A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

People have long turned to nature for comfort and relief. A walk in the woods, the sound of waves crashing on the shore, or even the sight of green fields can bring a sense of peace. 



But can nature actually reduce physical pain?A new study from the University of Vienna and the University of Exeter suggests that it can. 



Using advanced brain imaging, researchers have uncovered how viewing nature changes the way the brain processes pain.



The study provides fresh insight into why natural environments have long been associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tapping-into-the-pain-relief-potential-of-cannabis-without-the-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-alters-pain-perception">Nature alters pain perception</h2>



Pain is not just a physical sensation. The brain plays a crucial role in interpreting and reacting to pain. The research team, led by scientists in Austria and the UK, set out to understand whether nature could influence the brain’s pain-processing mechanisms. 



The study, published in Nature Communications, suggests that watching nature reduces pain by directly affecting neural activity.



The researchers used an fMRI scanner to monitor the brain activity of 49 participants. Each person received a series of mild electric shocks while watching different videos. Some participants viewed natural landscapes, while others watched urban or indoor scenes. 



The results were clear - those who watched nature not only reported feeling less pain, but their brain scans showed reduced activity in regions linked to pain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healing-through-headphones-personalized-music-can-reduce-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perception</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-s-response-to-nature">Brain’s response to nature</h2>



The study went a step further by applying machine-learning techniques to analyze brain networks involved in pain processing. The results showed that nature influenced how the brain received and interpreted pain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-can-help-ease-chronic-pain-anxiety-and-mood-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a>. 



Watching natural scenes reduced the intensity of sensory input, meaning the brain perceived the pain as less severe.



“Numerous studies have shown that people consistently report feeling less pain when exposed to nature. Yet until now, the underlying reasons for this effect were unclear," noted <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a> PhD student Max Steininger, lead author of the study.



“Our study is the first to provide evidence from brain scans that this isn't just a ‘placebo’ effect – driven by people’s beliefs and expectations that nature is good for them – instead, the brain is reacting less to information about where the pain is coming from and how intense it feels."



According to Steininger, the findings suggest that the pain-relieving effect of nature is genuine, although the effect we found was around half that of painkillers. People in pain should certainly continue taking any medication they have been prescribed, he noted.



“But we hope in future alternative ways of relieving pain, such as experiencing nature, may be used to help improve pain management.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-nature-helps-ease-pain">Why nature helps ease pain</h2>



The idea that nature can aid healing is not new. Over forty years ago, Roger Ulrich, an American researcher, conducted a remarkable study on hospital patients. 



His findings showed that patients who had a view of green spaces recovered faster and used fewer painkillers than those whose windows faced a brick wall.



Despite decades of research, scientists could not fully explain why this effect occurred. The new study provides the first clear evidence that nature directly influences the brain’s pain-processing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mechanisms</a>. 



The results suggest that Ulrich’s patients may have experienced less pain because their brains reacted differently to discomfort when exposed to nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virtual-access-to-nature">Virtual access to nature </h2>



Not everyone has access to lush forests, quiet lakes, or green open spaces. Urbanization, busy schedules, and health conditions often prevent people from spending time outdoors. 



However, this study shows that even virtual nature experiences can help. Watching high-quality videos of natural scenes triggered a similar pain-relieving effect in participants.



“This study highlights how virtual encounters can bring the healing potential of nature to people when they can’t get outside," said Dr. Alex Smalley, a co-author from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>.



“But we hope our results also serve as renewed evidence for the importance of protecting healthy and functioning natural environments, encouraging people to spend time in nature for the benefit of both the planet and people.”



Dr. Smalley noted that achieving this pain-relieving effect through virtual nature exposure, which is easy to implement, has important practical implications for non-drug treatments, and opens new avenues for research to better understand how nature impacts our minds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-path-for-pain-management">New path for pain management</h2>



Pain management has traditionally relied on medication. While painkillers remain essential, researchers are exploring alternative ways to help people cope with discomfort. 



This study opens the door for nature-based treatments that do not require drugs or invasive procedures.



The findings also raise exciting possibilities for future research. Scientists can now investigate how different types of natural environments affect pain perception. 



Do forests, oceans, or mountain views have different impacts on the brain? Can sounds of nature provide similar benefits? These are questions that future studies may answer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-toward-a-healthier-future">A step toward a healthier future</h2>



The relationship between nature and health has fascinated researchers for decades. 



This study offers compelling scientific evidence that nature can ease pain. Whether through real-world exposure or virtual experiences, natural settings have the power to change the way the brain processes discomfort.



At a time when stress and chronic pain affect millions worldwide, these findings highlight an accessible and natural approach to well-being. Protecting natural spaces and encouraging outdoor experiences may not only benefit the environment but also improve human health.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56870-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Viewing nature reduces pain by altering brain activity

People have long turned to nature for comfort and relief....

Blazars are active galaxies that emit narrow jets of ionized matter aimed at Earth. Astronomers classify them based on the properties of their electromagnetic radiation. That is, until now.



However, BL Lacertae, a blazar in the Lacerta constellation, challenges this classification system.



Scientists from the&nbsp;Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences (<a href="https://www.ifj.edu.pl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IFJ PAN</a>)&nbsp;in Cracow and the&nbsp;University of Heidelberg (<a href="https://www.uni-heidelberg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HU</a>)&nbsp;observed this object closely.



Their findings, published in Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics, reveal that BL Lacertae does not fit into existing categories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-blazars-the-basics">Understanding blazars - the basics</h2>



Blazars are some of the most extreme objects in the universe, blasting out energy with mind-bending intensity.



These cosmic powerhouses shoot out massive amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/team-creates-video-showing-the-sun-in-gamma-rays-over-a-14-year-period/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gamma rays</a>, X-rays, and radio waves, lighting up the universe like a beacon. 



Scientists study blazars because they help us understand how black holes interact with their surroundings and how galaxies evolve. 



They also serve as natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-particle-acceleration-new-source-of-cosmic-rays-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particle accelerators</a>, launching cosmic rays across vast distances. Some researchers even think blazars could be linked to mysterious high-energy neutrinos that hit Earth.



They're like giant cosmic lighthouses - except instead of warning ships, they beam signals across billions of light-years.



However, as you'll learn from this study, BL Lacertae threw them a curveball. Now, blazars are considered cosmic chameleon that escape classification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-star-that-wasn-t-a-star">A star that wasn’t a star</h2>



BL Lacertae was first discovered in 1929 and initially thought to be a variable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/january-2025-stargazing-a-parade-of-bright-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a>. Later observations proved otherwise. 



The object was nearly 900 million light-years away, ruling out the possibility of it being a star.



Some galaxies have active nuclei that emit vast amounts of electromagnetic radiation. This activity stems from matter falling into their central supermassive black holes. 



In certain cases, these galaxies also produce narrow jets of ionized matter extending millions of light-years. If such a jet points toward Earth, astronomers classify the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/march-2025-stargazing-a-red-moon-and-a-vanishing-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> as a blazar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-blazar-with-strange-behavior">Unique blazar with strange behavior</h2>



“Blazars are interesting for many reasons, not least because the orientation of the jets and the enormous velocities of their particles, close to the speed of light, lead to a variety of effects described by the theory of relativity,” explained Dr. Alicja Wierzcholska, an astrophysicist at IFJ PAN.



“Emission from blazars is observed at various electromagnetic wavelengths, ranging from radio to very high-energy gamma rays.”



Dr. Wierzcholska and her team analyzed the electromagnetic radiation from BL Lacertae, focusing on its recent activity. The goal was to understand some of the unusual properties of its emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-challenge-understanding">Observations challenge understanding</h2>



The team observed BL Lacertae from 2020 to 2023 using the&nbsp;<a href="https://swift.gsfc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;NuSTAR&nbsp;space telescope.



Their primary focus was the X-ray spectrum, but they also collected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-small-planets-discovered-orbiting-the-nearest-single-star-to-earth-barnards-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">optical</a> and ultraviolet data. Blazars emit radiation across a wide range, from radio waves to high-energy gamma rays. 



Astronomers classify blazars into two main types: flat-spectrum radio quasars and BL Lacertae objects (BL Lacs). 



BL Lacs, named after BL Lacertae, have weak emission lines and fall into three groups based on their energy spectrum. 



High-frequency peaked BL Lacs (HBL) have spectra shifted toward high energy. Low-frequency peaked BL Lacs (LBL) shift toward low energy. Intermediate BL Lacs (IBL) fall between HBL and LBL.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blazar-that-changes-its-identity">A blazar that changes its identity</h2>



“BL Lacertae objects lend themselves quite unambiguously to being assigned to a specific type. Blazar BL Lacertae has so far been considered a representative of the intermediate class, the IBL,” said Dr. Wierzcholska.



“It was therefore with no small degree of surprise that we noticed that in the X-ray range it looked like an HBL at some phases of the observation period, at others like an LBL, and at other times ‘politely’ gave the impression of an IBL-type object."



”As if this were not enough, these sorts of changes occurred very quickly. This is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-solar-system-once-drifted-through-orions-star-forming-region/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusual behavior</a>, the physical basis of which we are not yet able to explain.”



Adding to the mystery, BL Lacertae displayed record-breaking X-ray activity. The rapid fluctuations in its classification make it unique among blazars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theories-and-unanswered-questions">Theories and unanswered questions</h2>



Scientists believe that different physical processes contribute to the two peaks in a blazar’s spectrum. 



Many agree that the low-energy peak results from synchrotron radiation emitted by electrons. However, the origin of the second peak remains debated.



Some researchers suggest that electron collisions with low-energy photons may cause the second peak. 



This process, known as inverse Compton scattering, increases photon energy. Others propose that hadrons, such as protons or neutrons, might play a role.



However, these theories do not explain BL Lacertae’s rapid changes. A new model is needed to uncover the underlying mechanism behind its shifting classification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-challenge-for-astrophysicists">A challenge for astrophysicists</h2>



Understanding BL Lacertae’s behavior will require extensive research and innovative thinking. 



“One could venture to say that before this happens, many an astrophysicist-theorist will spend many a sleepless night,” said Dr. Wierzcholska.



As scientists continue their investigations, the BL Lacertae blazar serves as a reminder that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-formation-reignited-in-the-galaxy-leo-p-after-billions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> still holds many secrets waiting to be uncovered.



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The research relied on computational support from the <a href="https://www.cyfronet.pl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Academic Computer Centre Cyfronet AGH</a>. Funding came from a grant provided by the National Agency for Academic Exchange.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/01/aa51349-24/aa51349-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



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Mysterious and extreme new type of cosmic objects 'defy classification'

Blazars are active galaxies that emit narrow jets of ionized...

Grasslands, once vibrant ecosystems teeming with diverse plant and animal life, are vanishing at an alarming rate. Land-use changes, urban expansion, and agricultural development have led to their decline. Abandoned grasslands can be restored through proper management, but full recovery takes longer than expected.



A study from <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> reveals that even after 75 years of continuous management, restored grasslands do not match the biodiversity of ancient ones. The slow return of specialized pollinators plays a key role in this delay. 



These findings highlight the need to protect old <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-grasslands-bring-more-peace-to-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grasslands</a>, even when they serve modern purposes like ski slopes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-restored-grasslands-lag-behind">Why restored grasslands lag behind</h2>



Grasslands undergo massive ecological shifts when left unmanaged. Woody vegetation overtakes the landscape, reducing the diversity of native grassland species. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/controlled-fires-can-help-us-save-grasslands-from-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Restoration efforts</a> involve clearing invasive plants and reintroducing traditional management practices. 



While this process improves biodiversity, researchers have found that restored grasslands still struggle to match the richness of ancient ones.



“The reasons for this are not really clear and satisfying solutions have not been proposed,” noted Kobe University ecologist Ushimaru Atushi. 



Even when restored, grasslands seem unable to support the same variety of plant species as those that have been maintained for centuries. This realization led researchers to investigate the role of pollinators in the recovery process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinators-and-grassland-recovery">Pollinators and grassland recovery</h2>



Pollinators play an essential role in maintaining plant diversity. Without them, many plant species struggle to reproduce. Insect-pollinated plants, in particular, take longer to return after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-grassland-ecosystems-handle-climate-change-better-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grassland</a> abandonment. 



Ushimaru and doctoral student Hirayama Gaku set out to examine how pollinator communities differ between old and newly restored grasslands.



The team selected ski slopes in Nagano Prefecture for their research. These sites provided a unique opportunity to study grasslands of different ages within a relatively small area.



“There is no place better suited to survey restored grasslands with very different management durations within a relatively small area than ski slopes,” noted Hirayama.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-75-years-is-not-enough">Why 75 years is not enough</h2>



The research, published in the Journal of Applied Ecology, confirms that even after 75 years, restored grasslands do not support the same pollinator diversity as ancient ones. While plant species may recover, pollinators remain less specialized and less efficient in transferring pollen.



Over time, the pollinator community gradually shifts, becoming more specialized. However, this process takes centuries rather than decades. “The finding shows that once valuable old grasslands are lost, their restoration cannot be achieved quickly," said Hirayama.



The problem isn’t the number of pollinators - it’s their diversity. Restored grasslands welcome flies and hoverflies, generalists that mix pollen between different plants.



In contrast, ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-crucial-role-global-agriculture-environment-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grasslands</a> support more bees and butterflies, which specialize in pollinating specific plants. This specialization ensures that pollen reaches the right flowers, increasing plant reproduction success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-for-restoring-grasslands">Strategies for restoring grasslands</h2>



Restoring grasslands isn’t just about plants; pollinators matter too. Ancient grasslands give specialized pollinators a place to thrive. Without them, rare plant species struggle. 



Protecting these old ecosystems keeps biodiversity alive and flourishing. Ushimaru suggests that natural restoration alone may not be enough.



“It may also indicate that grassland restoration should not just be left to nature, but could require active human involvement such as by sowing seeds or by planting seedlings of native bee- and butterfly-pollinated grassland plants,” said Ushimaru.



This approach could speed up the recovery process, helping pollinator communities establish themselves more quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-conservation-efforts">Long-term conservation efforts</h2>



Restoring grasslands requires patience, commitment, and proactive strategies. The findings from Kobe University demonstrate that even a lifetime of restoration is not enough to fully rebuild lost ecosystems. Old grasslands, shaped by centuries of ecological interactions, provide irreplaceable value to biodiversity.



​This research was supported by the <a href="https://www.nagaofoundation.or.jp/e/research/research.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Japan Science Society</a>, the Nagao Natural Environment Foundation, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, and the <a href="https://www.erca.go.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency</a>.​



The study was conducted in collaboration with researchers from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.tsukuba.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tsukuba</a>&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.u-toyama.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toyama</a>. Their work reinforces the need for long-term conservation efforts, ensuring that grasslands remain a thriving part of our natural world.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1365-2664.70017" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>. 



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Restored grasslands could take centuries to fully recover

Grasslands, once vibrant ecosystems teeming with diverse plant and animal...

Black holes have baffled and fascinated both scientists and the public for decades. Their enormous gravity and mysterious interiors have led to endless debates, movies and books feeding our curiosity about what might be hidden inside these cosmic objects.



Now, recent findings from the University of Sheffield point to surprising possibilities linked to time and dark energy.



Researchers suggest that black holes might shift into what they are calling “white holes,” which could throw matter and even time back out into our universe.



In simpler terms, this study proposes a revolutionary link between time and dark energy, suggesting that the mysterious force driving the universe's expansion may be used to measure time



This idea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-theory-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges standard views</a> of how black holes function and basically upends everything we thought we knew about the Universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-mechanics-and-the-singularity">Quantum mechanics and the singularity</h2>



Dr. Steffen Gielen, from the University of Sheffield’s School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences (<a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/mps" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPS</a>), has long studied the interplay between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/central-theory-of-quantum-gravity-is-modeled-in-the-laboratory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics and gravity</a>.



His latest collaboration, entitled ‘Black Hole Singularity Resolution in Unimodular Gravity from Unitarity,’ is now published in Physical Review Letters.



In it, the authors explore how conventional knowledge breaks down at a black hole’s central point, known as the singularity.



“It has long been a question as to whether quantum mechanics can change our understanding of black holes and give us insights into their true nature,” said Dr. Gielen. 



“In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a>, time as we understand it cannot end as systems perpetually change and evolve.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-time-and-dark-energy">Linking time and dark energy</h2>



In this theoretical framework, the team positions dark energy as a potential measuring stick for time. 



They propose that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timescape-dark-energy-doesnt-exist-causing-lumpy-universe-expansion-cmbr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>, thought to power the universe’s expansion, might function as a reference for temporal progression.



“While time is, in general, thought to be relative to the observer, in our research time is derived from the mysterious dark energy which permeates the entire universe,” Dr. Gielen continued.



“We propose that time is measured by the dark energy that is everywhere in the Universe, and responsible for its current expansion. This is the pivotal new idea that allows us to grasp the phenomena occurring within a black hole.”



By framing time through dark energy, the researchers open fresh avenues for interpreting how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-suggests-that-dark-energy-comes-from-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes could evolve</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-holes-as-a-new-phase">White holes as a new phase</h2>



White holes are often portrayed as the reverse of black holes. Instead of trapping matter forever, they are thought to expel energy, matter, and even time back into cosmic space.



Some physicists speculate that if black holes are regions where time essentially stops (at the singularity), white holes are places where time runs "backward" in some sense.



In the Sheffield study, co-written with Lucía Menéndez-Pidal from <a href="https://www.ucm.es/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complutense University</a> of Madrid, this transformation from black hole to white hole occurs when quantum effects become significant at the singularity, replacing a terminal point with a new phase.



“Hypothetically you could have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-survives-in-quantum-superposition-for-a-record-shattering-23-minutes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">an observer</a> - a hypothetical entity - go through the black hole, through what we think of as a singularity and emerge on the other side of the white hole. It’s a highly abstract notion of an observer but it could happen, in theory,” Dr. Gielen added.



This scenario, though speculative, underscores the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolving insights</a> into how physics might handle extreme conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planar-vs-conventional-black-holes">Planar vs. conventional black holes</h2>



Their work relies on a simplified model known as a planar black hole. This version differs from conventional black holes, which are spherical, by featuring a flat boundary.



Despite the differences, the team believes that similar processes may apply to the black holes observed throughout space.



Any departure from the usual view of a singularity raises big questions about how time, space, and quantum effects unite.



By using quantum mechanics to show that a singularity could be replaced by fluctuating regions, the authors hint at a richer description of where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-make-bold-claims-that-time-is-an-illusion-question-its-existence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physics and time</a> continue to operate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-einstein-unimodular-gravity-and-spacetime">Einstein, unimodular gravity, and spacetime</h2>



Unimodular gravity, a version of Einstein’s theory that treats certain variables as fixed, plays a key role in this research.



In standard general relativity, the cosmological constant is an extra piece that can shape the universe’s expansion.



In unimodular gravity, this constant is partly integrated into how the theory sets up space and time.



Some physicists see it as a simpler way to handle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-expansion-rate-dark-energy-measured-11-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a> because it can separate how gravity affects geometry from how energy drives cosmic growth.



In this study, unimodular gravity underpins the argument that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-universe-remains-predictable-insights-from-quantum-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole singularities</a> might not mark the end of time.



By adjusting the underlying equations, the approach provides a path to include quantum effects that keep space and time going.



This aligns with the hypothesis that matter and time could be released as a white hole forms.



Though questions remain about how these mathematical insights translate to actual observations, this framework adds another dimension to discussions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-forces-have-made-the-structure-of-the-universe-messier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-holes-and-new-textbooks">White holes and new textbooks</h2>



To sum it all up in a tidy package, these researchers are suggesting that black holes may transform into white holes that release matter and time, overturning old ideas and hinting at a new link between dark energy and our measure of time. 



They present a model where black holes don’t end in singularities but shift into regions of quantum fluctuations, and they believe this perspective could unify quantum mechanics and gravity.



From this theory, the scientists see potential for connecting these ideas with efforts to merge gravity and quantum mechanics.



Such approaches could reshape our understanding of how cosmic expansion, dark energy, and black holes fit together in a single theoretical picture.



The new research also suggests novel approaches to reconciling gravity and quantum mechanics, potentially paving the way for transformative new fundamental theories and breakthroughs in our understanding of the universe.



As these ideas progress, scientists will continue testing how dark energy and quantum processes might shed light on the puzzle at the heart of these powerful cosmic objects.



May the force be with us all.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.101501" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Shock study: Black holes turn into white holes where 'time runs backwards'

Black holes have baffled and fascinated both scientists and the...

Climate change may lead to more precipitation and more intense floods, but a recent study highlights that the precise ways these shifts play out differ depending on the duration of rainfall events.&nbsp;



Researchers from Austria have demonstrated that shorter rainfall occurrences, on a timescale of just a few hours, are especially affected by rising temperatures, whereas longer rainfall events lasting days reveal a more nuanced relationship with climate conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-timescale">The importance of timescale</h2>



The study shows that to understand more precisely this relationship, it is crucial to distinguish between different types of rainfall and flood events, such as short-term events occuring on a time scale of hours, and longer-term events which last several days. In each of these cases, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> has a different impact.



Gathering data from over a century of records, the scientists were able to track precipitation patterns in Austria’s diverse climates.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that these observations may be extended to other regions worldwide. They also indicate which areas can expect changes in flood probabilities - and how exactly they will be impacted.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exceptional-datasets-fuel-discovery">Exceptional datasets fuel discovery</h2>



Although climate change is affecting water cycles all over the globe, a look at Austria is particularly revealing.&nbsp;



“We are in the very fortunate situation of having excellent data available,” said Günter Blöschl from the <a href="https://www.tuwien.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vienna Institute of Technology</a>, who led the research project. 



Since 1900, two institutions - Austria’s meteorological service, now <a href="https://www.geologie.ac.at/en/about-us/geosphere-austria" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geosphere Austria</a>, and the <a href="https://info.bml.gv.at/en/topics/water/water-in-austria/hydrography/what-is-the-austrian-hydrography---hydrographie-oesterreich.html#:~:text=In%20Austria%20hydrography%20has%20been,deals%20with%20the%20related%20questions." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Austrian Hydrography</a> - have independently recorded rainfall.&nbsp;



This activity, managed by the Ministry of Agriculture, yields especially reliable numbers, suitable as a reference for global forecasts.



With these datasets, the researchers delvied into detailed analyses of short- and long-term precipitation and flood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rise-in-brief-rainfall-events">A rise in brief rainfall events</h2>



The scientists discovered that heavy rainfall lasting only a few hours has risen significantly - by about 15% - over the past three or four decades. 



“This had already been predicted by climate models, albeit with uncertainties. We have now been able to confirm it,” Blöschl said.



Such a parallel increase was seen both north and south of the Alps. “This clearly shows that large-scale weather systems are not the decisive factor for these short-term precipitation events, because they would be different near the Mediterranean than north of the main Alpine ridge,” he explained.&nbsp;



“Instead, the temperature increase caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> leads to more intense precipitation locally. This is partly because warmer air can hold more moisture, but also because there is more energy in the system, and stronger warming at ground level leads to stronger upward movement of air masses. Then they also cool down faster, which leads to more rain.”



Because these intense downpours occur on relatively small scales, local temperature effects appear to override broader weather system influences.&nbsp;



Consequently, short, heavy rains and flash floods can occur in many places worldwide. All that is required is a moisture-rich atmosphere and localized upward air movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contrasting-long-term-rainfall-events">Contrasting long-term rainfall events</h2>



In evaluating longer rainfall scenarios - spanning multiple days - the study found a different picture. Global climate processes like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-climate-shifts-date-back-250-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a>, driven largely by temperature shifts in the oceans, play a crucial role here.&nbsp;



Such storms rely less on local temperature changes and more on large-scale atmospheric circulations. In Mediterranean countries like parts of Italy, Spain, and Greece, these multi-day precipitation bouts may actually become less frequent with climate change.



This contrast helps explain why floods don’t uniformly increase in every large watershed. Blöschl explained that flooding in smaller rivers with smaller catchment areas are strongly influenced by short-term intense rainfall. "The risk of short-term flooding is therefore much higher in areas close to such rivers."



On the other hand, large rivers like the Danube, with huge basins, experience floods driven more by multi-day rainfall episodes. Floods in such systems may display modest changes or even remain stable in response to shifting climate conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-flood-risk-assessment">Lessons for flood risk assessment</h2>



By distinguishing these processes, the Austrian data reveals the nuanced ways climate change alters water flows. Short bursts of intense rain are broadly on the rise, while extended rainfall episodes rely on more complex factors, including global weather systems and ocean temperature anomalies.



In turn, communities and policymakers have to adapt flood prevention and infrastructure plans to local conditions. Regions prone to short, severe cloudbursts may require different planning and water management than areas where large-scale deluges dominate flood risk.&nbsp;



With climate models increasingly indicating that short-term rainfall extremes will worsen worldwide, officials in many places may need to bolster flash flood readiness.



Over a century’s worth of data from Austria underscores that climate change is clearly influencing different types of rainfall and flood events, but understanding local climate drivers is crucial. In some locations, brief, intense storms will be the main threat; elsewhere, extended storm systems might prove more decisive.&nbsp;



By looking carefully at timescales, meteorologists and decision-makers can prepare for the precise mix of hazards climate change brings - and hopefully reduce the harm these shifts may cause for people living in vulnerable river basins.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08647-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Shorter storms, bigger impact: Rising flood risks in a warmer world

Climate change may lead to more precipitation and more intense...

Barnard’s Star has long been a focus of interest for people who study worlds beyond our solar system. It sits about six light-years from Earth and is known for its quick motion across our sky.



For years, astronomers have wondered whether it might harbor planets that could help us understand how planetary systems form.



Now, they seem to have gotten their wish. Recent observations suggest there may be four miniature planets orbiting Barnard’s Star.



Each is calculated to be just 20 to 30% the mass of Earth and completes one full trip around the star in only a few days.



These findings have caught many people’s attention because they point to greater precision in detecting smaller, more elusive planets.



“It’s a really exciting find - Barnard’s Star is our cosmic neighbor, and yet we know so little about it,” said Ritvik Basant, Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> and first author on the study. “It’s signaling a breakthrough with the precision of these new instruments from previous generations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-barnard-s-star-the-basics">Understanding Barnard’s Star - the basics</h2>



Barnard’s Star first came to light in 1916, thanks to astronomer E. E. Barnard at <a href="https://yerkesobservatory.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yerkes Observatory</a>. Ever since, scientists have been keeping an eye on it.



They nicknamed it a “great white whale” because people have often claimed to see planets there, only to be disappointed later. This time, the work is featured in The Astrophysical Journal Letters, dated March 11.



Observers used to rely on less sensitive equipment, which sometimes produced conflicting signals. That is one reason the star became such a legend among planet hunters, who occasionally thought they had proof but eventually realized their results were inconclusive.



Experts point out that Barnard’s Star is the closest single-star system after the Sun. In contrast, the nearest star system overall, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-telescopes-can-directly-detect-signs-of-alien-life-in-exoplanet-atmospheres/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proxima Centauri</a>, has three stars in a gravitational dance.



The difference matters because multiple stars complicate how planets might form, so an M dwarf star with just one companion star suggests a different environment for potential worlds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-planets-with-maroon-x">Hunting planets with MAROON-X</h2>



Astronomers cannot directly see tiny planets close to bright stars. Instead, they track the gentle pull each planet exerts on its star. 



A specialized instrument called <a href="https://www.gemini.edu/instrumentation/maroon-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MAROON-X</a>, installed on the Gemini Telescope in Hawaii, can detect faint wobbles in a star’s light signal. With this approach, the group detected three planets around Barnard’s Star. 



The fourth emerged when they combined their work with data from an earlier observation, taken by an instrument called ESPRESSO in Chile.



“We observed at different times of night on different days. They’re in Chile; we’re in Hawaii. Our teams didn’t coordinate with each other at all,” said Basant. “That gives us a lot of assurance that these aren’t phantoms in the data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barnard-s-star-s-planets">Barnard's Star's planets</h2>



Scientists suspect the new finds are small, rocky worlds, though exact compositions are hard to confirm. 



The angle from Earth means these planets do not appear to pass in front of their star, so the usual tests to identify rock or gas are out of reach. 



However, these orbits are probably far too close to the star for comfortable conditions.



“We worked on this data really intensely at the end of December, and I was thinking about it all the time," reflected Jacob Bean, a professor at the University of Chicago.



“It was like, suddenly we know something that no one else does about the universe. We just couldn’t wait to get this secret out," Bean added.



A sense of excitement fueled the entire project. 



“A lot of what we do can be incremental, and it’s sometimes hard to see the bigger picture,” Bean enthused. “But we found something that humanity will hopefully know forever. That sense of discovery is incredible.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Barnard’s Star’s four worlds rank among the tiniest bodies confirmed with such radial velocity tools. 



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exotic-worlds-tess-unveils-126-new-exoplanets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocky exoplanets</a> discovered so far tend to be larger than Earth, and patterns among them appear consistent across the galaxy. 



Astronomers want to see if smaller ones show diverse compositions that might hint at how they form. 



M dwarfs, which are abundant in the universe, are known to have intense magnetic activity, and that may affect how planets develop. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-barnard-s-star-s-planets-are-important">Why Barnard's Star's planets are important</h2>



Understanding these processes could unlock clues about which stars are most likely to host stable surfaces.



Some hope these insights will guide future searches for life, even though these particular worlds lie in scorching territory. 



Researchers will keep refining their techniques to look for planets in more temperate zones. Each fresh advance in instrumentation increases the odds of uncovering new surprises. 



Additional surveys may also shed light on whether tiny planets form more often around cooler stars, or if conditions for habitability vary in unexpected ways. 



With every improved telescope, the possibility of spotting something remarkable grows.



The full study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/adb8d5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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Earth has new neighbors: Four planets discovered just 6 light years away

Barnard’s Star has long been a focus of interest for...

A recent investigation shows that large, unbroken forests support more biodiversity than fragmented landscapes. 



While ecologists have long known that habitat loss contributes to declines in biodiversity within forest remnants, a debate persisted about whether conserving several smaller plots or one larger tract is more beneficial. 



This study - published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08688-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> and directed by <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> (U-M) ecologist Thiago Gonçalves-Souza – takes a definitive stance, indicating that fragmentation undercuts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> on multiple levels.



“Fragmentation is bad,” said study co-author Professor Nate Sanders. “This paper clearly shows that fragmentation has negative effects on biodiversity across scales. 



“That doesn’t mean we shouldn’t try to conserve small fragments when we can with our limited conservation dollars, but we need to be wise about conservation decisions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-perspective-on-fragmentation">Global perspective on fragmentation</h2>



The experts examined 4,006 species of vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants gathered from 37 sites worldwide, thereby generating a global overview of biodiversity differences between continuous and fragmented forests. 



The findings suggest a significant drop in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-diversity-makes-forests-more-productive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species diversity</a> within fragmented zones, illustrating a 13.6% decline at smaller (patch) scales, and 12.1% at broader (landscape) scales.



Additionally, the researchers noticed that generalized species - those flexible enough to thrive in a wide range of settings - tend to dominate in fragments. In contrast, more specialized organisms flourish in intact forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alpha-beta-and-gamma-diversity">Alpha, beta, and gamma diversity</h2>



To illustrate the varied impacts of fragmentation, the team looked at alpha, beta, and gamma diversity. Alpha diversity refers to how many species occur in a single piece of forest, whereas beta diversity measures how different species compositions are from one patch to another. 



Gamma diversity represents total biodiversity across a larger region, whether that region is made of disjointed fragments or an uninterrupted forest expanse.



“The heart of the debate is that people who argue that fragmentation isn’t so bad say that because you have isolated habitats, you have different species composition, which means at a large scale, it’s good. If they are different, we can assume that the gamma diversity is going to be higher,” said Gonçalves-Souza.



“They say the opposite for large tracts of land: because this is a continuous and homogeneous patch, the species composition is too similar.”



Previously, much research only covered one aspect of diversity or compared a few continuous forests against numerous fragments, potentially skewing the findings. The new study tackled this imbalance with thorough analyses and corrected for variations in sampling.



“One reason that this has been such a long-standing and unresolved debate is that we simply have not had the appropriate data and statistical tools to systematically evaluate the question at both smaller and larger scales,” noted Jonathan Chase, a professor at the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fragmentation-s-clear-impact">Fragmentation’s clear impact</h2>



Gonçalves-Souza and colleagues found that fragmentation lowers species numbers across all groups, and that heightened beta diversity in smaller forest fragments does not compensate for the overall loss of species variety at the wider landscape scale.



“This paper resolves a half-century old debate about how to conserve biodiversity in natural areas, one started by scientific luminaries including E.O. Wilson and Jared Diamond,” said Nick Haddad, a researcher at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a>.



Alongside reduced biodiversity, scientists argue that fragmentation can also threaten carbon sequestration in forests. 



“People are also comparing these two situations and finding that we are losing the ability for landscapes to store more carbon in fragmented landscapes,” Gonçalves-Souza said. “Fragmented landscapes are not only going to affect biodiversity by decreasing alpha and gamma diversity, but it also has implications for carbon stock as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-future-conservation-efforts">Rethinking future conservation efforts</h2>



Ultimately, Gonçalves-Souza hopes that the study’s results will move the conservation community beyond debates about whether multiple small fragments or a single extensive forest is preferable. Instead, the authors push for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-restoration-aids-humans-nature-climate-together/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest restoration</a> as a top priority.



“I don’t know if it’s useful to think about continuous vs. fragmented landscapes. We need to protect biodiversity and I think this debate is not helping to actually support conservation,” he said. 



“In many, many countries there aren’t many large, intact forests remaining. Therefore, our focus should be on planting new forests and restoring increasingly degraded habitats. Restoration is crucial for the future, more so than debating whether it’s better to have one large forest or many smaller fragments.”



With many forest ecosystems already facing pressures- from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforests-replanted-seedlings-after-logging-do-not-recover-well/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logging</a> and agriculture to climate change - restoration may be the pivotal step to ensure that habitats regain some of their lost ecological complexity. 



By renewing expanses of continuous forest wherever possible, conservationists can maximize carbon storage while also supporting the wide variety of species needed for healthy, enduring ecosystems.



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Large, undisturbed forests support greater biodiversity 

A recent investigation shows that large, unbroken forests support more...

Human litter has now infiltrated the deepest parts of Earth's oceans and seas. Debris and trash produced by human activity was spotted at a depth of 5,112 meters (3.2 miles) in the Mediterranean Sea. 



The site, which is the deepest point in the Mediterranean, is known as Calypso Deep, and is located off the south-western coast of Greece in the Ionian Sea.



In a new study, researchers have identified 167 objects at the bottom. Of these, 148 were clearly marine debris, while 19 were believed to be of human origin, though less definitively.



According to the authors, this represents one of the highest concentrations of litter documented at great depths in any sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debris-in-the-bottom-of-the-sea">Debris in the bottom of the sea </h2>



To investigate the Calypso Deep, scientists used a crewed submersible called the Limiting Factor, a deep-submergence vehicle capable of withstanding extreme pressure.



Images captured by the Limiting Factor confirm that besides accumulating on coasts, surface waters and shallower bottoms, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-it-still-possible-to-save-the-ocean-from-plastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine waste</a> also reaches the deepest, most remote points of the Mediterranean Sea.&nbsp;



Given the heavy impact of human activities on this nearly enclosed sea, the discovery emphasizes the urgency of global actions to reduce marine debris and a need for lifestyle changes that cut waste and protect marine environments worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-calypso-deep-as-a-debris-trap">The Calypso Deep as a debris trap</h2>



Located about 60 kilometers (37 miles) south west of the Peloponnese coast in Greece, the Calypso Deep is a depression within the Hellenic Trench system. 



Surrounded by steep terrain in an area with active faults, it has slopes measuring thousands of meters and a mostly flat floor at its lowest point. 



Its deeper, kidney-shaped portion extends over approximately 20 by 5 kilometers (12 by 3 miles) at depths surpassing 5,000 meters (3 miles).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-litter-s-journey-to-the-bottom">Litter's journey to the bottom</h2>



But how does rubbish collect so far down?



According to Miquel Canals from the University of Barcelona’s <a href="https://www.ub.edu/portal/web/earth-sciences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Faculty of Earth Sciences</a>, the debris comes from various sources, both terrestrial and marine. 



It could have arrived by various routes, including both long-distance transport by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weakening-ocean-currents-could-cost-trillions-of-dollars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean currents</a> and direct dumping. 



Canals explains that plastic items, for instance, can drift from coastal waters. 



Some light waste, such as plastics, comes from the coast, from where it escapes to the Calypso Deep, just 60 kilometers [37 miles] away. 



Some plastics, such as bags, drift just above the bottom until they are partially or completely buried, or disintegrate into smaller fragments.



“We have also found evidence of the boats’ dumping of bags full of rubbish, as revealed by the pile-up of different types of waste followed by an almost rectilinear furrow," Canals continued.



"Unfortunately, as far as the Mediterranean is concerned, it would not be wrong to say that ‘not a single inch of it is clean.'"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debris-transport-across-the-sea">Debris transport across the sea</h2>



Canals noted that the Calypso Deep is a closed depression, which favors the accumulation of debris inside it. He pointed out that the weak currents in the trench also facilitate the deposition of light debris at the bottom.



Floating debris originates mostly in the southern Ionian Sea or further south, and drifting eddies bring it toward the Calypso Deep.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/marine-litter-debris_bottom-seafloor_Mediterranean-Sea_montage_credit-Caladan-Oceanic_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/marine-litter-debris_bottom-seafloor_Mediterranean-Sea_montage_credit-Caladan-Oceanic_1s.webp" alt="The debris identified by the international team in the Calypso Deep warns of the need to implement global policy actions to reduce ocean waste, as well as to encourage changes in citizens’ consumption habits and waste reduction in order to protect seas and oceans around the world. Credit: Caladan Oceanic" class="wp-image-1962233"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The debris identified by the international team in the Calypso Deep warns of the need to implement global policy actions to reduce ocean waste, as well as to encourage changes in citizens’ consumption habits and waste reduction in order to protect seas and oceans around the world. Credit: Caladan Oceanic</figcaption></figure>



“When these eddies are located over the Calypso Trench, some debris tends to fall slowly to the bottom, aided by degradation mechanisms and ballasting processes that increase its density," explained Canals 



"Surface currents can also transport debris from the Adriatic Sea to the north, through the Strait of Otranto, and from the waters off north-western Greece."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-to-explore-the-abyss">Technology to explore the abyss</h2>



Investigating such extreme depths demands cutting-edge tools. In this case, the Limiting Factor submarine, built by Triton Submarines, allowed a small crew of two to descend. 



Moving at about 1.8 kilometers (1.1 miles) per hour to obtain clear images, the Limiting Factor covered roughly 650 meters (0.4 miles) in a straight line over a 43-minute window on the bottom.&nbsp;



“On each dive, more time is usually spent descending and ascending the vehicle back to the surface than inspecting the bottom. Each complete dive usually takes a few hours,” Canals noted.



The expedition revealed no substantial impact on local marine life, likely due to the area’s low biodiversity. 



Only a few species - namely, the fish Coryphaenoides mediterraneus and the crustacean Acanthephyra eximia - appeared in the footage. 



“However, in places with more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, there are different types of interaction between the debris deposited on the bottom and the organisms, such as ghost fishing, burial, hooking or ingestion, but also the use of debris as a substrate where animals can grow, hide or lay their eggs,” Canals said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mediterranean-s-pollution-problem">Mediterranean’s pollution problem</h2>



Scientists first documented trash on the ocean floor in 1975, in the North Atlantic’s Skagerrak Strait. Areas like canyons and seamounts are especially prone to accumulating garbage, either from settling, burial, or erosion processes. 



Now, the Mediterranean ranks among the worst-affected seas. In 2021, research identified the Strait of Messina as the global hot spot for seafloor litter. 



This highlights broader concerns about intensifying human influence on an enclosed region subject to heavy maritime traffic and fishing.



“The Mediterranean is an enclosed sea, surrounded by humanity, with intense maritime traffic and widespread fishing activity," noted Canals. 



"The evidence provided by our research should shake up global efforts, and in particular in the Mediterranean, to mitigate waste dumping, especially plastics, in the natural environment and ultimately in the sea, in line with the <a href="https://www.unep.org/inc-plastic-pollution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UN Global Plastics Treaty</a> against plastic pollution, which is still pending approval."



Canals emphasized that the ocean floor is still largely unknown to society as a whole, which makes it difficult to raise social and political awareness about the conservation of these spaces. 



"It is necessary to make a joint effort between scientists, communicators, journalists, the media, influencers and other people with social impact. The problem is there, and it has an enormous scope, even if it is not directly visible. We should not forget about it."



Details of the study are published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X25000852?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.



Image Credit: Caladan Oceanic



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Human trash has found its way to the deepest parts of Earth's seas and oceans

Human litter has now infiltrated the deepest parts of Earth's...

The tapestry of human evolution is adorned with fascinating episodes and, among them, the story of Paranthropus robustus from the Cradle of Humankind in South Africa stands out as a testament to survival, adaptation, and dominance.



This ancient hominin species, also referred to as Australopithecus robustus, inhabited the terrains of South Africa approximately 2 million years ago. It shared this region with Homo ergaster, which is believed to be a direct forerunner of modern humans.



The Swartkrans Cave, that is nestled halfway between Johannesburg and Pretoria, is a treasure trove of Paranthropus robustus fossils. 



Archaeological pursuits at this site since 1948 have helped unearth a multitude of insightful details about the extinct species' dietary patterns and social arrangements.



But a recent groundbreaking discovery is now reshaping what we know about the physical traits and way of life of these early hominins, offering a rare glimpse into how they moved, survived, and interacted in a prehistoric landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-and-traits-of-paranthropus-robustus">Life and traits of Paranthropus robustus</h2>



Paranthropus robustus was equipped with extraordinarily heavy jaws and thickly coated teeth – an adaptation for enduring lean times by when individuals would have needed to consume low-grade, tough foods. 



Fossilized skulls and teeth of this species have been excavated in several different locations in the Cradle of Humankind.



The skulls and teeth provide fascinating insights into the social structure of these hominins. Some are exceptionally large, suggesting that they were probably males, while others are smaller and likely to have been females.



This physical difference suggests that Paranthropus robustus probably engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polygynous-male-mammals-may-have-more-sexual-aggression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polygyny</a> – a system of mating where one dominant male mates with several females.



But until now, the scarcity of fossilized bones from the rest of the post-cranial skeleton has impeded our knowledge of their body type, posture, and locomotion – key&nbsp;characteristics&nbsp;associated&nbsp;with their diet and mate searching behavior.



A recent groundbreaking find in the Swartkrans Cave is, however, poised to reverse this paradigm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discoveries-at-swartkrans-cave">Discoveries at Swartkrans cave</h2>



Recently, an international team of researchers based at the Evolutionary Studies Institute at the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/esi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Witwatersrand</a> in South Africa made a fascinating discovery.



Their dig resulted in the exposure of the very first articulating hipbone, thigh bone, and shin bone of a Paranthropus robustus individual.



This groundbreaking discovery provides us with valuable information regarding the existence and features of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homo-juluensis-new-human-species-vanished-just-fifty-thousand-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric hominin species</a>.



The newly discovered fossil not only illustrates that Paranthropus robustus primarily moved around by walking upright (similar to the locomotion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-humans-are-separated-from-neanderthals-by-one-gene/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a>), but also reveals their surprisingly petite size.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/hominin_human-ancestor_Paranthropus-robustus_thigh-bone_walked-upright_credit-Jason-Heaton_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/hominin_human-ancestor_Paranthropus-robustus_thigh-bone_walked-upright_credit-Jason-Heaton_1s.webp" alt="The new Paranthropus robustus thigh and shin bones, articulated at the knee joint. Credit: Jason Heaton" class="wp-image-1962225"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The new Paranthropus robustus thigh and shin bones, articulated at the knee joint. Credit: Jason Heaton</figcaption></figure>



"It is estimated that this individual, probably a female, was only about a meter tall (3.3 feet) and 27 kg (60 pounds) when it died, making it even smaller than adults from other diminutive early human species, including those represented by the famous '<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lucy-could-barely-run-what-does-that-say-about-our-ancestors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lucy</a>' (Australopithecus afarensis; about 3.2 million years old) and 'Hobbit' (Homo floresiensis; about 90,000 years old) skeletons, from Ethiopia and Indonesia, respectively," explained Professor Pickering from the University of Wisconsin–Madison, who spearheaded the research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predators-prey-and-survival-instincts">Predators, prey, and survival instincts</h2>



The compact size of the prehistoric Prananthropus robustus rendered them vulnerable to predators, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-sabertooth-cat-discovered-in-south-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sabertooth cats</a> and giant hyenas, who roamed the areas surrounding Swartkrans Cave.



This hypothesis is supported by the team's identification of tooth marks and chewing damage on fossilized P. robustus bones. These marks are identical to those made by leopards when they chew on their prey.



Yet, their small size didn’t necessarily hinder their survival. 



"Although it seems that this particular Paranthropus robustus individual was the unfortunate victim of predation, that conclusion does not mean that the entire species was inept," Pickering stresses.



Their existence in South Africa for over a million years attests to their endurance, and the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-tools-ever-made-on-earth-hominins-3-million-years-ago-cradle-of-humankind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone and bone tools</a> near their fossils suggests a degree of intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



In order to learn more about the growth and developmental patterns of Paranthropus robustus, as well as their locomotion behaviors, the team is currently doing research that includes CT-scan examinations of internal bone structures.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/hominin_human-ancestor_Paranthropus-robustus_skull_walked-upright_credit-Jason-Heaton_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/hominin_human-ancestor_Paranthropus-robustus_skull_walked-upright_credit-Jason-Heaton_1s.webp" alt="A fossil leopard lower jawbone next to a skull fragment of a juvenile Paranthropus robustus. Note the two punctures in the skull, which match the spacing of the tips of the leopard's fangs—implying that this unfortunate hominin was killed and eaten by a leopard. Credit: Jason Heaton" class="wp-image-1962223"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A fossil leopard lower jawbone next to a skull fragment of a juvenile Paranthropus robustus. Note the two punctures in the skull, which match the spacing of the tips of the leopard's fangs—implying that this unfortunate hominin was killed and eaten by a leopard. Credit: Jason Heaton</figcaption></figure>



This study has the potential to advance our knowledge of human evolution and add fresh chapters to the intriguing story of Paranthropus robustus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daily-lives-of-paranthropus-robustus">Daily lives of Paranthropus robustus</h2>



Outside of their skeletal system and survival habits, knowledge of the daily existence of Paranthropus robustus gives greater insight into what they were like.



Scientists surmise that the early hominins lived in small groups and most likely scavenged in groups in the woodland and open savannas that surrounded the Swartkrans Cave. 



They ate largely tough plant matter, such as roots, tubers, and seeds, to which their heavy-duty jaws and heavily enamel-coated teeth were best suited.



Proof of stone and bone tools alongside their fossils evokes intriguing questions regarding their level of cognitive skills. 



Although not as sophisticated a tool maker as the subsequent hominin species, P. robustus might have utilized basic tools to assist with food preparation and tuber excavation.



Such resourcefulness implies that Paranthropus robustus was more cunning than previously realized, and was potentially able to manipulate its surroundings in order to enhance survival prospects.



As scientists go on to examine fossilized bones and related artifacts, every finding is a step towards piecing together the complicated world of Paranthropus robustus, a species that flourished under difficult prehistoric conditions.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0047248424001556" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Human Evolution</a>.



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Discovery: These human ancestors walked upright over 2 million years ago

The tapestry of human evolution is adorned with fascinating episodes...

Millions of years from now, the remnants of today’s world will be buried beneath layers of rock and sediment. While fossils of ancient creatures have long fascinated scientists, we are likely to leave behind a new kind of fossil in the future - one shaped by human activity. 



These "technofossils" include everything from plastic bottles and old mobile phones to the most unexpected of all - the blades of wind turbines.



The idea that everyday objects could become <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-fossils-reveal-signs-of-a-population-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> may seem strange. People associate fossils with dinosaur bones, ancient trees, and primitive sea creatures - not with discarded technology.



However, researchers have started to realize that the impact of human-made materials will last far longer than many natural formations. The structures we build and the items we use daily will leave a lasting imprint on the Earth’s geological record, creating a new chapter in the history of fossilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-human-made-objects-become-fossils">How human-made objects become fossils</h2>



Fossilization is a slow and selective process. For an object to become a fossil, it must be buried under sediment, shielded from decay, and eventually mineralized over time. 



Most organic materials decompose before they have a chance to fossilize, but some artificial materials resist natural breakdown.



Plastics, synthetic fabrics, and certain composites are particularly durable. They do not degrade easily, which makes them prime candidates for future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a>.



The layers of waste accumulating in landfills today could, under the right conditions, transform into well-preserved remnants of the Anthropocene epoch - the age of human influence on Earth.



<a href="https://le.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> paleontologists Professor Sarah Gabbott and Professor Jan Zalasiewicz have explored this idea in depth. 



In their book <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/discarded-9780192869333?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp;" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Discarded: How Technofossils Will be Our Ultimate Legacy</a>, they examine how the products of modern life will be preserved for millennia. These objects will tell the story of a civilization defined by industry, technology, and mass consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossilized-wind-turbine-blades">Fossilized wind turbine blades </h2>



Among all the potential technofossils, wind turbine blades stand out as among the most surprising. These towering structures symbolize clean energy, yet their long-term environmental fate remains uncertain.



Unlike the metal towers that hold them aloft, turbine blades are produced from materials that are difficult to recycle, making them far more likely to persist in the geological record.



“The fossils won’t be of the towers, by and large – those are made of metal, which can be recycled. The enormous wind turbine blades, though, are made of materials like fibreglass and epoxy resin and carbon fibres, which are terribly hard to recycle - but easy to fossilize,“ explained Professor Zalasiewicz.



“As wind turbines reach end-of-life and are decommissioned, huge landfills of the 50 meter-long-plus blades, sliced into truck-length segments and neatly stacked side by side, are appearing and growing."



“Some will stay buried for millions of years – and, if finally erosion-revealed and stumbled upon by some curious far-future palaeontologist, will be an amazing sight, like a graveyard of gigantic, hollow, sawn-up bones."



"Some may be squashed and crumpled by earth movements, and others may be filled with mineral growths, but their striking shape and enormous size will shine out of the strata.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-the-past">Piecing together the past</h2>



Future scientists may one day stumble upon these massive fossils and wonder about their origins. 



Just as modern paleontologists reconstruct dinosaur skeletons from fragmented bones, these wind turbine fossils could present a mystery for researchers in the distant future. Their aerodynamic design might hint at their original purpose, but without historical records, their function could remain uncertain.



“For our far-future explorers, they will be a huge puzzle – will they be able to tell that they were built to catch the wind, and to provide energy that is clean and renewable? Perhaps they will, if they can piece them together – like we reconstruct huge dinosaur skeletons today – to see their aerodynamic shapes,” said Professor Zalasiewicz.



These fossils will not be alone. They will be part of a vast and complex geological archive of human activity. Alongside them, future scientists may uncover the remains of other everyday objects, from metal wires and plastic containers to microchips and industrial pollutants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-impact-of-human-waste">Growing impact of human waste</h2>



While wind turbine blades are one of the more dramatic examples, they are not the only evidence of human impact on the planet. 



Every year, billions of discarded items accumulate in landfills and oceans. Over time, many of these objects will become buried beneath layers of sediment, preserving them for future generations to discover.



“They will be only one puzzle among the millions we leave behind in our daily lives (and we suspect they would also find the more sinister fossils left by fossil fuel burning). There’s been nothing like this emerging new fossil cornucopia in the Earth’s four and a half billion-year history,“ noted Professor Zalasiewicz.



“And right now, we should begin to understand this amazing, if often toxic, legacy that we are leaving for the planet. Knowing how our myriad discarded objects will fossilise into the far future can help us deal with the growing mountains of trash we live among today.”



Understanding how our waste fossilizes is not just an academic pursuit. It provides insight into the long-term effects of human consumption and pollution. 



This knowledge could encourage more sustainable practices and better waste management strategies to reduce the environmental footprint of future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-relics-of-modern-life">Unexpected relics of modern life</h2>



The idea of human-made fossils, including turbine blades, invites some unusual questions.



What will be the strangest objects that survive millions of years into the future? Which everyday items will become the most unexpected relics of modern life?



“It’s been a real adventure to use our understanding of how fossils form in the past and now apply it to the very new world of what we call technofossils,“ Professor Sarah Gabbott noted.



“But then we were asked a really tricky question. What will the most surprising technofossil that we leave behind, millions (or billions) of years from now?



“There are so many candidates to rival wind turbines for the ‘weirdest human-made fossil of all time.' There are, for instance, the myriad different shapes that a pair of Y-fronts can take when pressed within strata (and yes, we do explore that very particular question in the book)."



“There are the tiny, but very distinctive – and very hard-wearing – fossil smoke particles that come out of our power stations. There are the strange stories of tea-bags, and of chicken feathers, non-stick pans, the minute patterns on silicon chips, the copper wires that wrap around the globe, and much more,” explained Professor Gabbott.



From fabric pressed into rock to microscopic patterns on electronic chips, these objects will provide a unique record of human civilization. Their presence in the geological archive will serve as evidence of a world driven by innovation, industry, and material consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-wind-turbine-blades">Future research on wind turbine blades</h2>



The study of technofossils is more than just a curiosity - it forces us to reconsider our relationship with waste and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-term environmental impact</a>. If everyday objects will outlast entire civilizations, what responsibilities do we have in managing what we leave behind?



Gabbott and Zalasiewicz’s research challenges us to think beyond the present moment. The choices we make today will shape how future generations understand our era. 



By studying how human-made materials fossilize, we gain a new perspective on sustainability, history, and the consequences of our actions over deep time .



As we continue to innovate and build, it is worth remembering that the fossils of the future will not just be ancient bones and shells. Everything we discard has the potential to become a lasting mark on the planet. 



This is what will tell the story of a world transformed by humanity.



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What modern fossils will be the 'most surprising' to future explorers?

Millions of years from now, the remnants of today’s world...

Teen pregnancy remains a significant public health concern around the world, especially in West Virginia where the rate is notably higher than the national average.



A recent study highlights the challenges associated with teenage pregnancies, particularly regarding birth outcomes and access to prenatal care. 



Researchers found that infants born to teenage mothers in the state tend to have lower birth weights and are smaller for their gestational age compared to those born to adult mothers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teen-pregnancy-rates-in-west-virginia">Teen pregnancy rates in West Virginia</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.wvu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West Virginia University</a> analyzed data from Project Watch, a system that tracks all births in hospitals across the state. 



The study examined 86,447 live births between 2018 and 2023, and found that 5,310 of these infants - about 6.15% - were born to teenage mothers.



By comparison, the national teen birth rate in 2022 stood at 1.36%. Rural counties had the highest rates, with Pendleton County reaching 14.38% and Boone, Mercer, and Hardy counties all surpassing 10%. The lowest rate, 2.76%, was recorded in Monongalia County.



According to Amna Umer, associate professor in the WVU School of Medicine's Department of Pediatrics, the findings emphasize an urgent issue.



“We used the most current data and the findings underscore a significant issue in the state. The risk of teen birth is multifactorial," Umer explained.



"This study highlights the role of social, geographical and educational factors offering crucial insights for policymakers to expand comprehensive, evidence-based teen pregnancy prevention education and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-birth-control-scientists-develop-a-non-hormonal-pill-for-men/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birth control</a> access for at-risk teens.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barriers-to-prenatal-care">Barriers to prenatal care</h2>



Teenage mothers are less likely to receive adequate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-pregnancy-related-deaths-in-the-u-s-skyrocketing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prenatal care</a>, a concern that has been confirmed by this study. Access to health services is a significant hurdle, especially for those in rural communities where medical facilities are scarce.



“Teenage mothers are a vulnerable population and there really isn’t a lot of research out there, especially on those living in rural areas,” said Rylee Childers, a third-year medical student from Morgantown, and the study's corresponding author.



“Our research identifies the hurdles that come with being a teenage mom and that’s important to not just people in rural areas, but also their primary care physicians and people in the medical field.”



Many factors contribute to this lack of care. Geographic distance and transportation barriers make it difficult for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-half-of-u-s-teens-have-been-harassed-by-a-partner/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teens</a> to attend regular checkups.



“There are some people in rural areas that have to drive three to four hours to see their obstetrician,” Childers confirmed.



“Additionally, a lot of teenage moms can’t drive yet. So, another adult would have to take off work which might be difficult if they work two jobs. There are a lot of different factors that maybe not everybody realizes because they’re not familiar with that population.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-teen-pregnancy">Addressing teen pregnancy</h2>



Since most teen pregnancies are unintended, health care professionals have an opportunity to support prevention efforts. 



The study suggests that providers could play a critical role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sales-of-morning-after-pills-soar-after-new-years-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contraception</a> counseling, navigating health care options, and ensuring confidentiality in patient care.



“I really hope the study starts a conversation about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-health-gap-between-rural-and-urban-men-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rural health care</a> as a whole and especially about access to care and resources,” Childers said.



The findings also reflect broader disparities. The study found that teenage pregnancies were more common among individuals receiving Medicaid and among racial minority groups. 



These findings align with previous research that points to economic and social inequalities as factors influencing teen birth rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-forward">Moving forward</h2>



Childers and co-author Alexandra Richmond, a third-year medical student from Beckley, were selected to present their findings at the 2024 West Virginia Rural Health Conference.



For Childers, the research experience has been eye-opening.



“Working on this study opened my eyes to the entire process of research and understanding the health care disparities of the rural population as a whole,” she said. “It makes me think about how I can be a better provider for my patients.”



As discussions on teen pregnancy prevention and access to health care continue, studies like this provide valuable insights for policymakers, medical professionals, and community leaders striving to improve maternal and child health outcomes in West Virginia.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.jpagonline.org/article/S1083-3188(25)00006-3/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology</a>.



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Study links teen pregnancy to smaller newborns

Teen pregnancy remains a significant public health concern around the...

Scientists have searched for alien life for years, but space is huge, and technology has limits, making it hard to find answers. Traditionally, researchers have focused on finding planets similar to Earth, believing that conditions mirroring our own would be the best place to look for life.



However, a new study suggests that an entirely different type of planet could provide clearer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-super-earth-hd-20794-found-just-20-light-years-away-is-best-target-yet-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of living organisms</a>.



Instead of focusing on Earth-like planets, scientists have identified a unique biosignature gas that could reveal life in environments that are vastly different from our own.



This discovery shifts the search toward larger, ocean-covered planets with thick hydrogen atmospheres, known as hycean planets, where certain microbes could potentially thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gases-could-be-key-indicators">Gases could be key indicators</h2>



The recent study, led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a>, explored the unexpected gases that may signify life on exoplanets.



The research was focused on methyl halides, compounds made of a carbon and three hydrogen atoms bonded to a halogen, such as chlorine or bromine. 



On Earth, these gases are produced by bacteria, marine algae, fungi, and certain plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hycean-planets-and-extraterrestrial-life">Hycean planets and extraterrestrial life</h2>



Detecting these biosignatures presents challenges. Exoplanets similar to Earth are too small and dim for the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) to observe effectively. 



Instead, researchers suggest targeting hycean planets, which are larger and in orbit around small red stars.



These bodies are covered in deep oceans, and enveloped in thick hydrogen atmospheres. Though humans cannot survive on these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-aliens-could-detect-earth-what-would-they-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a>, some microbes might.



“Unlike an Earth-like planet, where atmospheric noise and telescope limitations make it difficult to detect biosignatures, hycean planets offer a much clearer signal,” explained Eddie Schwieterman, <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCR</a> astrobiologist and co-author of the paper .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-approach-to-finding-life">Practical approach to finding life</h2>



Scientists believe looking for methyl halides on hycean planets is a practical strategy, given current technology.



“Oxygen is currently difficult or impossible to detect on an Earth-like planet. However, methyl halides on hycean worlds offer a unique opportunity for detection with existing technology,” said Michaela Leung, UCR planetary scientist and first author of the paper.



Finding these gases could also be more efficient than searching for other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-alien-life-may-be-as-simple-as-watching-microbes-move/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biosignatures</a>.



“One of the great benefits of looking for methyl halides is you could potentially find them in as few as 13 hours with James Webb. That is similar or lower, by a lot, to how much telescope time you’d need to find gases like oxygen or methane,” Leung said. 



“Less time with the telescope means it’s less expensive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-life-from-vast-distances">Detecting life from vast distances</h2>



Methyl halides exist on Earth in small amounts, but hycean planets could have atmospheric conditions that allow these gases to accumulate. This makes detection easier from vast distances.



“These microbes, if we found them, would be anaerobic. They’d be adapted to a very different type of environment, and we can’t really conceive of what that looks like, except to say that these gases are a plausible output from their metabolism,” Schwieterman said.



The study builds on previous research into biosignature gases, including dimethyl sulfide. 



Methyl halides stand out due to their strong absorption of infrared light and their ability to accumulate in hydrogen-rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-small-planets-discovered-orbiting-the-nearest-single-star-to-earth-barnards-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheres</a>.



While JWST is currently the most powerful tool for this search, future missions could enhance detection. 



The proposed <a href="https://eu-life.eu/about/mission-values" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European LIFE mission</a>, expected to launch in the 2040s, may confirm these biosignatures in less than a day.



“If we start finding methyl halides on multiple planets, it would suggest that microbial life is common across the universe,” Leung said. 



“That would reshape our understanding of life’s distribution and the processes that lead to the origins of life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life">Expanding the search for extraterrestrial life</h2>



Researchers plan to extend their investigations to other planetary types and biosignature gases. 



They have already studied gases from extreme environments on Earth, such as the Salton Sea, which emits halogenated compounds like chloroform.



“We want to get measurements of other things produced in extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-oxygen-in-the-deep-sea-may-hold-clues-about-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a> on Earth, which could be more common elsewhere,” Schwieterman said.



Direct sampling of exoplanet atmospheres remains out of reach, but advances in telescope technology and observational techniques could change that.



“Humans are not going to visit an exoplanet anytime soon,” Schwieterman said. “But knowing where to look, and what to look for, could be the first step in finding life beyond Earth.”



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/adb558" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>. 



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, Joseph Olmsted/STScI



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Weird planets may be the best place to look for strange alien life, according to new research

Scientists have searched for alien life for years, but space...

In a twist that sounds like science fiction, researchers have modified mouse DNA to include traits that were once found in the extinct woolly mammoth. These <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Engineering" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic engineering</a> efforts highlight growing attempts to make de-extinction a reality for vanished <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



This project has yielded small mice bearing a fluffy, woolly coat that echoes features of the Ice Age giant. The lab results have stirred curiosity among scientists and the general public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-de-extinction-of-lost-species">De-extinction of lost species</h2>



“For us, it’s an incredibly big deal,” said Beth Shapiro, chief science officer at <a href="https://colossal.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colossal Biosciences</a> in Dallas. Scientists behind this plan envision a future where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-heliconia-species-are-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct creatures</a> might roam again.&nbsp;



The experts see these tiny rodents as proof that <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/CRISPR" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> can modify multiple genes to recreate lost traits. The technology harnesses molecular tools to snip and rearrange DNA inside living cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tweaking-the-genes">Tweaking the genes</h2>



To make the mice woolly, the researchers analyzed ancient mammoth genomes alongside elephant DNA. They disabled certain genes tied to hair texture, color, and heat regulation.



They also introduced a unique mutation found in woolly mammoths to see if it would produce thick fur. The resulting offspring exhibited curly coats that surprised many observers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-de-extinction-bring-species-back">Can de-extinction bring species back?</h2>



Vincent Lynch, a biology professor at the University at Buffalo, remains unconvinced about bringing back the vanished giants and recently voiced his skepticism. "Mammoths are extinct and cannot be ‘de-extincted’ or resurrected,” he stated.



Critics argue that the time and resources funneled into reviving extinct beasts might be better spent saving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-forests-rose-again-after-the-planets-most-extreme-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> that are currently teetering on the brink of extinction. They question whether any environment could truly accommodate the needs of species that disappeared thousands of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-stumbling-blocks">Practical stumbling blocks</h2>



Even if these genetic tweaks scale up, an elephant’s <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/african-elephant" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gestation</a> lasts nearly two years, which complicates experiments. The size of the mother and the specialized procedures that are required add another layer of difficulty.



Some scientists also worry about how herds of woolly-elephant hybrids might affect fragile ecosystems. These delicate networks of living organisms can be disrupted in ways that are hard to predict.



Others are worried about overshadowing urgent efforts to protect living species. They believe well-tested conservation approaches must not lose momentum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-about-unpredictable-mutations">Concerns about unpredictable mutations </h2>



Recreating extinct species raises questions about ethics and responsibility. Some bioethicists warn that modifying living animals to resemble long-lost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/public-concern-over-species-extinctions-fades-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> could create unintended suffering, especially if genetic changes cause health complications. 



Others argue that lab-engineered species might blur the lines between conservation and unnatural interference.



Scientists also face concerns about <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Drift" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic drift</a>, where unpredictable mutations arise over generations. If mammoth-like elephants are introduced into the wild, they may not behave like their Ice Age relatives.



Such changes might influence their ability to interact with the environment as their ancient counterparts did, affecting everything from diet and migration patterns to social structures and survival strategies.



This uncertainty fuels debate over whether reviving extinct species serves scientific curiosity more than real-world ecological benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-de-extinction-research">Future of de-extinction research</h2>



Colossal Biosciences aims to produce elephant embryos with mammoth-like traits within a few years. The ambitious timeline hinges on refining gene-editing steps and ensuring safe pregnancies.



In the meantime, these fuzzy rodents serve as a tiny window into how far science can push modifications. The experiment demonstrates a desire to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct</a> adaptations without waiting for a living mammoth to appear.



Many experts remain unconvinced that this venture will lead to practical conservation gains. Others see an inventive effort to better understand genetic traits that once shaped Ice Age creatures.



Supporters argue that advanced editing approaches might shield certain species from threats like habitat loss or disease, whereas critics counter that tinkering with extinct DNA could distract from proven strategies such as habitat restoration.



Debates aside, each step in this research reveals new layers of complexity in de-extinction. We now face the question of how far to push these technologies.



The controversies will likely intensify as the conversation shifts from lab-born mice to massive mammals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.03.03.641227v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a>.



Image Credit: Colossal Biosciences



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How creating 'woolly mice' in the lab will bring back the woolly mammoth

In a twist that sounds like science fiction, researchers have...

Whales are not just big - they’re important contributors to healthy oceans. When they poop, they move nutrients from deep water to the surface, benefiting organisms in the marine food web.&nbsp;



Now, new research has shown that whales also ferry substantial quantities of nutrients for thousands of miles in their urine and other bodily outputs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delivering-nutrients-across-the-ocean">Delivering nutrients across the ocean</h2>



In 2010, experts revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-poop-is-a-natural-fertilizer-that-keeps-the-ocean-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, feeding at depth and pooping at the surface, offer a critical resource for plankton growth and ocean productivity.&nbsp;



The latest study, led by the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, has found that whales transport abundant nutrients horizontally across entire ocean basins.&nbsp;



These nutrients typically travel from rich, cold waters where whales feed to warm equatorial regions where they mate and give birth, delivered in large part by their urine - though sloughed skin, calf feces, carcasses, and placentas also play a part.



“These coastal areas often have clear waters, a sign of low <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-was-plentiful-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a>, and many have coral reef ecosystems,” said Joe Roman, a biologist at the University of Vermont, who co-led the research.&nbsp;



“The movement of nitrogen and other nutrients can be important to the growth of phytoplankton, or microscopic algae, and provide food for sharks and other fish and many invertebrates.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-long-distance-nutrient-pipeline">A long-distance nutrient pipeline</h2>



The researchers found that in oceans worldwide, great whales - including right whales, gray whales, and humpbacks - carry around 4,000 tons of nitrogen each year into coastal zones in the tropics and subtropics.&nbsp;



They also deliver more than 45,000 tons of biomass. Before commercial whaling decimated whale populations, this offshore-to-inshore “nutrient pipeline” could have been three or more times larger.



For instance, scientists estimate that thousands of humpback whales migrate annually from a vast foraging region in the Gulf of Alaska to a smaller breeding area in Hawaii.&nbsp;



The team shows that the nutrient inputs - tons of excretions, skin, and carcasses - provided by whales in the <a href="https://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary</a> are about double the amount brought in by local oceanic processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-whale-conveyer-belt">The whale conveyer belt</h2>



“We call it the ‘great whale conveyor belt,’ or it can also be thought of as a funnel because whales feed over large areas, but they need to be in a relatively confined space to find a mate, breed, and give birth. At first, the calves don’t have the energy to travel long distances like the moms can,” Roman explained.&nbsp;



Another factor is that the whales likely remain in shallow, sandy waters to muffle their calls. “Moms and newborns are calling all the time, staying in communication,” he added. “And they don’t want predators, like killer whales, or breeding humpback males, to pick up on that.”



Therefore, nutrients that are widely dispersed over feeding zones become concentrated in limited tropical and subtropical habitats, “like collecting leaves to make compost for your garden,” as Roman put it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-animals-massive-migrations">Large animals, massive migrations</h2>



During summer, fully grown whales gorge on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-satellites-track-antarctic-krill-are-these-tiny-ocean-shrimp-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">krill</a>, herring, and other prey in high-latitude waters near Alaska, Iceland, and Antarctica. Recent studies indicate that North Pacific humpback whales can gain about 30 pounds daily in spring, summer, and fall.&nbsp;



This substantial fat build-up supports an incredible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>: baleen whales routinely travel thousands of miles to tropical breeding grounds without eating. Gray whales, for example, make a nearly 7,000-mile journey between feeding grounds off Russia and calving sites along Baja California. 



Meanwhile, some humpback whales in the Southern Hemisphere migrate over 5,000 miles from waters near Antarctica to areas off Costa Rica.



During these treks, they burn off hundreds of pounds a day and excrete substantial amounts of nitrogen-rich urea. One Icelandic study found that feeding fin whales can release more than 250 gallons of urine daily, while humans typically excrete less than half a gallon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-life-on-a-different-scale-nbsp">Living life on a different scale&nbsp;</h2>



Whales have the longest migrations of any mammal and are outsized creatures in every sense.&nbsp;



“Because of their size, whales are able to do things that no other animal does. They’re living life on a different scale,” said co-author Andrew Pershing, an oceanographer at the nonprofit organization Climate Central.&nbsp;



“Nutrients are coming in from outside - and not from a river, but by these migrating animals. It’s super-cool, and changes how we think about ecosystems in the ocean. We don’t think of animals other than humans having an impact on a planetary scale, but the whales really do.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circulatory-system-of-the-planet-nbsp">Circulatory system of the planet&nbsp;</h2>



Prior to commercial whaling that started in the 1800s, nutrient transfers would likely have been much larger, Pershing argued. He noted that researchers do not yet fully understand inputs from blue whales - the largest animals on Earth - which were heavily hunted in the twentieth century. 



“There’s basic things that we don’t know about them, like where their breeding areas are,” said Pershing, noting that humpback populations are recovering in some places, but blue whale numbers remain severely diminished.



“Lots of people think of plants as the lungs of the planet, taking in carbon dioxide and expelling oxygen. For their part, animals play an important role in moving nutrients,” said Roman.&nbsp;



“Seabirds transport nitrogen and phosphorus from the ocean to the land in their poop, increasing the density of plants on islands. Animals form the circulatory system of the planet - and whales are the extreme example.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-56123-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Whales transport nutrients across entire ocean basins in their urine

Whales are not just big - they’re important contributors to...

We think we understand our dogs and their emotions. We see a wagging tail as happiness and whimpering as sadness, projecting our emotions onto them. This perception forms the foundation of our bond, but what if we are getting it wrong?



New research from Arizona State University (<a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASU</a>) suggests that dog owners frequently misinterpret their pet’s emotions. Instead of reading a dog’s true signals, we rely on context, assuming that we know how our pets feel based on the situation rather than their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-focus-more-when-humans-use-eye-contact-and-gestures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">actual behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-dog-emotions">Understanding dog emotions</h2>



Communication with a dog requires patience and observation. Unlike humans, dogs do not express themselves with words. Instead, they rely on body language, facial expressions, and vocalizations. This can make emotional interpretation challenging, especially when our own biases come into play.



At first glance, it seems simple. You give your dog a treat, and she wags her tail before trotting away happily. You believe she is delighted, that she understands your affection, and that the two of you share a moment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewards-of-dog-ownership-outweigh-the-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">connection</a>. But is that what really happens?



According to ASU researchers Holly Molinaro and Clive Wynne, our interpretation of dog emotions often strays from reality. The study reveals that humans tend to judge a dog’s emotional state based on the surrounding situation rather than the dog’s actual behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-human-bias">Impact of human bias</h2>



Dogs have their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">own way of expressing</a> emotions, but humans frequently misunderstand these signals. This misinterpretation often occurs because we project our feelings onto them. We assume a dog feels happy or guilty because that is how we would feel in a similar situation.



“People do not look at what the dog is doing, instead they look at the situation surrounding the dog and base their emotional perception off of that,” said Molinaro.



Professor Clive Wynne, who studies dog behavior, further explained this challenge. "Our dogs are trying to communicate with us, but we humans seem determined to look at everything except the poor pooch himself."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-context-alters-emotion-perception">Context alters emotion perception</h2>



To test how humans perceive dog emotions, Molinaro and Wynne conducted two experiments. They filmed dogs in various scenarios, capturing moments believed to be positive, such as receiving treats or preparing for a walk, as well as negative situations, like mild scolding or encountering a vacuum cleaner.



Participants watched these videos, some with full context and others with altered backgrounds. In one experiment, the researchers edited the clips so that a dog filmed in a happy setting appeared to be in a negative one, and vice versa. The goal was to see how people would judge the emotions of the dog.



The findings were striking. People overwhelmingly relied on situational cues rather than the dog’s actual behavior to determine its emotional state.



“You see a dog getting a treat, you assume he must be feeling good. You see a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-affectionate-dog-breeds-that-adore-cuddles-and-hugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> getting yelled at, you assume he’s feeling bad,” Molinaro explained. “These assumptions of how you think the dog is feeling have nothing to do with the dog’s behavior or emotional cues, which is very striking.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mistaken-emotion-of-a-guilty-dog">Mistaken emotion of a “guilty” dog</h2>



One of the most common misinterpretations in dog behavior is the so-called "guilty look." Many dog owners believe their pet feels guilt after doing something wrong, but research suggests otherwise.



“When you yell at your dog for doing something bad and she makes that guilty face, is it really because she is guilty, or is it because she is scared you are going to reprimand her more?” said Molinaro.



Dogs react to human tone, posture, and body language. What appears as guilt is often fear or submission, a response to their owner’s reaction rather than an understanding of wrongdoing. This misunderstanding can affect training and the bond between pet and owner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-influence-of-human-emotions">The influence of human emotions</h2>



Another factor in misreading dog emotions is anthropomorphism - the tendency to attribute human emotions to animals. While humans and dogs share a close <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationship</a>, their emotional processing differs significantly.



“I have always found this idea that dogs and humans must have the same emotions to be very biased and without any real scientific proof to back it up, so I wanted to see if there are factors that might actually be affecting our perception of dog emotions,” Molinaro said.



Humans interpret emotions based on cultural and personal experiences. The way one person perceives sadness or happiness may differ from another. When it comes to animals, these subjective experiences shape how we understand their behavior, often leading to inaccurate assumptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-understanding-of-dog-emotions">A better understanding of dog emotions</h2>



So how can dog owners learn to interpret their pet’s emotions more accurately? The key lies in awareness and observation. Recognizing our own biases is the first step toward better communication.



“The first step is just to be aware that we are not that good at reading dogs’ emotions,” Molinaro said. “We need to be humbler in our understanding of our dogs.”



Every dog has unique emotional expressions. Rather than assuming their feelings based on the situation, owners should pay closer attention to specific behavioral cues. A wagging tail does not always mean happiness, just as a tucked tail does not always indicate guilt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-stronger-bond">Building a stronger bond</h2>



By focusing on a dog’s individual personality and behavior, owners can develop a deeper connection with their pets. Understanding emotions takes time and effort, but the rewards are invaluable.



Molinaro emphasized the importance of looking beyond external factors. “Really pay attention to your own dog’s cues and behaviors."



Taking a few extra seconds to assess a dog’s body language, rather than making quick assumptions, can lead to a more meaningful and trusting relationship. Ultimately, a stronger bond between humans and their canine companions comes not from assumptions, but from true understanding.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08927936.2025.2469400" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anthrozoös</a>.



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Lost in translation: How we misread our dogs’ emotions

We think we understand our dogs and their emotions. We...

Conservation scientists from UNSW Sydney have used DNA technology to confirm that feral cats are the primary predators of reintroduced native animals in South Australia. 



This research aligns with existing data showing that feral cats have caused more native animal deaths than any other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> in Australia. Experts believe feral cats are responsible for two-thirds of mammal extinctions since European settlement.



The recent study suggests that the impact of feral cats may be greater than previously estimated. 



In collaboration with experts from the University of Adelaide, the researchers from <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a> found that conventional methods of determining the cause of death often underestimated the role of feral cats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pinpointing-the-cause-of-death">Pinpointing the cause of death</h2>



Professor Katherine Moseby, a co-author of the study, noted that pinpointing the exact cause of death for native animals has always been challenging.



“In past releases, we'd be radio tracking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predators-evolved-the-perfect-fangs-for-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> after release, and if we found dead animals, it would be difficult to determine what caused their death. We would use field evidence like animal spoor, carcass remains, or bite marks on collars to guess whether it was feral cats, birds of prey, fox, or if they just died a natural death," said Professor Moseby.



“And because we’re working in really remote areas, it is difficult to access vets for necropsy. So taking a DNA swab of the dead animal was a really good way to identify if predation was the cause of death. And then we decided to compare the DNA outcomes with evidence in the field to determine if the latter was a reliable method of determining cause of death.”



The team concluded that field evidence alone was not a dependable way to confirm feral cat predation. DNA testing and necropsy were necessary to establish whether a cat had killed an animal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-from-conservation-sites">Evidence from conservation sites</h2>



The scientists analyzed DNA evidence collected from radio tracking collars and wounds on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>’ bodies. The team examined two conservation sites in South Australia where native species had been released.



At one location, 148 brush-tailed possums and 110 western quolls were introduced between 2014 and 2016. At another, 42 greater bilbies and 89 bettongs were released in 2017. 



Of the 389 animals reintroduced, 74 were confirmed to have been killed by cats. DNA analysis identified 71 of these cases. Veterinary necropsy confirmed six cat-related deaths, while researchers witnessed three instances of feral cats killing prey.



Three of the four released species managed to survive in smaller numbers. However, bettongs failed to establish a stable population due to heavy predation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underestimated-killings-by-feral-cats">Underestimated killings by feral cats</h2>



The research showed that even DNA analysis underestimated the number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shell-fossils-lapworthella-fasciculata-reveal-ancient-predator-prey-battle-517-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> killed by feral cats.



“The DNA is good, but it's not infallible, and a lot of that is because we’re trying to get DNA from cat saliva found on the carcass, and that's quite difficult because DNA degrades quickly in the environment,” said Professor Moseby.



“But ultimately it highlighted that there are a lot more cat killings than previously thought.”



This discovery reinforces concerns that current estimates of feral cat predation may not fully capture the extent of their impact on native wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-controlling-feral-cats">Challenges in controlling feral cats</h2>



Senior author Ned Ryan-Schofield noted that one goal of the study was to assess whether conservationists could rely on field data for quicker assessments of cat predation.



“This could trigger prompt management action like increased cat control rather than waiting until DNA analysis occurred. However, we found that field evidence of cat predation are not obvious and even DNA testing is not infallible,” said Ryan-Schofield, a postgraduate researcher with the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Adelaide</a>.



Despite advances in research, controlling feral cat populations remains a difficult task. The researchers acknowledge that feral cats will continue to pose a significant threat to native animals for years to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-conservation-efforts">Future conservation efforts</h2>



Professor Moseby emphasized the importance of continued <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predator-found-in-one-of-the-deepest-parts-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> and improved management strategies.



“Until we develop genetic tools or other broad-scale methods targeted at feral cats, we can only rely on intensely managing them as best we can,” said Professor Moseby.



”We hope that this research might encourage more conservationists to use DNA and necropsy to identify the cause of death of animals in wildlife reintroductions, and to increase cat control even if no obvious evidence of cat predation are present.”



While eradicating feral cats from the Australian outback may not be possible in the near future, improving tracking and conservation techniques could help reduce their impact on endangered wildlife.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/AM/AM24031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Mammalogy</a>.



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Feral cats kill more native animals than expected

Conservation scientists from UNSW Sydney have used DNA technology to...

When it comes to blending into their surroundings, nature has produced many masters of disguise. From the chameleon’s shifting hues to the arctic hare’s seasonal coat change, camouflage is an essential survival tool in the wild. But one of the most remarkable camouflage experts might not be the first to come to mind - the squid.



Along with their cephalopod relatives like octopuses and cuttlefish, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-and-squid-senses-linked-to-human-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squid</a> have an extraordinary ability to alter their skin color almost instantly. This unique trait has helped them evade predators and hunt effectively for millions of years, dating back to the age of the dinosaurs.&nbsp;



However, despite their long evolutionary history, much about the mechanisms behind this ability remains a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-details-about-squid-camouflage-nbsp">New details about squid camouflage&nbsp;</h2>



Leila Deravi, an associate professor of chemistry and chemical biology at <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University</a>, is working to change that. Her recently published study reveals new insights into how squid camouflage operates.&nbsp;



The research demonstrates that squid possess specialized organs that function similarly to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-recycle-solar-cells-sustainably-with-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar cells</a>, generating energy that powers their remarkable skin transformations.&nbsp;



The findings not only advance the understanding of these fascinating creatures but could also influence the development of new materials and technology for human use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-of-squid-camouflage">The science of squid camouflage</h2>



Deravi has spent years studying cephalopods, captivated by their unique biological abilities. Her Biomaterials Design Group at Northeastern focuses on uncovering the mechanics of squid camouflage, with the goal of applying these natural processes to innovative materials.



More recently, her team has concentrated on chromatophores, the specialized pigmented structures responsible for a squid’s ability to change <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-got-their-colors-150-million-years-before-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">color</a>. This focus led to a groundbreaking discovery.



Chromatophores are tiny, pigmented organs embedded in the squid’s skin. These structures are surrounded by muscle fibers controlled by neurons, allowing the animal to open and close pigment sacs in response to its environment.



Working alongside another type of skin cell, called iridophores, chromatophores produce a broad range of colors. While chromatophores contain red, yellow, and brown pigments, iridophores reflect greens and blues, giving squid the ability to create a full spectrum of colors in a fraction of a second.



“To have something sense the colors around it and distribute [them] within hundreds of milliseconds is really insane,” Deravi said. “It’s not something that’s easy to do, especially in a living system that’s under water.”



Scientists have long believed that chromatophores function much like pixels on a digital display, simply reflecting colors as needed. But Deravi’s latest research shows that these structures do much more than act as mere colorants - they actually sense and generate energy from light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squid-s-organic-solar-cells">Squid’s organic solar cells</h2>



Her study reveals that chromatophores operate as light-sensitive energy converters, much like solar cells. This capability allows squid to harness external <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioluminescence-emerged-in-animals-540-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light</a> and transform it into energy that assists in their camouflage process.



“It can see whatever light is on the outside and convert that light into energy and then harvest that energy to help distribute camouflage,” Deravi explained.



To test this theory, her research team constructed a squid-powered solar cell. Using conductive glass, semiconductors, electrolytes, and pigmented nanoparticles extracted from squid chromatophores, they created a circuit capable of responding to light.&nbsp;



By exposing the circuit to simulated sunlight, they measured the energy output to determine whether the chromatophores could genuinely generate electrical current.



“We found that the more granules you put into there, the higher the photocurrent response is,” Deravi said.&nbsp;



“It’s a direct indication that the pieces of the chromatophore are actually converting the light from the sun’s simulated light to the voltage, which can complete the circuit and then be harvested, potentially, for a power supply in the animal.”



This marks the first time that scientists have directly linked the chromatophores of a cephalopod to an energy-generating function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-squid-camouflage-nbsp">Secrets of squid camouflage&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how cephalopods achieve their dynamic camouflage could have broad applications beyond marine biology.&nbsp;



Deravi’s lab has already translated their discoveries into practical uses, such as developing wearable UV sensors to help prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melanoma-has-been-replaced-as-the-deadliest-form-of-skin-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin cancer</a>. Her startup, Seaspire, is also exploring how these findings could lead to more environmentally friendly and effective sunscreens.



Squid’s ability to distribute color efficiently with minimal energy consumption could also inspire advancements in wearable technology.&nbsp;



Today’s wearable electronics must balance size, weight, and power usage. Studying how squid utilize their natural solar cells might provide clues for designing more energy-efficient, interactive materials.



“The squid might be the key to developing a truly ‘living digital skin,’” Deravi suggested.



She envisions a future where wearable technology mimics the adaptability of squid skin, seamlessly responding to environmental changes without relying on bulky batteries or complicated circuitry.



“If you think about fully wearable stuff, you just have to think about how to make it the most energetically favorable in order to be fully interactive with the surroundings,” Deravi said. “We’re trying to tap into what the blueprint is that the animal uses to do this and how that correlates to adapting to the environment as well.”



As scientists continue to unlock the secrets of squid camouflage, their discoveries may lead to transformative new technologies - taking inspiration from nature’s own evolutionary genius.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/tc/d4tc04333b" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Materials Chemistry C</a>.



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How squid power their amazing camouflage abilities

When it comes to blending into their surroundings, nature has...

Humans instinctively attempt to revive unconscious individuals through first aid. A recent study suggests that mice display similar behaviors in an emergency.



Researchers from the Keck School of Medicine at USC observed that when a mouse became unresponsive, its companion reacted in ways that accelerated recovery.



For years, scientists have questioned whether animals exhibit emergency responses toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-offer-first-aid-to-unconscious-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unconscious peers</a>. 



“But this study is the first time we’re seeing a first responder-like behavior in mice,” noted Li Zhang, the study’s principal investigator and a professor of physiology and neuroscience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mice-act-in-an-emergency">How mice act in an emergency</h2>



The study recorded how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-mice-turn-to-female-mice-to-avoid-fights-keep-social-peace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a> engaged with unconscious peers using a machine-learning-based analysis. 



Their responses escalated from sniffing and grooming to more forceful actions such as biting the mouth or tongue and pulling it out. These behaviors resembled emergency actions seen in humans, such as clearing airways.



Wenjian Sun, the study’s first author and research associate at Keck School of Medicine’s <a href="https://keck.usc.edu/zilkha/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute</a>, said that he had never seen this behavior from mice before.



“The behavior was especially unique due to its similarity to how humans behave in emergency responses,” said Sun.



The discovery was made unexpectedly during an unrelated experiment. The pattern of escalating responses strongly suggested an instinctive effort to revive the unconscious peer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reviving-actions-and-their-impact">Reviving actions and their impact</h2>



The emergency response shown by these “helper mice” had measurable effects. 



Huizhong Tao, a professor of physiology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-new-way-to-suppress-fear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neuroscience</a> and co-author of the study, noted that mice targeting the mouth and tongue of an unconscious peer often sped up recovery.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mice_perform-first-aid_credit-USC_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mice_perform-first-aid_credit-USC_1s.webp" alt="In two independent studies, W. Sun et al. and F. Sun et al. showed that mice exhibit stereotyped behaviors toward unconscious conspecifics, escalating from sniffing and grooming to licking of the head and tongue pulling, which accelerated recovery from unconsciousness. Credit: USC/Science" class="wp-image-1961947"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">In two independent studies, W. Sun et al. and F. Sun et al. showed that mice exhibit stereotyped behaviors toward unconscious conspecifics, escalating from sniffing and grooming to licking of the head and tongue pulling, which accelerated recovery from unconsciousness. Credit: USC/Science</figcaption></figure>



This behavior was not aggressive. The researchers found that once an unconscious mouse regained awareness, it displayed normal tongue function.



The study also showed that the behavior occurred primarily between familiar pairs and was rare when a mouse was simply sleeping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxytocin-drives-the-emergency-response">Oxytocin drives the emergency response</h2>



Using neural imaging and optogenetics, researchers explored the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mouse-with-two-dads-survives-to-adulthood-major-implications-for-same-sex-human-couples/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain activity</a> linked to these responses. 



Zhang and the team found that oxytocin neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus showed increased activity when mice encountered an unconscious partner. Oxytocin, commonly associated with bonding, appeared to play a key role in triggering the emergency response.



Oxytocin neurons responded differently based on whether the partner was unconscious or active. Specific neurons activated during particular actions, such as tongue-pulling. 



The study also demonstrated that stimulating oxytocin neurons increased reviving behaviors, while blocking oxytocin signaling reduced them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-instinct-across-species">A shared instinct across species</h2>



The findings suggest that reviving behaviors may be common among social species. The study showed that mice reacting to unconscious peers acted instinctively in an emergency situation rather than out of mere curiosity. 



The behavioral sequence resembled emergency responses seen in other animals, including primates.



The researchers believe this behavior helps maintain group cohesion and increases survival chances in social species. Tao pointed out that future studies will investigate whether mice exhibit even more complex responses over longer periods.



This discovery sheds light on prosocial instincts in mammals, highlighting how emergency behaviors may have evolved to strengthen social bonds and improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-decisions-are-shaped-by-optimistic-and-pessimistic-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prosocial-behavior-in-animals">Prosocial behavior in animals</h2>



The research team plans to conduct further studies to explore whether mice exhibit even more complex behaviors over extended periods. 



Tao believes this discovery provides an exciting opportunity to investigate the biological foundations of empathy and social assistance in animals.



Future experiments will examine how these emergency responses develop, whether they vary between different strains of mice, and if similar behaviors occur in other rodent species. 



Researchers also aim to explore whether these behaviors can be influenced by external factors, such as changes in social environment or hormonal manipulation.



Understanding the neural mechanisms behind prosocial behaviors in animals may have broader implications for human health. 



Studying how oxytocin influences emergency responses could lead to insights into conditions where social behaviors are impaired, such as autism or social anxiety disorders.



In addition to Sun, Zhang, and Tao, the study included contributions from Guangwei Zhang, Junxiang J. Huang, Can Tao, and Michelle B. Seo of Keck School of Medicine.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq2677" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Mice perform first-aid and save unconscious peers in emergencies

Humans instinctively attempt to revive unconscious individuals through first aid....

Dad,And,Son,Use,Mosquito,Spray.spraying,Insect,Repellent,On,Skin

Mosquito-borne diseases, like malaria and dengue, remain a major global health threat, especially in tropical regions. 



Insect repellents, such as DEET, provide some level of protection but they come with challenges, including high costs, user discomfort and the need for frequent reapplication. 



Meanwhile, widely used spatial repellents that rely on synthetic pyrethroid insecticides face growing resistance among mosquito populations.



A new approach could change the way we protect people from mosquitoes.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a>, have developed a machine learning-based method that predicts novel mosquito repellents. 



This technique, combined with cheminformatics, has already identified compounds that may offer safer and more sustainable alternatives to traditional repellents. 



With funding from the National Institutes of Health (<a href="https://www.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIH</a>), the team is now working to refine their findings and explore new mosquito control methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-in-mosquito-control">Machine learning in mosquito control</h2>



Mosquitoes use their senses of smell and taste to locate human hosts. By understanding these systems, scientists can develop better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemists-take-a-new-approach-to-developing-insect-repellents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">repellents</a> that disrupt the insects’ ability to find and feed on people. 



The research team has used machine learning to screen more than 10 million chemical compounds, searching for effective alternatives to existing repellents.



"We have already identified repellent molecules with a high success rate, particularly from natural sources, which could provide a safer and more sustainable alternative to current repellents," said Anandasankar Ray, a professor of&nbsp;molecular, cell and systems biology.



 "We have also used machine learning to identify analogs of pyrethroids that are up to 100 times more effective than existing industry standards, like allethrin. This could have a significant impact on combating resistant mosquito populations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-strategies-for-controlling-mosquitoes">Four strategies for controlling mosquitoes</h2>



The research team has concentrated on four major strategies for enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-aims-to-control-mosquitoes-by-deactivating-their-sperm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito control</a>.



One of them is the creation of better topical repellents that have a good odor and are long-lasting, offering protection for 12 to 24 hours.



Another strategy focuses on spatial repellents, which form protective barriers around homes and outdoor areas to minimize the presence of mosquitoes.



To fight the increasing resistance of mosquito populations, the scientists are also discovering long-lasting pyrethroid analogs - novel molecules that will continue to be effective against resistant mosquitoes and are well suited for application in bed nets and clothing.



They are also developing improved spatial pyrethroid formulations to make current solutions more effective against resistant mosquito strains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gm-mosquitoes-in-the-testing-process">GM mosquitoes in the testing process</h2>



To gain a better insight into how such repellents operate, the researchers are using genetically modified mosquitoes to identify the sensory receptors that enable aversion to novel compounds.



In addition, they are screening volatile compounds for spatial protection and assessing new pyrethroid analogs to test their effectiveness against resistant populations of mosquitoes.



"By identifying and combining the most effective natural and synthetic compounds, we hope to deliver safe, affordable, and highly effective mosquito control solutions that could help reduce human exposure to disease vectors while improving quality of life in at-risk populations," Ray said.



"We are looking for repellents that work as well as [being] cost-effective, easy to use, and culturally acceptable solutions. Based on our preliminary results, we are optimistic that the new compounds could soon be a new weapon in the fight against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-borne-diseases-are-a-growing-threat-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito-borne diseases</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mosquitoes-prefer-some-people">Why mosquitoes prefer some people</h2>



The research team is also working on another NIH-funded study to determine why some people attract more mosquitoes than others. 



While the sense of smell has been studied extensively, the role of taste in mosquito behavior is still not well understood.



"There’s a need for more effective repellents since DEET’s high cost and poor properties limit its use in tropical areas," Ray explained. "We believe compounds in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mosquitoes-find-tasty-humans-from-hundreds-of-meters-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human skin</a>, sweat, and microbiome metabolites could be key."



This study aims to identify specific skin compounds that influence mosquito attraction and examine how different chemical signals affect mosquito behavior. 



Researchers will test these compounds in behavioral experiments, focusing on those that impact both taste and smell.



"We will test these compounds in behavior assays, focus on those that affect taste or smell, and explore how blends of repellents may reduce mosquito attraction," Ray said. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-research-to-real-world-solutions">From research to real-world solutions</h2>



The work being done by this research team has already led to practical applications. 



A previous NIH-funded project resulted in a product development plan from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and a university spinoff company, Sensorygen. 



This company has created a safe, natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemists-take-a-new-approach-to-developing-insect-repellents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect repellent</a> that is currently being evaluated for Environmental Protection Agency registration.



With continued research and innovation, machine learning may hold the key to smarter, more effective mosquito control solutions that could improve public health worldwide.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/95532v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife Neurosciences</a>.



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Mosquito repellents that actually work? Yes, thanks to AI

Mosquito-borne diseases, like malaria and dengue, remain a major global...

When do you make your bed? In the morning? If you were a chimpanzee, you would likely build it at dusk. Scientists call this process "nest building."



This behavior has existed for millions of years among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-are-genetically-adapted-to-thrive-in-their-local-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>. A secure nest ensures proper rest, which boosts energy levels and cognitive function. 



But researchers have noticed an interesting pattern - young female chimps build nests earlier and more frequently than males.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimps-create-safe-nests">How chimps create safe nests</h2>



For years, primatologists have observed the fascinating process of nest construction. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-are-constantly-mastering-new-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimps</a> twist branches into circular shapes, reinforcing them with smaller twigs and leaves. These nests serve as cradles in the treetops, shielding them from predators and the elements.



Beyond nighttime rest, chimps build nests during the day. These temporary spots become places to relax, groom each other, or enjoy a stolen moment of solitude. 



Some young chimps use their nests for play, tumbling in and out, treating them as miniature jungle gyms. Others see them as a place to observe their surroundings in peace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-in-their-natural-habitat">Chimps in their natural habitat</h2>



Great apes, including chimpanzees, have practiced this behavior for millions of years. The better their nests, the deeper their sleep. 



And the deeper the sleep, the more energy they have for the challenges ahead. But recent research has revealed something unexpected - female infants build nests earlier and more often than males, suggesting a natural tendency toward independence from an early age.



This discovery emerged from a study led by Canadian primatologist Iulia Bădescu, a professor of anthropology at <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université de Montréal</a>. She has spent years observing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-pass-tool-use-skills-across-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> of Uganda’s Kibale National Park, a thriving sanctuary for these remarkable primates.



The research, published in the American Journal of Primatology, was a collaboration between Université de Montréal, the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, and <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-chimps-and-nest-building">Young chimps and nest building </h2>



To understand nest-building behaviors, the researchers observed 72 immature wild chimpanzees between 2013 and 2014, and again in 2018, at a site in Kibale called Ngogo.



They focused on how often young chimps built nests and analyzed factors like age, sex, and maternal experience.



Nest building requires both physical strength and learned skill. The ability to bend and weave branches into a stable structure doesn’t come naturally - it must be practiced. Young chimps start experimenting with nest building early, but only as they grow stronger do they fully master the technique.



As expected, older infants were more likely to build nests than younger ones. However, the most striking discovery was that young female chimps took to nest building more frequently and at a younger age than males.



This aligns with previous studies suggesting that female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-continue-learning-as-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimps</a> tend to gain independence earlier than their male counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-chimps-build-nests-earlier">Female chimps build nests earlier </h2>



"The likelihood and overall rates of daytime nest building in wild infant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-can-plan-and-adapt-their-use-of-tools-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> varied with age and sex," said study first author Tara Khayer. "Older and female infants were more likely to build nests, and build them more often, than younger and male infants."



While young males were seen constructing nests, they did so less often. Interestingly, once a chimpanzee started building nests, their approach remained consistent, regardless of gender or their mother’s experience in raising offspring. 



This suggests that once they develop the necessary skills, young chimps construct their nests at a similar pace.



Female infants, however, reached this point sooner. Their drive to create and refine their nests suggests a greater motivation for self-sufficiency. Whether this is a biological adaptation or a learned behavior passed down from mothers remains uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-role-of-nests">Changing role of nests</h2>



As young chimps grow, the role of the nest shifts. For infants under four years old, nests serve as playgrounds - safe spaces for exploration, climbing, and games. Older chimps use them more purposefully, seeing them as spots for rest rather than recreation.



The study confirmed this shift, reinforcing the idea that nest building is not just about comfort but about adapting to different stages of life. For older chimps, a well-constructed nest means a better night’s sleep, which directly affects their physical and cognitive well-being.



"Nest building also represents a type of tool use, since the chimps have to manipulate branches and other materials around them to construct their nest," said Khayer.



"Just like cracking nuts with stones or fishing for ants with sticks, nest building involves putting their environment to good use."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-connection-to-human-evolution">A connection to human evolution</h2>



Chimpanzees are not the only primates who seek comfort in well-constructed sleeping arrangements. Humans have long relied on the ability to create secure resting spaces.



While modern beds have replaced treetop nests, the instinct to carve out a safe place to sleep remains deeply rooted in our evolutionary past.



"Humans, too, sleep in beds," said Bădescu. "So there are interesting evolutionary implications. Studying how chimps learn to build nests from a very young age helps us better understand how all hominids, including us, develop and learn new skills."



This research offers valuable insight into the development of early independence, particularly among female chimpanzees. Their ability to craft their own resting places at a young age highlights their adaptability and problem-solving skills. 



In many ways, their behavior mirrors the early resourcefulness seen in human children as they begin to navigate the world on their own.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajp.70011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Primatology</a>.



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What chimp nests can tell us about early independence

When do you make your bed? In the morning? If...

In February, researchers from Condrik Tenerife were scanning the waters off Tenerife Island. They hoped to find sharks but stumbled upon something unexpected - a humpback anglerfish (Melanocetus johnsonii) swimming near the surface.



Photographer David Jara Boguñá captured this rare event. These deep-sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, also known as black seadevils, usually live in the "twilight zone" between 200 and 600 meters below the surface. Seeing one alive in daylight was unprecedented.



The <a href="https://youtu.be/6ll_7H9FoWQ?si=OAzDi8zFGk272SAH" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video</a> sparked curiosity and emotion online. The overall reaction suggests a shift in how people view the deep sea, moving from fear to fascination.



Many saw the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-eye-tracking-changes-what-we-know-about-swarm-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> as a symbol of perseverance or tragedy, with some even comparing it to Icarus, a human figure from Greek mythology who died after flying too close to the sun with wax wings. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-lives-of-anglerfish">Strange lives of anglerfish</h2>



Anglerfish are much smaller than many imagine. The female filmed by Boguñá measured about 15 centimeters, while males grow only to about 3 centimeters.



The female fish have a glowing lure on their heads, used to attract prey in the dark ocean depths. The light comes from bacteria that live inside a specialized organ.



Male anglerfish have no lure. Instead, their entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-anglerfish-defy-evolutionary-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">existence</a> revolves around finding a female. Once attached, they fuse into her body, becoming a permanent part of her circulatory system. They lose their independence and survive only by absorbing nutrients from their mate.



Why this particular anglerfish swam so close to the surface remains a mystery. Scientists speculate that changes in water temperature or the fish’s old age might explain its unusual behavior.



Observers watched it for hours before it died. Its body was later taken to the <a href="https://www.spain.info/en/places-of-interest/tenerife-nature-archaeology-museum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museum of Nature and Archaeology</a> in Santa Cruz de Tenerife for further study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-outpouring-of-emotion">An outpouring of emotion</h2>



The video quickly went viral, inspiring memes, artwork, and even poetry. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-had-flexible-joints-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>’s final journey fascinated people worldwide.



"I like to think she is a respected old grandmother who has dreamed her entire life of seeing the sunlight and the world above the water. She knows her time is nigh, so she bade farewell to her friends and family and swam up towards the light and whatever it might hold for her as her life as an anglerfish comes to a close," one Reddit user noted.



Another person called the fish her “feminist Roman Empire," meaning an idea that inspired her in the way history fascinates others.



Boguñá and Condrik Tenerife commented on the public reaction, noting that the anglerfish has clearly become a global icon. 



"But far from the romanticization and attempt to humanize that has been given to its tragic story, I think that what this event has been for is to awaken the curiosity of the sea to PEOPLE, especially the younger ones, and perhaps, it also serves that messages about marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-fish-and-human-divers-an-unexpected-bond/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> conservation can reach so many more people," said Boguñá.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shift-in-perspective">A shift in perspective</h2>



For years, deep-sea creatures like the anglerfish have been seen as monsters. Their glowing lures and sharp teeth have made them the perfect villains in films such as <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0266543/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Finding Nemo</a> and <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0345950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie</a>.



Yet, the public reaction to this anglerfish suggests a shift in perception. Instead of horror, people expressed sympathy and admiration. They saw the fish as a determined creature chasing light, even at great cost.



This response contrasts with the fate of the deep-sea blobfish, once labeled the "world’s ugliest animal." Unlike the blobfish, this anglerfish was embraced as a symbol of struggle and courage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-for-anglerfish">Empathy for anglerfish</h2>



Does projecting human emotions onto deep-sea creatures distort reality? Probably. 



"Deep-sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-two-dozen-unusual-fish-species-discovered-in-peru-and-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> are often pictured as aliens from another planet, and I think that gets people interested in them, because we're all interested in novelty and weirdness and the surreal. I think that can be positive, but the idea of the alien can also cut us off from any responsibility," noted US environmental humanities researcher Stacy Alaimo.



The deep sea faces growing threats, including seabed mining, plastic pollution, and climate change. Perhaps this anglerfish’s moment in the spotlight will encourage more people to care about protecting its world.



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How a dying anglerfish became a global icon on social media

In February, researchers from Condrik Tenerife were scanning the waters...

Makassar,Strait,Highlighted,On,A,Satellite,Image,Map

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by something called the "Wallace Line," had such different wildlife. They saw tigers and elephants on one side, while marsupials lived just a short boat ride away.



Dr. Penny Van Oosterzee, an ecological researcher at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a>, has studied these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> for years. She sees them as a reminder of how physical barriers can split habitats even when they sit close by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wallace-line-and-species-separation">Wallace Line and species separation</h2>



The Wallace Line runs through Southeast Asia, marking where Asian species give way to Australian species. 



It crosses narrow waters between Borneo and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok, which lie only about 15 miles apart.



Even though it is not an official border, it acts like one for many animals. Flocks of Asian birds thrive on one side, but groups of Australian cockatoos stay on the other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-invisible-fence">An invisible fence </h2>



A deep ocean trench, known as the Makassar Strait, is key to this puzzle. During past ice ages, many islands were connected by land bridges when sea levels dropped.



Yet that submerged gap never vanished here, so animals could not simply wander across. Highly specialized species remained where they could find food, avoid predators, and keep up their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-development-shows-how-evolution-had-many-options-to-choose-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival strategies</a>.



Even birds, which can fly, tend to stay within their familiar habitats because of differences in climate and food availability. The Wallace Line, in many ways, acts like an invisible fence shaped by nature’s own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolving-evolution-how-life-learns-to-adapt-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">design</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-makassar-strait-the-basics">Understanding the Makassar Strait - the basics</h2>



The Makassar Strait is a narrow stretch of water that runs between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. 



It connects the Celebes Sea in the north to the Java Sea in the south, making it a key passage for ships traveling between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 



The strait isn’t just a busy maritime route - it’s also home to some incredible marine life. 



Strong ocean currents flow through, bringing nutrient-rich waters that support vibrant coral reefs, fish, and even deep-sea creatures. 



It’s a hotspot for divers and researchers alike, offering a glimpse into Indonesia’s rich underwater biodiversity.



The region is also a key focus for climate change research, as rising sea levels and shifting currents affect both marine ecosystems and coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-shaped-evolution">The Wallace Line shaped evolution</h2>



This unique divide helped shape some early ideas about how species change over time. It sparked thoughts on biogeography, the study of how plants and animals are distributed across the planet.



When Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/1800s/natural-selection-charles-darwin-alfred-russel-wallace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wrote</a> about natural selection in the mid-1800s, they each pointed to real-world examples of animals adapting to local conditions. 



The stark difference between these islands stood out to Wallace.



His observations supported the idea that species do not appear randomly but evolve based on their environment. 



The Wallace Line became one of the strongest cases for how geographic barriers can drive the formation of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-perspective">A different perspective</h2>



There are debates over the geographic accuracy of the line. Researchers have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/130/1/225/5802023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">called</a> for the boundary line to be redrawn.&nbsp;



“We suggest that Wallace’s Line be redrawn such that the landmass is placed on the Australasian side of this fundamental biogeographical boundary,” wrote Jason Ali and colleagues from the University of Hong Kong.



Shifting a line on a map may seem simple, but it shows how active science can be. As more research appears, definitions can move, and old ideas can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-australasia">What is Australasia?</h2>



The region that includes Australia, New Zealand, and the islands of the surrounding Pacific is known as Australasia. 



It’s a place where you can find everything from vast deserts and lush rainforests to snowy mountains and stunning coral reefs. 



Australia dominates the region with its massive landmass, unique wildlife like kangaroos and koalas, and world-famous landmarks like the Great Barrier Reef and Uluru. 



Meanwhile, New Zealand brings its own magic with breathtaking fjords, rolling green hills, and a deep-rooted Māori culture. 



The islands of Australasia, including Papua New Guinea and parts of Indonesia, add even more diversity with rich indigenous traditions and some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-and-human-history">The Wallace Line and human history</h2>



The idea of a boundary extends to humans and not only wildlife. The racial and political effects of the line have been studied at length.&nbsp;



“The difference between these two people had already been noticed by early European travelers, together with the difference in flora and fauna,” noted Fenneke Sysling from the <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utrecht</a> in The Netherlands.



Many decades ago, claims emerged that certain groups east of the line shared traits with Papuans, while those west of the line fit the Malay category. 



Debates around these claims have carried into modern times, highlighting how complex human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-borders-and-human-evolution">Geographic borders and human evolution</h2>



Various projects track bird populations, insects, and even marsupials (kangaroo) to see how borders and evolution link together. 



Shallow seas no longer block human travel, yet animals remain bound by their own quirks.



Scientists ask whether climate changes or habitat loss might shift wildlife distributions in the future. Updates on these studies add another layer of intrigue to a line first drawn in the 19th century.



The Wallace Line demonstrates how subtle geographic forces can create stark contrasts in living things. It also reminds us that physical distance is not always the main factor - evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> and chance play major roles.



With all of the debates and shifting perspectives, one thing is clear: the planet holds more surprises than any single line can capture.



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Earth has a natural border line that no species will cross - what is the Wallace Line?

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by something...

There's a fascinating dynamic that is happening in the animal kingdom - specifically among Guinea baboons. A recent study shows that female Guinea baboons have a peculiar attraction to males showcasing unique foraging skills.



Experts from the <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/en/institutes/leibniz-institutes-all-lists/german-primate-center-leibniz-institute-for-primate-research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Primate Center - Leibniz Institute for Primate Research</a> conducted investigations on two baboon groups in Senegal’s scenic wilderness and one under close observation at Nuremberg Zoo.



The researchers made a discovery that deepens our grasp of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-ties-influence-the-social-behavior-of-aging-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal social behavior</a>: animals are quite aware of their group members' skills, and they use this knowledge to make social choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attraction-based-on-benefits">Attraction based on benefits</h2>



The experts trained one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-baboons-invest-more-time-in-relationships-with-females/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">male baboon</a> in each group to operate a unique food box. These 'specialized' males became the group's exclusive providers of an additional food source. Curiously, this elevated status attracted the females' attention.



They spent more time with these special males, groomed them more, and even acted aggressively towards other females in the group. 



However, once the food box and the extra food was out of the equation, the females' enamored behavior diminished. This suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/guinea-baboons-give-females-more-freedom-and-authority/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">females</a> were acting based on immediate advantages - not on a comprehensive evaluation of the males' capabilities.



On the other hand, males in the group, despite also gaining from the extra food, showed no significant change in their behavior towards the expert forager. This could hint at lower competition among male Guinea baboons for food sources controlled by their counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baboons-favor-immediate-gains">Baboons favor immediate gains </h2>



The study sheds light on the pragmatic side of partner selection among Guinea baboons. The choice is not driven by a long-term evaluation of a male's capabilities, but rather by the immediate benefits they can gain from him.



"Our experiment is the first to identify the type of mechanism, i.e. outcome- or competence-based, underlying skill attribution in a wild non-human primate. As such, our results provide a unique insight into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baboons-may-offer-clues-to-early-human-social-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of complex skill attribution in humans," said William O-Hearm, the lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enormous-research-potential-of-zoos">Enormous research potential of zoos</h2>



Before the field work in Senegal, initial tests were conducted on Guinea baboons at Nuremberg Zoo - one of the few European facilities housing the species and a long-time collaborator of the Primate Research Institute. 



The controlled conditions of the zoo made it possible for the researchers to observe baboons closely and test feasible fieldwork ideas.



Lorenzo von Fersen, the zoo's Curator of Research and Species Conservation, emphasized the significance of conducting research in controlled environments. 



"The decisive factor for this study was the opportunity to work with the Guinea baboons at Nuremberg Zoo under controlled conditions. Such research approaches are not only scientifically valuable, but also enrich the animals' lives by providing them with cognitive challenges that enhance their natural abilities,” said von Fersen.



Jörg Beckmann, biological director and deputy director of the zoo, noted that zoos have enormous research potential and also offer information about their individuals that is often not available in the wild, as well as expertise that is important when working in the field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guinea-baboons-and-social-intelligence">Guinea baboons and social intelligence </h2>



The findings of this study extend beyond Guinea baboons, offering valuable insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-intelligence-did-not-evolve-due-to-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of intelligence</a> and social decision-making across species. 



By demonstrating that baboons recognize and respond to the skills of their peers, the research supports the idea that social animals - including early human ancestors - may have developed similar cognitive strategies for survival and resource acquisition.



The researchers suggest that such pragmatic decision-making could have played a role in the evolution of human intelligence. 



In ancestral human societies, individuals who could assess the competencies of others - whether in hunting, tool-making, or leadership - would have had a distinct advantage in forming beneficial social bonds.



This concept aligns with theories in evolutionary biology that emphasize the role of cooperation, reciprocity, and resource control in shaping complex social structures.



Moreover, this study highlights how non-human primates, like baboons, continue to challenge our understanding of cognition. 



As research progresses, scientists hope to uncover even more parallels between human and primate decision-making, further bridging the gap between our species and our closest relatives in the animal kingdom.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2925" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Guinea baboons prefer mates with skills

There's a fascinating dynamic that is happening in the animal...

Bird songs fill forests with rich melodies, signaling territory, attracting mates, and fostering communication within flocks. These sounds are not static; they change over generations, much like human languages and music.&nbsp;



New research from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> sheds light on the evolution of bird songs, revealing the significant influence of population dynamics. 



The experts analyzed over 100,000 bird songs, highlighting how movement, age, and turnover shape song <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-generated-birdsongs-may-shed-new-light-on-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a>.



The researchers spent three years collecting over twenty thousand hours of recordings from great tits (Parus major) in Oxfordshire. This population has been monitored for 77 years as part of the Wytham Great Tit study.



The goal was to understand which songs gain popularity, which disappear, and how song repertoires evolve over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-song-evolution-with-ai">Tracking song evolution with AI</h2>



To analyze song changes, the researchers developed an AI model capable of recognizing individual birds based on their songs. 



This technology enabled them to measure song differences between birds and track variations across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-and-evolution-shape-the-unique-sounds-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



The results revealed that birds of the same age share more similar repertoires, while mixed-age communities exhibit greater cultural diversity.



Song turnover accelerates when birds leave or die, as young newcomers adopt and introduce new song types.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-s-age-and-song-retention">Bird's age and song retention</h2>



Older birds play a key role in preserving songs that are fading from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-turn-bird-dreams-into-captivating-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



While young birds drive change by adopting new song types, older individuals act as "cultural repositories" of past songs. 



This dynamic mirrors how grandparents remember songs unfamiliar to younger generations.



However, age alone does not determine song change. The experts found that when birds mix more due to increased movement and immigration, they adopt common songs, which slows the rate of song evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-song-traditions">Local song traditions</h2>



Birds that stay close to their birthplace maintain distinctive song cultures, much like isolated human communities develop unique dialects. 



Areas with less movement tend to retain more varied and unique song traditions.



Newcomers usually integrate into local song traditions rather than introducing completely new tunes. However, they often learn more songs, enriching the local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">musical landscape</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-evolution-in-bird-songs">Cultural evolution in bird songs</h2>



“Just as human communities develop distinct dialects and musical traditions, some birds also have local song cultures that evolve over time,“ noted lead researcher Dr. Nilo Merino Recalde from the University of Oxford.



“Our study shows exactly how population dynamics - the comings and goings of individual birds - affect this cultural learning process, influencing both song diversity and the pace of change.”



This study is the first to extensively examine the role of demography in shaping cultural diversity in a wild animal population. 



By using a large dataset of individual song variations, it provides insights into both bird behavior and the broader implications of demographic changes on cultural evolution in animal species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



The findings could have important implications for conservation efforts by showing how population shifts influence cultural traditions in birds. The complete dataset is now publicly available for further research.



“Our work here shows, once again, that tracking individuals over their lives allows us to understand so much of the way that different processes interact in natural populations," noted Professor Ben Sheldon from the University of Oxford, who leads the long-term study in <a href="https://www.wythamwoods.ox.ac.uk/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wytham Woods</a>.



"It’s thrilling to think that we can explain the acoustic landscape we hear in the woods each spring in terms of the result of the cumulative combination of individual movements and survival over many years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bird-song-research">Future of bird song research</h2>



This study opens new possibilities for research into animal communication and cultural transmission. 



By integrating artificial intelligence and long-term field studies, scientists can now explore how different species develop and maintain their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finch-beaks-and-bird-songs-a-new-story-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique traditions</a>.



Future studies could examine whether similar patterns exist in other songbird species or even in non-bird animals that use vocalizations for communication. 



The findings also raise intriguing questions about how climate change and habitat destruction might impact song evolution by altering population structures and migration patterns.



By continuing to study how birds learn and modify their songs, researchers can gain deeper insights into the connections between social behavior, cultural traditions, and environmental change. 



These discoveries not only help us appreciate the complexity of bird communication but also provide a window into the broader forces shaping life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00150-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Birds learn songs like humans learn languages

Bird songs fill forests with rich melodies, signaling territory, attracting...

Pollination happens everywhere, but most people don’t notice it. Small creatures like bees, butterflies, birds, and bats carry pollen between plants, helping them grow. Without pollinators, flowers wouldn’t turn into fruit, and seeds wouldn’t spread. They do more than help plants reproduce - they keep nature healthy, support animals, and help produce food.



But here’s the problem - many of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-pollinators-boost-the-nutritional-value-of-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> are vanishing. Climate change, habitat destruction, and industrial farming are wiping out species at an alarming rate.



Their disappearance isn’t just an issue for farmers. It affects forests, grasslands, and even city parks, where pollinators keep plant life going. When they decline, entire ecosystems suffer, and the food supply becomes more fragile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinator-s-role-in-plant-reproduction">Pollinator's role in plant reproduction</h2>



Plants depend on pollination to grow and multiply. Around 85% of wild plant species and more than 70% of cultivated crops rely on pollinators for reproduction. Without pollinators, many plants would fail to produce fruits or seeds.



“In most of the studies conducted on this issue across the world, plants were found not to bear fruit if no pollinator was present,“ noted Maddi Artamendi, a researcher at the University of the Basque Country (<a href="https://www.ehu.eus/en/en-home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UPV/EHU</a>).



“Studies of this type have been mostly conducted on crop species, but that does not give a true picture, since the diversity of pollinators is going to decrease, is already decreasing, but is not going to disappear completely."



“What is more, wild plants were also taken into consideration as well as crop plants. We wanted to approach the subject from a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">realistic perspective</a>.”



Her research challenges the idea that only crops suffer from pollinator loss. Wild plants are equally affected, and their decline could disrupt entire ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-pollinator-decline">Impact of pollinator decline</h2>



A study by Artamendi and Ainhoa Magrach, an Ikerbasque Research Professor at Butler County Community College (<a href="https://www.bc3.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BC3</a>) highlights the need to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-pollinators-wild-bees-boosts-food-supply-income/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator diversity</a>. 



The researchers stress the urgency of addressing factors that reduce pollinator numbers. The study found that a decrease in pollinators negatively affects plant reproduction, reducing fruit quantity, seed numbers, and fruit weight. Wild plants suffer more from pollinator loss than cultivated plants.



Self-pollinating plants also benefit from diverse pollinators. “Showing that it is very beneficial for these plants to exchange pollen,” explained Artamendi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-pollinators-and-plant-reproduction">Wild pollinators and plant reproduction</h2>



The study reveals that wild pollinators contribute more to plant reproduction than domestic pollinators, such as honey bees. A decline in wild pollinators significantly harms plant reproductive success.



The loss of invertebrate pollinators is more severe than that of vertebrates. Nocturnal pollinators are disappearing faster than diurnal pollinators. The decline of wild pollinators is greater than that of domestic pollinators. 



These findings highlight the urgent need to protect a wide range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-wars-plants-compete-for-space-on-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-of-pollinators">Decline of pollinators </h2>



To understand pollinator decline, Artamendi and Magrach conducted a meta-analysis of 207 studies from 46 countries. This type of analysis combines data from multiple studies, allowing researchers to find broad patterns.



“We analyzed research done across the world. We had to bear in mind that there are different varieties of plants depending on the climate, that the influence on one plant or another may have been different, and how large the sample was, etc.,“ explained Artamendi.



“We took into account many variables so that all the pieces of research could be compared, and that is how we achieved a real, quantifiable result.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-a-broader-perspective">Need for a broader perspective</h2>



The researchers concluded that all pollinators, both wild and domestic, play a vital role in plant reproduction.



“We cannot focus on domestic pollinators alone. There are more pollinators, and we saw that they are all of great importance in the reproductive success of plants and in maintaining plant diversity," the team noted.



"We should not focus just on crop plants and domestic pollinators, the view has to be opened out.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pollinator-protection-matters">Why pollinator protection matters</h2>



The decline of pollinators is not just an environmental issue - it’s a crisis that could reshape entire ecosystems. This study reinforces the importance of protecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> to keep nature thriving and ensure stable food production.



By taking action now - whether through conservation efforts, policy changes, or individual choices like planting pollinator-friendly gardens - humanity can help slow this decline. Protecting pollinators means protecting life itself.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02595-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Pollinators are disappearing, and it’s bad news for plants

Pollination happens everywhere, but most people don’t notice it. Small...

Researchers examining British Labrador retrievers have identified multiple genes connected to canine obesity. The investigations revealed that these same genes, including one called DENND1B, are associated with obesity in humans as well.&nbsp;



The findings mark a significant advance in understanding how biological mechanisms in dogs can shed light on human weight regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-linked-to-obesity">Genes linked to obesity </h2>



The gene DENND1B emerged as the strongest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-obesity-difficult-to-reverse-it-starts-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>-linked variant in Labradors. DENND1B was found to have a direct impact on a brain pathway responsible for regulating the energy balance in the body, called the leptin melanocortin pathway. 



Four additional genes showing a weaker association with canine obesity were likewise mapped to human genes.



Study co-first author Alyce McClellan is an expert in the <a href="https://www.pdn.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience</a> at the University of Cambridge.



“These genes are not immediately obvious targets for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-linked-to-unexpected-benefits-and-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weight-loss drugs</a>, because they control other key biological processes in the body that should not be interfered with. But the results emphasise the importance of fundamental brain pathways in controlling appetite and body weight,” said McClellan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-body-s-energy-regulation-system">The body's energy regulation system </h2>



An essential outcome of the research was confirming that DENND1B is present not only in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/probiotics-help-overweight-dogs-shed-pounds/">dogs</a> but also in humans, where it is linked to obesity.&nbsp;



By focusing on this gene in Labrador retrievers, scientists could zero in on how it impacts the body’s energy regulation system. They hope the insights gained from working with dogs will help clarify how certain neural pathways affect human eating behaviors and metabolic processes.



The researchers stress that while these genes are important for understanding appetite and weight gain, they do not present a straightforward target for obesity treatments. This is because the relevant genes are tied to other crucial functions in the body; tampering with them might create unwanted side effects.&nbsp;



Instead, the study highlights the complexity of regulating appetite and energy balance at a genetic level, reinforcing the importance of the leptin melanocortin pathway - a well-known system controlling satiety and hunger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-motivation-and-obesity-risk">Food motivation and obesity risk</h2>



Among the most striking findings, the researchers noted behavioral differences in dogs that carry the genes most strongly associated with obesity.&nbsp;



“We found that dogs at high genetic risk of obesity were more interested in food,” said co-first author Natalie Wallis, a researcher in the same department.



“We measured how much dogs pestered their owners for food and whether they were fussy eaters. Dogs at high genetic risk of obesity showed signs of having higher appetite, as has also been shown for people at high genetic risk of obesity.”



This link between genetic risk and food motivation underscores a significant parallel with human cases: individuals who harbor certain genetic profiles may experience stronger cravings for food and need more discipline to maintain healthy body weight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-counteracting-genetic-obesity-risks">Counteracting genetic obesity risks</h2>



Interestingly, the study showed that even Labradors with a high genetic propensity for obesity could stay slim if their owners enforced rigorous diet and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-in-a-pill-is-now-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise</a> routines. This is similar to what happens in humans.&nbsp;



People carrying particular genetic variants are more prone to weight gain, yet they can avoid obesity by strictly controlling their caloric intake and staying active.



“Studying the dogs showed us something really powerful: owners of slim dogs are not morally superior. The same is true of slim people. If you have a high genetic risk of obesity, then when there’s lots of food available you’re prone to overeating and gaining weight unless you put a huge effort into not doing so,” said senior author Eleanor Raffan, a scientist at Cambridge.



“By studying dogs we could measure their desire for food separately from the control owners exerted over their dog’s diet and exercise. In human studies, it’s harder to study how genetically driven appetite requires greater willpower to remain slim, as both are affecting the one person.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-broader-issue-of-obesity">The broader issue of obesity</h2>



The current obesity crisis is affecting both people and their pets. Between 40-60% of domestic dogs are believed to be overweight or obese, a situation mirrored in humans. The problems range from heightened risk of chronic illnesses to reduced quality of life.&nbsp;



Because dogs live alongside people and share many of the same dietary and lifestyle influences, they serve as a strong model for studying how genetics interacts with the environment to determine body weight.



In this project, researchers gathered data from pet owners, measuring each dog’s body fat and “greediness,” then collecting saliva samples to analyze DNA.&nbsp;



Comparing various obesity markers with each dog’s genetic makeup allowed them to pinpoint which genes correlated with weight gain. The most powerful variant, DENND1B, was tied to about 8% more body fat in the dogs carrying it.



Subsequent tests confirmed that the same gene variants also show relevance to weight issues in human populations, particularly in groups where single genetic alterations can cause severe, early-onset obesity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-steps-for-owners-nbsp">Practical steps for owners&nbsp;</h2>



Given that dogs with high-risk genes are especially food-motivated, the researchers advise owners to spread out daily food rations or use puzzle feeders that slow consumption. They also suggest choosing nutrient compositions that help dogs feel full longer.&nbsp;



Parallel recommendations exist for people, highlighting the benefits of portion control, diet quality, and strategies to combat overeating cues.



“This work shows how similar dogs are to humans genetically. Studying the dogs meant we had reason to focus on this particular gene, which has led to a big advance in understanding how our own brain controls our eating behavior and energy use,” Raffan said.



The scientists consider these discoveries a springboard for deeper investigations into how genes shape appetite and metabolism, in both animals and people.&nbsp;



While the genes identified here may not be immediate targets for obesity drugs, they provide essential clues about the biochemical pathways that drive weight gain. This, in turn, might eventually guide more refined strategies for managing and preventing obesity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.ads2145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Humans and dogs share genes linked to obesity

Researchers examining British Labrador retrievers have identified multiple genes connected...

Butterflies are currently disappearing in the United States with alarming speed. A new study estimates that overall butterfly abundance in the continental United States dropped by 22% between 2000 and 2020. 



Researchers warn that without immediate action, these vibrant insects - essential for pollination, nutrient cycling, and food webs - could continue to vanish at a rate with unsettling consequences for ecosystems and agriculture alike.



“Action must be taken,” said Elise Zipkin, a professor of quantitative ecology at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> and a co-author of the paper. “To lose 22 percent of butterflies across the continental U.S. in just two decades is distressing and shows a clear need for broad-scale conservation interventions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-largest-ever-compilation-of-butterfly-data">Largest-ever compilation of butterfly data</h2>



In the past, scientists have typically focused on one species (like the monarch) or on a limited geography. This study, however, brings together more than 76,000 surveys of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grassland-butterflies-declining-all-over-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly populations</a> spanning the lower 48 states.&nbsp;



The researchers incorporated data from 35 separate monitoring programs and compiles records of over 12.6 million butterflies, enabling analysts to develop a nationwide snapshot of butterfly abundance trends and species richness.



To clarify changes, the research team examined 554 different species, comparing population sizes in 2000 with those in 2020. They discovered that for every five butterflies present at the start of the century, only four remained after two decades.&nbsp;



The average annual decline of 1.3% highlights the widespread nature of the downturn, with fewer butterflies appearing in backyards, open meadows, and nearly everywhere in between.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-decline-of-butterflies">Increasing decline of butterflies</h2>



Nick Haddad, a professor of integrative biology at Michigan State and one of the study’s co-authors, has been closely involved in charting the precarious state of U.S. butterflies. He combines scientific expertise with a practical, on-the-ground perspective.&nbsp;



While many declines involve species we rarely encounter, Haddad stresses that losses can also be noticed close to home.



“My neighbors notice it,” Haddad said. “Unprompted, they’ll say, ‘I’m seeing fewer butterflies in my garden, is that real?’ My neighbors are right. And it’s so shocking.”



Such observations confirm broader findings: average people are detecting changes in butterfly abundance without relying on official numbers. Now, large-scale data affirm that this anecdotal evidence reflects a genuine, countrywide shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-definitive-study-on-u-s-butterflies">The definitive study on U.S. butterflies</h2>



“This is the definitive study of butterflies in the U.S.,” said Collin Edwards, the study’s lead author. “For those who were not already aware of insect declines, this should be a wake-up call.”



“We urgently need both local- and national-scale conservation efforts to support butterflies and other insects. We have never had as clear and compelling a picture of butterfly declines as we do now.”



Edwards, formerly a postdoctoral research associate at <a href="https://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University, Vancouver</a>, now works with the <a href="https://wdfw.wa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife</a>.&nbsp;



He and his colleagues designed methods to integrate sometimes-variable data sets. By analyzing changes in “butterfly abundances, they aimed to see how species fared individually, regionally, and collectively.



Though the Pacific Northwest seemed to buck the national trend by showing a 10% overall gain in butterfly numbers, that apparent uptick is traced mainly to a single species, the California tortoiseshell, which had a population spike unlikely to last.&nbsp;



Elsewhere, the standard pattern of decline holds true, demonstrating that the national losses are part of a deeper, multi-regional shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-solutions">Urgent need for solutions</h2>



By studying 554 species, the team highlights just how widespread the problem is. Many species had never been systematically analyzed at such a scale. The numbers show that 13 times more species declined than increased, with 107 species losing over half their populations.



According to Zipkin and Haddad, butterflies are more than fluttering symbols of freedom and beauty. They serve as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-expansion-linked-to-global-decline-of-wild-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> - alongside bees and flies - supporting a portion of the country’s agriculture and a source of food for numerous animals, including birds.&nbsp;



Indeed, bird populations have dropped by nearly three billion over the last 50 years, at a rate that parallels butterfly declines.



The researchers highlight that policymakers and the public should view these insects not just as ornaments but as key contributors to ecological balance.&nbsp;



If butterflies continue to disappear, pollination services may weaken, predator-prey relationships will be altered, and many plants reliant on butterfly pollination could suffer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-past-findings-nbsp">Lessons from past findings&nbsp;</h2>



Haddad’s earlier work, published in 2024 in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0304319" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>, determined that insecticide use was a leading cause of butterfly mortality. Although habitat destruction and climate change are also major factors, the findings suggest that widespread pesticide application does extraordinary harm.&nbsp;



Profligate use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-decline-in-american-midwest-linked-to-insecticides/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insecticides</a> - often deployed as a sort of “insurance” by farmers - can, ironically, result in minimal gains in crop yields while doing maximum damage to insect populations.



Haddad believes that a shift to more strategic, evidence-based pesticide use would give many butterfly species a fighting chance to rebound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowing-the-decline-of-butterflies">Slowing the decline of butterflies </h2>



Zipkin describes the current data as a strong warning to national leaders: “People depend on plants, microbes, and animals for the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. Yet, we are losing species at rates that rival the major mass extinction events on our planet,” she said.



Zipkin said that the United States can take meaningful steps, from local habitat management to large-scale legislative action, to protect not just butterflies but the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> that underpins human health and well-being.&nbsp;



Edwards hopes individuals and local governments will commit resources to planting pollinator-friendly vegetation, curtailing pesticide use, and supporting land conservation measures.



While time is short, the researchers remain cautiously optimistic: the data highlight just how urgent the task is, but it also provides a roadmap for remedying the losses.&nbsp;



Through improved policy, targeted restoration programs, and mindful insecticide management, the decline of these “fluttering symbols” might be slowed, or even reversed - restoring butterflies to gardens, fields, and wildlands across the nation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp4671" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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A country without butterflies: Rapid decline in U.S. populations

Butterflies are currently disappearing in the United States with alarming...

For the first time, researchers have used satellite collar data alongside specialized cameras to observe maternal denning in polar bears. This stage, when mothers give birth and remain in dens with their cubs, has long remained a mystery.



Studies have shown that the length of time mothers spend in dens impacts cub survival. However, scientists had little understanding of why they stay so long or what they do during that period. Until now, tracking devices had not been tested against direct observations of the bears.



Study lead author Louise Archer is a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto Scarborough</a>.



“The Arctic's warming two to four times faster than the rest of the world, humans are expanding into areas that might be important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-cubs-are-emerging-earlier-from-dens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear</a> denning, and we know they're sensitive to disturbance during this time,” said Archer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-denning-in-polar-bear-survival">Role of denning in polar bear survival</h2>



Denning begins when pregnant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-polar-bear-day-keeping-moms-and-cubs-safe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bears</a> dig out snow dens to give birth. Cubs are born tiny and vulnerable, and the den shields them from the harsh Arctic cold as they nurse and grow rapidly. 



During this time, mothers lose nearly half their body weight. Even after emerging, they do not immediately return to hunting. Instead, they stay near the den for several weeks, engaging in activities that seem more critical than eating.



Historically, researchers observed denning through binoculars, then remote cameras, and now satellite collars. Each method has its limitations. Satellite collars, which track location, activity, and ambient temperature, have become more common. 



However, most collars only record data every few hours, making it difficult to capture short-term behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-polar-bears-for-six-years">Tracking polar bears for six years</h2>



In a six-year study, Archer and her colleagues tracked 13 polar bears from the Barents Sea subpopulation. They placed cameras outside of nine dens in Svalbard, Norway, while also using satellite collars.



Comparing the two methods revealed differences of several days to over a week in estimating key denning stages.



Each time the experts collected collar data, they matched it with corresponding camera images to confirm bear activities. 



The team then built three statistical models. These allow researchers to use collar data to predict not just what the bears are doing, but what they will likely do. The models forecast breakout times, den emergence patterns, and final polar bear departures.



One model also considers how temperature changes affect the behavior of mothers and cubs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-and-den-emergence-patterns">Temperature and den emergence patterns</h2>



“Collars do a good job at picking out these broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-doesnt-stick-to-polar-bear-fur-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a>, like when the bears first come out of the den and when they depart. We found they corresponded pretty well to what we were seeing on camera,” said Archer. "But it was difficult to tease out the finer scale behaviors we saw on camera.”



Bears almost always emerged during daylight, with trips averaging 27 minutes. Some lasted under a minute, while others extended to nearly eight hours. Mothers brought their cubs outside about half the time, usually staying within 40 meters of the den. 



Warmer temperatures increased the likelihood of polar bears leaving the den and prolonged their outdoor stays. The longer it had been since their first breakout, the more frequently they emerged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-denning-for-cubs">Importance of denning for cubs</h2>



The data suggests that this period near the den helps cubs adapt to the outside world. Other research has found that a faster departure after breaking out reduces cub survival rates. If cubs do not spend enough time near the den, their chances of survival decrease.



“The Arctic is a really fast-changing area. We've got a lot of sea ice being lost, so seeing what polar bears are doing and how they're responding to these changes gives us an insight into what we might expect in other parts of the Arctic down the line,” said Archer.



She recently completed a study linking a decline in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear populations</a> to shrinking sea ice caused by climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-polar-bear-research">Future of polar bear research</h2>



This study involved researchers from <a href="https://polarbearsinternational.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polar Bears International</a>, <a href="https://sandiegozoowildlifealliance.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance</a>, and the <a href="https://www.npolar.no/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Polar Institute</a>. 



By improving tracking methods, scientists hope to gain a clearer picture of polar bear behavior in and around dens and the challenges they face.



Continued monitoring will provide valuable insights into how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> adapt to their rapidly changing environment.



The study is published in the <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jwmg.22725" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Wildlife Management</a>. 



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Polar bear cub survival depends on this little-known den behavior

For the first time, researchers have used satellite collar data...

Rainbow,Trout,Caught,And,Released,In,The,Boise,River,In

Farmed fish are often viewed with suspicion, while wild-caught varieties are more likely to be perceived as healthy and pure. Seafood shoppers everywhere debate the differences and weigh their options carefully.



A fresh scientific review points to an unexpected conclusion. Various pollutants can accumulate in fish, and wild-caught individuals appear to experience greater exposure to these. 



This perspective is shared by <a href="https://orcid.org/0009-0001-6007-8622" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Isabel  Casanova-Martínez</a>, a scientist who works under the auspices of several Spanish research institutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-heavy-metals">Understanding heavy metals</h2>



Many people recognize that <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/heavy-metal-blood-test/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heavy metals</a> pose a threat for food safety. 



These substances include elements like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elevated-mercury-levels-discovered-in-dolphins/">mercury</a>, <a href="https://periodic-table.rsc.org/element/33/arsenic" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arsenic</a>, lead and others that can build up in tissue (bioaccumulate) over time. Certain types can be risky to humans if present in large amounts.



Researchers found that wild-caught fish carried an average mercury concentration of 0.06 micrograms per gram, while farmed fish had about half that, at 0.038 micrograms per gram. 



They also found arsenic levels of 3.26 micrograms per gram in wild fish, compared with 1.23 micrograms per gram in farmed varieties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ddt-and-other-pollutants">DDT and other pollutants</h2>



A lesser-known concern is <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/ddt-brief-history-and-status" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DDT</a>, which was once a widely used pesticide. Even though it was banned in many places years ago, traces can still linger. These residues can find their way into aquatic environments and accumulate in fish.



The review indicates around 196.48 nanograms per gram of DDT in wild-caught samples, whereas farmed fish had about 44.64 nanograms per gram. 



The findings suggest differences in how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-small-fish-whole-reduces-cancer-risk-in-women/">fish</a> come into contact with old pesticide deposits, possibly due to habitat or feeding patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-fish-fare-better">Why some fish fare better</h2>



Fish produced through aquaculture may face stricter oversight in terms of feed and water conditions. 



Organizations like the <a href="https://www.fao.org/publications/fao-flagship-publications/the-state-of-world-fisheries-and-aquaculture/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> note that this method continues to expand faster than other food sectors. Many producers track feeds and test water more regularly than ever.



Heavy metals can be introduced through industrial pollution, runoff, or other sources in natural waters. 



Filtered tanks or closely monitored pens could mean fewer contaminants find their way into farmed species, although no method removes the risks entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-risks-and-caution">Real-world risks and caution</h2>



The <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-health" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a> has identified mercury as being among the top chemicals of concern for public health, especially for expectant mothers and small children. 



High concentrations have been <a href="https://www.epa.gov/mercury/health-effects-exposures-mercury">tied</a> to neurological issues and developmental problems in infants.



Safe daily or weekly seafood intake is still possible, but guidelines vary depending on a person’s overall health. 



Experts often urge pregnant women to be particularly careful about the consumption of large, predatory fish as they are known to harbor elevated mercury levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-nutrition-and-contaminants">Balancing nutrition and contaminants</h2>



Eating fish brings many benefits. It offers protein, omega-3 fatty acids, and important minerals. 



<a href="https://www.fishwatch.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a> underscores that fish are a valuable food, but also acknowledges that consumers should stay informed about possible contaminants.



Some nutrients, like <a href="https://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/se.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">selenium</a> and <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Zinc-HealthProfessional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zinc</a>, vary based on the fish’s environment and diet. 



Farmed diets often include formulated feeds that are designed to control final nutrient profiles. Wild species gain nutrients from ecosystems that are less predictable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leading-author-s-viewpoint">Leading author’s viewpoint</h2>



"Rather than pitting wild fishing against aquaculture, our review demonstrates that both sectors can coexist and help meet the world’s seafood needs safely," concluded Dr. Casanova-Martínez, lead author of the study.



"Still, ongoing research and improvements in feed and environmental monitoring are essential for safeguarding public health." 



These observations reflect the broader consensus that both systems are vital for feeding populations. Each approach has benefits and drawbacks that require further attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-regulation-matters">Why regulation matters</h2>



Regulatory bodies set maximum allowed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-100-million-americans-exposed-to-contaminated-drinking-water/">contaminant levels</a> to keep consumers safe. Many fish samples in both categories fall within established safety margins. 



Continuous oversight helps the public gain confidence in what ends up on their plates.



Authorities also caution special populations. Small children and pregnant individuals may need more careful advice about portion sizes, fish types, and heavy meal frequency. 



Public health agencies need to adjust recommendations when new evidence emerges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-consumers">What’s next for consumers</h2>



Aquaculture often employs best practices to reduce pollutants, yet wild-caught products remain popular for taste and tradition. 



People can choose a balanced approach, selecting a mix of fish sources and staying updated on guidelines for safer consumption.



Additional studies on feed technology and water filtration are ongoing. Research may reveal improved methods to cut contaminants and maintain fish quality in coming years.



Concerns about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heavy-metal-pollution-threatens-marine-life-and-human-health/">heavy metals</a> and legacy pesticides should not overshadow the nutritional value of fish. 



Instead, consumers should be making informed choices by identifying reputable suppliers and following health advisories to ensure they reduce the intake of unwanted substances.



Individuals looking for more detail can consult government websites or speak with healthcare providers for tailored advice. Monitoring official recommendations about fish intake can also safer meal planning.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956713525000891" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Control</a>.



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Why eating farmed fish may be safer than eating fish caught in the wild

Farmed fish are often viewed with suspicion, while wild-caught varieties...

A recent study offers a clearer picture of which amphibians and habitats face the greatest threat from rising temperatures.&nbsp;



Amphibians are notably fragile in a warming world due to their dependence on external sources to regulate body heat, with more than 40% of species already classified as endangered. As entire populations vanish, the ripple effects throughout ecosystems could be devastating.



“We wanted to better understand the risk climate change poses to amphibians, and so put together the most comprehensive compilation of heat tolerance limits to date,” said lead author Patrice Pottier, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-tolerance-limits-of-amphibians-nbsp">Heat tolerance limits of amphibians&nbsp;</h2>



Amphibians, being ectotherms, cannot generate enough internal heat on their own and therefore depend on the environment to maintain suitable body temperatures.&nbsp;



Given how little data existed on their ability to endure higher heat levels, the UNSW team aggregated thousands of measurements, representing hundreds of species.



“Heat tolerance limits are the maximum temperature amphibians can tolerate before their physiological systems fail,” Pottier said.



The experts applied a statistical method called data imputation to estimate values for species that have not been directly studied.



“In this case, it predicts heat tolerance limits for species we do not have data for by looking at how heat tolerance is linked to factors like habitat type, environmental temperature, and evolutionary history,” Pottier explained.



By doing so, the scientists developed a comprehensive catalog of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-temperature-threshold-can-the-human-body-handle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat thresholds</a> covering about 60% of all known amphibian species. This overview highlights where warming poses the greatest risk and which animals might be most vulnerable to local extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amphibians-are-already-under-strain">Amphibians are already under strain</h2>



The research team examined the environmental conditions amphibians encounter in different microhabitats - on land, in trees, or in water - and then compared these conditions to each species’ calculated heat tolerance limits.&nbsp;



“We found that 104 out of 5,203 species - 2% - are already exposed to overheating in shaded terrestrial conditions. And a 4°C global temperature increase could push 7.5% of species beyond their physiological limits,” Pottier said.



The experts also discovered that the areas most at risk do not necessarily line up with latitude alone, a finding that revises earlier assumptions.



“It has previously been often assumed that species closer to the equator are at greater risk from overheating due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-draining-nutrients-from-the-oceans-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> than those in temperate regions. However, our study found that tropical species in the Southern Hemisphere are the most impacted by overheating events, while non-tropical species are more impacted in the Northern Hemisphere,” Pottier explained.



As a result, relying on a one-size-fits-all pattern like latitude to assess threats may overlook specific places and species already pushing against their tolerable heat boundaries.



“Assuming that all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical species</a> are more vulnerable than temperate species can be misleading. What matters is assessing if the area is going to experience extreme heat events relative to the species' heat tolerance. This requires stepping away from general trends, and identifying specific areas and species at risk,” Pottier added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-escalating-impacts-with-greater-warming-nbsp">Escalating impacts with greater warming&nbsp;</h2>



The scientists modeled how conditions might worsen under different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> scenarios. Even at 2°C above pre-industrial levels, more amphibians are likely to face critical heat exposure. But surpassing that threshold would be especially dangerous.



“Impacts escalate under different climate warming scenarios. There is an increase in impact between the current climate and +2C of warming; but impacts increase disproportionally under +4C of warming. This step-change impact severity shows that going above +2C of global warming can be a tipping point where we may see a lot of local extinctions,” Pottier noted.



Local disappearances carry additional risks: losing these frogs, salamanders, and toads can disrupt food webs, hamper insect control, and reduce overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic diversity</a> in local ecosystems.



“Some amphibian populations may undergo range shifts to more hospitable habitats, but opportunities for this are likely limited due to low dispersal rates and reliance on water bodies,” Pottier added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-and-cultural-significance">Ecological and cultural significance </h2>



Amphibians are not just vital for pest management and as a food source for predators; they are also intertwined with human cultures around the globe.



Pottier pointed out that amphibians are an important part of the ecosystem. For example, the loss of an amphibian population would likely lead to an increase in insect population with carry-over effects on plants and animals, he noted.



“They are prey for many animals and their loss would have knock-on effects on many other species. Besides ecosystem impacts, amphibians are deeply rooted in human cultures and it would be a shame to lose such beautiful and emblematic species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-heat-impacts-on-amphibians-nbsp">Mitigating heat impacts on amphibians&nbsp;</h2>



The findings emphasize the importance of microhabitats that moderate temperature extremes. Places with plenty of foliage and accessible water sources can help amphibians survive short-term heat spikes by letting them cool off and keep their skin moist.



“Our analyses made it clear that vegetation and water bodies are critical in buffering amphibians during heat waves. We found that if you provide amphibians with enough water and enough shade, a lot of them can survive extreme heat events. We must protect and restore the environments that allow them to regulate their body temperature,” Pottier stressed.



Because the study assumed best-case scenarios for shade and moisture, actual threats could exceed even these concerning estimates.



“We used very conservative estimates in this study assuming access to cool shaded environments. Therefore, the impacts of global warming will likely exceed our projections. So all efforts to limit global warming are needed to protect the world’s amphibians,” he concluded.



Overall, this large-scale analysis highlights both the fragility of amphibian populations under climate stress and the steps that can help them cope - namely, curbing global temperatures and safeguarding vital habitats with adequate cover and water.



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Amphibians are being pushed beyond their heat limits

A recent study offers a clearer picture of which amphibians...

An extensive, decades-long analysis tracking endangered caribou populations has revealed that migration patterns are eroding in both distance and duration. Researchers attribute this decline largely to human-caused habitat disturbances rather than shifts in climate.&nbsp;



The work, led by Dr. Clayton Lamb of <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC), emphasizes the urgency of safeguarding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-caribou-movement-patterns-can-transform-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caribou</a> habitats and their time-honored migratory routes.



“Western science and Indigenous knowledge recognize the critical role of migration in sustaining abundant wildlife populations, yet these movements are increasingly disrupted by human activity worldwide,” Lamb said.&nbsp;



“We studied the extent and type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> as well as changes through time, and determined if these changes correlated with landscape disturbance or shifts in weather.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-caribou-migrations">Shrinking caribou migrations</h2>



The research team examined data spanning 35 years (from 1987 to 2022), which included 1,704,842 geolocation points from radio tags and GPS collars. More than 800 individual animals across 27 southern mountain caribou subpopulations provided a massive dataset.&nbsp;



By comparing the timing and distances traveled over three and a half decades, scientists gleaned new insights into how caribou movement is shifting.



“The data shows that most of these subpopulations remain migratory to some degree, but seasonal migrations appear to be shrinking in both duration and extent,” Lamb said.&nbsp;



“Though our study spanned just 35 years - a blink compared to millennia caribou have been migrating here - we found migration eroding, not due to weather shifts, but alongside expanding human disturbance and caribou population decline.”



Caribou have traditionally migrated in response to food availability, snowpack conditions, and predation pressures, using both elevational (vertical) and horizontal movements.&nbsp;



Barren-ground caribou in the far north, for example, routinely traverse hundreds of kilometers, sometimes in vast herds. Southern mountain caribou travel smaller distances, but they once performed significant up-and-down journeys among mountainous and forested regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-caused-habitat-disturbance">Human-caused habitat disturbance</h2>



While the researchers tested the influence of changing weather patterns, they found no significant correlation between the shifts in migration and climate variables. Instead, they identified industrial and resource development as the primary factor affecting migration routes.



“Due to their southern distribution, these caribou are exposed to higher levels of human-caused landscape disturbance and associated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-species-are-shifting-their-habitats-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> change and loss," explained Lamb. 



"Observations from Indigenous communities, local people, scientists and government biologists indicate that southern mountain caribou migrations are changing or not happening at all."



Signs of development - such as logging, oil and gas extraction, road-building, and other infrastructure projects - have transformed much of the caribou’s original habitat.&nbsp;



By subdividing forests and carving out new corridors, these changes can boost predator access and fragment the terrain, making traditional migratory routes untenable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-decline-in-caribou-migration">Significant decline in caribou migration </h2>



“Southern mountain caribou migration, including the distance and elevation change, has declined significantly over the past 40 years, and we believe these changes are correlated with human-caused disturbances, including change and loss to habitat,” said Adam Ford, director of UBC’s Wildlife Restoration Ecology Lab.



In 1983, just 5% of the area inhabited by these caribou subpopulations had been disturbed by human activities (like reservoirs, logging, and resource extraction), whereas natural disturbances - for instance, from fire or pests - accounted for a mere 0.3%. By 2020, however, more than 30% of the same landscape had been altered by human use.



“Within the last 35 years, human-caused disturbance increased nearly sixfold within the ranges of the caribou subpopulations. Beyond impacts to migration, habitat disturbance - which has disrupted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamics</a> - is a primary cause of caribou population declines,” Ford said.&nbsp;



“It’s important to note the southern mountain caribou population declined by more than 50 per cent over the period of our investigation.”



This steep population drop coincides with the observed erosion of migratory behavior, signaling that caribou now struggle to adapt to an environment fragmented by industry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-ecological-balance">Restoring ecological balance </h2>



“Sustaining caribou populations and their migratory behavior into the future will require a rapid change in managing the landscape that facilitates extensive habitat conservation, restoration and a reduction in ongoing human-caused disturbance,” Lamb said.



Consequently, the study suggests that reversing these trends will require robust habitat protection efforts and stricter oversight of resource extraction. 



Creating buffer zones, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reforesting</a> clear-cut areas, and adopting management strategies to limit predator access are essential steps.



“Creating a landscape with suitable caribou habitats and lower predator densities that can once again sustain caribou is imperative to preserve their migratory behaviorr and support recovery efforts,” Lamb concluded.



Experts agree that a sustained effort to restore ecological balance could keep caribou on the move. Without prompt and meaningful intervention, further disruptions could eliminate both the migration patterns and the herds themselves - losing a millennia-old aspect of the mountain ecosystem.&nbsp;



Through collaboration among governments, industries, local communities, and Indigenous groups, conservation initiatives may still preserve this species’ ancient migratory legacy.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.70095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>



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Caribou migration patterns disrupted by human activities

An extensive, decades-long analysis tracking endangered caribou populations has revealed...

iron ore deposit - 1

To the untrained eye, Megaphragma wasps may appear as mere specks of dust, but these minuscule insects - measuring just a fifth of a millimeter - are formidable hunters. 



They prey on even smaller insects called thrips, using them for both nourishment and shelter.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-wasp-species-named-after-famous-thieves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiny wasps</a> infiltrate thrips' bodies to lay their eggs, which then hatch, feed, and develop entirely within their hosts.



This unusual lifestyle requires them to fit into spaces that most insects would find impossible. It is no wonder that scientists have long been curious about how the wasps' bodies and organs manage under such extreme size constraints.



A recent study led by Dr. Gregor Belušič from the <a href="https://www.bf.uni-lj.si/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biotechnical Faculty</a> at the University of Ljubljana may have begun to clear up some of the mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-wonders-of-the-insect-world">Tiny wonders of the insect world</h2>



Megaphragma wasps do more than just outsmart thrips. They also show how far miniaturization can go before basic features stop working.



Most insects rely on their eyes for movement and exploration. Ommatidia form the building blocks of these compound eyes and act like small detectors for incoming light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incredible-compound-eyes">Incredible compound eyes</h2>



In <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37666087/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megaphragma viggianii</a>, researchers have counted a total of 29 ommatidia, which is extremely low compared to the number in the eyes of bigger insects. 



Each tiny ommatidium uses a lens that measures around 8 micrometers, but that’s still enough to focus light onto specialized structures below.



The rhabdom within each ommatidium (the optical units that make up the insect’s compound eye) has stayed thick enough - about 2 micrometers - to catch adequate light and send signals to the brain. 



This balance between lens size and rhabdom thickness seems to preserve clear vision during daylight hours.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-energetic-cost-of-vision">The energetic cost of vision</h2>



Packed pigment granules line the sides of each ommatidium. They block stray light that might otherwise blur the wasp’s vision.



Maintaining sight at such a small scale may demand a lot of energy. Some data hint at heavy loads of mitochondria in these photoreceptor cells, suggesting that vision comes with a metabolic price.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polarized-light-detection">Polarized light detection</h2>



Roughly a third of the ommatidia cluster near the dorsal region of the eye. These specialized structures appear to detect <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13825256/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polarized light</a>, a feature known to help insects orientate under open skies.



In many insects, the dorsal rim area is essential for successful navigation and migration. It provides steady guidance, even when visual landmarks are absent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extra-light-sensors">Extra light sensors</h2>



In addition, a few unique photoreceptor cells hide behind the first row of ommatidia. They are positioned to receive light indirectly.



Some experts suggest these hidden receptors might take part in day-night rhythms or other internal body processes. Small as these eyes are, they still maintain surprising complexity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compensations-for-extreme-miniaturization">Compensations for extreme miniaturization</h2>



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-have-a-new-weapon-to-defend-against-parasitic-wasps/">wasps</a> show that size reduction has its limits. Eye cells have nuclei, which remain intact despite the disappearance of nuclei in parts of the wasp’s brain.



Retaining larger cell structures may be unavoidable for proper light collection and signal processing. If eyes shrink too far, vision might no longer be useful during flight or host-finding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Scientists see these eyes as a chance to explore extreme biology. Understanding how tiny lenses and sensors function might lead to ideas in micro-robotics or imaging devices.



These intricate eyes can also be mapped in three dimensions, thanks to modern microscopy methods. 



That opens doors to simulating miniature visual systems on computers and comparing them with those found in larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-rarest-insect-returns-lord-howe-island-stick-insect-dryococelus-australis/">insect species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspiration-for-advanced-technology">Inspiration for advanced technology</h2>



The way these wasps manage vision at such a small scale has caught the attention of engineers and designers working on miniature imaging systems. 



By studying how their tiny lenses and light-sensitive structures function efficiently, researchers could develop better micro-cameras for medical procedures, robotics, and surveillance.



Advances in bio-inspired optics are already shaping the design of ultra-small sensors. 



Understanding how these wasps maximize light capture while avoiding distortion may lead to breakthroughs in the design of compact visual systems that operate in low-light conditions or restricted spaces.



The study is published in <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/105736" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Unexpected discovery inside the eye of a tiny wasp

To the untrained eye, Megaphragma wasps may appear as mere...

The eel trade is driven by high demand and a limited supply. This combination makes eel trading highly profitable, but also controversial due to concerns about sustainability, illegal trafficking, and the impact on endangered species.



Despite strict regulations on European eel exports, illegal trafficking persists. Juvenile eels are smuggled out of the EU to Asia, where they are farmed and sold as food.



Recent research has focused on the European eel (Anguilla anguilla), which is a critically endangered species. Although its trade outside of the EU is highly restricted, large numbers of juvenile eels continue to reach Asian markets.



However, new findings suggest a shift in the global eel trade, with another species increasingly appearing in the market.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-the-american-eel">Targeting the American eel</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.yale-nus.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale-NUS College</a> conducted a study to investigate the presence of endangered eel species in Singapore’s markets. The team purchased 327 eel products from 86 retailers, including supermarkets, restaurants, and wholesalers.



DNA barcoding revealed an unexpected result. While a few samples contained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-lack-critical-fish-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European eels</a>, 70% of the tested products were identified as Anguilla rostrata, commonly known as the American eel.



Unlike its European counterpart, the American eel is not critically endangered. However, it is still classified as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-future-of-the-endangered-species-act/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered species</a> and faces significant threats from overfishing and habitat loss. 



The study’s findings suggest that traders may be shifting focus from European eels to American eels due to increasing enforcement of EU export restrictions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-need-for-urgent-action">The need for urgent action</h2>



These findings raise concerns about the future of the American eel population. Without stronger regulations, it could face the same fate as the European eel. 



The research team has called for greater enforcement and monitoring of the American eel trade to prevent further population declines.



The study was conducted as part of Yale-NUS alumnus Joshua Choo’s Environmental Studies capstone project, under the supervision of Professor Benjamin Wainwright.



“It was sad to connect Singaporean unagi with the history of anguillid eel exploitation - where a crash in one anguillid’s stock repeatedly leads to another’s overexploitation and crash," said Choo.



"It was, however, heartening to see so many researchers and Indigenous groups invested in anguillid recovery in Liverpool - from Japan to Aotearoa to the EU and UK."



"There’s room for Southeast Asian perspectives in eel science - it’s important to protect tropical anguillids from the endangerment plaguing their temperate cousins, and to explore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> solutions for our food that can bypass profit-driven overexploitation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mislabeling-and-wildlife-crime">Mislabeling and wildlife crime</h2>



The study highlights the widespread mislabeling of eel products, often sold as generic "eel" or "unagi," which obscures their true species identity. This deceptive practice not only threatens biodiversity but also poses potential risks to human health and fuels illegal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sunscreens-lose-effectiveness-and-become-harmful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife trade</a>.



“The trade in eels is described as the greatest wildlife crime on Earth; it supports vast criminal networks that illegally traffic many hundreds of millions of glass eels (juvenile eels) to Asia each year,” said Professor Wainwright.



“What we show with this work is a likely shift in trade; this shift could be the consequence of EU enforced rules and regulations making it harder to smuggle the European eel to Asia, consequently suppliers have now shifted their focus to the less regulated American eel." 



"If the American eel is to avoid a similar fate to that suffered by the European eels, it will be important to closely monitor the American eel trade and introduce rules and regulations designed to prevent overexploitation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eel-trade-and-wildlife-conservation">Eel trade and wildlife conservation</h2>



The study’s findings highlight the need for proactive conservation measures. Stricter monitoring, better labelling practices, and increased awareness among consumers can help curb the illegal eel trade. 



Consumers, researchers, and policymakers will need to work together to ensure that the global eel trade does not continue at the expense of biodiversity.



If no action is taken, the American eel could become the next critically endangered species, and follow the same tragic path as the European eel.



Choo presented the research at the 2024 International Eel Science Symposium in Liverpool, UK.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.70013" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Science and Practice</a>.



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Eel trade is pushing another species to the brink

The eel trade is driven by high demand and a...

Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas bacteria species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria.



According to new research, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. 



This work comes from the lab of <a href="https://www.biozentrum.unibas.ch/about/administration/administration-a-z/overview/unit/research-group-marek-basler" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Marek Basler</a> at the Biozentrum, <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Basel</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pseudomonas-bacteria-and-nano-spearguns">Pseudomonas bacteria and nano-spearguns</h2>



These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (<a href="https://asm.org/articles/2023/april/type-vi-secretion-systems-weapons-of-bacterial-des" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T6SS</a>), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into rivals. 



They have been studied extensively because of their importance in bacterial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a> and survival.



“We knew that Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria uses its T6SS to fire back when attacked,” said Basler. Scientists had long <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18289922/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suspected</a> that external stress might activate these devices in <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25164-pseudomonas-infection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a>. 



One survey showed that T6SS genes occur in about a quarter of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538213/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gram-negative species</a>, highlighting their prevalence as a competitive strategy.



Some bacteria also direct T6SS at eukaryotic targets, affecting plant and animal hosts. This flexibility helps them adapt to diverse situations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-t6ss-genes-the-basics">Understanding T6SS genes - the basics</h2>



T6SS genes control the Type VI Secretion System (T6SS), an impressive molecular weapon that bacteria use to fight each other and sometimes even mess with host cells. 



Think of it as a microscopic harpoon gun - bacteria literally shoot toxic proteins into rival microbes to kill them or weaken their defenses. 



Some bacteria also use T6SS to interact with host organisms, either to establish infections or to outcompete other microbes in a shared environment. 



This system gives bacteria a serious advantage in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-that-love-to-kill-bacteria-could-help-fight-deadly-infections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microscopic battlefield</a>, whether they're battling it out in soil, water, or even inside a host’s gut.



Scientists are fascinated by T6SS because it plays a huge role in bacterial survival, competition, and even virulence. 



Some nasty pathogens, like Vibrio cholerae (which causes cholera) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (a major threat in hospitals), use T6SS to dominate their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanical-force-as-a-trigger">Mechanical force as a trigger</h2>



“Using AFM, we have been able to mimic a bacterial T6SS attack,” said Yves F Dufrêne, a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661630/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Nanoscience Institute</a>. 



The team used atomic force microscopy (<a href="https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/atomic-force-microscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AFM</a>) to gently push on the bacterial surface with a very fine tip. 



By applying measured force, they found that the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8934262/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outer membrane</a> damage alone could spur this injection tool into action. Once activated, the cells unleashed a burst of toxin-bearing elements to ward off intruders.



Studies from different labs have shown that surfaces with varied stiffness can influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> attachment. However, it was less clear how direct mechanical stress might activate a defensive tool like T6SS.



Laboratories investigating <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/vibrio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vibrio species</a> observed T6SS responses to mechanical cues in marine environments. 



These clues paved the way for experiments focusing on Pseudomonas under controlled force measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pseudomonas-bacteria-attack-detection">Pseudomonas bacteria attack detection</h2>



The scientists discovered that the site of membrane rupture guided the T6SS to assemble at the exact spot of assault. This high precision helps reduce wasted energy and ensures toxins only hit the intended target.



“Our work clearly shows that breaking the outer membrane is necessary and sufficient to trigger T6SS assembly,” said Basler.



 Researchers believe this system works thanks to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/phosphorylation-cascade" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphorylation cascade</a> that springs into action upon sensing disruption. 



Pinpointing the exact trigger site allows minimal resource expenditure while maximizing impact on an aggressor. This specificity keeps the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> cell from randomly launching costly attacks.



Scientists are interested in finding the molecular components that link physical membrane disturbance to T6SS initiation. These details could open doors for inhibitors designed to neutralize this response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-assault-on-the-membrane">Chemical assault on the membrane</h2>



Interestingly, certain antibiotics or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/peptide-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peptide derivatives</a> also weaken the same barrier. This hints that chemical agents capable of penetrating the membrane can provoke a similar defensive strike.



The findings could be significant when considering <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/multiple-drug-resistance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multidrug resistance</a> in clinical settings. If a damaged outer membrane leads to a swift T6SS reaction, it might alter how pathogens respond to various medications.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/polymyxin-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polymyxin derivatives</a>, often reserved for severe infections, disrupt the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. 



This disruption can unintentionally activate T6SS, giving the pathogen a countermeasure against rival organisms.



Understanding this dynamic may help clinicians refine how these drugs are applied in critical care. If T6SS ramps up under partial membrane stress, combination therapies might offer a more thorough strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-pseudomonas-bacteria-study">Next steps for Pseudomonas bacteria study</h2>



Much still needs to be clarified, such as how multiple T6SS assemblies are precisely regulated once the membrane is compromised. Different strains may also vary in how sensitive they are to mechanical or chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-lake-mendota-keep-evolving-but-never-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a>.



The bigger picture could involve a network of signals that prime bacteria to respond rapidly whenever their boundary is breached. 



Exploring these nuances might help researchers develop ways to disrupt this mechanism without harming beneficial microbes.



Researchers suspect that different bacterial species have unique thresholds for activating T6SS when threatened. 



This variation might determine which organisms thrive in complex environments like soil or aquatic habitats.



Experts are also investigating the role of protein partners that reset or limit T6SS after activation. 



Gaining clarity on the shutdown mechanism could lead to ways of blocking these assemblies and tackling antibiotic-resistant infections in the future.



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Featured image: Pseudomonas bacteria deploy their nano-spearguns when damaged by a sharp tip (15,000 x magnification). Credit: University of Basel, Biozentrum/<a href="https://nanoscience.unibas.ch/en/services/nano-imaging-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SNI Nano Imaging Lab</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr1713" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Bacteria build tiny 'nano-spearguns' to fight back against attacks

Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle...

A frog species thought to be missing for well over a century has been spotted again.&nbsp;This startling discovery was announced by a group of Chilean and international researchers.



First described in 1902, the species Alsodes vittatus had not appeared in any scientific records for more than 130 years. 



Despite multiple expeditions attempting to locate the frog in the intervening decades, all efforts ended in vain - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-discovery">Significance of the discovery </h2>



Recent fieldwork by researchers from the Laboratory of Systematics and Conservation of Herpetozoa (SyCoH) at the <a href="https://www.udec.cl/pexterno/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Concepción</a> has confirmed that the elusive amphibian is, in fact, still alive.&nbsp;



The findings detail the missing frog’s reemergence in the southeastern region of the Hacienda San Ignacio de Pemehue in La Araucanía, Chile.&nbsp;



This rediscovery represents a significant moment for scientists studying South American <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, especially in light of the many frog species currently listed as threatened or lacking sufficient data to assess their status.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-missing-frog-species">A missing frog species</h2>



Alsodes vittatus, originally described by naturalist Rodulfo Amando Philippi, was initially located by French entomologist Philibert Germain in 1893, who provided the three specimens that Philippi used to define the species.&nbsp;



Ever since then, it has disappeared from the record. Between 1995 and 2002, researchers combed the Pemehue area, determined to relocate A. vittatus, but none succeeded.&nbsp;



Efforts resumed in 2015 and 2016, yet the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-addressing-environmental-threats-to-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> populations identified lacked the characteristic white or yellow dorsal stripe that defines A. vittatus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-south-america-s-frog-species">South America's frog species </h2>



Eventually, over a decade into the investigation, new teams led by Dr. Claudio Correa, engineer in renewable natural resources Edvin Riveros Riffo, and biologist Juan Pablo Donoso focused on a different part of the same region. Their change of venue paid off.&nbsp;



Within the Lolco and Portales river basins at the southeastern end of the former estate, they spotted two populations of a frog that, upon careful examination, was confirmed to be A. vittatus.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/toad-species_Alsodes-vittatus_rediscovered_credit-ZooKeys_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/toad-species_Alsodes-vittatus_rediscovered_credit-ZooKeys_1s.webp" alt="Individuals of Alsodes igneus and A. vittatus from the new populations, syntype of A. vittatus and environment of one of the new locality from underwater Tupuyuntué River at the point where tadpoles and juveniles of A. vittatus were observed. Credit: Edvin Riveros" class="wp-image-1962139"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Individuals of Alsodes igneus and A. vittatus from the new populations, syntype of A. vittatus and environment of one of the new locality from underwater Tupuyuntué River at the point where tadpoles and juveniles of A. vittatus were observed. Credit: Edvin Riveros</figcaption></figure>



This unexpected triumph sheds light on important conservation implications for frogs in the southern cone of South America.



“The main challenge in locating it was the lack of precision in the description of its type locality,” the researchers wrote. 



“In Germain's time, the Hacienda San Ignacio de Pemehue was an estate of enormous size, and the naturalist did not specify the exact place where he collected the specimens.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retracing-old-footsteps">Retracing old footsteps</h2>



While the northwestern section of the old hacienda had been surveyed frequently, there was little information about areas farther to the southeast.&nbsp;



Because Germain never noted his precise collecting site, the modern team resorted to reconstructing his likely path through historical documents and publications.&nbsp;



Armed with this historical context, Correa and Riveros hiked the estate from its southeastern reaches, culminating in the discovery that Alsodes vittatus still exists - albeit in small populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-risks-to-amphibians-nbsp">Significant risks to amphibians&nbsp;</h2>



More than a century after its scientific description, scientists now have their first biological and ecological data on A. vittatus. The species is found living near streams, as is common among many other Alsodes frogs.&nbsp;



By sampling individuals carefully, the team identified the presence of the distinctive dorsal stripe that sets A. vittatus apart.&nbsp;



Because most Alsodes frogs are extremely local in their habitats and easily disturbed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-are-weakening-earths-air-circulation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human activities</a>, the researchers believe A. vittatus faces several immediate threats.&nbsp;



Local land-use changes, logging activities, and climate factors all pose significant risks to amphibians in Chile’s temperate forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-and-threatened-frog-species">Missing and threatened frog species</h2>



This is a major milestone for South American herpetology and the conservation of biodiversity in the southern region. 



Many frogs in the region are threatened with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eu-responsible-for-extinction-of-frog-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a>, so clarifying the distribution and life history of this one species is a crucial first step toward its protection. 



Field evidence collected by the team indicates that A. vittatus could meet criteria for classification as an endangered species. 



Further studies will be needed to confirm population sizes, any breeding sites, and precise habitat conditions.



“In a broader context, this rediscovery demonstrates the limited biological, evolutionary and biogeographic knowledge of the amphibians that inhabit the southern cone of South America, emphasizing the urgency of their study and conservation,” the scientists wrote.&nbsp;



Since multiple Alsodes species remain poorly understood, the authors encourage additional research and collaboration to fill knowledge gaps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimism-for-amphibian-conservation-nbsp">Optimism for amphibian conservation&nbsp;</h2>



The announcement of A. vittatus’ reemergence brings optimism for amphibian conservation worldwide.&nbsp;



By pinpointing the frog’s habitat and conditions, scientists can make targeted recommendations for habitat preservation, enforce measures that mitigate human impact, and explore breeding programs or other forms of support if the animal’s situation proves perilous.&nbsp;



Above all, the reappearance of a species lost to science for 130 years demonstrates that biodiversity can hide in overlooked corners of the Earth and highlights the value of determined research efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1230.135523" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZooKeys</a>.



Image Credit: Edvin Riveros



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Missing frog species resurfaces after 130 years

A frog species thought to be missing for well over...

Protecting wildlife while managing forests has always been a challenge. In California’s Sierra Nevada mountains, forest managers face difficult decisions as they try to prevent destructive wildfires without harming the birds and other species that call these forests home.



Traditional monitoring methods require significant time and effort, making it hard to collect enough data to guide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



Now, scientists have introduced a breakthrough solution. Using thousands of microphones and advanced machine learning, researchers have developed a way to track forest birds over vast landscapes.



This innovative approach offers an unprecedented level of detail, providing valuable insights that help balance conservation with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dead-wood-removal-can-save-forests-from-future-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> management. 



A new study highlights how bioacoustic technology can revolutionize wildlife monitoring and support better decision-making for the future of these forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-bird-sounds">Capturing bird sounds </h2>



Researchers at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics led this study, which analyzed more than 700,000 hours of bird sounds. 



The team deployed microphones at 1,600 sites, covering around six million acres of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-forests-rose-again-after-the-planets-most-extreme-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a>. The goal was to track ten important bird species, including owls and woodpeckers, which serve as indicators of forest health.



These species provide crucial information about changes in the environment. By listening to their calls across different locations, scientists can assess how forest conditions impact wildlife.



"The amount of coverage that gives us and the idea of what's happening with species at so many different locations allow for really powerful inference to be drawn from the network," said study lead author Kristin Brunk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-wildlife-monitoring">Machine learning and wildlife monitoring</h2>



To analyze the massive amount of recorded data, scientists turned to BirdNET, a machine-learning algorithm designed to identify bird calls automatically. This system allows researchers to recognize different species and understand how their presence relates to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-climate-solutions-mixed-forests-store-more-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a>.



The study examined how factors such as tree density and canopy cover influence bird populations. These are the same variables that forest managers consider when making conservation decisions. The ability to connect bird activity with habitat conditions provides an essential tool for guiding land management strategies.



By mapping where different birds live, researchers can help forest managers make more informed choices. This is especially important as they work to reduce wildfire risks through controlled burns and forest thinning. Without careful planning, these activities could unintentionally disrupt bird populations.



"We're able to understand bird populations in the context of the forest conditions that are going to be actively manipulated by the management community to hopefully restore some resilience to this system," said Connor Wood, lead researcher at the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/ccb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cheaper-forest-bird-tracking">Cheaper forest bird tracking</h2>



Monitoring wildlife over such a large area would be nearly impossible using traditional methods. Conducting field surveys requires a significant investment of time and resources. In contrast, passive acoustic monitoring offers a more efficient and cost-effective solution.



"If you think about what the cost would have been to get that amount of information by having biologists collecting data across the landscape… the cost effectiveness can't really be matched," Brunk noted.



This system enables continuous, long-term monitoring without the need for large field teams. The data collected can also be used to track changes in bird populations over time, offering a deeper understanding of how forests evolve under different management strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-bird-monitoring">Forest bird monitoring </h2>



The success of this study goes beyond California’s Sierra Nevada. The researchers believe that bioacoustic monitoring can be applied to other regions facing similar conservation challenges. 



By adapting this technology, scientists and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forests-which-tree-species-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> managers worldwide can gain better insights into wildlife populations and habitat conditions.



"It's sort of a blueprint for how passive acoustic monitoring can inform management," said Brunk.



This approach is particularly valuable in areas where human access is difficult. Remote forests, protected reserves, and even urban green spaces could benefit from passive monitoring. 



The ability to gather large amounts of data with minimal human disturbance makes this a promising tool for conservation efforts around the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-forest-and-wildlife-protection">Future of forest and wildlife protection</h2>



The integration of cutting-edge technology with conservation practices represents a major step forward. Listening to the sounds of the forest can help scientists understand how bird populations respond to changes in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>.



"By combining new technologies with practical management needs, we're creating tools that can help protect both forests and wildlife during a time of rapid environmental change," said Wood.



The research was conducted in collaboration with the U.S. Forest Service, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Oregon State University, University of California-Merced, and Chemnitz University of Technology. This partnership highlights the increasing role of technology in conservation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/fee.2843" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



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Every bird song can help scientists make smarter forest decisions

Protecting wildlife while managing forests has always been a challenge....

Nature is always changing, sometimes in small but powerful ways. Genetic and brain changes can shape how species behave. A recent study by Nicholas VanKuren and Nathan Buerkle at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> reveals how a simple neural change can shift mating preferences in male butterflies. 



The findings show that small brain and sensory changes can quickly alter behavior, helping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-country-without-butterflies-rapid-decline-in-u-s-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-survival-and-mate-selection">Butterfly survival and mate selection</h2>



Heliconius butterflies, known for their striking wing patterns and colors, use these visual signals as a defense against predators. Their bright hues serve as warnings, signaling toxicity or unpalatability. 



Since survival depends on these warning signals, males have evolved a strong preference for females with similar wing colors. Choosing mates with matching patterns ensures that future generations retain these critical survival traits.



Despite the clear evolutionary advantages of such preferences, little is known about the underlying genetic and neurological mechanisms. What makes a male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly</a> prefer a female with a particular wing color? 



Scientists aimed to uncover the sensory and genetic factors influencing these choices by studying two subspecies of Heliconius cydno, one with yellow patches on its wings and the other with white. 



The research has revealed the deep connections between vision, genetics, and behavior in shaping mate selection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-mate-choice-and-genetics">Butterfly mate choice and genetics</h2>



To understand the genetic basis of mate preference, the researchers examined the genomes of the butterflies.



They identified four specific genomic regions linked to both wing color and mate selection. One of these, known as the "K locus," had already been associated with similar traits in other Heliconius <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-create-silk-seatbelts-to-strap-in-for-metamorphosis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>. 



This finding suggests a common genetic mechanism influencing both physical traits and behavioral tendencies in these insects.



The team also explored gene expression patterns in different parts of the butterfly’s nervous system, including the retina, optic lobe, and brain.



The researchers found that seven genetic variants were not only located in regions associated with mate preference but were also expressed at different levels in yellow and white males. These variations likely play a direct role in determining which wing color a male butterfly finds attractive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-vision-affects-mate-choices">Butterfly vision affects mate choices</h2>



Beyond genetic factors, the researchers investigated how these butterflies process visual information. 



They focused on the activity of photoreceptors in the butterflies' eyes, which play a crucial role in distinguishing colors. Their experiments revealed a striking difference in how color perception influences mate preference.



Male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> that preferred yellow-winged females had green-sensitive photoreceptors that strongly inhibited the activity of UV-sensitive photoreceptors. This inhibition was significantly weaker in males that did not show the same preference. 



This means that a relatively simple modification in the peripheral nervous system alters how butterflies perceive different wing colors, shaping their mate choices.



The findings suggest that mating preferences are not just about detecting certain colors but rather about how the brain processes sensory information. Males are not simply seeing a preferred color more clearly; their nervous systems are wired to find one wing color more attractive than another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-implications-of-sensory-changes">Evolutionary implications of sensory changes</h2>



The ability to rapidly alter sensory processing could be a key driver of behavioral evolution in butterflies. 



Since inhibitory relationships between photoreceptors can evolve quickly, changes in mating preferences may emerge in relatively short periods. This flexibility allows populations to adapt to new environmental conditions and evolve distinct mating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a>.



The study provides valuable insight into how such changes can drive species evolution. "Inhibitory relationships between photoreceptors are easily evolvable, which may allow rapid behavioral evolution," noted the researchers. 



By altering how butterflies perceive potential mates, these neural modifications can contribute to reproductive isolation, eventually leading to the formation of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mate-choice-mechanisms">Mate choice mechanisms</h2>



Understanding the genetic and neurological basis of mate preference in butterflies extends beyond this single species. 



Similar mechanisms may exist in other animals where visual cues play a central role in mating decisions. By identifying the genetic and neural pathways that shape attraction, scientists can gain deeper insights into the broader forces driving evolutionary change.



The study paints a comprehensive picture of how small genetic differences influence sensory processing, which in turn affects behavior. 



"Our work generated a striking picture of how a critical visual behavior - mate choice - is controlled, from variation in the connections between neurons in the eye down to genetic variation across the genome," concluded the researchers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002989" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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Butterfly mate preferences shift with slight brain changes

Nature is always changing, sometimes in small but powerful ways....

Aging is a natural process that affects every living being. From the moment we are born, our bodies begin an intricate journey of growth, repair, and eventual decline. The outward signs of aging—wrinkles, sagging skin, and graying hair—are familiar to everyone. 



Yet, the true impact of aging lies deeper, within our very cells. Over time, our DNA and cellular structures experience gradual wear, leading to the changes we associate with getting older.



Some animals have developed ways to temporarily reverse this process. The fat-tailed dwarf lemur of Madagascar is one such example. Researchers at <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> and the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, San Francisco</a>, have found that this small primate can slow cellular aging during hibernation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-telomeres-in-aging">Role of telomeres in aging</h2>



At the end of each chromosome, tiny caps called telomeres protect genetic material, similar to how plastic tips prevent shoelaces from fraying. 



With each cell division, telomeres shorten. Stress, lack of sleep, and inactivity can accelerate this process, leading to cell dysfunction.



Dwarf lemurs, however, have a way to extend their telomeres. A study in Biology Letters suggests that their cells rejuvenate during hibernation, slowing the aging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">process</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-hibernation-affects-aging">How hibernation affects aging</h2>



"When winter sets in in the wild, dwarf lemurs disappear into tree holes or underground burrows, where they spend up to seven months each year in a state of suspended animation," said lead author Marina Blanco of Duke.



This state is a survival strategy during food shortages. Their heart rate drops from 200 beats per minute to fewer than eight, their body temperature falls, and their breathing slows significantly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dwarf-lemurs-telomeres">Dwarf lemurs' telomeres</h2>



To study these effects, researchers at the <a href="https://lemur.duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke Lemur Center</a> observed 15 dwarf lemurs before, during, and after hibernation. They monitored changes in telomere length by testing cheek swabs.



To simulate natural conditions, they lowered the temperature gradually and provided artificial burrows. Some lemurs were allowed to eat when awake, while others lived off stored fat, mimicking their wild behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hibernation-reversed-aging-in-lemurs-cells">Hibernation reversed aging in lemurs' cells</h2>



"At first we thought something was off with the data," said researcher Greene.



Genetic sequencing showed that telomeres lengthened rather than shortened during hibernation. UCSF co-author Dana Smith confirmed the findings with Nobel Prize-winning telomere expert Elizabeth Blackburn.



Lemurs that remained in deep torpor had the most significant telomere lengthening, while those that periodically woke to eat saw little change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temporary-but-significant-effects">Temporary but significant effects</h2>



The telomere extension was not permanent. Within two weeks of coming out of hibernation, the lemurs' telomeres returned to their original length.



Researchers believe this lengthening may help counteract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellular damage</a> from periodic rewarming.



"Like starting a car after it’s been sitting unused in cold weather, these drastic metabolic rev-ups really challenge the body to the extreme, from zero to 100," Greene explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similar-findings-in-humans">Similar findings in humans</h2>



A comparable telomere extension has been observed in humans under extreme conditions. Astronauts spending a year on the International Space Station and divers living underwater for months have shown similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>.



By increasing their telomere length, dwarf lemurs may extend the number of times their cells can divide. This could contribute to their long lifespan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-between-aging-and-hibernation">Connection between aging and hibernation</h2>



Dwarf lemurs can live nearly 30 years, twice the lifespan of similar-sized primates like the galago, which does not hibernate.



"Longevity and telomere repair may be linked, but we don't know for sure yet," Blanco said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-aging">Implications for human aging</h2>



Scientists still do not fully understand how dwarf lemurs achieve this cellular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daily-doctor-recommended-regimen-that-could-slow-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rejuvenation</a>. If researchers can uncover the mechanisms behind this process, it could open the door to new treatments for age-related diseases in humans.



One challenge is ensuring that telomere lengthening does not lead to unintended consequences. 



While longer telomeres can help maintain cellular function, excessive lengthening can increase the risk of uncontrolled cell division, which is linked to cancer. Researchers will need to find ways to harness these benefits without triggering harmful effects.



This remarkable research, partially funded by the Duke Lemur Center, highlights the remarkable ways nature has evolved to protect against aging. 



As scientists continue to study these incredible animals, they may uncover new hibernation-based strategies to slow aging and help humans maintain healthier, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longer lives</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0531" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Hibernation allows lemurs to slow down their aging

Aging is a natural process that affects every living being....

species in Gaviidae

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