative to the species' heat tolerance. This requires stepping away from general trends, and identifying specific areas and species at risk,” Pottier added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-escalating-impacts-with-greater-warming-nbsp">Escalating impacts with greater warming&nbsp;</h2>



The scientists modeled how conditions might worsen under different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> scenarios. Even at 2°C above pre-industrial levels, more amphibians are likely to face critical heat exposure. But surpassing that threshold would be especially dangerous.



“Impacts escalate under different climate warming scenarios. There is an increase in impact between the current climate and +2C of warming; but impacts increase disproportionally under +4C of warming. This step-change impact severity shows that going above +2C of global warming can be a tipping point where we may see a lot of local extinctions,” Pottier noted.



Local disappearances carry additional risks: losing these frogs, salamanders, and toads can disrupt food webs, hamper insect control, and reduce overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic diversity</a> in local ecosystems.



“Some amphibian populations may undergo range shifts to more hospitable habitats, but opportunities for this are likely limited due to low dispersal rates and reliance on water bodies,” Pottier added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-and-cultural-significance">Ecological and cultural significance </h2>



Amphibians are not just vital for pest management and as a food source for predators; they are also intertwined with human cultures around the globe.



Pottier pointed out that amphibians are an important part of the ecosystem. For example, the loss of an amphibian population would likely lead to an increase in insect population with carry-over effects on plants and animals, he noted.



“They are prey for many animals and their loss would have knock-on effects on many other species. Besides ecosystem impacts, amphibians are deeply rooted in human cultures and it would be a shame to lose such beautiful and emblematic species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-heat-impacts-on-amphibians-nbsp">Mitigating heat impacts on amphibians&nbsp;</h2>



The findings emphasize the importance of microhabitats that moderate temperature extremes. Places with plenty of foliage and accessible water sources can help amphibians survive short-term heat spikes by letting them cool off and keep their skin moist.



“Our analyses made it clear that vegetation and water bodies are critical in buffering amphibians during heat waves. We found that if you provide amphibians with enough water and enough shade, a lot of them can survive extreme heat events. We must protect and restore the environments that allow them to regulate their body temperature,” Pottier stressed.



Because the study assumed best-case scenarios for shade and moisture, actual threats could exceed even these concerning estimates.



“We used very conservative estimates in this study assuming access to cool shaded environments. Therefore, the impacts of global warming will likely exceed our projections. So all efforts to limit global warming are needed to protect the world’s amphibians,” he concluded.



Overall, this large-scale analysis highlights both the fragility of amphibian populations under climate stress and the steps that can help them cope - namely, curbing global temperatures and safeguarding vital habitats with adequate cover and water.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Amphibians are being pushed beyond their heat limits

A recent study offers a clearer picture of which amphibians...

An extensive, decades-long analysis tracking endangered caribou populations has revealed that migration patterns are eroding in both distance and duration. Researchers attribute this decline largely to human-caused habitat disturbances rather than shifts in climate.&nbsp;



The work, led by Dr. Clayton Lamb of <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC), emphasizes the urgency of safeguarding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-caribou-movement-patterns-can-transform-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caribou</a> habitats and their time-honored migratory routes.



“Western science and Indigenous knowledge recognize the critical role of migration in sustaining abundant wildlife populations, yet these movements are increasingly disrupted by human activity worldwide,” Lamb said.&nbsp;



“We studied the extent and type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> as well as changes through time, and determined if these changes correlated with landscape disturbance or shifts in weather.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-caribou-migrations">Shrinking caribou migrations</h2>



The research team examined data spanning 35 years (from 1987 to 2022), which included 1,704,842 geolocation points from radio tags and GPS collars. More than 800 individual animals across 27 southern mountain caribou subpopulations provided a massive dataset.&nbsp;



By comparing the timing and distances traveled over three and a half decades, scientists gleaned new insights into how caribou movement is shifting.



“The data shows that most of these subpopulations remain migratory to some degree, but seasonal migrations appear to be shrinking in both duration and extent,” Lamb said.&nbsp;



“Though our study spanned just 35 years - a blink compared to millennia caribou have been migrating here - we found migration eroding, not due to weather shifts, but alongside expanding human disturbance and caribou population decline.”



Caribou have traditionally migrated in response to food availability, snowpack conditions, and predation pressures, using both elevational (vertical) and horizontal movements.&nbsp;



Barren-ground caribou in the far north, for example, routinely traverse hundreds of kilometers, sometimes in vast herds. Southern mountain caribou travel smaller distances, but they once performed significant up-and-down journeys among mountainous and forested regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-caused-habitat-disturbance">Human-caused habitat disturbance</h2>



While the researchers tested the influence of changing weather patterns, they found no significant correlation between the shifts in migration and climate variables. Instead, they identified industrial and resource development as the primary factor affecting migration routes.



“Due to their southern distribution, these caribou are exposed to higher levels of human-caused landscape disturbance and associated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-species-are-shifting-their-habitats-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> change and loss," explained Lamb. 



"Observations from Indigenous communities, local people, scientists and government biologists indicate that southern mountain caribou migrations are changing or not happening at all."



Signs of development - such as logging, oil and gas extraction, road-building, and other infrastructure projects - have transformed much of the caribou’s original habitat.&nbsp;



By subdividing forests and carving out new corridors, these changes can boost predator access and fragment the terrain, making traditional migratory routes untenable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-decline-in-caribou-migration">Significant decline in caribou migration </h2>



“Southern mountain caribou migration, including the distance and elevation change, has declined significantly over the past 40 years, and we believe these changes are correlated with human-caused disturbances, including change and loss to habitat,” said Adam Ford, director of UBC’s Wildlife Restoration Ecology Lab.



In 1983, just 5% of the area inhabited by these caribou subpopulations had been disturbed by human activities (like reservoirs, logging, and resource extraction), whereas natural disturbances - for instance, from fire or pests - accounted for a mere 0.3%. By 2020, however, more than 30% of the same landscape had been altered by human use.



“Within the last 35 years, human-caused disturbance increased nearly sixfold within the ranges of the caribou subpopulations. Beyond impacts to migration, habitat disturbance - which has disrupted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamics</a> - is a primary cause of caribou population declines,” Ford said.&nbsp;



“It’s important to note the southern mountain caribou population declined by more than 50 per cent over the period of our investigation.”



This steep population drop coincides with the observed erosion of migratory behavior, signaling that caribou now struggle to adapt to an environment fragmented by industry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-ecological-balance">Restoring ecological balance </h2>



“Sustaining caribou populations and their migratory behavior into the future will require a rapid change in managing the landscape that facilitates extensive habitat conservation, restoration and a reduction in ongoing human-caused disturbance,” Lamb said.



Consequently, the study suggests that reversing these trends will require robust habitat protection efforts and stricter oversight of resource extraction. 



Creating buffer zones, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reforesting</a> clear-cut areas, and adopting management strategies to limit predator access are essential steps.



“Creating a landscape with suitable caribou habitats and lower predator densities that can once again sustain caribou is imperative to preserve their migratory behaviorr and support recovery efforts,” Lamb concluded.



Experts agree that a sustained effort to restore ecological balance could keep caribou on the move. Without prompt and meaningful intervention, further disruptions could eliminate both the migration patterns and the herds themselves - losing a millennia-old aspect of the mountain ecosystem.&nbsp;



Through collaboration among governments, industries, local communities, and Indigenous groups, conservation initiatives may still preserve this species’ ancient migratory legacy.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.70095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Caribou migration patterns disrupted by human activities

An extensive, decades-long analysis tracking endangered caribou populations has revealed...

iron ore deposit - 1

To the untrained eye, Megaphragma wasps may appear as mere specks of dust, but these minuscule insects - measuring just a fifth of a millimeter - are formidable hunters. 



They prey on even smaller insects called thrips, using them for both nourishment and shelter.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-wasp-species-named-after-famous-thieves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiny wasps</a> infiltrate thrips' bodies to lay their eggs, which then hatch, feed, and develop entirely within their hosts.



This unusual lifestyle requires them to fit into spaces that most insects would find impossible. It is no wonder that scientists have long been curious about how the wasps' bodies and organs manage under such extreme size constraints.



A recent study led by Dr. Gregor Belušič from the <a href="https://www.bf.uni-lj.si/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biotechnical Faculty</a> at the University of Ljubljana may have begun to clear up some of the mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-wonders-of-the-insect-world">Tiny wonders of the insect world</h2>



Megaphragma wasps do more than just outsmart thrips. They also show how far miniaturization can go before basic features stop working.



Most insects rely on their eyes for movement and exploration. Ommatidia form the building blocks of these compound eyes and act like small detectors for incoming light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incredible-compound-eyes">Incredible compound eyes</h2>



In <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37666087/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megaphragma viggianii</a>, researchers have counted a total of 29 ommatidia, which is extremely low compared to the number in the eyes of bigger insects. 



Each tiny ommatidium uses a lens that measures around 8 micrometers, but that’s still enough to focus light onto specialized structures below.



The rhabdom within each ommatidium (the optical units that make up the insect’s compound eye) has stayed thick enough - about 2 micrometers - to catch adequate light and send signals to the brain. 



This balance between lens size and rhabdom thickness seems to preserve clear vision during daylight hours.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-energetic-cost-of-vision">The energetic cost of vision</h2>



Packed pigment granules line the sides of each ommatidium. They block stray light that might otherwise blur the wasp’s vision.



Maintaining sight at such a small scale may demand a lot of energy. Some data hint at heavy loads of mitochondria in these photoreceptor cells, suggesting that vision comes with a metabolic price.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polarized-light-detection">Polarized light detection</h2>



Roughly a third of the ommatidia cluster near the dorsal region of the eye. These specialized structures appear to detect <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13825256/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polarized light</a>, a feature known to help insects orientate under open skies.



In many insects, the dorsal rim area is essential for successful navigation and migration. It provides steady guidance, even when visual landmarks are absent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extra-light-sensors">Extra light sensors</h2>



In addition, a few unique photoreceptor cells hide behind the first row of ommatidia. They are positioned to receive light indirectly.



Some experts suggest these hidden receptors might take part in day-night rhythms or other internal body processes. Small as these eyes are, they still maintain surprising complexity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compensations-for-extreme-miniaturization">Compensations for extreme miniaturization</h2>



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-have-a-new-weapon-to-defend-against-parasitic-wasps/">wasps</a> show that size reduction has its limits. Eye cells have nuclei, which remain intact despite the disappearance of nuclei in parts of the wasp’s brain.



Retaining larger cell structures may be unavoidable for proper light collection and signal processing. If eyes shrink too far, vision might no longer be useful during flight or host-finding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Scientists see these eyes as a chance to explore extreme biology. Understanding how tiny lenses and sensors function might lead to ideas in micro-robotics or imaging devices.



These intricate eyes can also be mapped in three dimensions, thanks to modern microscopy methods. 



That opens doors to simulating miniature visual systems on computers and comparing them with those found in larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-rarest-insect-returns-lord-howe-island-stick-insect-dryococelus-australis/">insect species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspiration-for-advanced-technology">Inspiration for advanced technology</h2>



The way these wasps manage vision at such a small scale has caught the attention of engineers and designers working on miniature imaging systems. 



By studying how their tiny lenses and light-sensitive structures function efficiently, researchers could develop better micro-cameras for medical procedures, robotics, and surveillance.



Advances in bio-inspired optics are already shaping the design of ultra-small sensors. 



Understanding how these wasps maximize light capture while avoiding distortion may lead to breakthroughs in the design of compact visual systems that operate in low-light conditions or restricted spaces.



The study is published in <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/105736" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Unexpected discovery inside the eye of a tiny wasp

To the untrained eye, Megaphragma wasps may appear as mere...

New research suggests that using sex to ease social tension may have roots going back more than six million years, to a common ancestor shared by humans, bonobos, and chimpanzees.&nbsp;



While it’s no surprise that humans don’t only have sex to reproduce, this study highlights a similar pattern in our closest ape cousins, offering a window into how this behavior might have evolved in our own species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-bonobos-and-chimpanzees">Comparing bonobos and chimpanzees</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonobos</a> have long been recognized as “hypersexual” apes that turn to sexual activity to diffuse tension and mend rifts after disagreements. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-have-remarkable-spatial-memory-and-sense-of-direction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimpanzees</a>, on the other hand, have tended to be seen as more aggressive, leaving scientists uncertain about whether they also rely on sex to settle social conflicts. 



In a study led by <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> and published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.242031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>, researchers compared these two species under similar conditions to see how each used sex during tense moments.



The team observed bonobos and chimpanzees at two African great ape sanctuaries, logging more than 1,400 hours of data over seven months in 2019. They focused on two scenarios: after natural social altercations and just before feeding time, when appetites and power dynamics can lead to conflict.&nbsp;



The findings showed that while both species use sex to ease friction when competition is high - particularly before mealtimes - bonobos tended to rely on post-conflict “make-up sex” more frequently, whereas chimpanzees often used other forms of reassurance, such as grooming and body kissing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-our-evolutionary-past">A peek into our evolutionary past</h2>



The fact that bonobos and chimpanzees both use sexual contact to manage tension points to an ancient evolutionary trait, one that we humans appear to share.&nbsp;



“Whilst bonobos, who are famously hypersexual, were more likely to engage in so-called ‘make-up sex’ after periods of conflict, we found that chimpanzees, who some view as our more aggressive cousin, also use sex to ease tensions in many circumstances,” said lead author Jake Brooker, a postdoctoral researcher in Durham’s Department of Psychology.



Because bonobos and chimpanzees diverged from their common ancestor with humans over six million years ago, these findings hint that harnessing sex for social reasons - beyond mere reproduction - may have been part of that ancestral ape’s behavioral toolkit.&nbsp;



Bonobos’ reputation for “peace through pleasure” may not be so different in spirit from how chimpanzees and humans also use sexual bonds to relieve stress and reinforce alliances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-sex-to-prevent-conflict-nbsp">Using sex to prevent conflict&nbsp;</h2>



Another fascinating observation emerged when the researchers noticed that older apes in both species were more likely to initiate sexual interactions before feeding. This could mean that employing sex to prevent or reduce conflict is a learned or socially reinforced behavior.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, female bonobos and male chimpanzees showed a particular inclination toward initiating these interactions, though sex occurred across both heterosexual and same-sex pairings.



In contexts following disagreements, bonobos were more prone to using sex to patch things up, while chimpanzees often turned to other comforting gestures.&nbsp;



This difference might reflect the broader cultural or societal norms within each species - bonobos relying on a more sexually driven approach, and chimpanzees mixing sexual contact with an array of conciliatory activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-as-a-social-tool">Sex as a social tool</h2>



While humans are obviously different from apes in many ways, the study adds to a growing body of evidence that sex can serve social functions, such as conflict resolution, stress relief, and relationship maintenance.&nbsp;



Since bonobos, chimpanzees, and humans are all closely related, observing similarities in how these behaviors emerge under pressure can teach us more about our shared past.



It also challenges simplistic stereotypes: bonobos aren’t always the carefree “hippies” of the ape world, nor are chimpanzees unrelentingly belligerent. The reality is more nuanced. Even chimpanzees, known for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peaceful-bonobos-are-actually-more-aggressive-than-chimps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggressive tendencies</a>, use sexual contact to manage stress when circumstances demand it.



“Against the assumptions of pacifist sex-mad bonobos and aggressive chimpanzees, we found that both species used sex in similar ways during tense situations. This study highlights that beyond reproduction, sex plays an important role in their societies, and most likely for our early ancestors too,” said senior author Zanna Clay, a professor at Durham University.



With further research, scientists hope to learn more about how sex functions in different contexts for these apes, including how it varies in wild populations.&nbsp;



Such insights could add yet another layer of understanding to the intricate ways humans and our closest relatives navigate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-interactions-have-a-surprising-influence-on-memory-in-great-apes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social life</a> - both during times of strife and everyday interactions.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sex has been used in conflict resolution for millions of years

New research suggests that using sex to ease social tension...

Insects play a crucial role in food chains and pollination. Over the last 20 years, their populations have dramatically declined due to rapid climate change. 



In a recent study, scientists have gained new insights into how certain fly species adapt to temperature shifts.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> studied two species from different climates: one from high-altitude forests in Northern California and the other from the hot deserts of the Southwest.



The findings reveal key differences in how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-like-to-play-and-have-fun-like-other-animals-according-to-a-fascinating-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> sense and respond to heat. The study suggests that changes in brain wiring and heat sensitivity influence whether a fly prefers warm or cool conditions.



This research may help predict how climate change will impact insect distribution and behavior. Tiny cold-blooded animals like flies rely on their environment to regulate body temperature. 



Their responses to temperature shifts offer valuable insights into the broader effects of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-flies-adapt-to-temperature">How flies adapt to temperature</h2>



The scientists found that flies from cool forests avoid heat due to their antennae’s molecular heat receptors.



In contrast, desert <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> are drawn to warmth, which is linked to changes in their brain wiring. These adaptations may have evolved over millions of years as each species adjusted to its environment.



The research sheds light on how animals develop preferences for specific temperature conditions. Understanding these adaptations can help predict future insect behavior in a rapidly changing world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-data-on-insects-and-climate-change">Limited data on insects and climate change</h2>



“Insects are especially threatened by climate change,” said Northwestern neurobiologist Marco Gallio. 



“Behavior is the first interface between an animal and its environment. Even before the struggle to survive or perish, animals can respond to climate change by migration and by changing their distribution."



“We are already seeing insect populations declining in many regions, and even insect vectors of disease like the Zika virus and malaria spreading into new areas.”



Gallio, a professor in the neurobiology department and the Soretta and Henry Shapiro Research Professor in Molecular Biology at the <a href="https://weinberg.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences</a>, studies fruit flies and their sensory systems. 



Professor Gallio noted that limited data exist on insects and temperature because “not enough people care about the insects.” However, the available figures show a drastic decline over the past 20 to 50 years.



Insects pollinate 70% of crops and form the base of most terrestrial food chains. Their disappearance could trigger catastrophic ecosystem damage and directly affect human well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-sensitivity-in-flies">Temperature sensitivity in flies</h2>



Professor Gallio’s lab has long focused on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-have-a-new-weapon-to-defend-against-parasitic-wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small insects</a> respond to different temperatures.



“The common fruit fly is an especially powerful animal to study how the external world is represented and processed within the brain,” Gallio said. 



Years of genetic and neuroscience research have created a detailed map of the fly brain, more complete than that of any other animal.



Scientists wondered how brain circuits differed between species that lived in distinct thermal environments. 



Using tools like CRISPR, they studied genetic and neural mechanisms that shape temperature preferences.



PhD student Matthew Capek, lead author of the study, explained that flies from different climates detect heat at different activation points. 



This discovery partially explained the forest flies’ preference for cooler temperatures. However, it did not fully clarify the desert flies’ attraction to heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-the-right-insect-temperature">Seeking the right insect temperature</h2>



“The desert fly seemed actively attracted to warmer temperatures - around 90 degrees Fahrenheit compared to the forest fly’s sweet spot just below 70 degrees,” Capek said.



“In fact, the activation threshold of the antenna heat sensors corresponded to their favorite temperature range, which they will seek, rather than to a temperature they should avoid.”



Instead of avoiding high temperatures, desert flies interpret warmth as something positive. Their brain circuits appear wired to approach heat rather than flee from it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-desert-flies-seek-heat">Why desert flies seek heat</h2>



Gallio initially found this puzzling. If deserts are already hot, why would <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> seek out warmth? A research trip to the Anza Borrego desert of Southern California provided the answer.



“Deserts in this region are very hot during the day, but temperatures can drop extremely rapidly when the sun goes down, and night can be downright freezing,” said Alessia Para, a research associate professor of neurobiology and key author of the study. 



“Flies in this climate may need to constantly attend to the rapidly changing temperature and always seek the ideal range, finding shady spots during the day and hiding in cacti for warmth at night.”



Flies from milder environments may only react to extreme temperature shifts. In contrast, desert flies must continuously monitor temperature changes to survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-climate-and-temperature">Insects, climate, and temperature</h2>



Tracking the right temperature at all times is energy-intensive. For desert <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-walk-jump-and-dance-using-the-same-motor-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a>, however, it is a necessary survival strategy. 



Professor Gallio sees their behavior as part of a larger puzzle about how animals adapt to different climates.



“This comparative work is useful in a couple of different ways,” Gallio said. 



“When an animal is born, the brain is already programmed to know if many of the things it will encounter are bad or good for it, and we do not understand how that programming works.



“These fly species represent a natural experiment because a stimulus that is good for one species is bad for the other, and we can study the differences that make it so. 



“We also want to learn more about how animals have been able to adapt to different temperatures during evolution, so that we may be able to better understand and even predict how they react to ongoing climate change. 



“Of course, we care about the insects, and we hope that what we learn may help us appreciate and protect them better.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08682-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Insect populations are "dramatically" declining around the world as scientists sound alarm

Insects play a crucial role in food chains and pollination....

New research has uncovered a surprising wrinkle in our understanding of how pesticides affect bumble bees.&nbsp;



While common sense tells us that chemicals meant to kill insects can only harm pollinators, it turns out there may be moments when a tiny amount of poison could actually help a bumble bee queen make it through winter - at least in the short term.



A team of researchers led by <a href="https://agsci.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University’s College of Agricultural Sciences</a> examined imidacloprid, a widely used neonicotinoid insecticide. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-term-benefits-vs-long-term-fitness">Short-term benefits vs. long-term fitness </h2>



It’s already well-established that high doses of imidacloprid shorten bees’ lives and reduce their ability to reproduce. 



But when the scientists took a closer look, they found something unexpected: at low, sublethal doses, imidacloprid seemed to help bumble bee queens survive through diapause, which is the bug-world version of hibernation.



This phenomenon is called hormesis - when a small dose of something that’s generally harmful turns out to be beneficial under just the right circumstances.&nbsp;



The experts compared it to caffeine for humans. A small amount might provide a boost, but we all know it can also interfere with our sleep if we’re not careful.&nbsp;



“Even low doses can have unintended effects, such as disrupting sleep,” said Etya Amsalem, an associate professor of entomology at Penn State and the study’s lead author.



According to Professor Amsalem, if hormesis goes unrecognized, it could lead to the mistaken conclusion that certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-attack-bees-in-multiple-ways-throughout-the-body/">pesticides</a> benefit bees. 



“Such a misconception is dangerous, given the well-documented negative effects of imidacloprid and the trade-offs associated with hormetic responses - where short-term benefits trade-off with long-term fitness.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-winter-struggle-of-bumble-bee-queens">Winter struggle of bumble bee queens</h2>



One reason this discovery matters so much is that queen bumble bees spend a huge chunk of their life - often around 75% - in diapause. This is a dormant state that helps them weather harsh winter conditions.&nbsp;



If a queen doesn’t make it through this frigid, food-scarce period, an entire future colony is lost in the process.



“Despite the fact that most pollinators undergo winter diapause, pesticide risk assessments typically focus on the bee’s active seasons, overlooking a significant portion of the bee’s life cycle,” Amsalem explained.&nbsp;



So, while we know a fair bit about how chemicals impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-is-buzzing-off-bumblebee-senses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> during spring and summer, there’s a big gap in our knowledge about what happens to them over winter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pesticides-and-bumble-bee-survival">Pesticides and bumble bee survival</h2>



To figure out how imidacloprid might affect bees during both the active and dormant phases, the team fed bumble bees sugar water containing different concentrations of the insecticide.&nbsp;



For worker bees and males, higher doses led to the usual bad news: shorter lifespans and fewer offspring. But when the scientists gave queen bees just a little bit of imidacloprid before sending them into diapause under controlled conditions, they noticed a puzzling effect.&nbsp;



“Surprisingly, we found that sublethal imidacloprid exposure actually improved the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebee-queens-have-an-odd-preference-for-contaminated-soil/">queens</a>’ survival,” Amsalem said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormesis-a-double-edged-sword">Hormesis: A double-edged sword</h2>



While a longer winter survival time sounds like a good thing, that’s only one part of the bigger story. The team also saw that imidacloprid exposure lowered overall fitness, such as decreasing a colony’s total reproductive output.&nbsp;



In other words, the queen might make it through the winter more often if she has just a tiny bit of pesticide in her system, but that same pesticide still saps her and her colony in other ways - perhaps making them less robust once spring arrives.



That’s the essence of hormesis: it’s a trade-off. In bees, these short-term gains don’t necessarily mean the insecticide is actually beneficial when you look at the big picture.&nbsp;



Instead, scientists worry that not accounting for hormesis could lead us to think that certain pesticides are harmless or even helpful, when in fact they may still pose major threats to our pollinator populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-the-bigger-picture">Looking at the bigger picture</h2>



Bumble bees are critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinators</a> for a variety of crops. Any shift in their survival rates - good or bad - could have huge implications for agriculture and ecosystems. If our standard methods of testing pesticide safety overlook what happens during diapause, we risk missing the full picture.



Professor Amsalem believes these findings should be woven into how we assess and regulate pesticides. She also said we need to dig deeper into the “why” of this hormetic response. 



“Most importantly,” she explained, “we must strive to conduct nuanced science that provides a holistic understanding of how stressors affect pollinators - ensuring better-informed conservation efforts.”



To truly protect bumble bees and other pollinators, experts will need to examine every part of their life cycle, not just those busy spring and summer months.&nbsp;



That includes thinking about how warming and pesticides might affect them differently in different seasons - and whether certain amounts of chemicals that look safe on the surface can still be causing hidden problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The discovery that low doses of imidacloprid can help queens survive winter means we can’t simply dismiss all sublethal pesticide exposure as benign. It also means that if we don’t consider diapause in our risk assessments, we might jump to the wrong conclusions.&nbsp;



Future research will no doubt explore exactly how these low doses increase queen survival and whether similar patterns show up in other insect species or other types of pesticides.



What’s clear is that pollinator health is rarely a simple matter of “just avoid poison.” From the vantage point of ecology, everything is connected. A small dose can have unforeseen benefits - until it doesn’t.&nbsp;



By expanding our perspective to include times of the year we usually overlook, like the frigid months when queen bees are hidden away, we stand a better chance of keeping these vital pollinators humming along for generations to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0612">Biology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Pesticides affect bumble bee health in complex ways

New research has uncovered a surprising wrinkle in our understanding...

Researchers at the University of Manchester suggest that fossilized bones of the ancient flying reptiles known as pterosaurs may offer vital insights for building lighter, stronger materials in future. 



Using advanced X-ray imaging, the research team discovered a hidden network of microscopic canals inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-took-flight-millions-of-years-before-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pterosaur</a> wing bones.&nbsp;



These canals, originally used for nutrient transport and structural maintenance, also helped protect against small cracks - a natural design that could revolutionize aerospace engineering today.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-flyers-with-an-engineering-edge">Prehistoric flyers with an engineering edge</h2>



Pterosaurs were flying reptiles that lived alongside dinosaurs and were the first vertebrates to achieve powered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flight</a>.&nbsp;



Early pterosaur species had wingspans of about 2 meters (6.5 feet), but later forms grew much larger, with some exceeding 10 meters (32 feet). 



Supporting such expansive wing membranes required a delicate balance between high strength and low weight. 



The scientists behind this new study used state-of-the-art X-ray Computed Tomography (XCT) to examine precisely how pterosaurs met this challenge. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-pterosaur-bones-for-biomimicry">Analyzing pterosaur bones for biomimicry</h2>



By analyzing fossil bones at near sub-micrometer resolution, the experts uncovered a dense web of channels inside the bone tissue. 



These channels not only served biological functions, such as transferring nutrients and aiding bone growth, but also provided mechanical reinforcement. 



They directed stress away from weaker areas, thus preventing microfractures from developing into serious damage.



“We are so excited to find and map these microscopic interlocking structures in pterosaur bones," said Nathan Pili, a Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> and first author of the study. 



"We hope one day we can use them to reduce the weight of aircraft materials, thereby reducing fuel consumption and potentially making planes safer.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-bones-in-amazing-detail">Pterosaur bones in amazing detail</h2>



To capture these structures in 3D, the research team harnessed ultra-detailed X-ray imaging that can visualize features around 20 times thinner than a human hair.&nbsp;



Past examinations of pterosaur bones had never reached this resolution, leaving these intricate microcanals undiscovered. 



According to the team, the extraordinary precision of the scans allowed them to understand how the channels fit together like a network, conferring both strength and flexibility.



The microcanals were originally pathways for blood vessels and other biological materials. Over millions of years of evolution, however, pterosaurs adapted to maintain enough bone density to support flight without adding unnecessary mass.&nbsp;



The result was a structural arrangement that distributed loads effectively - an arrangement that the researchers believe could point to innovative “palaeo-biomimetic” solutions for 21st-century engineering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aircraft-inspired-by-pterosaur-bones-nbsp">Aircraft inspired by pterosaur bones&nbsp;</h2>



Modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-aircraft-demonstrate-major-climate-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aircraft</a> designers are always looking for lighter yet more resilient materials to reduce fuel consumption, cut emissions, and enhance safety.&nbsp;



The canal-based structure found in pterosaur bones might be mimicked in metal 3D printing, producing airplane parts with strategically placed internal channels that mirror the reptile’s natural bone architecture.



“It is highly likely that, among the billions of permutations of life on Earth, unique engineering solutions have evolved but were lost to the sands of time,” said Professor Phil Manning, senior author of the study and Director of Science at the <a href="https://dct.gov.ae/en/what.we.do/culture/museums/natural.history.museum.abu.dhabi..aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum Abu Dhabi</a>.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/ancient-pterosaur-bone_aerospace-design_credit-UManchester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/ancient-pterosaur-bone_aerospace-design_credit-UManchester_1s.webp" alt="Credit: Nathan Pili, University of Manchester" class="wp-image-1961537"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Credit: Nathan Pili, University of Manchester</figcaption></figure>



“We hope to unlock the potential of ancient natural solutions to create new materials but also help build a more sustainable future.”



The researchers suggest that such bio-inspired designs could allow for integrated sensors or even self-healing properties, further pushing the boundaries of aviation technology.&nbsp;



As more advanced 3D printing methods emerge, these fossil-derived ideas could feasibly enter industrial production lines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dual-function-of-pterosaur-bones">Dual function of pterosaur bones</h2>



As the largest known flying vertebrates, some pterosaurs had wingspans of up to 10 meters (32 feet) or more, supported primarily by an elongated fourth finger that served as a “wing spar.”&nbsp;



This anatomical arrangement required bones that were strong enough to sustain flight stresses yet not so heavy as to hinder takeoff and maneuverability. The newly revealed microcanal system effectively addresses both goals.



The dual function of biological support and mechanical resilience is a hallmark of evolutionary engineering, where life solves specific survival challenges over millions of years of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a>.



“There is over 4 billion years of experimental design that were a function of Darwinian natural selection,” Manning commented. 



“These natural solutions are beautifully reflected by the same iterative processes used by engineers to refine materials.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinct-creatures-and-modern-innovation-nbsp">Extinct creatures and modern innovation&nbsp;</h2>



The study’s authors see these discoveries as a stepping stone to palaeo-biomimetics, the idea that even extinct creatures can guide modern innovation.&nbsp;



Whether for aircraft, marine vessels, or other structural applications, the strategies that once helped pterosaurs soar across prehistoric skies may now help address present-day engineering obstacles.



While natural selection did not always produce “perfect” designs, there may be countless examples of biological systems that overcame extreme challenges.&nbsp;



The pterosaur bone microcanals are just one instance of how ancient life can inform solutions that lie beyond the scope of conventional human design.



Pili and colleagues plan to conduct higher-resolution scans of more pterosaur fossils, hoping to uncover additional secrets hidden in ancient bones.&nbsp;



These efforts may spur a new wave of cross-disciplinary research involving paleontology, materials science, and advanced manufacturing. 



The hope is that some of the most promising ideas for the future might be found by looking 100 million years into the past.



The findings were recently published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-88257-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

100-million-year-old bones inspire new aircraft design

Researchers at the University of Manchester suggest that fossilized bones...

Life on Earth has faced several extinction events, but none were as devastating as the end-Permian mass extinction 252 million years ago. Nearly 90% of all species vanished, yet some amphibians managed to survive.



This catastrophe reshaped ecosystems, forcing the remaining species to adapt to extreme conditions. Among these survivors were ancient amphibians called temnospondyls, distant relatives of modern frogs and salamanders.



Scientists from the University of Bristol have uncovered how these early amphibians endured the extinction crisis. 



The findings, published in Royal Society Open Science, reveal that temnospondyls thrived by feeding on freshwater prey, which remained stable while land-based food sources dwindled.



Their adaptability helped early amphibians <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-saunas-hot-solution-to-fighting-global-amphibian-extinction-apocalypse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survive</a> a world marked by climate chaos and environmental upheaval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-amphibians-survived-extinction">How amphibians survived extinction</h2>



The period following the end-Permian extinction was marked by drastic environmental shifts. Massive volcanic eruptions led to rising global temperatures, acid rain, and widespread wildfires. 



Many terrestrial species struggled to find food as plant and animal populations plummeted. However, freshwater ecosystems remained relatively stable, providing a refuge for adaptable predators like temnospondyls.



“One of the great mysteries has been the survival and flourishing of a major group of amphibians called the temnospondyls,” said Aamir Mehmood from Bristol’s <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Biological Sciences</a>. 



“These were predatory animals that fed on fishes and other prey, but were primarily linked to the water, just like modern amphibians such as frogs and salamanders. We know that climates then were hot, and especially so after the extinction event. How could these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-a-new-virus-put-an-end-to-the-global-amphibian-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water-loving animals</a> have been so successful?”



Scientists believe that the feeding habits of amphibians played a crucial role in preventing their extinction. Unlike land-dwelling predators, which relied on an unstable food supply, temnospondyls could hunt a variety of freshwater creatures, ensuring their survival even when environmental conditions changed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-features-of-early-amphibians">Features of early amphibians </h2>



“We collected data on 100 temnospondyls that lived throughout the Triassic and wanted to look at how their ecologies changed. We measured their body sizes and features of the skulls and teeth that tell us about function,” noted co-author Dr. Suresh Singh.



“Much to our surprise, we found that they did not change much through the crisis," added Dr. Armin Elsler. "The temnospondyls showed the same range of body sizes as in the Permian, some of them small and feeding on insects, and others larger."



“These larger forms included long-snouted animals that trapped fishes and broad-snouted generalist feeders. What was unusual though was how their diversity of body sizes and functional variety expanded about 5 million years after the crisis and then dropped back.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surviving-the-tropical-dead-zone">Surviving the tropical dead zone</h2>



Due to extreme global warming in the Early Triassic, many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibian-siphonops-annulatus-discovered-feeds-milk-to-offspring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> moved away from the tropics. However, temnospondyls managed to cross these inhospitable regions.



“Our work shows that the temnospondyls, unexpectedly, were able to cross the tropical dead zone," said Professor Mike Benton.



"Fossils are known from South Africa and Australia in the south, as well as North America, Europe, and Russia in the north. The temnospondyls must have been able to criss-cross the tropical zone during cooler episodes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-decline-of-early-amphibians">The decline of early amphibians</h2>



Their early success highlights the resilience of amphibians, showing how adaptability can determine survival in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-and-toads-face-new-risks-as-their-habitats-dry-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme environments</a>. However, Mehmood pointed out that the amphibians' rapid success in the Early Triassic was short-lived.



"They coped with the hot conditions probably by having a low requirement for food, by being able to eat most prey animals, and by hiding in sparse water bodies. But when the ancestors of dinosaurs and of mammals began to diversify in the Middle Triassic, the temnospondyls began their long decline."



The dominance of temnospondyls faded as the new competitors emerged, leading to their eventual extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-of-resilience">A legacy of resilience</h2>



Temnospondyls may have disappeared, but their story highlights how adaptability shapes survival. Their ability to endure extreme environmental changes for millions of years demonstrates the importance of flexible feeding strategies and ecological diversity.



The history of temnospondyls also provides insight into how modern amphibians might respond to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibian-fossils-found-in-burrows-reveal-ancient-survival-strategies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental challenges</a>.



As climate change alters habitats today, species with broad diets and adaptable lifestyles may have the best chance of survival, just as the temnospondyls did millions of years ago.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241200" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How amphibians survived Earth’s deadliest mass extinction

Life on Earth has faced several extinction events, but none...

Infections often conjure images of bacteria or viruses, but certain fungi can also take their toll on us. They can hide in unsuspecting corners of the environment and interact with living organisms in ways that raise many questions.



One particular fungus, Beauveria bassiana, has captured attention because of its interactions with insects. 



Its spores settle on an insect and then germinate and penetrate through the cuticle. The insect dies within days and forms the substrate for a white fungal mold that grows and flourishes.



<a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/staff/profiles/biosciences/hidalgo-alicia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Alicia Hidalgo</a>, from the University of Birmingham, directed a recent investigation into infections in insects by this devastating fungus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-responses-to-brain-fungus">Immune responses to brain fungus</h2>



Fruit flies became the chosen subjects for this study because their immune system shares some features with that of more complex creatures. 



Researchers often turn to these small insects when exploring disease processes in a simple model.



The researchers analyzed the effect of the fungus on the brains of flies and found that flies infected with B. bassiana suffered a reduction in the number of brain cells. 



They identified that the fly's own immune system was "tricked" by the invading fungus to start destroying brain cells.



In flies, Toll receptors are agents of the immune system. When infected with the fungus, the Toll-1 receptors in the flies triggered the release of antimicrobial peptides that attack and kill pathogens. 



However, the fungus also provoked the Toll-1 receptors to produce another molecule, called Sarm, that suppresses the immune response and destroys brain cells instead.



“We have shown a process for how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-fungi-communicate-using-a-silent-language/">fungi</a> have evolved to trick the immune system to get into the brain,” said Prof. Hidalgo. Her findings suggest that a normal line of defense can accidentally turn against the very organ it’s meant to protect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sarm-s-link-to-neurodegeneration">Sarm's link to neurodegeneration</h2>



When the immune system tries to confront this fungus, the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2738257/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sarm</a> molecules step up their activity; they have the potential to sabotage defenses by encouraging cell damage in the brain.



“The key antagonist in the immune process is Sarm,&nbsp;a so-called master of destruction, that is causing cell death in the brain. The ability of&nbsp;B. bassiana&nbsp;to trick the fruit fly immune system into activating the master of destruction Sarm and kill&nbsp;cells enables spores to beat the blood-brain barrier and start feeding on brain cells,” commented Hidalgo.



The process, known as neurodegeneration, describes the gradual breakdown of nerve cells. If immune signals become confused, the result might be nerve destruction in the brain.



Experts note that this fungus, though hazardous to insects, is widely used for insect management in agriculture. It is developed into a type of pesticide and used to kills certain insects. 



The findings offer a curious look at how a single microbe might manipulate host biology for its own benefit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-this-fungus-mean-for-humans">What does this fungus mean for humans?</h2>



“It is important to stress that B. bassiana cannot affect humans,” explained <a href="https://web-cdn.bsky.app/profile/did:plc:d6rwoejbzaavw4wcxlydd6un" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Deepanshu Singh</a>, now a post-doc at the University of Manchester. The fungus targets insects, but it stays clear of mammals.



Still, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/">other fungi</a> are known to reach the human brain under certain conditions. These discoveries hint that parallel strategies might pop up in different species, especially when fungal organisms are trying to survive inside a host.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-perspective-on-fungal-threats">A broader perspective on fungal threats</h2>



Some scientists believe that future work could explore whether similar immune system misdirection happens in other animals. 



Understanding how these pathogens find loopholes in the immune system may help researchers develop new interventions.



Fungal infections often get less attention than bacterial or viral illnesses, yet they can still pose serious threats. 



The possibility that a fungus might slip into the human central nervous system and confuse its defenses encourages further research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-neurodegenerative-diseases">Implications for neurodegenerative diseases</h2>



The discovery that a fungal infection can manipulate immune responses to attack brain cells raises questions about similar mechanisms in humans. 



Some neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease, involve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-tiny-bacteria-outsmart-the-human-immune-system/">immune system</a> dysfunction and excessive inflammation in the brain.



If certain pathogens can trigger destructive immune pathways, this could offer new insights into how inflammation contributes to neurodegeneration. 



Researchers may investigate whether similar immune evasion tactics occur in human infections, potentially linking fungal exposure to long-term neurological effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-next-steps-in-fungal-research">Possible next steps in fungal research</h2>



Scientists hope to identify molecules that can protect nerve cells when the immune system is tricked. Pinpointing the exact signals could spark novel medical approaches for people at risk of certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchid-parents-nurture-seedlings-through-fungal-networks/">fungal</a> infections.



Research also continues on ways to control fungal spread in agricultural settings without harming beneficial insects. 



B. bassiana remains a useful tool for pest management, though its tactics highlight the complexity of the microbe-host relationship.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003020" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Brain-eating fungus causes the immune system to attack neurons

Infections often conjure images of bacteria or viruses, but certain...

Honeybees have been indispensable to agriculture for centuries. Their role in pollination supports food production, contributing to the growth of fruits, vegetables, nuts, and coffee. Without bees and proper hive health, many crops would struggle, leading to food shortages.



But bee populations are shrinking due to bad weather, chemicals, and pests. This harms nature and makes life harder for beekeepers who need healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> for honey and farming.



Beekeepers face increasing challenges in maintaining hive health. External stressors disrupt colonies, making it difficult for bees to survive. 



Traditional methods of monitoring hive conditions rely on experience and judgment. While valuable, these methods are not always precise. Scientists and engineers have now introduced a data-driven approach to help beekeepers make informed decisions and prevent colony collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-beehive-thermoregulation">Understanding beehive thermoregulation</h2>



Bee colonies regulate their internal temperature to stay between 33 and 36 degrees Celsius, or 91 to 97 degrees Fahrenheit. This thermoregulation is vital for the survival of the hive. 



When temperatures drop, bees cluster together to generate warmth. In hot conditions, they fan their wings to cool the hive. This natural ability allows them to protect their brood and maintain an optimal environment for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-cause-of-honeybee-mortality-can-be-easily-reduced/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colony</a>.



However, when external stressors like pesticides, habitat loss, or sudden weather changes affect the hive, bees struggle to maintain their internal climate. If they fail, the colony becomes vulnerable to diseases, reduced reproduction, and, ultimately, collapse. 



Beekeepers intervene when necessary, but current monitoring techniques do not always detect early warning signs of trouble. Scientists recognized this gap and developed an advanced tool to assist beekeepers in safeguarding their hives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smart-system-to-track-hive-health">Smart system to track hive health</h2>



A research team from Carnegie Mellon University’s <a href="https://www.cs.cmu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Computer Science</a> and the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California</a>, Riverside has developed a system to monitor hive health more accurately.



This tool, called the Electronic Bee-Veterinarian (EBV), uses heat sensors and predictive modeling to track changes in hive temperature and identify early signs of stress.



The EBV system includes two sensors - one inside the hive and one outside. These sensors collect real-time temperature data, which is then fed into a model that calculates a hive health factor.



This single numerical value provides beekeepers with a quick understanding of their colony’s condition. If the health factor remains close to one, the hive is functioning normally. If it drops significantly, beekeepers receive an early warning that intervention is needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-data-driven-approach-to-hive-health">Data-driven approach to hive health </h2>



The research team applied physics and engineering principles to design an effective health monitoring system. Christos Faloutsos, a professor of computer science at Carnegie Mellon, explained the approach used to create the hive health forecasting model.



"We derived equations based on the first principles of thermal diffusion, heat transfer and control theory," said Professor Faloutsos.



"We put these equations together and then compressed all the historical data into one number, the hive health factor. If the health factor is close to one, the bees are healthy and thermoregulating."



"If it is much lower than one, it means the beehive isn't healthy and might need an intervention. Once we have this health factor computed every day, we can do standard forecasting and the beekeeper can take further action."



This data-driven approach simplifies decision-making for beekeepers. Instead of relying solely on visual inspections or experience, they can use precise, real-time data to assess hive health and respond to problems before they escalate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-a-tool-for-beekeepers">Designing a tool for beekeepers</h2>



One of the key goals of the EBV project was to ensure that the system was easy to use. 



Many beekeepers do not have technical expertise in data analysis, so researchers condensed the data into a single hive health factor. This simplification allows any beekeeper, regardless of experience, to interpret the results quickly.



Jeremy Lee, a doctoral student at Carnegie Mellon who worked on the project, emphasized the importance of collaboration between different fields in making this system successful. 



The team included researchers from computer science, electrical engineering, and entomology. Their combined knowledge helped create a practical and effective solution for beekeepers.



"This is something I'm very interested in - using our expertise from computer science and working with other domain experts to make an impact in another area," Lee said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computer-science-in-agriculture">Computer science in agriculture</h2>



Lee has worked on other projects that use computational techniques to solve real-world challenges. 



Along with Professor Faloutsos and other researchers from Carnegie Mellon and McGill University, Lee applied data science to criminology by helping experts detect human trafficking networks. His ability to bridge different fields has made a tangible impact in both law enforcement and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-use-creative-dance-moves-to-help-others-find-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental science</a>.



The EBV system represents a growing trend where computer science and artificial intelligence contribute to agriculture and environmental sustainability. 



With forecasting and automation, technology helps beekeepers keep hives stable and prevent losses. The next step is to improve the system even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-hive-climate-control">Future of hive climate control</h2>



With additional funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the research team is working on automating hive climate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">control</a>. 



If successful, the EBV system will not only detect health issues but also take corrective actions automatically. This could involve adjusting hive temperature to counteract environmental stress or implementing early interventions to protect bees from disease outbreaks.



With automated climate control, beekeepers can do less manual work while keeping hives healthy and producing more honey. This technology could also help large beekeeping farms manage many hives more easily.



The decline of honeybee populations remains a serious concern, but innovations like the EBV system offer hope. By combining scientific expertise with real-world applications, researchers have created a tool that could change how beekeepers manage their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3719014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACM Transactions on Knowledge Discovery from Data</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Smart sensors help beekeepers monitor hive health

Honeybees have been indispensable to agriculture for centuries. Their role...

A country like Australia, with its wildlife-rich forests, is a treasure trove of interesting species. Standing out among them is the superb lyrebird. This bird's distinct tail and mimicry skills have always fascinated scientists and nature enthusiasts.



However, recent research has uncovered a previously unseen aspect of the bird's behavior, shedding light on how it stands apart from other species. 



The lyrebird does more than just imitate sounds. It farms to keep a steady food supply which helps maintain the balance of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-that-optimize-their-food-supply">Birds that optimize their food supply</h2>



For years, scientists have studied the foraging habits of lyrebirds, but only recently did they realize the true extent of their influence on their habitat. Researchers from <a href="https://www.latrobe.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">La Trobe University</a> observed these birds arranging leaf litter and soil in ways that create microhabitats, perfect for the growth of their prey.



Instead of simply hunting for food, lyrebirds manipulate the forest floor to encourage worms, centipedes, and spiders to flourish. By creating the right conditions, they ensure that their prey grows larger and becomes more abundant, allowing them to return later for an easy meal.



This type of farming is rarely seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>, making the lyrebird a unique case among birds. The research findings suggest that the bird does not just survive in its environment but actively modifies it to its advantage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lyrebird-s-impact-on-forest-ecosystems">Lyrebird’s impact on forest ecosystems</h2>



To better understand how these birds shape their surroundings, the researchers set up controlled experiments. They fenced off small areas in the forest to prevent lyrebirds from entering. Some of these areas were left untouched, while others were raked to simulate the bird’s natural foraging behavior.



The results were striking. In the raked areas, there was a noticeable increase in the variety and size of invertebrates compared to the untouched zones. This confirmed that the birds’ actions directly influenced the availability of food in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a>.



Lead researcher Alex Maisey explained the significance of these findings. "Lyrebirds set up the perfect home for their prey, creating conditions with more food resources and effectively fattening them up before eating them."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-key-player-in-australia-s-forests">A key player in Australia’s forests</h2>



The superb lyrebird is primarily found in the moist eucalypt forests of south-eastern Australia. These birds do more than just modify the ground for their own benefit - they shape entire ecosystems.



By constantly disturbing the forest floor, lyrebirds influence which plants and animals can thrive in their habitat. Their foraging behavior creates a dynamic environment where nutrients are redistributed, allowing different species to grow in areas they might not otherwise survive.



This activity helps maintain biodiversity by preventing the forest floor from becoming too compacted or overgrown. The birds ensure that organic material continues to break down, enriching the soil and supporting a diverse range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-forests-proving-resilient-both-climate-change-human-actions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life forms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lyrebirds-help-control-bushfires">Lyrebirds help control bushfires</h2>



One of the most surprising benefits of the lyrebird’s digging behavior is its role in fire prevention. Bushfires are a natural part of Australia’s landscape, but their frequency and intensity have increased due to climate change. Lyrebirds may provide an unexpected solution to this growing problem.



By moving massive amounts of leaf litter and soil, these birds help bury potential fuel sources, reducing the risk of intense fires. The researchers found that lyrebirds can shift an average of 155 tonnes of material per hectare as they farm for invertebrates.



"Lyrebirds are widespread and active across millions of hectares of forest. Their farming actions play an important role in maintaining forest biodiversity," said Dr. Maisey.



This means that in addition to securing their own food, lyrebirds contribute to the overall health and safety of the forests they inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lyrebirds-take-care-of-their-environment">Lyrebirds take care of their environment </h2>



For a long time, the superb lyrebird has amazed people with its ability to copy sounds. It can mimic anything from chainsaws to camera shutters, making it one of the best sound imitators in the animal world. This talent has made it famous worldwide.



But scientists have now discovered something even more impressive about these birds. Lyrebirds are not just great at mimicking - they also help take care of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/single-degree-temperature-warming-boreal-forests-wreak-havoc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>.



By digging up the ground and moving leaves, they create better homes for the insects and worms they eat. This keeps nature in balance and helps different plants and animals survive.



Even more surprising, their digging helps stop dangerous wildfires. By burying dry leaves and branches, they reduce the fuel that fires need to spread. This means lyrebirds play a key role in protecting forests.



Scientists are still learning more about these birds, and future research might reveal even more ways they help the environment. One thing is certain: the superb lyrebird is more than just a great imitator - it’s a nature-made engineer that keeps forests healthy.



The study is published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.70009" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Lyrebirds farm their own food - and shape entire forests

A country like Australia, with its wildlife-rich forests, is a...

Dungeness crab, Pacific herring, and red abalone are among the coastal species that appear most vulnerable to climate risks such as rising ocean temperatures, acidification, and deoxygenation.&nbsp;



The susceptibility of these species to environmental stressors could have significant consequences for local economies and cultural traditions that rely on healthy fisheries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-vulnerability-to-climate-risks">Species vulnerability to climate risks</h2>



In a new paper titled “A Collaborative Climate Vulnerability Assessment of California Marine Fishery Species,” researchers have outlined which animals are most threatened by predicted changes in the state’s coastal waters.&nbsp;



The study was led by Timothy Frawley, an assistant project scientist at <a href="https://ims.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Cruz’s Institute of Marine Sciences</a> and assistant professor at UC Davis’s Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology.



The research aims to assist the <a href="https://wildlife.ca.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Department of Fish and Wildlife</a> (CDFW) in developing “climate-ready” management strategies for commercial and recreational fisheries.



By detailing how different species respond to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fisheries-threatened-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental shifts</a>, the team hopes to lay a foundation for policies that can better adapt to and mitigate climate-related challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economically-important-fisheries">Economically important fisheries</h2>



“The results are striking,” said Frawley, who spent five years as a commercial fisherman before earning a PhD in marine biology. “Some of California’s most economically and culturally important fisheries are assessed as being among the most vulnerable to projected future environmental changes.”



For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-improve-well-being-in-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal communities</a>, the threat goes beyond ecology - it touches on livelihoods. The iconic Dungeness crab fishery, for instance, delivers more than 8,200 tons annually, yielding over $45 million for local economies in a typical season.&nbsp;



While this crab fishery remains robust, others have not fared as well. Red abalone, once generating an estimated $24 to $44 million in recreational value per year, has been off-limits since 2018.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, Pacific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-evolution-in-the-baltic-sea-how-herring-became-fish-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herring</a> in San Francisco Bay - once the basis of a thriving commercial fishery - have seen biomass drop by over 75%, forcing many fishers to abandon the trade entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-species-in-a-warming-climate">Shifting species in a warming climate</h2>



“While overall across the Northeast Pacific, a species like Pacific Herring may do OK, try telling that to a herring fisherman based out of San Francisco Bay. If their resource moves hundreds of miles away, it’s a big deal to them,” Frawley explained.&nbsp;



“It’s important to do these assessments at a scale that provides results that will be practical at the local level. So in that respect, this represents a step forward.”



Such local-level nuance is crucial, since some species may simply relocate northward as waters warm. For example, market squid - currently a mainstay of the state’s fisheries - could shift offshore or to cooler regions off Oregon or Washington, undercutting California-based fleets.&nbsp;



By contrast, certain warm-water fish like Pacific bonito might expand their range into the California Current, potentially offering new fishing opportunities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-sensitivity-to-climate-risks">Species' sensitivity to climate risks</h2>



To determine which species face the greatest climate risks, the study evaluated 34 fish and invertebrates for their vulnerability over two periods: 2030-2060 and 2070-2100.&nbsp;



The researchers focused on both sensitivity (biological attributes such as reproductive rates, habitat preferences, and susceptibility to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-acidification-is-spreading-into-deeper-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidification</a>) and exposure (projected ocean conditions, including temperature, salinity, upwelling, subsurface oxygen levels, and sea-level rise).



These factors were combined to rank species into four categories - blue (lowest vulnerability), yellow, orange, and red (highest vulnerability).&nbsp;



Dungeness crab, red abalone, Pacific herring, pink shrimp, and Pismo clam were among those ultimately placed in the red zone over the longer term, with ocean acidification, sea-level rise, and other compounding challenges expected to intensify.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-abalone-and-a-changing-coast">Red abalone and a changing coast</h2>



Among the most concerning examples is red abalone, a bottom-dwelling mollusk highly susceptible to marine heatwaves. Because it has limited mobility and depends on stable kelp habitats for food, any extreme temperature swings or shifts in ocean chemistry can devastate its populations.&nbsp;



The fishery’s closure in 2018 was a stark indicator of how vulnerable benthic species can be, and the new study reinforces the urgency of monitoring and protective measures.



Market squid, contributing an estimated $43.9 million annually, and spiny lobster, worth around $10.7 million, also show cause for concern. Ensuring that these high-value fisheries can adapt may require both policy interventions and collaborative planning with industry stakeholders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-coastal-communities">Supporting coastal communities</h2>



“My experience working as a fisherman has inspired me to focus my work as a marine scientist on supporting coastal communities by providing them with information required to better navigate risk and uncertainty,” Frawley said.&nbsp;



“My time at sea impressed upon me the links and feedbacks between environmental variability and change and marine-resource-dependent industries and communities, as well as an appreciation for fisheries as a team sport.”



Though the public often views fishing as fiercely independent, Frawley explained that it requires a complex network.&nbsp;



“To make the gears turn, it requires a team of individuals working together on deck, groups of boats sharing information; dock workers and truck drivers to unload and transport the product; buyers and processors to package and market it; and managers and scientists to set the harvest levels and ensure that operations are sustainable."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anticipating-changes-to-protect-fisheries">Anticipating changes to protect fisheries </h2>



In highlighting the most at-risk species, this study provides a vital roadmap for the California Department of Fish and Wildlife as it works to develop adaptive measures. 



Possible strategies include flexible harvest regulations, real-time monitoring of populations, and broad collaboration among scientists, fishers, and policymakers.



While shifts in ocean conditions are already underway, the ability to anticipate change is essential for managing fisheries so they remain viable in the decades to come.&nbsp;



With clear evidence that climate change is already reshaping marine environments, proactive planning could mean the difference between a future of thriving coastal economies or dwindling opportunities for fishermen and seafood lovers alike.



The research was conducted in close collaboration with fisheries scientists at the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA), the <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Conservancy</a>, and the <a href="https://opc.ca.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Ocean Protection Council</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000574" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Climate</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Economically important marine species face high climate risks

Dungeness crab, Pacific herring, and red abalone are among the...

Caribou conservation&nbsp;has always been a challenge, along with protecting other endangered species. Conservationists typically focus on genetic diversity and habitat protection, but a new study suggests a more detailed approach. 



Researchers at the University of Calgary have proposed a new way to identify at-risk wildlife populations.



Their method focuses on individual movement patterns rather than broad <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population trends</a>. Caribou, a species facing serious environmental threats, is the focus of this study.



A recent paper in Biological Conservation presents findings from long-term GPS tracking of caribou across Western Canada. The study identifies six behavioral groups, each requiring unique conservation efforts.



“We took the approach of using behavior to try to see if there are differences between individuals and groups that can be clustered into similarities,” said lead author Margaret Hughes, a PhD candidate in the Department of Biological Sciences.



By analyzing movement, the researchers inferred why caribou travel to certain locations. They examined migration patterns, habitat size, and elevation changes to determine behavioral differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caribou-conservation-beyond-genetics">Caribou conservation beyond genetics</h2>



Conservation efforts often rely on genetic data to define at-risk caribou populations. However, Hughes argues for a broader approach that incorporates behavioral insights.



“It allows conservation managers to recognize ecologically meaningful variation within species, helping to maintain biodiversity and improve management strategies,” noted Hughes.



This method challenges traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife management</a>. It provides a more detailed understanding of how caribou interact with their environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-human-activity">Impact of human activity</h2>



Caribou, known as reindeer in Europe, belong to the deer family. Their survival is threatened by habitat destruction from industries like oil, gas, and forestry. Climate change adds further pressure.



“The species is iconic,” said Dr. Marco Musiani, a professor at the <a href="https://www.unibo.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bologna</a> and an adjunct professor at <a href="https://www.ucalgary.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCalgary</a>. “It is the most famous species affected by oil and gas and forestry in Canada and also climate change, and one of the most sensitive worldwide.”



Musiani supervised Hughes’ research and believes this science could have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-leaks-conservation-efforts-may-shift-harm-elsewhere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wide-reaching effects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-strategies-for-caribou-conservation">New strategies for caribou conservation</h2>



The study suggests that this approach could guide conservation beyond caribou.



“Our findings provide a framework that can be applied beyond caribou to other species at risk, helping to guide habitat protection, restoration, and even translocation strategies - areas that are currently the focus of significant investments,” explained Hughes.



She noted that the tracking data could be used to design protected ecological corridors and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> areas. This could help safeguard wildlife movement across landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-technology">The role of technology </h2>



Technological advancements have made it easier to study wildlife behavior in real-time. 



The GPS collars used in this research provided highly detailed movement data over several years. These tools allow scientists to track animals across large regions, revealing patterns that were previously difficult to detect.



Drones, satellite imaging, and remote sensing can complement GPS tracking. By combining these technologies, researchers can assess changes in habitat conditions, monitor threats, and refine conservation efforts. This approach moves beyond traditional field studies, offering more precise and actionable data.



Understanding movement patterns with this level of accuracy can help conservationists predict how wildlife will respond to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental changes</a>. 



This knowledge is crucial in developing&nbsp;caribou conservation&nbsp;strategies that can withstand future threats, including climate shifts and human expansion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-protecting-ecosystems">Importance of protecting ecosystems</h2>



Caribou do not exist in isolation. Their survival depends on the health of entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>. Boreal forests and alpine environments provide the food and shelter they need, but these habitats are increasingly at risk. 



Deforestation, resource extraction, and infrastructure development continue to fragment caribou ranges, making it harder for them to migrate and find suitable conditions.



Protecting ecosystems benefits not just caribou but also other species that share the same habitats. Wolves, bears, and smaller mammals rely on similar landscapes. By safeguarding large areas of intact wilderness, conservationists can preserve biodiversity on a much larger scale.



This research shows that conservation should protect both animals and their habitats. A broad approach helps future generations enjoy nature’s beauty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-collaborative-effort">A collaborative effort</h2>



The research involved multiple institutions, including the University of Calgary’s Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Faculty of Science. 



Researchers from the University of Bologna, the British Columbia <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/governments/organizational-structure/ministries-organizations/ministries/water-land-and-resource-stewardship" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ministry of Water, Land and Resource Stewardship</a>, and the Canadian Wildlife Service also contributed.



The study covered vast regions of the Rocky Mountains and the boreal forests of Western Canada.



Hughes emphasized the role of First Nations communities in making this research possible.



“We acknowledge that this work took place throughout British Columbia, on the traditional territories of the First Nations where caribou currently exist,” said Hughes.



This collaborative approach highlights the importance of integrating science with Indigenous knowledge to support&nbsp;caribou conservation&nbsp;and protect at-risk species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320724004956?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tracking caribou movement patterns can transform conservation

Caribou conservation&nbsp;has always been a challenge, along with protecting other...

Dad,And,Son,Use,Mosquito,Spray.spraying,Insect,Repellent,On,Skin

Mosquito-borne diseases, like malaria and dengue, remain a major global health threat, especially in tropical regions. 



Insect repellents, such as DEET, provide some level of protection but they come with challenges, including high costs, user discomfort and the need for frequent reapplication. 



Meanwhile, widely used spatial repellents that rely on synthetic pyrethroid insecticides face growing resistance among mosquito populations.



A new approach could change the way we protect people from mosquitoes.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a>, have developed a machine learning-based method that predicts novel mosquito repellents. 



This technique, combined with cheminformatics, has already identified compounds that may offer safer and more sustainable alternatives to traditional repellents. 



With funding from the National Institutes of Health (<a href="https://www.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIH</a>), the team is now working to refine their findings and explore new mosquito control methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-in-mosquito-control">Machine learning in mosquito control</h2>



Mosquitoes use their senses of smell and taste to locate human hosts. By understanding these systems, scientists can develop better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemists-take-a-new-approach-to-developing-insect-repellents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">repellents</a> that disrupt the insects’ ability to find and feed on people. 



The research team has used machine learning to screen more than 10 million chemical compounds, searching for effective alternatives to existing repellents.



"We have already identified repellent molecules with a high success rate, particularly from natural sources, which could provide a safer and more sustainable alternative to current repellents," said Anandasankar Ray, a professor of&nbsp;molecular, cell and systems biology.



 "We have also used machine learning to identify analogs of pyrethroids that are up to 100 times more effective than existing industry standards, like allethrin. This could have a significant impact on combating resistant mosquito populations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-strategies-for-controlling-mosquitoes">Four strategies for controlling mosquitoes</h2>



The research team has concentrated on four major strategies for enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-aims-to-control-mosquitoes-by-deactivating-their-sperm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito control</a>.



One of them is the creation of better topical repellents that have a good odor and are long-lasting, offering protection for 12 to 24 hours.



Another strategy focuses on spatial repellents, which form protective barriers around homes and outdoor areas to minimize the presence of mosquitoes.



To fight the increasing resistance of mosquito populations, the scientists are also discovering long-lasting pyrethroid analogs - novel molecules that will continue to be effective against resistant mosquitoes and are well suited for application in bed nets and clothing.



They are also developing improved spatial pyrethroid formulations to make current solutions more effective against resistant mosquito strains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gm-mosquitoes-in-the-testing-process">GM mosquitoes in the testing process</h2>



To gain a better insight into how such repellents operate, the researchers are using genetically modified mosquitoes to identify the sensory receptors that enable aversion to novel compounds.



In addition, they are screening volatile compounds for spatial protection and assessing new pyrethroid analogs to test their effectiveness against resistant populations of mosquitoes.



"By identifying and combining the most effective natural and synthetic compounds, we hope to deliver safe, affordable, and highly effective mosquito control solutions that could help reduce human exposure to disease vectors while improving quality of life in at-risk populations," Ray said.



"We are looking for repellents that work as well as [being] cost-effective, easy to use, and culturally acceptable solutions. Based on our preliminary results, we are optimistic that the new compounds could soon be a new weapon in the fight against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-borne-diseases-are-a-growing-threat-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito-borne diseases</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mosquitoes-prefer-some-people">Why mosquitoes prefer some people</h2>



The research team is also working on another NIH-funded study to determine why some people attract more mosquitoes than others. 



While the sense of smell has been studied extensively, the role of taste in mosquito behavior is still not well understood.



"There’s a need for more effective repellents since DEET’s high cost and poor properties limit its use in tropical areas," Ray explained. "We believe compounds in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mosquitoes-find-tasty-humans-from-hundreds-of-meters-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human skin</a>, sweat, and microbiome metabolites could be key."



This study aims to identify specific skin compounds that influence mosquito attraction and examine how different chemical signals affect mosquito behavior. 



Researchers will test these compounds in behavioral experiments, focusing on those that impact both taste and smell.



"We will test these compounds in behavior assays, focus on those that affect taste or smell, and explore how blends of repellents may reduce mosquito attraction," Ray said. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-research-to-real-world-solutions">From research to real-world solutions</h2>



The work being done by this research team has already led to practical applications. 



A previous NIH-funded project resulted in a product development plan from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and a university spinoff company, Sensorygen. 



This company has created a safe, natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemists-take-a-new-approach-to-developing-insect-repellents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect repellent</a> that is currently being evaluated for Environmental Protection Agency registration.



With continued research and innovation, machine learning may hold the key to smarter, more effective mosquito control solutions that could improve public health worldwide.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/95532v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife Neurosciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mosquito repellents that actually work? Yes, thanks to AI

Mosquito-borne diseases, like malaria and dengue, remain a major global...

When do you make your bed? In the morning? If you were a chimpanzee, you would likely build it at dusk. Scientists call this process "nest building."



This behavior has existed for millions of years among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-are-genetically-adapted-to-thrive-in-their-local-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>. A secure nest ensures proper rest, which boosts energy levels and cognitive function. 



But researchers have noticed an interesting pattern - young female chimps build nests earlier and more frequently than males.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimps-create-safe-nests">How chimps create safe nests</h2>



For years, primatologists have observed the fascinating process of nest construction. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-are-constantly-mastering-new-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimps</a> twist branches into circular shapes, reinforcing them with smaller twigs and leaves. These nests serve as cradles in the treetops, shielding them from predators and the elements.



Beyond nighttime rest, chimps build nests during the day. These temporary spots become places to relax, groom each other, or enjoy a stolen moment of solitude. 



Some young chimps use their nests for play, tumbling in and out, treating them as miniature jungle gyms. Others see them as a place to observe their surroundings in peace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-in-their-natural-habitat">Chimps in their natural habitat</h2>



Great apes, including chimpanzees, have practiced this behavior for millions of years. The better their nests, the deeper their sleep. 



And the deeper the sleep, the more energy they have for the challenges ahead. But recent research has revealed something unexpected - female infants build nests earlier and more often than males, suggesting a natural tendency toward independence from an early age.



This discovery emerged from a study led by Canadian primatologist Iulia Bădescu, a professor of anthropology at <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université de Montréal</a>. She has spent years observing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-pass-tool-use-skills-across-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> of Uganda’s Kibale National Park, a thriving sanctuary for these remarkable primates.



The research, published in the American Journal of Primatology, was a collaboration between Université de Montréal, the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, and <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-chimps-and-nest-building">Young chimps and nest building </h2>



To understand nest-building behaviors, the researchers observed 72 immature wild chimpanzees between 2013 and 2014, and again in 2018, at a site in Kibale called Ngogo.



They focused on how often young chimps built nests and analyzed factors like age, sex, and maternal experience.



Nest building requires both physical strength and learned skill. The ability to bend and weave branches into a stable structure doesn’t come naturally - it must be practiced. Young chimps start experimenting with nest building early, but only as they grow stronger do they fully master the technique.



As expected, older infants were more likely to build nests than younger ones. However, the most striking discovery was that young female chimps took to nest building more frequently and at a younger age than males.



This aligns with previous studies suggesting that female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-continue-learning-as-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimps</a> tend to gain independence earlier than their male counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-chimps-build-nests-earlier">Female chimps build nests earlier </h2>



"The likelihood and overall rates of daytime nest building in wild infant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-can-plan-and-adapt-their-use-of-tools-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> varied with age and sex," said study first author Tara Khayer. "Older and female infants were more likely to build nests, and build them more often, than younger and male infants."



While young males were seen constructing nests, they did so less often. Interestingly, once a chimpanzee started building nests, their approach remained consistent, regardless of gender or their mother’s experience in raising offspring. 



This suggests that once they develop the necessary skills, young chimps construct their nests at a similar pace.



Female infants, however, reached this point sooner. Their drive to create and refine their nests suggests a greater motivation for self-sufficiency. Whether this is a biological adaptation or a learned behavior passed down from mothers remains uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-role-of-nests">Changing role of nests</h2>



As young chimps grow, the role of the nest shifts. For infants under four years old, nests serve as playgrounds - safe spaces for exploration, climbing, and games. Older chimps use them more purposefully, seeing them as spots for rest rather than recreation.



The study confirmed this shift, reinforcing the idea that nest building is not just about comfort but about adapting to different stages of life. For older chimps, a well-constructed nest means a better night’s sleep, which directly affects their physical and cognitive well-being.



"Nest building also represents a type of tool use, since the chimps have to manipulate branches and other materials around them to construct their nest," said Khayer.



"Just like cracking nuts with stones or fishing for ants with sticks, nest building involves putting their environment to good use."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-connection-to-human-evolution">A connection to human evolution</h2>



Chimpanzees are not the only primates who seek comfort in well-constructed sleeping arrangements. Humans have long relied on the ability to create secure resting spaces.



While modern beds have replaced treetop nests, the instinct to carve out a safe place to sleep remains deeply rooted in our evolutionary past.



"Humans, too, sleep in beds," said Bădescu. "So there are interesting evolutionary implications. Studying how chimps learn to build nests from a very young age helps us better understand how all hominids, including us, develop and learn new skills."



This research offers valuable insight into the development of early independence, particularly among female chimpanzees. Their ability to craft their own resting places at a young age highlights their adaptability and problem-solving skills. 



In many ways, their behavior mirrors the early resourcefulness seen in human children as they begin to navigate the world on their own.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajp.70011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Primatology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What chimp nests can tell us about early independence

When do you make your bed? In the morning? If...

In February, researchers from Condrik Tenerife were scanning the waters off Tenerife Island. They hoped to find sharks but stumbled upon something unexpected - a humpback anglerfish (Melanocetus johnsonii) swimming near the surface.



Photographer David Jara Boguñá captured this rare event. These deep-sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, also known as black seadevils, usually live in the "twilight zone" between 200 and 600 meters below the surface. Seeing one alive in daylight was unprecedented.



The <a href="https://youtu.be/6ll_7H9FoWQ?si=OAzDi8zFGk272SAH" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video</a> sparked curiosity and emotion online. The overall reaction suggests a shift in how people view the deep sea, moving from fear to fascination.



Many saw the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-eye-tracking-changes-what-we-know-about-swarm-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> as a symbol of perseverance or tragedy, with some even comparing it to Icarus, a human figure from Greek mythology who died after flying too close to the sun with wax wings. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-lives-of-anglerfish">Strange lives of anglerfish</h2>



Anglerfish are much smaller than many imagine. The female filmed by Boguñá measured about 15 centimeters, while males grow only to about 3 centimeters.



The female fish have a glowing lure on their heads, used to attract prey in the dark ocean depths. The light comes from bacteria that live inside a specialized organ.



Male anglerfish have no lure. Instead, their entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-anglerfish-defy-evolutionary-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">existence</a> revolves around finding a female. Once attached, they fuse into her body, becoming a permanent part of her circulatory system. They lose their independence and survive only by absorbing nutrients from their mate.



Why this particular anglerfish swam so close to the surface remains a mystery. Scientists speculate that changes in water temperature or the fish’s old age might explain its unusual behavior.



Observers watched it for hours before it died. Its body was later taken to the <a href="https://www.spain.info/en/places-of-interest/tenerife-nature-archaeology-museum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museum of Nature and Archaeology</a> in Santa Cruz de Tenerife for further study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-outpouring-of-emotion">An outpouring of emotion</h2>



The video quickly went viral, inspiring memes, artwork, and even poetry. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-had-flexible-joints-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>’s final journey fascinated people worldwide.



"I like to think she is a respected old grandmother who has dreamed her entire life of seeing the sunlight and the world above the water. She knows her time is nigh, so she bade farewell to her friends and family and swam up towards the light and whatever it might hold for her as her life as an anglerfish comes to a close," one Reddit user noted.



Another person called the fish her “feminist Roman Empire," meaning an idea that inspired her in the way history fascinates others.



Boguñá and Condrik Tenerife commented on the public reaction, noting that the anglerfish has clearly become a global icon. 



"But far from the romanticization and attempt to humanize that has been given to its tragic story, I think that what this event has been for is to awaken the curiosity of the sea to PEOPLE, especially the younger ones, and perhaps, it also serves that messages about marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-fish-and-human-divers-an-unexpected-bond/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> conservation can reach so many more people," said Boguñá.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shift-in-perspective">A shift in perspective</h2>



For years, deep-sea creatures like the anglerfish have been seen as monsters. Their glowing lures and sharp teeth have made them the perfect villains in films such as <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0266543/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Finding Nemo</a> and <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0345950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie</a>.



Yet, the public reaction to this anglerfish suggests a shift in perception. Instead of horror, people expressed sympathy and admiration. They saw the fish as a determined creature chasing light, even at great cost.



This response contrasts with the fate of the deep-sea blobfish, once labeled the "world’s ugliest animal." Unlike the blobfish, this anglerfish was embraced as a symbol of struggle and courage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-for-anglerfish">Empathy for anglerfish</h2>



Does projecting human emotions onto deep-sea creatures distort reality? Probably. 



"Deep-sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-two-dozen-unusual-fish-species-discovered-in-peru-and-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> are often pictured as aliens from another planet, and I think that gets people interested in them, because we're all interested in novelty and weirdness and the surreal. I think that can be positive, but the idea of the alien can also cut us off from any responsibility," noted US environmental humanities researcher Stacy Alaimo.



The deep sea faces growing threats, including seabed mining, plastic pollution, and climate change. Perhaps this anglerfish’s moment in the spotlight will encourage more people to care about protecting its world.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How a dying anglerfish became a global icon on social media

In February, researchers from Condrik Tenerife were scanning the waters...

Makassar,Strait,Highlighted,On,A,Satellite,Image,Map

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by something called the "Wallace Line," had such different wildlife. They saw tigers and elephants on one side, while marsupials lived just a short boat ride away.



Dr. Penny Van Oosterzee, an ecological researcher at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a>, has studied these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> for years. She sees them as a reminder of how physical barriers can split habitats even when they sit close by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wallace-line-and-species-separation">Wallace Line and species separation</h2>



The Wallace Line runs through Southeast Asia, marking where Asian species give way to Australian species. 



It crosses narrow waters between Borneo and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok, which lie only about 15 miles apart.



Even though it is not an official border, it acts like one for many animals. Flocks of Asian birds thrive on one side, but groups of Australian cockatoos stay on the other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-invisible-fence">An invisible fence </h2>



A deep ocean trench, known as the Makassar Strait, is key to this puzzle. During past ice ages, many islands were connected by land bridges when sea levels dropped.



Yet that submerged gap never vanished here, so animals could not simply wander across. Highly specialized species remained where they could find food, avoid predators, and keep up their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-development-shows-how-evolution-had-many-options-to-choose-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival strategies</a>.



Even birds, which can fly, tend to stay within their familiar habitats because of differences in climate and food availability. The Wallace Line, in many ways, acts like an invisible fence shaped by nature’s own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolving-evolution-how-life-learns-to-adapt-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">design</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-makassar-strait-the-basics">Understanding the Makassar Strait - the basics</h2>



The Makassar Strait is a narrow stretch of water that runs between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. 



It connects the Celebes Sea in the north to the Java Sea in the south, making it a key passage for ships traveling between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 



The strait isn’t just a busy maritime route - it’s also home to some incredible marine life. 



Strong ocean currents flow through, bringing nutrient-rich waters that support vibrant coral reefs, fish, and even deep-sea creatures. 



It’s a hotspot for divers and researchers alike, offering a glimpse into Indonesia’s rich underwater biodiversity.



The region is also a key focus for climate change research, as rising sea levels and shifting currents affect both marine ecosystems and coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-shaped-evolution">The Wallace Line shaped evolution</h2>



This unique divide helped shape some early ideas about how species change over time. It sparked thoughts on biogeography, the study of how plants and animals are distributed across the planet.



When Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/1800s/natural-selection-charles-darwin-alfred-russel-wallace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wrote</a> about natural selection in the mid-1800s, they each pointed to real-world examples of animals adapting to local conditions. 



The stark difference between these islands stood out to Wallace.



His observations supported the idea that species do not appear randomly but evolve based on their environment. 



The Wallace Line became one of the strongest cases for how geographic barriers can drive the formation of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-perspective">A different perspective</h2>



There are debates over the geographic accuracy of the line. Researchers have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/130/1/225/5802023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">called</a> for the boundary line to be redrawn.&nbsp;



“We suggest that Wallace’s Line be redrawn such that the landmass is placed on the Australasian side of this fundamental biogeographical boundary,” wrote Jason Ali and colleagues from the University of Hong Kong.



Shifting a line on a map may seem simple, but it shows how active science can be. As more research appears, definitions can move, and old ideas can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-australasia">What is Australasia?</h2>



The region that includes Australia, New Zealand, and the islands of the surrounding Pacific is known as Australasia. 



It’s a place where you can find everything from vast deserts and lush rainforests to snowy mountains and stunning coral reefs. 



Australia dominates the region with its massive landmass, unique wildlife like kangaroos and koalas, and world-famous landmarks like the Great Barrier Reef and Uluru. 



Meanwhile, New Zealand brings its own magic with breathtaking fjords, rolling green hills, and a deep-rooted Māori culture. 



The islands of Australasia, including Papua New Guinea and parts of Indonesia, add even more diversity with rich indigenous traditions and some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-and-human-history">The Wallace Line and human history</h2>



The idea of a boundary extends to humans and not only wildlife. The racial and political effects of the line have been studied at length.&nbsp;



“The difference between these two people had already been noticed by early European travelers, together with the difference in flora and fauna,” noted Fenneke Sysling from the <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utrecht</a> in The Netherlands.



Many decades ago, claims emerged that certain groups east of the line shared traits with Papuans, while those west of the line fit the Malay category. 



Debates around these claims have carried into modern times, highlighting how complex human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-borders-and-human-evolution">Geographic borders and human evolution</h2>



Various projects track bird populations, insects, and even marsupials (kangaroo) to see how borders and evolution link together. 



Shallow seas no longer block human travel, yet animals remain bound by their own quirks.



Scientists ask whether climate changes or habitat loss might shift wildlife distributions in the future. Updates on these studies add another layer of intrigue to a line first drawn in the 19th century.



The Wallace Line demonstrates how subtle geographic forces can create stark contrasts in living things. It also reminds us that physical distance is not always the main factor - evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> and chance play major roles.



With all of the debates and shifting perspectives, one thing is clear: the planet holds more surprises than any single line can capture.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth has a natural border line that no species will cross - what is the Wallace Line?

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by something...

species in Gaviidae

News coming your way