A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Birdwatchers and scientists alike have long admired the stunning diversity of bird feathers. Their hues and patterns offer more than just visual delight - they tell stories of evolution, survival, and social cues. Yet beyond what we can see lies a hidden world of light. 



A recent study from <a href="https://drexel.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drexel University</a> and <a href="https://nmu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Michigan University</a> reveals that some birds like owls hold secrets invisible to human eyes. 



The researchers have uncovered fluorescent pigments in the feathers of long-eared owls. These pigments glow only under ultraviolet (UV) light, revealing a new layer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicken-embryos-reveal-secrets-of-early-feather-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complexity</a> in avian plumage. While earlier studies focused on visible coloration, this study dives into traits concealed in darkness.



The discovery doesn’t just show that owls fluoresce - it demonstrates that this trait varies with age, size, and sex. These findings challenge assumptions about bird biology and open up questions about what fluorescence might truly mean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glowing-pigments-in-owl-feathers">Glowing pigments in owl feathers</h2>



The team, led by PhD candidate Emily Griffith, studied 99 long-eared owls captured at the Whitefish Point Bird Observatory in Michigan during the spring of 2020. They collected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-dinosaurs-to-birds-the-mysterious-origin-of-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a> from each bird and used a fluorometer to measure pigment levels.



The pigments in question - mainly coproporphyrin III and protoporphyrin IX - respond to UV light by emitting a visible glow. Normally hidden to the naked eye, this glow can appear pinkish under blacklight. These pigments degrade with time and sun exposure, making them useful for determining a bird’s age.



Griffith and her colleagues extracted the pigments using a specialized chemical process, then measured their fluorescence. They also recorded data on each owl’s weight, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wing</a> length, tail length, and visible plumage color.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-owl-feathers-glow-more">Some owl feathers glow more</h2>



The results showed that age and sex were the strongest predictors of pigment concentration. Older birds had significantly more pigment than younger ones. Likewise, females had more pigment than males.



“We are only beginning to describe fluorescent pigments in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vulture-fossil-reveals-that-volcanic-rock-can-preserve-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and other vertebrates,” said Griffith. “Although describing what species they are present in is important, in order to understand what their function is we need to also describe how they vary within a species like the Long-eared Owl.”



Plumage color, which helps determine an owl’s sex, also matched pigment levels. Darker birds (typically female) showed more fluorescence than lighter ones (typically male). Owls with intermediate coloration fell in between, suggesting a spectrum rather than a binary trait.



Statistical tests confirmed that adult birds consistently had more pigment than juveniles. This trend held regardless of feather type or collection date, reinforcing the idea that pigment concentration reflects biological age and sex.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-size-affects-pigment-levels">Body size affects pigment levels </h2>



The researchers also explored the relationship between body size and pigment levels. They found that weight positively correlated with pigment in males and small females. However, in larger females, this trend disappeared.



This suggests that there may be a saturation point - where adding more size doesn’t result in higher pigment levels. In other words, larger birds may already have as much pigment as their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robopteryx-dinosaur-feather-secrets-revealed-by-a-robot-dinosaur/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a> can hold.



These findings highlight the complexity of traits that appear simple at first glance. Size matters, but only under specific biological conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-purpose-of-pigment">Rethinking the purpose of pigment</h2>



It’s long been thought that bright plumage helps males attract mates. Griffith challenges that narrative.



“Our study shows that female Long-eared Owls have a much higher concentration of these pigments in their feathers, challenging a common misconception that colorful plumage is a ‘male’ trait,” said Griffith. 



“Moreover, this trait doesn't follow a strict binary – the amount of fluorescent pigments in these owls exists on a spectrum where the amount of pigment is related to size, age and sex all together.”



Because males perform courtship flights, one might expect them to have more pigment. Yet the data shows the opposite. That raises questions about whether fluorescence in these owls even serves a visual signaling purpose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pigment-and-heat-retention">Pigment and heat retention </h2>



Rather than attraction, the team suggests a different function for owl feathers: thermal regulation. 



Porphyrins, the class of pigments studied here, are known to absorb and reflect radiation. In bird eggs, protoporphyrin IX helps retain heat.



The researchers believe a similar mechanism might apply to female owls, who spend more time incubating eggs. More pigment could mean better heat retention during cold spring nights.



This theory would explain why females have more pigment. Males, who hunt and move often, wouldn’t benefit as much from this trait.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-why-owl-feathers-glow">Understanding why owl feathers glow</h2>



“So little is known about fluorescent pigments in bird feathers and owls aren’t the only ones with fluorescent pigments,” said Griffith. “So, it’s a really exciting time to be interested in studying bird plumage.”



Their study urges scientists to reconsider how feather traits evolve. Future work could explore how pigment production interacts with other compounds like melanin. It could also look at how environmental factors shape feather chemistry.



If these hidden pigments carry biological meaning, we need better tools to understand them. Questions remain about how quickly they fade, how owls perceive them, and whether they play roles in communication, survival, or both.



The glowing feathers of long-eared owls are not just a scientific curiosity. They are a reminder that much of nature’s beauty lies beyond the spectrum of human vision.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15594491.2024.2444031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Wilson Journal of Ornithology</a>.



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Hidden glow in owl feathers reveals biological differences

Birdwatchers and scientists alike have long admired the stunning diversity...

Studies worldwide rank strokes among the top causes of death, with major impacts on individuals and families across many countries. Researchers often look for new ways to decrease the risk of this condition. 



Experts have now started exploring how outside factors, such as <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution#tab=tab_1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a> and <a href="https://maps.dot.gov/BTS/NationalTransportationNoiseMap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traffic noise</a>, might contribute to worsening stroke incidence.



In a recent study, this topic was explored by Dr. Huyen Nguyen Thi Khanh and her colleague Dr. Jeroen de Bont of the Institute of Environmental Medicine, <a href="https://ki.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karolinska Institutet</a>. 



The researchers investigated how exposure to these noise and air pollution, either alone or in tandem, might influence people’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-people-die-from-air-pollution-each-year-yet-theres-still-a-lack-of-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-risk-factors">Understanding the risk factors</h2>



Strokes occur when blood flow to a section of the brain is disrupted. Health <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33535786/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experts</a> point out that older age, high blood pressure, smoking, and sedentary habits are typical risk factors.



Air pollution has already been tied to a range of serious health conditions. This is because fine particles, known as <a href="https://www.epa.gov/air-trends/particulate-matter-pm25-trends" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PM2.5</a>, can enter the bloodstream and affect the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493197/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular system</a>. 



Meanwhile, traffic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vicious-cycle-food-systems-both-suffer-from-and-cause-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noise</a> can keep people tense or disrupt healthy sleep patterns. Both these factors are thus worth considering when investigating ways to reduce the incidence of strokes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-pollution-and-noise-increase-stroke-risk">How pollution and noise increase stroke risk</h2>



The experts found that a 5 µg/m³ rise in PM2.5 added 9% to the risk of experiencing a stroke. An 11 dB increase in traffic noise was linked to a 6% additional risk of a stroke. 



These figures highlight how repeated exposure to these factors seems to raise the odds for this health event. In places with higher noise readings, air pollution showed a steeper link to stroke risk. 



The researchers noted that numbers tended to climb when both factors were on the high side. They caution that even lower-level <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-fuel-pollution-is-causing-disease-disaster-and-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exposure</a> to these two parameters should be taken seriously.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combined-effects-of-pollution-and-noise">Combined effects of pollution and noise</h2>



“Research on the combined effects of air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scented-products-release-indoor-air-pollutants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a> and traffic noise is still scarce, and our study provides important new insights,” said the authors. 



They explained that even moderate levels of both exposures could affect human health. These circumstances point to a need for tighter policies on air quality and noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-even-low-pollution-raises-stroke-risk">Even low pollution raises stroke risk</h2>



Many people assume that they are safe if pollution stays under certain guidelines. City dwellers might have a similar view about traffic noise. 



The data suggests that these assumptions can lead to complacency. Stroke is a formidable issue, so regulators may want to adopt stricter measures.



Studies have indicated that inflammation, oxidative stress, and endocrine responses could all play a part. These bodily changes may become more pronounced if a person regularly encounters both traffic noise and polluted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-air-pollution-affects-consumer-spending/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-public-health-implications">Broader public health implications</h2>



Communities near busy roads or industrial areas might face a higher disease burden. Recent investigations emphasize that it is not only about one exposure. The interplay between noise and pollution might explain why some areas see greater stroke hospitalizations.



Lawmakers and city planners can explore how changes to traffic patterns, building designs, and <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/transportation-sector-emissions" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transport emissions</a> might reduce the dangers. 



A single solution will not fix everything, but a blend of cleaner energy and quieter streets may bring real benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cities-that-balance-health-and-growth">Cities that balance health and growth</h2>



Regions with robust public transport, well-kept bicycle lanes, and green spaces can promote a better daily life. 



Local authorities may look to separate major roads from residential zones or improve building insulation. Such measures can help cut noise disturbance and filter out particles.



Urban planning that decreases motor traffic could also diminish air pollution along with offensive noise. Air quality laws often target vehicle emissions. Noise mitigation strategies, on the other hand, focus more on barriers or lower speed limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-changes-affect-stroke-risk">Pollution changes affect stroke risk</h2>



The researchers plan to see how changes in a person's residential area, from higher to lower exposures, might change cardiovascular outcomes. They will also consider other urban factors. 



All of this points to a future in which multiple elements are measured together instead of in isolation.



The idea of addressing both traffic noise and air pollution might shape new guidelines. Combining these efforts may lower stroke risks in affected populations. It can also give residents of crowded cities a better sense of control over their health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-stroke-risks">Reducing stroke risks</h2>



Urban decision-makers face a tough challenge in balancing economic growth with public welfare. 



Policies that encourage quieter vehicles, cleaner fuels, and noise-control solutions might strike that balance. If done right, these measures could spare many people from added danger.



Individuals may want to look into ways to shield themselves from the stroke risk associated with noise and air pollution. 



Windows that reduce sound transmission, air purifiers, and quiet neighborhoods can all play a part. The authors of the study note that a multi-layered approach is the most realistic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaner-air-and-quieter-surroundings">Cleaner air and quieter surroundings</h2>



Air pollution and traffic noise are not the only environmental concerns for stroke. Yet few studies have taken a deep look at how these factors might act in combination. 



Public health officials could benefit from more research on whether these exposures together push stroke rates up even further.



Experts also want to see if limiting one factor can blunt the effects of the other. These questions will guide policies to reduce harmful exposures. 



Health professionals are calling for solutions that support both cleaner air and quieter surroundings in order to reduce the risk of suffering a stroke.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412025001540" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environment International</a>.



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Stroke risk is elevated by air pollution and traffic noise

Studies worldwide rank strokes among the top causes of death,...

A newly analyzed, deep-field universe photo, produced by stacking multiple infrared observations, points to elusive collections of dust-filled star systems. This intriguing view of ancient "hidden galaxies" could change how we understand the cosmos.



Researchers used cutting-edge imaging to map a far-infrared landscape brimming with nearly 2,000 galaxies. 



Preliminary hints suggest there may be galaxies lurking just out of sight, influencing how energy is emitted across space. 



Early calculations indicate that their collective light might explain the missing piece in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-dark-energy-changing-the-mystery-of-cosmic-expansion-deepens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy puzzle</a> at long infrared wavelengths, an aspect that has puzzled astronomers for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-the-infrared-for-hidden-galaxies">Searching the infrared for hidden galaxies</h2>



Observing the universe in infrared light has expanded our ability to see objects that remain hidden to optical telescopes. 



This part of the spectrum reveals cooler regions where dust particles radiate energy at wavelengths beyond the range of human eyes. 



Researchers have used this approach to chart <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beautiful-stellar-nursery-herbig-haro-objects-orion-constellation-captured-by-hubble/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar nurseries</a>, probe galactic cores, and examine phenomena where dust clouds block traditional views.



Early forays into infrared studies began in the 19th century, soon after the discovery of this invisible band of light. Over time, balloon-borne and space-based observatories advanced what ground-based telescopes could accomplish. 



They offered stable platforms free from most atmospheric interference, allowing investigators to map star formation on scales that once seemed unreachable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herschel-spire-dark-field">Herschel-SPIRE Dark Field</h2>



Dr. Chris Pearson from STFC RAL Space and <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a> has been leading efforts to analyze these findings. He contributed to a set of papers detailing how this survey has charted previously unseen regions. 



“This work has pushed the science with Herschel to its absolute limit, probing far below what we can normally discernibly see and potentially revealing a completely new population of galaxies that are contributing to the very faintest light we can observe in the universe," Pearson explained.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/hidden-galaxies_SPIRE-DarkField_upending-cosmology_credit-Chris-Pearson_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/hidden-galaxies_SPIRE-DarkField_upending-cosmology_credit-Chris-Pearson_1s.webp" alt="The final SPIRE Dark Field image map created by combining the Blue (250 micrometres), Green (350 micrometres) and Red (500 micrometres) SPIRE camera channels together, each channel stacking a total of 141 individual images on top of each other. The blobs on the image are all individual galaxies or groups of galaxies. However, the image is so crowded that there is almost no empty space with the faintest galaxies merging into the background light in the map. Credit: Chris Pearson et al." class="wp-image-1964943"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The final SPIRE Dark Field image map created by combining the Blue (250 micrometers), Green (350 micrometers) and Red (500 micrometers) SPIRE camera channels together, each channel stacking a total of 141 individual images on top of each other. The blobs on the image are all individual galaxies or groups of galaxies. However, the image is so crowded that there is almost no empty space with the faintest galaxies merging into the background light in the map. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Chris Pearson et al.</figcaption></figure>



The newly processed image, known as the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XnCU_jbCTVY" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Herschel-SPIRE Dark Field</a>, is touted as the deepest far-infrared view ever achieved. 



It was created by stacking 141 separate images gathered by the Herschel Space Observatory’s SPIRE instrument, which ran from 2009 to 2013. 



Combining these layers has allowed astronomers to track dust-obscured star formation and measure how each galaxy’s brightness affects the total energy flow coursing through space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupting-established-models">Disrupting established models</h2>



Preliminary results have raised eyebrows among experts. The possible galaxies may also provide the missing piece of the puzzle for energy generation in the universe’s infrared light. 



Observers suggest that their combined glow might fill a gap in the measured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-baby-pictures-of-the-very-early-universe-cosmic-microwave-background/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">background radiation</a>, bringing it in line with what theory predicts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-galaxies-and-statistics">Hidden galaxies and statistics</h2>



Thomas Varnish, a PhD student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), contributed a second paper on these findings. 



“We employed statistical techniques to get around this overcrowding, analyzing the blurriest parts of the image to probe and model the underlying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-forces-have-made-the-structure-of-the-universe-messier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distribution of galaxies</a> not individually discernible in the original image," Varnish noted.



“What we found was possible evidence of a completely new, undiscovered population of faint galaxies hidden in the blur of the image, too faint to be detected by conventional methods in the original analysis.” 



As far as Varnish is concerned, if this discovery is confirmed, this new population would effectively break all of our current models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy numbers and evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-into-the-dusty-universe">Peering into the dusty universe</h2>



Scientists emphasize that half of cosmic activity can be missed if observations are limited to visible light. 



When we look at starlight through normal telescopes, we are only able to read half of the story of our universe. The other half is hidden, obscured by the intervening dust.



In fact, roughly half of the energy output of the universe is from starlight that has been absorbed by dust and re-emitted as cooler infrared radiation. 



To fully understand the evolution of our universe we need to observe the sky in both optical and longer wavelength infrared light.”



This perspective guided the <a href="https://www.herschel.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Herschel mission</a>, which leveraged the <a href="https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/herschel/spire-overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SPIRE instrument</a> to scan a single dark patch in the sky as a regular calibration target during its four-year run.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Imperial College London astrophysicist Dr. David Clements, who was also involved in the research.



“These results show just how valuable the Herschel archive is. We’re still getting great new results more than 10 years after the satellite stopped operating," Dr. Clements added.



The James Webb Space Telescope has since taken over as the largest infrared telescope, but it cannot duplicate the same far-infrared sensitivity previously provided by Herschel.



“What we can’t get, though, is more data at these wavelengths to follow up these fascinating new results. For that we need the next generation far-IR mission, PRIMA, currently being proposed to NASA," Clements concluded.



The concept involves a 1.8-meter telescope designed for imaging and spectroscopy at far-infrared wavelengths, bridging gaps left by existing observatories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-these-hidden-galaxies-teach-us">What these hidden galaxies teach us</h2>



To sum it all up, we now know there’s a whole hidden side of the universe revealed by far-infrared observations, and the Herschel-SPIRE Dark Field study makes that clearer than ever.



Researchers stacked numerous images to uncover previously invisible galaxies that might close the gap in our understanding of cosmic energy output.



This discovery suggests that half the story - shrouded by dust and missed by optical telescopes - actually plays a huge role in shaping how galaxies form and evolve. 



And with future missions like PRIMA in the works, we’ll likely find even more surprises waiting in these obscured regions of space.



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Click here to watch a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XnCU_jbCTVY" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video on the SPIRE Dark Field animation...</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://apps.crossref.org/pendingpub/pendingpub.html?doi=10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstaf335" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.



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'Hidden galaxies' discovery, if confirmed, will upend our current understanding of the universe

A newly analyzed, deep-field universe photo, produced by stacking multiple...

Dust devils are not only whipping up dust on Mars - they're revealing new secrets about the planet’s atmosphere.



In a recent video, NASA’s Perseverance rover recorded a rare and spectacular scene on the Red Planet: a big dust devil that engulfed a small one. 



The video was recorded as Perseverance was navigating the western rim of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-mars-rocks-contain-signs-of-life-scientists-call-to-bring-them-back-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jezero Crater</a>, more precisely in a region known as Witch Hazel Hill.



The rover’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/rover-components/#eyes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">navigation camera</a> took a series of shots from about 0.6 miles (1 kilometer) away, and created a short video by stitching together the images. The footage demonstrates an encounter of several dust devils.



One of them, approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_several-dust-devils_Perseverance-rover_NASA_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">210 feet (65 meters) wide</a>, swept over another, smaller one that was just 16 feet (5 meters) wide. In the background, two other devils swirl across the Martian landscape.



These whirling mini-tornadoes are not only stunning, they’re also crucial to figuring out how Martian weather behaves.



Researchers from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>) in Southern California and the <a href="https://www.spacescience.org/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Science Institute</a> in Colorado are behind this ongoing observation campaign.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fiendish-mini-twisters-on-mars">Fiendish mini-twisters on Mars</h2>



“Convective vortices - aka dust devils - can be rather fiendish. These mini-twisters wander the surface of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-can-engulf-the-entire-planet-of-mars-but-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>, picking up dust as they go and lowering the visibility in their immediate area," said Mark Lemmon, a Perseverance scientist.



"If two dust devils happen upon each other, they can either obliterate one another or merge, with the stronger one consuming the weaker.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://d2pn8kiwq2w21t.cloudfront.net/images/1_-_PIA26528_-_Dust_Devil_Lunch_-_navcam_-_so.width-1280.gif" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_several-dust-devils_Perseverance-rover_NASA_1s.webp" alt="While exploring the rim of Jezero Crater on Mars, NASA’s Perseverance rover captured new images of multiple dust devils in January 2025. These captivating phenomena have been documented for decades by the agency’s Red Planet robotic explorers. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL/CNES/CNRS/INTA-CSIC/Space Science Institute/ISAE-Supaero/University of Arizona" class="wp-image-1964927"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">While exploring the rim of Jezero Crater on Mars, NASA’s Perseverance rover captured new images of multiple dust devils in January 2025. These captivating phenomena have been documented for decades by the agency’s Red Planet robotic explorers. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL/CNES/CNRS/INTA-CSIC/Space Science Institute/ISAE-Supaero/University of Arizona</figcaption></figure>



This latest video was part of an imaging experiment designed to study atmospheric conditions. 



While unpredictable, dust devils are a common sight on Mars, especially around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jezero Crater</a>. They help shape the Martian weather and are a key factor in distributing dust across the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dust-devils-form">How dust devils form</h2>



Dust devils occur when warm air near the surface rises through cooler air above. As the warm air lifts, cooler air rushes in to replace it. 



That horizontal movement of air begins to spin, and once the motion turns vertical, the column intensifies - much like a figure skater spinning faster when the arms are pulled inward. Dust is swept into the spinning air, and a dust devil comes to life.



“Dust devils play a significant role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-records-a-martian-day-from-dawn-to-dusk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian weather patterns</a>,” said Katie Stack Morgan, project scientist for the Perseverance rover. 



“Dust devil study is important because these phenomena indicate atmospheric conditions, such as prevailing wind directions and speed, and are responsible for about half the dust in the Martian atmosphere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-martian-dust-devil-sightings">History of Martian dust devil sightings</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-perseverance-rover-now-uses-ai-search-minerals-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance</a> has been no stranger to these whirlwinds. Since its landing in 2021, the rover has caught several on camera, including a particularly impressive scene on September 27, 2021.



On that day, a cluster of dust devils danced across the crater floor, and Perseverance’s SuperCam microphone even captured the eerie sound of one.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-missions-prepare-intense-solar-storms-coming-red-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars missions</a> have long had a fascination with these weather events. 



NASA’s Viking orbiters were the first to photograph dust devils from space in the 1970s. In the 1990s, the Pathfinder mission became the first to record one from the surface.



Later, the Spirit and Opportunity rovers captured several dusty spirals, and the Curiosity rover continues to see them as it explores <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sulfur-stones-and-spiderwebs-curiositys-latest-discoveries-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mount Sharp in Gale Crater</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-is-everything">Timing is everything</h2>



Recording one of these events on film requires waiting - and a little luck. Scientists can’t anticipate where or when dust devils will form. So Perseverance often patrols the horizon, hoping for a peek. 



As the team has gathered more data over time, they have started to see patterns in the behavior of dust devils, like hour-of-day or direction-of-travel patterns, that help predict where and when it is best to capture images of one. 



“If you feel bad for the little devil in our latest video, it may give you some solace to know the larger perpetrator most likely met its own end a few minutes later,” said Lemmon. “Dust devils on Mars only last about 10 minutes.”



Though short-lived, these dusty whirlwinds are proving to be long on scientific value. Each sighting helps researchers build a better picture of Mars's dynamic atmosphere and the role that dust plays in shaping the planet’s climate.



-----



Click here to see a <a href="https://youtu.be/YHKIZGKPZm4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video of one dust devil "eating" another one</a>.



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Right place, right time: Mars rover captures dust devils 'eating' each other

Dust devils are not only whipping up dust on Mars...

Earth’s biodiversity can be elusive, and most animal species lie beyond our immediate awareness. Researchers keep shining a light on hidden corners of the planet, eager to pinpoint the creatures we share our world with.



​A new project by scientists from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>, UCL, Dalhousie University, and the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre is tackling this challenge with a fresh simulation. 



The experts want to understand how many terrestrial animals exist and how quickly new species come into being.​



The research was led by Professor James Rosindell, who studies how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-the-cultural-legacy-of-wild-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> originate and spread across land-based habitats. He is based in the Department of Life Sciences at Imperial. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millions-of-animal-species-remain-undiscovered">Millions of animal species remain undiscovered</h2>



The newly developed simulation uses modern ecosystem modeling to estimate the total number of land-dwelling animals, as well as the rate at which they form new species. It suggests there could be anywhere from 1 million to 3 million undiscovered animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venom-beyond-animals-the-toxic-arsenal-of-fungi-plants-and-microbes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Many of these creatures may be too small, too rare, or too remote to be discovered easily. This hidden diversity has significant implications for our broader understanding of life’s complexity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-on-established-theories">Building on established theories</h2>



The team’s approach merges the <a href="https://madingley.github.io/about/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Madingley model</a> - a framework that forecasts organism abundance worldwide - with <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691021287/the-unified-neutral-theory-of-biodiversity-and-biogeography" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutral theory</a>, which explores how species numbers connect to speciation rates and population sizes.



This unification offers a way to account for the presence of unclassified <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> in different ecosystems.



“A key novelty of this study was that we plugged together the Madingley model and neutral theory for the first time,” said Professor Rosindell. 



This combination allowed the researchers to spot patterns that might otherwise remain hidden, offering a window into the subtle dynamics of how species appear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-animals-and-carnivores-evolve-faster">Small animals and carnivores evolve faster</h2>



Smaller-bodied animals often show faster <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/speciation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speciation</a>, the process by which populations split to form new species.



“The two main questions we wanted to answer were how many species of terrestrial animals there are on the planet and how quickly do new species of terrestrial animals evolve,” said Professor Rosindell.



The simulation also suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carnivores</a>, when matched by size to herbivores or omnivores, evolve at a higher rate. This pattern adds another layer of nuance to how diet shapes long-term survival and adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Policymakers often struggle to allocate resources for wildlife protection due to a lack of precise data on species numbers. Understanding which groups evolve fastest or exist in smaller populations can help shape conservation strategies that prioritize those most at risk.



High speciation rates in smaller animals or carnivores do not guarantee resilience, especially if habitats are shrinking due to human activity. 



Protective measures that ignore these rapid-evolving groups might miss potential threats to the broader ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-of-all-life-on-earth">A model of all life on Earth</h2>



The team envisions a future where this model is refined to project biodiversity changes under different climate scenarios. 



“The end result will be a model of all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> on Earth that has the ecological and environmental elements necessary to answer questions around what will happen under different climate change and habitat loss scenarios,” said Professor Rosindell.



Such forecasts may indicate which areas and species will suffer most if temperatures rise or landscapes become fragmented. Conservation plans may then focus on these hotspots before losses become irreversible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study </h2>



Scientific estimates <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggest</a> that a large percentage of Earth’s species remain unrecorded. Identifying these organisms is essential for a more balanced view of how ecosystems function and how we fit into the mix.



Accurate knowledge of undiscovered species counts and speciation rates also helps predict how ecosystems might shift if certain animals disappear. In complex food webs, the loss of a single group can trigger wide-ranging effects across entire habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-global-biodiversity-models">Refining global biodiversity models</h2>



Researchers are expanding their data sources to include genomic studies, <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/citizen-science-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citizen science programs</a>, and collaborations with local communities. These contributions can refine how the Madingley model and other tools forecast global trends in life’s variety.



Some scientists hope to extend these methods to marine environments, polar regions, and mountainous terrains. Even extreme locations could harbor unknown organisms that hold clues to how life endures under tough conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-classifying-new-animal-species">Classifying new animal species </h2>



Determining which discoveries represent undiscovered animal species versus variations of known forms is no small task. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35912942/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Taxonomic disagreements</a>, limited funding, and a shortage of specialists often slow the cataloging process.



Better collaboration between geneticists, ecologists, and local experts might streamline how newly found organisms are documented. Standardizing these efforts will likely improve the accuracy of predictions for how species arise and vanish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-for-biodiversity-research">A new chapter for biodiversity research</h2>



Efforts to map the planet’s living diversity are reaching a turning point, propelled by these integrated models. Detailed forecasts of species formation and decline could empower societies to make more informed decisions about preserving life’s richness.



“The exercise enabled us to estimate the number of terrestrial species of life on Earth, including all the numbers unknown to science, but it has great potential beyond this in future work,” said Professor Rosindell. 



Each refinement of the simulation can reveal new facets of how animal populations take shape.



By focusing on the interplay between ecology and evolution, scientists can spot vulnerabilities before they become crises. This perspective might help protect not just iconic animals, but also the humble creatures that quietly maintain critical processes in soils and forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-charting-tomorrow-s-path">Charting tomorrow’s path</h2>



As climate change and human expansion accelerate, time is running short to prevent irreversible damage to fragile animal species. 



Modeling efforts that highlight hidden diversity can motivate communities and governments to invest in safeguarding lesser-known parts of the natural world.



Although massive in scope, these simulations offer the precision needed to foresee where interventions can make the biggest impact. That knowledge could be the difference between a resilient planet and one where key ecosystems collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-terrestrial-animals">Looking beyond terrestrial animals</h2>



Many experts believe a similar approach could unlock answers about ocean life, which remains largely uncharted at great depths. Merging ecological theories with real-time observations from submarines and remote sensors could uncover countless marine species.



Such an undertaking would offer a broader perspective, connecting land-based knowledge with what lies beneath the waves. A complete vision of Earth’s inhabitants can only emerge by embracing every corner of the planet



This simulation is a step toward seeing the full scope of Earth’s biodiversity. Researchers are hopeful it can help people recognize our shared responsibility for safeguarding the hidden richness that sustains us all.



This endeavor symbolizes a growing momentum in ecological research, where data-driven models inform policy and public awareness. 



The results hint at a deeper story about our planet’s adaptability and the remarkable creatures that keep evolving.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/sysbio/syaf006/8098740?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Systematic Biology</a>.



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Earth may have three million undiscovered animal species

Earth’s biodiversity can be elusive, and most animal species lie...

Babies are curious little learners with a knack for noticing things in their world. In a new study, researchers have discovered that even the rhythms inside babies' bodies are on their radar from an early age.



The research suggests that infants as young as 3 months old can tune in to their own heartbeat.



"The babies must have recognized that the figures moved simultaneously with their heartbeat or breathing, and then they paid more attention," study lead author Markus Tünte from the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-babies-notice-heartbeats-and-body-signals-nbsp">Babies notice heartbeats and body signals&nbsp;</h2>



Parents often focus on changes in crying or facial expressions when they want to figure out what a baby needs. Under the surface, there are inner clues that may help shape a baby’s sense of who they are and how they feel.



<a href="https://thewomens.r.worldssl.net/images/uploads/fact-sheets/Reading_your_babys_body_language.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Body signals</a> can include a steady heartbeat and the rise and fall of the chest during breathing. These signals give the infant brain helpful information. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23439117/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experts</a> believe they can support self-awareness and emotional development.



"Several recent theoretical accounts have posited that interoception, the perception of internal bodily signals, plays a vital role in early human development," wrote the researchers. "Yet, empirical evidence of cardiac interoceptive sensitivity in infants to date has been mixed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-babies-respond-to-heartbeat-rhythm">Babies respond to heartbeat rhythm</h2>



The researchers tested whether babies noticed when a fun animated figure moves in sync with their heartbeat. If the figure was out of sync, many babies seemed to lose some interest.



Scientists say this heartbeat sensitivity appears surprisingly stable during the first two years of life. Observing that kind of steadiness suggests that internal rhythms guide babies’ earliest social and emotional experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breathing-awareness-in-infancy">Breathing awareness in infancy</h2>



The team also looked at how infants track their own breathing. Results indicated that babies pick up on the rise and fall of their chest, although this appears to become clearer in the second year.



Interestingly, the ability to sense the heartbeat and breathing did not overlap much. That separation might be similar to what researchers find in adults, who sometimes excel in sensing one body rhythm but not the other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animations-and-eye-tracking">Animations and eye tracking</h2>



Studying babies isn’t easy - especially when they can’t talk.



To understand how infants respond to body rhythms, the team used <a href="https://www.insightplatforms.com/the-top-15-eye-tracking-platforms-for-market-user-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eye-tracking tools</a> while showing animated shapes that moved either in sync or out of sync with the babies’ heartbeat or breathing.



If the figure moved in time with the infant’s internal signals, the babies tended to watch longer. This response helped scientists conclude that the infants were noticing a connection between the animation and their own body rhythm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heartbeat-awareness-and-baby-development">Heartbeat awareness and baby development</h2>



The results open the door to exploring how early body awareness might support emotional understanding. Since <a href="https://www.kelly-mahler.com/what-is-interoception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interoception</a> is tied to mental health in older kids and adults, recognizing these patterns early might one day help prevent problems before they start.



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8416769/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> are especially interested in whether differences in body awareness during infancy could explain why some children are more emotionally sensitive or socially attuned than others. That line of research could lead to new strategies for early support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-early-body-perception">Supporting early body perception </h2>



Babies likely show these abilities during everyday routines, even though parents may not notice. As caregivers respond to fussiness that might be linked to hunger or discomfort, infants gain more experience connecting signals from inside and outside.



Some <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3594730/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experts</a> think that early awareness of internal rhythms might be linked to how babies develop emotional and social abilities later on. Supporting such early body perception could play a part in promoting healthy self-awareness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



New studies on babies might ask whether parents can encourage awareness of breathing or heartbeat. Experts also wonder how these early body signal patterns might relate to mental wellness in older children.



The researchers suggest that by exploring early sensitivity to internal rhythms, it may be possible one day to help kids who struggle with anxiety. For now, the team plans to expand on these findings through long-term observations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/91579" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Even before they crawl, babies can feel their own heartbeat

Babies are curious little learners with a knack for noticing...

Wadi,Bani,Khalid,,Oman

Arid stretches of sand can hide astonishing secrets. In southern Arabia, experts have uncovered evidence of lush landscapes that existed thousands of years ago.



The team was led by <a href="https://abdallahszaki.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Abdallah Zaki</a> from the University of Geneva, Switzerland, in collaboration with colleagues from the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.kaust.edu.sa/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KAUST</a>) and <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a>.



Their <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02224-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> revealed prehistoric water pathways, lakes, and a remarkable desert valley, all of which begged a deeper investigation into how storms once shaped this barren region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-lush-green-arabia-the-basics">Understanding lush, green Arabia - the basics</h2>



Thousands of years ago, Arabia looked nothing like the arid, sun-blasted deserts we picture today. Rain fell more often, carving rivers through what is now sand and dust. 



Rolling grasslands <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saudi-arabia-is-turning-degraded-desert-sand-into-blooming-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stretched across the peninsula</a>, dotted with lakes and wetlands where herds of elephants, gazelles, and even hippos roamed. Acacia trees and wildflowers lined the water’s edge, while birds and crocodiles thrived in the marshes. 



Nomadic people moved through this green world, hunting game, gathering plants, and settling near freshwater sources. Arabia wasn’t just a pass-through - it was a place people lived, loved, and left their mark on.



You can still see the echoes of this lush past. Rock art in northern Saudi Arabia shows hunters stalking prey and herders leading cattle - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-urban-heat-experts-plan-to-cool-a-desert-city-by-4-5c/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scenes impossible in a desert</a>, but common in fertile lands. 



Fossils lie buried beneath the dunes, and dry riverbeds, invisible to the naked eye, appear clearly in satellite images. 



With this study, Dr. Zaki and his team have uncovered more concrete details about this very different period in time for the Arabian peninsula.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-and-wetlands-in-lush-arabia">Lakes and wetlands in lush Arabia</h2>



<a href="https://saudipedia.com/en/article/983/geography/deserts/empty-quarter-desert" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabia’s Empty Quarter</a> is recognized today for its dunes and scorching heat. Yet traces of freshwater shells, dried-up channels, and lakebeds suggest that parts of this area once sustained diverse aquatic life.



“Based on a series of ages, it appears the lake peaked about 9,000 years ago during a wet Green Arabia period that extended between 11,000 and 5,500 years ago,” stated Dr. Zaki. 



Researchers say that rainfall patterns then were strong enough to allow lakes and rivers to form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-monsoonal-footprints">Tracing the monsoonal footprints</h2>



Scientists used a blend of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17445647.2018.1526719" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiocarbon techniques</a> and analyses of sediment layers to figure out how water shaped the region. 



They identified a connection to the <a href="https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/20/37/2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">African monsoon</a>, which once carried moisture across the Red Sea to Arabia.



This moisture created grassy areas, wetlands, and streams. Cores of lake and river sediments also revealed the fossils of mollusks and confirmed that stable aquatic habitats thrived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-floods-carved-in-lush-arabia">Floods carved in lush Arabia</h2>



One of the most striking findings was evidence of a large paleolake measuring about 1,100 square kilometers (425 square miles), and with a depth of roughly 42 yards (38 meters).



“Owing to increased rainfall, the lake eventually breached, causing a great flood and carving out a 93-mile-long valley in the desert floor,” remarked <a href="https://www.unige.ch/rectorat/en/sebastien-castelltort" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Sébastien Castelltort</a>, who is also from the University of Geneva.



The immense force of the water apparently sliced through sand and bedrock. Satellite images revealed streamlined shapes and steep-sided channels, which indicate heavy flows rather than slow trickles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-presence-in-a-changing-land">Human presence in a changing land</h2>



“The formation of lake and riverine landscapes, together with grasslands and savanna conditions, would have led to the expansion of hunting and gathering groups and pastoral populations,” said <a href="https://experts.griffith.edu.au/28674-michael-petraglia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Michael Petraglia</a>, from Griffith University’s Australian Research Center for Human Evolution. 



Archaeological remains in the Empty Quarter support the idea of more <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22718479/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable surroundings</a> during these lush intervals.



Sites once on the banks of prehistoric lakes show that people took advantage of water-rich environments. Plant and animal resources likely boosted their survival, and encouraged settlements around riverbeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-monsoon-s-strong-effects">The monsoon’s strong effects</h2>



The flood features identified in the study highlight periods of unexpected intensity. 



Researchers relied on computer modeling to suggest that annual rainfall, at times, rose by as much as 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 centimeters) above modern levels.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-arabia_lush-landscape_streams-rivers-monsoons_map_credit-CEE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-arabia_lush-landscape_streams-rivers-monsoons_map_credit-CEE_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of palaeohydrological and geomorphic records, archaeological sites, modeled streams, major monsoon systems, and the study site in Arabia. Credit: Communications Earth &amp; Environment (2025)." class="wp-image-1964897"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of palaeohydrological and geomorphic records, archaeological sites, modeled streams, major monsoon systems, and the study site in Arabia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Communications Earth &amp; Environment (2025).</figcaption></figure>



Such moisture allowed rivers to form, drain off the highlands, and feed desert basins. 



Evidence shows that these lakes and streams built up enough pressure to erupt through barriers, leading to the carving of deep channels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forced-migrations-out-of-lush-arabia">Forced migrations out of lush Arabia</h2>



The stable, moist climate did not last forever.&nbsp;



“By 6,000 years ago, the Empty Quarter experienced a strong decline in rainfall, which would have created dry, arid conditions, forcing populations to move into more hospitable settings and changing the lifestyle of nomadic populations,” noted Professor Petraglia. 



Dryness overtook the dunes, and water sources vanished. 



Over time, shifting sands covered much of the evidence of these greener eras, leaving behind faint traces that challenge our assumptions about Arabia’s dry and sandy emptiness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



Although the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-022-00368-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Holocene humid phase</a> ended millennia ago, today’s scientists hope these findings can spark conversations about desert landscapes around the world. 



They show how climate swings can <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1083130" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transform</a> lush corridors into barren regions, with vital impacts on human migration.



Researchers also see these remnants as reminders that weather patterns can shift in dramatic ways. 



Shallow lakes can vanish, while floods can leave behind spectacular canyons that reshape entire terrains almost overnight.



These newly documented scenes of ancient rivers, lakebeds, and open grasslands in what is today a desert area, urge us to reflect on how drastically climates can vary through time.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02224-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Ancient Arabia was once green and lush with rivers, lakes, and grasslands

Arid stretches of sand can hide astonishing secrets. In southern...

A new set of findings warns of severe consequences for the global economy if Earth's temperature were to rise by 4°C before 2100. The research indicates the potential for a 40% decrease in world gross domestic product, which is considerably greater than earlier estimates of roughly 11%.



Many climate forecasts have relied on models that only examined local conditions, and have ignored how nations are linked by trade and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-shock-lakes-are-losing-oxygen-faster-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources</a>. 



Recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092180092100015X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> say this oversight shifts the conversation around emission reductions and highlights the urgent need for updated risk calculations.



One expert leading this conversation is <a href="https://research.unsw.edu.au/people/dr-timothy-neal" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Timothy Neal</a> from the <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New South Wales</a>. His fresh analysis addresses a missing piece in older frameworks and shows how global weather patterns can magnify <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1056819024000289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regional economic shocks</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-temperature-could-crash-economy">Rising temperature could crash economy</h2>



“Economists have traditionally looked at historical data comparing weather events to economic growth, to cost climate damages,” said Dr. Neal. Many economists once focused on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-fuel-pollution-is-causing-disease-disaster-and-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> changes in a single region or country.&nbsp;



That local-only view might hide deeper problems that arise when extreme conditions batter multiple nations at the same time.



By including global averages instead, his group uncovered greater losses than standard forecasts have predicted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unseen-global-links">Unseen global links</h2>



An interconnected world <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealthier-nations-set-bold-climate-targets-but-citizens-give-less/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">economy</a> means a shock in one place often ripples across borders. This is especially true when extreme weather events hamper trade flows or shrink production in key sectors.



“In a hotter future, we can expect cascading supply chain disruptions triggered by extreme weather events worldwide,” explained Dr. Neal, who emphasized that these shocks can spread quickly.



This scenario suggests that local economies may struggle to import goods if distant suppliers are also grappling with climate stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-weather-and-global-supply-systems">Extreme weather and global supply systems</h2>



A <a href="https://www.americanexpress.com/en-us/business/trends-and-insights/articles/what-is-a-global-supply-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global supply chain</a> refers to the network of producers and distributors that move goods around the planet. It lets countries source items from regions with better weather or more resources at any given moment.



This safety net weakens if extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat</a> or storms strike multiple hubs at once. Reduced crop yields, property damage, or transport blockages in different locations can trigger worldwide shortages and price spikes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-charting-a-lower-temperature-goal">Charting a lower temperature goal</h2>



New results suggest aiming for about 1.7°C (3.1°F) above pre-industrial levels rather than previous targets closer to 2.7°C (4.9°F). This tighter limit aligns with faster decarbonization pathways in agreements like the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paris Accord</a>.



Some <a href="https://unfccc.int/topics/mitigation/workstreams/response-measures/modelling-tools-to-assess-the-impact-of-the-implementation-of-response-measures/integrated-assessment-models-iams-and-energy-environment-economy-e3-models" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">integrated assessment models</a> are frameworks that weigh economic and climate data, and they previously gave the green light to reduce emissions more slowly. 



However, by revising the way in which we gauge the damage function, policymakers might see a strong financial incentive to push for deeper cuts in emissions sooner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-policy-directions">Shifting policy directions</h2>



Another shift appears in how we set a <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/pricing-carbon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon price</a>, or tax on emissions, which influences energy choices worldwide. If the true economic risk is bigger than assumed, the ideal carbon price could be substantially higher.



“Because these damages haven't been taken into account, prior economic models have inadvertently concluded that even severe climate change wasn't a big problem for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-threaten-the-future-of-banana-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">economy</a> - and it's had profound implications for climate policy,” said Dr. Neal.



This underscores the need for updated modeling that captures global effects instead of isolated ones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-temperatures-affect-all-economies">Rising temperatures affect all economies </h2>



Several countries once believed that cooler climates would shield them from heat-related damage. But global trade links mean that no nation gets a free pass when climate extremes hit many regions at once.



Adaptation, including policies for human migration or infrastructure upgrades, is still an evolving area of study. Dr. Neal notes that calculating its true scope is complex because political and logistical barriers can slow large-scale responses. 



Research continues to dig into the exact ways in which global temperature swings can harm production, jobs, and investment. 



Some believe that better trade rules and robust infrastructure can help countries cope when heat or storms hit harder than usual.



<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate science</a> also points to a rising frequency of events like hurricanes or droughts in a warming atmosphere. 



This pattern, combined with the presence of global supply chains, raises the stakes for coordinated action among governments and businesses.



<a href="https://news.mit.edu/2017/explained-neural-networks-deep-learning-0414" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neural networks</a> and advanced simulation tools are now part of some economic models. By simulating hypothetical shocks, experts might refine predictions and highlight early warning signs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-benefits-of-swift-action">Economic benefits of swift action</h2>



Researchers say earlier, decisive climate measures may reduce the economic toll in the long run. They also point to short-term gains like cleaner air and energy independence when nations invest in low-carbon solutions.



“We continue learning from how we see climate change impacting our economy right now, from rising food prices to insurance costs, and we need to be responsive to new information if we're going to act in our best interest,” said Dr. Neal. 



Analysts warn that postponing emissions cuts could lock in deeper losses, leaving populations vulnerable to recurrent disasters. Early investment in renewable energy and efficient technologies might save money down the road.



Industry leaders, finance experts, and governments have a collective responsibility to measure these costs correctly. 



Underestimating future damage might sideline critical reforms and push humanity toward an even hotter, more fragile planet.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412025001540?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Rising temperatures will cut world GDP by a staggering 40 percent if nothing changes

A new set of findings warns of severe consequences for...

A shapeless liquid form is something we usually take for granted. We expect fluids to spread and assume the shape of the container in which they are held. But nature sometimes defies our intuition.



In a recent study, a curious liquid refused to remain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-appears-to-have-a-secret-liquid-phase/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chaotic</a> after being shaken and instead settled into a smooth, outlined shape reminiscent of a piece of classic pottery.



This strange finding was uncovered by a team that includes graduate student <a href="https://www.umass.edu/polymer-science/about/directory/anthony-raykh" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anthony Raykh</a> at the <a href="https://www.umass.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a>. The group had been experimenting with oil and water when they noticed a shape they had never seen before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-shape-recovering-liquids">Understanding shape-recovering liquids</h2>



Some substances pull themselves together in neat ways. Others spread out in a disorderly manner.



For centuries, <a href="https://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/system/files/file_attachments/basic_thermo.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermodynamics</a> has helped predict these behaviors by setting rules about energy and equilibrium. 



Typically, adding particles to an oil-water mixture encourages the two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-details-about-greenlands-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liquids</a> to combine more readily and form new structures.



This phenomenon is known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/emulsification" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emulsification</a>, and it is vital in the production of foods, cosmetics, and many other commercial products. The usual theory says that those particles should lessen the tension between oil and water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-magnetism-matters">Why magnetism matters</h2>



Raykh decided to use magnetized nickel particles in his mixture. He shook things up, and something uncanny happened.



“... in a complete surprise, the mixture formed this beautiful, pristine urn-shape,” said Raykh. He tried shaking harder, but the fluid returned to the same outline.



Lab tests hinted that strong magnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions</a> were the reason. These metallic bits were powerful enough to throw a wrench into the fluid's normal behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-forces-and-liquid-shape">Magnetic forces and liquid shape</h2>



Scientists often rely on known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions</a> to guide their experiments. Imposing magnetic forces adds another layer of complexity.



“When you look very closely at the individual nanoparticles of magnetized nickel that form the boundary between the water and oil, you can get extremely detailed information on how different forms assemble,” said <a href="https://www.umass.edu/natural-sciences/about/directory/david-hoagland" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">David Hoagland</a>, professor of polymer science and engineering at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/liquid_shape-recovering_breaks-laws-thermodynamics_Credit-UMassAmherst_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/liquid_shape-recovering_breaks-laws-thermodynamics_Credit-UMassAmherst_1s.webp" alt="Raykh and his colleagues discovered that strongly magnetized particles can bend the laws of thermodynamics. Credit: Anthony Raykh/UMass Amherst" class="wp-image-1964865"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Raykh and his colleagues discovered that strongly magnetized particles can bend the laws of thermodynamics. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Anthony Raykh/UMass Amherst</figcaption></figure>



No one expected this intense attraction to stiffen the boundary so much that the liquids would create a neat form.



Researchers found that these <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143720818304157" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dipolar pulls</a> can drive up the tension between oil and water. This stands in contrast to what most textbooks tell us should happen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



A single exception to well-known rules might inspire more questions on these types of liquid forms. The next challenge is figuring out the deeper mechanisms behind these robust fluid contours.



“Imagine your favorite Italian salad dressing. It’s made up of oil, water, and spices, and before you pour it onto your salad, you shake it up so that all the ingredients mix,” said <a href="https://www.umass.edu/polymer-science/about/directory/thomas-russell" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thomas Russell</a>, Silvio O. Conte distinguished professor of polymer science and engineering at the University of Massachusetts Amherst.



He compared his everyday culinary example to the surprising phenomenon in the lab.



The urn-like outline is stable enough to tease scientists with new ideas. Explorations of these forces could lead to fresh theories about soft materials and how they behave under powerful <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Introduction+to+Magnetic+Materials%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9780471477419" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic</a> influences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-it-means-for-the-laws-of-physics">What it means for the laws of physics</h2>



This discovery doesn’t mean thermodynamics is broken. But it does suggest that, under specific conditions, there may be edge cases where the traditional models don’t fully apply. 



Scientists call these scenarios “exceptions” rather than violations, and they help sharpen our understanding of how physical laws behave under extreme or unusual circumstances.



It’s a reminder that physical laws are models of reality, not reality itself. They hold true across vast numbers of conditions - but surprises like this urn-shaped liquid reveal that even well-tested theories can be stretched in new and useful ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-shape-and-future-applications">Liquid shape and future applications</h2>



This experiment opens the door to unexpected applications in fields that involve finely tuned liquids. 



Medical formulations might someday use this kind of shape control to ensure more precise delivery of components.



Researchers are now looking into how strongly magnetized particles might alter other standard chemical processes.



Scientists remain cautious about declaring any new technology from this peculiar mixture. Even so, this discovery proves that our understanding of fluid behavior can still be surprised by odd twists.



-----



Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/H02E7YTTFGQ" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video of this phenomenon...</a>



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41567-025-02865-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Physics</a>.



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Shape-recovering liquid breaks the laws of thermodynamics, will require new textbooks

A shapeless liquid form is something we usually take for...

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



-----



Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated...

Twenty years ago, the European Space Agency (ESA) launched Mars Express to explore the Red Planet. Since then, scientists have gathered an immense collection of data, enabling them to learn more about everything from canyons and craters to dust storms and hidden ice.



Now, the High Resolution Stereo Camera (<a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express/Mars_Express_orbiter_instruments" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HRSC</a>) team has presented a global color mosaic that captures “Mars as never seen before.” It shows the planet in spectacular detail and highlights both surface color and composition.



The vantage point rests about 1,550 miles above the Valles Marineris canyon system, revealing an enhanced view of Mars without its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-magnificent-landforms-created-when-ice-turns-into-gas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar caps</a>, thanks to the relatively low altitude.



Each pixel in this simulation covers about 1.24 miles on the surface, offering a closer look at darker grey-black volcanic sands and lighter patches where clay and sulfate minerals appear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valles-marineris-comes-to-life">Valles Marineris comes to life</h2>



Dr. Ralf Jaumann from the German Aerospace Center (<a href="https://www.dlr.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DLR</a>) led efforts that connected fresh camera techniques with years of observations.



His team’s mosaic blends red, green, and blue filter views, adjusting each color band to highlight hidden surface variations.



The image is more than a standard snapshot. It uses individual color channel stretching, so details stand out in ways impossible with a simple “beige to brown” depiction.



Through this approach, a "large scar" appears across the planet’s face, also known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noctis-volcano-buried-glacier-discovered-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Valles Marineris</a>. Its length of thousands of miles has always drawn attention, but the mosaic’s clarity makes it stand out even more.



By examining the sharp color shifts, researchers can explore how ancient volcanic materials, dust deposits, and other compounds formed the terrain we see today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shapes-light-and-mars-true-color">Shapes, light, and Mars' true color</h2>



Researchers wanted to form a cohesive image of Mars by stitching smaller images together. A single frame is simple to enhance, but it becomes tricky when combining multiple pictures.



Different angles and shapes come into play. If experts misjudge the spacecraft’s location or the camera’s orientation, the resulting mosaic can end up with misaligned patches.



They also needed to address how sunlight falls across various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-samples-from-mars-could-reveal-fascinating-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parts of the planet</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Mars_global-surface-true-color_Mars-Express_HRSC_ESA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Mars_global-surface-true-color_Mars-Express_HRSC_ESA_1s.webp" alt="This image shows the globe of Mars set against a dark background. The disc of the planet features yellow, orange, blue and green patches, all with an overall muted grey hue, representing the varying composition of the surface. Credit: ESA" class="wp-image-1964406"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This image shows the globe of Mars set against a dark background. The disc of the planet features yellow, orange, blue and green patches, all with an overall muted grey hue, representing the varying composition of the surface. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ESA</figcaption></figure>



Looking at a single picture of Mars is pretty easy - you just adjust the brightness and contrast to see it better. But when combining several images into one, it becomes more difficult. 



Two big problems come up: one is about shapes and angles, and the other is about light.



The strength of the sun, the planet’s reflectivity, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-mars-atmosphere-may-improve-weather-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shifting atmospheric dust</a> all change how each region looks.



Small hills and slopes facing the sun can appear brighter, even when they share the same basic composition as adjacent areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-sense-of-dusty-atmospheres">Making sense of dusty atmospheres</h2>



Mars is famous for its dust storms and ever-changing air quality. That’s because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-could-threaten-the-health-of-future-astronauts-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars has a lot of dust</a> in the air, and the amount of dust changes with the seasons.



In some images, the atmosphere looked hazy, bright, or blurry. Scientists have tools to measure how dusty the air is by examining differences between sunny and shadowy spots. However, that method only works if shadows are clear and large enough.



Most of these can be fixed with computer tools. But sunlight is harder to adjust because slopes or hills that face the sun look brighter, even if they aren’t more reflective.



Because of that, researchers mostly preserved the original illumination in each picture. They adjusted overall brightness so the mosaic would seem uniform, yet they did not remove every bit of shadow.



They recognized that human eyes can interpret shapes using light and shadow alone, so an entirely shadow-free map might cause confusion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fitting-the-pieces-like-a-jigsaw-puzzle">Fitting the pieces like a jigsaw puzzle</h2>



In older attempts, matching brightness to a legacy map from another mission helped merge black-and-white images. 



There was no reliable true color map of Mars to use, so the team performed a more modest adjustment for color data. This helped make sure the images looked good when combined.



Initially, they focused on displaying color differences within each frame, filling in broad swaths with an average red. That kept finer details visible, though the overall impression was mostly red on a wider scale.



Later developments expanded the mosaic’s range. Between 2015 and 2017, <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Express</a> sometimes captured shots from high above, covering bigger regions than usual.



Although the spacecraft typically aimed for close-up imagery, these wide-angle pictures enabled researchers to cross-reference color changes over <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-spectacular-glowing-clouds-at-sunset/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large sections of the planet</a>.



By blending these distance-based views with the near-surface ones, they edged closer to showing an entire globe with consistent color and contrast.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlapping-frames">Overlapping frames</h2>



The year 2019 saw a series of new high-altitude images that overlapped significantly with previous frames. That overlap raised the possibility of a complete mosaic where each picture connected to others.



Because the spacecraft flies in a big oval path around Mars, it sometimes takes pictures from far away and sometimes from close up.



When all these shots came together, scientists replaced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-martian-sky-often-has-an-eerie-green-glow-at-night-called-nightglow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">partial color references</a> with a more global model that reflects large and small-scale differences. These showed color changes across much larger areas than usual.



The group integrated these extensive images to fill gaps and polish the big picture. As a result, the mosaic grew more comprehensive with every addition, reducing abrupt seams and strange brightness jumps.



Now, enthusiasts and experts alike can scan Mars with sharper context, comparing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-map-exposes-ancient-structures-and-volcanic-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic plains</a>, canyon floors, and everything in between in one continuous map.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-in-true-color-is-huge-for-science">Mars in true color is huge for science</h2>



Darker grey areas reveal basaltic sands left behind by ancient volcanic events. Lighter sections highlight clays and sulfates. While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-can-engulf-the-entire-planet-of-mars-but-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust storms</a> come and go, these rock formations persist.



Human eyes can usually tell what shape something is just by how light hits it, so it’s not always helpful to remove those shadows.



Subtle differences in Mars' true color and brightness offer clues about the past, from water activity to mineral creation.



Surface features like Valles Marineris dominate the image, but smaller craters and ridges speak volumes about Mars’s geologic evolution.



The entire mosaic provides a way to piece together distinct eras of the planet’s story without losing local details.



By layering decades of exploration, the HRSC team has taken a large step toward a clearer portrait of Martian geography, both from orbit and on the surface.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S001910352400410X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Icarus</a>.



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Mars photo shows the Red Planet from above in "true" color for the first time ever

Twenty years ago, the European Space Agency (ESA) launched Mars...

When was the last time your mind wandered while you stared at a clock or folded laundry? People often slip into these mental journeys without even realizing it.



Recent findings shed light on the surprising ways these daydreams can help us pick up certain types of information. They focus on how the wandering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fueling-the-mind-new-map-reveals-where-the-brain-gets-its-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mind</a> might boost outcomes when a task barely demands attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-wandering-mind">Exploring the wandering mind </h2>



In a study led by Péter Simor from <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a>, researchers used a simple task to test how unintentional mind wandering influences learning.



Nearly 40 volunteers participated while having their brain waves recorded to see if lapses in focus actually helped them pick up <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-health-may-literally-be-a-state-of-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a>.



Experts often blame <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23336-maladaptive-daydreaming" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">daydreaming</a> for hurting academic performance and everyday productivity. However, the team wanted to see if certain kinds of wandering thoughts have a hidden benefit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-passive-learning-works-without-focus">Passive learning works without focus</h2>



This task asked participants to detect patterns without overt awareness, which is sometimes called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/implicit-learning" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">implicit learning</a>. Some scientists define this as the ability to pick up probabilities and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-the-secret-to-keeping-your-brain-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> in the environment without actively trying to do so.



Classic research into <a href="https://www.amu.apus.edu/area-of-study/arts-and-humanities/resources/what-is-cognitive-psychology-and-why-is-it-so-important/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive psychology</a> has shown that not all learning requires our undivided attention. Some forms happen behind the scenes, relying on <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21071660/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">repeated exposure</a> rather than deliberate focus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-like-brain-waves">Sleep-like brain waves</h2>



During periods when participants said their minds were wandering, the experts detected <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10385593/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oscillatory neural activity</a> that looked a lot like slow-wave patterns seen in deep rest. These <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10385593/">electroencephalography signals</a> suggested the brain may shift into a partial offline mode.



Earlier <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4467852/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> from other labs has shown that short, quiet breaks can support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-is-constantly-making-predictions-about-the-world-and-your-place-in-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> consolidation by letting the mind rest. 



This new research aligns with those results, indicating that brief moments of reduced engagement could improve how we store and recall certain types of information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spontaneous-versus-deliberate-drifting">Spontaneous versus deliberate drifting</h2>



Spontaneous wandering emerges on its own, whereas deliberate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-in-the-brain-alarming-new-details-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wandering</a> is more like choosing to zone out. The researchers observed stronger performance gains linked to these spontaneous episodes.



One part of the investigation examined how intentional versus unplanned mind wandering affected pattern recognition. 



People who spontaneously floated away into daydreams tended to show greater improvements, which suggests that letting the mind meander might be productive under certain conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-daily-life">Implications for daily life</h2>



Some jobs rely on repetitive tasks that can get tedious. If subtle learning is part of the role, occasional mental drifting might actually help employees catch hidden cues.



Parents sometimes worry that children who daydream miss valuable lessons. Yet these findings hint that relaxed moments could still encode crucial bits of information.



Multi-taskers who juggle demanding activities might be less likely to benefit. Tasks requiring high focus could suffer from any mental drifting.



Those who engage in regular mindfulness might find it helpful to understand how the mind works in idle mode. This study supports the idea that idle thoughts and daydreams can serve a purpose, though they are not beneficial in every circumstance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wandering-mind-supports-memory">Wandering mind supports memory</h2>



Researchers have long studied <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.932592/full">wakeful rest</a> as a period when the brain continues to process and store new memories. These findings show that a wandering mind may activate a similar process, almost like a mini-break from conscious effort.



"As our brain needs sleep, maybe we also need passive ways of learning, or ‘wakeful rest,’ to recover from tasks that require the brain to be online and engaged," said Simor. He and his collaborators believe that such quiet spells might serve as small pockets of recovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-mind-wandering-boost-performance">Can mind wandering boost performance?</h2>



One question is how these sleep-like states differ from actual drowsiness. Another puzzle is whether mind wandering can be harnessed to speed up slow, repetitive processes.



Some psychologists suggest that harnessing the right type of mind wandering requires self-awareness. Determining when drifting thoughts happen may help individuals manage them to optimize learning or creativity.



Technology might open new doors by measuring <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/electroencephalogram/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EEG signals</a> in real time. This could show us exactly when the brain transitions into an offline state and how to use that transition for training or rehabilitation.



Neuroscience breakthroughs continue to build a clearer picture of how we learn in different mental states. Studies like this help us see the mind as flexible and adaptable, even in moments we consider unproductive.



The investigation reveals that there is more to daydreaming than meets the eye. Researchers note that not all daydreams are equally helpful, but those that arise on their own may support certain learning tasks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/03/31/JNEUROSCI.1421-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JNeurosci</a>.



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Mind wandering might be more productive than you think

When was the last time your mind wandered while you...

Rotting fruit, filled with the smell of fermentation, has long attracted fruit flies by the dozens. These small insects, especially Drosophila melanogaster - commonly known as the vinegar or pomace fly - are regular visitors to compost bins and grocery store produce sections in warm weather. 



But scientists have now uncovered a surprising reason why fruit flies flock to the scent of alcohol: it boosts their mating success.



In a new study, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> investigated the effects on fruit flies and discovered that males who consume alcohol become more attractive to females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-flies-alcohol-and-mating-success">Fruit flies, alcohol, and mating success</h2>



The alcohol, particularly methanol, enhances the production of sex pheromones, which are chemical signals used to attract mates.&nbsp;



“In our experiments, we show a direct and positive effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-americans-now-link-alcohol-consumption-to-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol consumption</a> on the mating success of male flies,” said Ian Keesey, the study’s first author. 



“This in turn makes alcoholic males more attractive to females and ensures a higher mating success rate, whereas the success of drunken male humans with females is likely to be questionable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-attraction-and-danger">Balancing attraction and danger</h2>



While humans are well aware of the risks of excessive alcohol consumption, how it affects insects like the vinegar fly has remained less clear. 



To understand the biological and behavioral effects of alcohol in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a>, the research team focused on how the insects perceive and respond to alcohol-laden environments, particularly the smell of fermenting fruit.



The study found that unpaired male flies showed a greater attraction to alcohol, drawn by the smell of fermentation. 



However, the flies had to walk a fine line: while a low level of alcohol was beneficial - enhancing pheromone production and increasing their chances with females - high concentrations posed serious risks. That’s where the brain’s internal risk assessment system comes into play.



“What is unique about our results is that we found not just one, but three neural circuits that we were able to show actually balance each other in terms of this risk assessment, that is, attraction and aversion,” Keesey explained. 



“This means that the flies have a control mechanism that allows them to get all the benefits of alcohol consumption without risking alcohol intoxication.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-detection-by-fruit-flies">Alcohol detection by fruit flies</h2>



The researchers discovered that alcohol detection in fruit flies is managed by a trio of neural circuits. Two of these respond to ethanol and methanol and promote attraction to the smell, guiding flies to optimal alcohol concentrations where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-shark-mating-behaviors-observed-for-the-first-time-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating</a> benefits are highest.&nbsp;



But when alcohol levels spike - especially methanol, which can be toxic - a third pathway kicks in and triggers a repulsion response. This biological balancing act helps the flies gain advantages from moderate alcohol exposure without succumbing to the dangers of overindulgence.



“That different neural pathways with opposite valence for the same odor are combined to balance attraction and aversion based on physiological state is a rarity,” Keesey noted. 



He conducted the research during his time at the Max Planck Institute and is now an assistant professor at the University of Nebraska at Lincoln.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-brains-to-behavior">From brains to behavior </h2>



To unravel this complex behavioral response, the team combined a wide range of techniques. They used imaging technologies to observe real-time brain activity in fruit flies as they encountered alcohol-laden environments, alongside chemical analyses of odors typically found in decaying fruit. 



Behavioral experiments tracked how flies reacted to different concentrations of alcohol, how attractive they found various smells, and how successful they were in mating.



“The study provides one of the first comprehensive explanations of alcohol attraction in a model organism, from chemistry to ecology and from brain to behavior and vice versa,” said Bill Hansson, who leads the Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology at the Max Planck Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-for-more-than-flies">A model for more than flies</h2>



The findings not only offer insights into fly behavior but also serve as a reminder of the value of understanding animals in their natural context. 



Fruit flies have long been used as model organisms in scientific research, particularly in genetics and neuroscience. Yet this study underscores how ecological factors - like the smell of fermenting fruit in their natural habitats - can shape behavior and even brain function.



“It also shows how important it is to consider the natural behavior and ecology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drunk-animals-may-explain-humans-love-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> models when using them to study physiological and behavioral processes,” noted Hansson.



The research helps explain why fruit flies seem irresistibly drawn to our kitchen compost and overripe bananas. For them, it’s not just the smell of a potential meal - it’s a cue for reproductive opportunity, carefully balanced by a neural system that can tell when enough is enough.



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Alcohol makes fruit flies look sexy and boosts mating success

Rotting fruit, filled with the smell of fermentation, has long...

New research has found that most dogs across the United States display at least one behavior that could be problematic.&nbsp;



According to the study, led by Texas A&amp;M’s College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (<a href="https://vetmed.tamu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VMBS</a>), more than 99 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> scored moderate to severe in at least one area. Fear and anxiety, aggression, and attachment behaviors emerged as the most common challenges.



“Overall, 99.12 percent of dogs had at least one response of moderate to severe in an area of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-canine-cognitive-code-everyday-dog-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>,” said study author Bonnie Beaver, a professor in the VMBS’ Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences.&nbsp;



“The majority of responses suggest dogs do not have a lot of problems, and the problem behaviors that do exist are relatively minor. Owners may not see them as issues worth addressing, but almost any dog owner will encounter a behavior that is at least inconvenient.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-dog-aging-project">Insights from the Dog Aging Project</h2>



This research relied on data from the&nbsp;Dog Aging Project&nbsp;(<a href="https://dogagingproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DAP</a>), a large-scale initiative gathering information from tens of thousands of companion&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-owners-ages-and-beliefs-influence-their-pet-food-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog owners</a>. 



The DAP aims to track how dogs age and what helps them lead healthy lives. Participants answer questions about their pets’ health and daily habits, including 28 items related to behavior. Each question has a scoring scale of zero to four, with higher numbers indicating more serious concerns.



“The questions used in the study are not intended to be a diagnosis, and many behaviors overlap into different categories,” Beaver explained. 



“For example, anxiety and separation are often related behaviors, but questions about them were put into separate categories. Dogs may act aggressively out of fear, but again the questions about each were in separate categories. So, a fear-biting dog may not be obvious in the results.”



While the findings suggest most dogs have at least some minor issues, Beaver emphasized that a better understanding of canine behavior could prevent small problems from escalating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problem-behavior-is-often-overlooked">Problem behavior is often overlooked </h2>



Behavior is an essential consideration for anyone who owns or works with dogs. 



“Some studies report that only 50 percent of veterinarians ask questions about behavior during appointments, and owners may not think to ask the veterinarian about something they don’t like. This has to change, so we don’t end up missing half of the problems,” Beaver noted.



The same goes for dog owners who may hesitate to consult a veterinarian unless the behavior is highly disruptive or has become dangerous. 



“For dog owners, it’s important to learn to read your dog’s body language and talk to your local veterinarian if there is any type of behavior happening that bothers you,” Beaver noted. "They can help you identify the cause and find a solution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-owners-tolerate-different-behaviors">Dog owners tolerate different behaviors</h2>



Different owners have different tolerance levels for canine behaviors. What one person considers bothersome might not even register as a concern for someone else.&nbsp;&nbsp;Beaver illustrated this point by recalling a case.&nbsp;



“As an example, I once saw a miniature poodle that came in for a problem with barking. In the patient’s history, I found out that the dog would routinely urinate on a Persian rug, but that behavior didn’t bother the owner as much as the barking,” said Beaver.



To gain a comprehensive picture of a dog’s behaviors, Beaver suggests that veterinarians ask questions in several ways. Appointments may be short, and owners might overlook or forget to mention specific incidents, especially if they happened weeks or months ago.&nbsp;



“Giving owners a questionnaire before asking in-person questions can help give them time to think, which will increase the chance that they tell you about behavior problems,” she noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-dogs-become-dangerous">When dogs become dangerous</h2>



Minor issues are one thing; truly dangerous behaviors raise the stakes considerably. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-you-control-your-dogs-aggression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aggression</a> - whether manifesting as growling, snapping, or biting - can stem from fear, frustration, or defensive instincts. 



“Aggression is a normal behavior in animals and it happens for a reason,” Beaver said. "So, you need to consider why the dog is behaving that way. Is it fearful? Is it being threatened by a little kid getting too close, somebody staring in its eyes, by a bigger dog coming toward it, or by a stranger approaching?"



"As veterinarians, we’ve got to look at the context in which a behavior happens to try and appreciate what might be going on in the animal’s mind.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-problem-behaviors-in-dogs">Recognizing problem behaviors in dogs</h2>



Recognizing fear signs, such as crouching, trembling, or avoidance, can help owners intervene before their dog escalates to aggression. “Animals think. But they probably don’t think like we do," noted Beaver.



In households with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/family-dogs-boost-physical-activity-levels-among-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children</a>, the need for vigilance is even greater. According to Professor Beaver, the people most often bitten are children under the age of 7.



“If you have children and a dog, be sure that they are only together under supervision. Do not allow your kids to climb all over the dog or pull its hair and ears. And teach your kids not to approach a dog - even their own family dog - unless they are with a parent.”



By staying aware of a dog’s emotional signals and seeking help from veterinarians or qualified trainers, owners can address minor concerns early and prevent them from becoming significant problems. 



The hope is that by shining a light on the behavioral patterns present in nearly every dog, both medical professionals and families can work together to foster safer, happier relationships between people and pets.



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More than 99% of dogs in the U.S. have a behavior problem

New research has found that most dogs across the United...

Bowhead whales glide under drifting ice and are rarely seen for more than a few precious moments. They support the Arctic ecosystem in ways that still leave many questions open.



Researchers from various institutions have studied these creatures using tracking devices. Their efforts have given fresh insights into how bowhead <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-in-hot-water-will-climate-change-disrupt-their-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> might organize their days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-follow-daily-dive-pattern">Whales follow daily dive pattern</h2>



Researchers <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prresearch/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.033174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">found</a> a 24-hour submersion rhythm in these Arctic giants. 



Part of this pattern involves staying nearer to the surface at night and submerging more deeply in the afternoon, which aligns with prey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-transport-nutrients-across-entire-ocean-basins-in-their-urine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a>.



Evidence also indicates that a couple of whales even stayed in step with each other for long stretches, though they were far apart. The synchronicity suggests these animals may keep in touch across wide distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-and-language-like-patterns">Whales and language-like patterns</h2>



Studies on other whale species highlight a language-like efficiency in their vocalizations. A <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.ads6014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2025 survey</a> of 16 different whales shows that 11 display <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34415939/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Menzerath’s law</a>, sometimes at levels exceeding human speech as noted by <a href="https://masonyoungblood.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mason Youngblood</a>.



In many instances, whales shorten certain sounds as they grow more frequent, revealing a principle akin to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027717301166" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zipf’s law of abbreviation</a>. This suggests these marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-patterns-in-whale-songs-predict-ecosystem-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> may prize concise signaling to save time and energy while in deep waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-in-cold-seas">Social bonds in cold seas</h2>



Communication can help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-predicts-whale-movements-to-reduce-deadly-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> handle long winters, where ice quickly seals over the surface. By fine-tuning vocal signals, they may share feeding updates and coordinate activities.



Some scientists hypothesize that these calls also reflect group identity. Research has <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-80220-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shown</a> that bowhead whales may share complex song structures within clusters of animals, with variability that could help maintain social bonds or signal individual identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-immediate-horizon">Beyond the immediate horizon</h2>



Sound travels more efficiently in water than in air. Unlike land mammals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-poop-is-a-natural-fertilizer-that-keeps-the-ocean-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> make long-distance calls that can hold the group together, preserve social ties, and perhaps alert others to predators or scarce food.



Those bursts of coordinated behavior might be driven by something as simple as a subtle change in sunlight. Or they might be triggered by learned calls that unify individuals across a giant body of water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-the-whale-patterns">Interpreting the whale patterns</h2>



The concept of “<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.ads6014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language-like</a>” efficiency gained traction after observers noticed that more frequent calls become shorter. This aligns with findings in other animals, from songbirds to some dolphins.



Earlier <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7237478/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> in human linguistics showed that pressure to communicate efficiently leads to patterns where common words shrink in length. The same dynamic may appear among bowheads if it delivers benefits for social bonding or survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-patterns-may-show-intelligence">Whale patterns may show intelligence</h2>



Some experts believe that bigger brains in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> might allow them to juggle complex tasks like adjusting calls to remain hidden from predators. Others think the calls mainly track seasonal rhythms.



A few listeners hypothesize that these calls double as an internal group code. The more they chat, the more they refine this code, balancing effort and clarity each day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-studying-hidden-giants">Challenges in studying hidden giants</h2>



Harsh conditions up north force scientists to rely on specialized tags and instruments, which often detach after days or weeks. The partial data leaves questions about how many whales adopt these behaviors.



In addition, tag-based approaches can’t always capture acoustic evidence of calls echoing through the water. To confirm direct exchanges, it’s crucial to record whale sounds around the clock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-new-approaches">Clues from new approaches</h2>



Automated analysis now helps scientists map subtle features in whale calls. One approach uses something called time-delay embedding, which treats each submersion sequence as a system that oscillates based on oxygen need and feeding opportunities.



Another technique relies on sorting out short and long calls while factoring in how frequently certain notes occur. That fine detail offers a glimpse into how whales might structure their signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-to-next">Where to next?</h2>



Additional tagging campaigns could confirm how these animals interact when far apart. Extended acoustic logging might catch continuous call exchanges over several days, tying them to submersion cycles.



With climate warming driving changes in the Arctic, tracking whales becomes urgent. Understanding their day-to-day cycles can reveal how they adapt to thinning ice, shifting predator presence, and new shipping routes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



Bowhead whales remain vital for ocean systems, recycling nutrients across large stretches of frigid water. The more we learn about their daily routines, the clearer it becomes that these mammals might be engaging in subtle social maneuvers.



Many remain optimistic that ongoing research will shine more light on the functions of their calls. This may unlock deeper questions about how they stay connected across miles of cold, silent sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-hope-for-whale-science">Fresh hope for whale science</h2>



Some observers see these findings as a way to improve safeguards. Studying whale calls helps officials design better protected zones or manage ship traffic with minimal disturbance.



As more data surfaces, voices are growing louder to preserve these creatures’ habitats. Protecting them means preserving an entire northern network of relationships and connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glance-at-tomorrow">A glance at tomorrow</h2>



Continued analysis might show that synchronized submersions happen more often than anyone realized. The whales appear to embrace these cycles for strategic feeding and possibly group cohesion.



Work in other regions will test whether the same patterns arise in different populations. If repeated, this will indicate that large whales around the globe rely on similar efficient signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-patterns-spark-global-curiosity">Whale patterns spark global curiosity</h2>



Many scientists now argue that whales and other marine mammals approach language-like complexity in their calls. Observations linking such patterns to big brains, long lifespans, and social groupings may reshape how we see marine life.



Biologists remain cautious about drawing direct parallels to human speech. Still, efficiency laws like Menzerath’s and Zipf’s keep appearing, and nudge us to rethink the uniqueness of linguistic structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-coordinate-more-than-we-knew">Whales coordinate more than we knew</h2>



Research in these frigid waters has uncovered a daily schedule that whales follow, along with surprising signs of unity across distances. The presence of repeated call patterns also raises the possibility of thoughtful coordination.



Whether they do this for mating, security, or general companionship is still uncertain. Yet these insights open a new window into their hidden daily lives.



This study was led by Associate Professor Evgeny A. Podolskiy at the&nbsp;Arctic Research Center, <a href="https://www.arc.hokudai.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokkaido University</a>; Professor Jonas Teilmann at the&nbsp;<a href="https://ecos.au.dk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ecoscience</a>, <a href="https://ecos.au.dk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>; and Professor Mads Peter Heide-Jørgensen at the&nbsp;Department of Birds and Mammals, Greenland Institute of <a href="https://natur.gl/about-us/dpt-mammals-and-birds/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural Resources</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.033174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Research</a>.



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Bowhead whales somehow dive in synchrony across the ocean regardless of distance

Bowhead whales glide under drifting ice and are rarely seen...

The Isle of Skye is known for its rugged cliffs, sweeping shorelines, and traces of ancient life. It was also once home to massive dinosaurs, roaming and playing and leaving their footprints behind in lagoonal sands.



Thanks to a new discovery, we now know even more about these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric wanderers</a> and the ancient world they inhabited.



A team of researchers, led by Tone Blakesley from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a>, has uncovered a stunning collection of 131 fossilized footprints. 



These tracks, preserved at a site called Prince Charles’s Point, reveal the quiet activity of dinosaurs over 167 million years ago.



For paleontologists, it’s a window into a time and place that is rarely captured in such detail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-footprints-show-ancient-lagoon-life">Dinosaur footprints show ancient lagoon life</h2>



These footprints come from the Middle Jurassic period, a time of significant evolutionary change. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dinosaurs</a> had diversified, and new body plans were emerging across the globe. 



Yet fossil evidence from this era remains rare. The Isle of Skye stands out as one of the few places offering such rich Middle Jurassic traces.



The tracks were left in a subtropical lagoon environment, once filled with shallow water and lined with soft, rippled sand. 



The site is now part of an intertidal zone, where erosion helped expose these long-hidden marks. Wind, tide, and sediment had conspired to protect them for millions of years.



Researchers used drones to document the site in detail, mapping trackways across multiple layers of sediment. Their analysis identified patterns in the size, shape, and direction of the tracks.



The footprints range from 25 to 60 centimeters in length (about 10 to 24 inches), and they fall into distinct types that correspond with different kinds of dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theropods-on-the-move">Theropods on the move</h2>



Many of the footprints belonged to theropods - meat-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> that walked on two legs. These include morphotype-1a, a group of large, tridactyl (three-toed) tracks showing distinct toe pads and claw impressions.



These tracks likely came from Megalosaurus-sized animals, with estimated body lengths of between 5 and 7 meters (about 16 to 23 feet). The spacing between steps suggests slow, deliberate movements.



Smaller tridactyl prints, such as those made by individuals of morphotype-1d, could have come from juvenile theropods or a different species that was smaller.



These prints retain the same general structure as the larger ones but show slight variations in toe angle and pad shape. Researchers believe they could represent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-extinction-influenced-fruit-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early members</a> of the megalosaurid group or other similar carnivores known from U.K. fossils.



What sets this site apart is the abundance of theropod tracks compared to previous Skye discoveries. Their higher frequency suggests they may have preferred this lagoon environment or used it more frequently than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauropods-leave-their-gentle-imprint">Sauropods leave their gentle imprint</h2>



Alongside the sharper, clawed tracks of the theropods are larger, rounder impressions. 



These sauropod footprints resemble massive tyre prints. The animals that made them walked on all fours, leaving both manus (front foot) and pes (rear foot) prints in rhythmic patterns.



The trackways stretch across several meters, sometimes exceeding 12 meters (39 feet) in length. These giants moved slowly and their footfalls were spaced widely apart, indicating their enormous size and weight.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dinosaurs_megalosaurs_sauropods_footprints_graphic_credit-PLoSONE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dinosaurs_megalosaurs_sauropods_footprints_graphic_credit-PLoSONE_1s.webp" alt="Textured orthophotos, outlines, contour maps, and DEMs are respectively represented for: (A-D) PC-TH-4-29, (F-H) PC-TH-4-28, and (I-L) PC-TH-4-26. The tracks likely represent worn surface tracks with morphotype-1a configurations (i.e., longer digit iv than ii) and low ~ 1.2 mesaxony. (M) Selected tracks, indicated by red boxes, in context to the rest of the trackway sequence. Due to present-day erosion, track margin definitions gradually decline across the sequence. Credit: PLoS ONE" class="wp-image-1964552"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Textured orthophotos, outlines, contour maps, and DEMs are respectively represented for: (A-D) PC-TH-4-29, (F-H) PC-TH-4-28, and (I-L) PC-TH-4-26. The tracks likely represent worn surface tracks with morphotype-1a configurations (i.e., longer digit iv than ii) and low ~ 1.2 mesaxony. (M) Selected tracks, indicated by red boxes, in context to the rest of the trackway sequence. Due to present-day erosion, track margin definitions gradually decline across the sequence. Click image to enlarge. Credit: PLoS ONE</figcaption></figure>



The shallow depth of the impressions suggests that the substrate was soft but not waterlogged, which is perfect for preserving such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traces</a>.



Early interpretations of these prints led to debate. Some thought they might be natural depressions or made by fish activity. But the regular spacing and anatomical fit have now confirmed their origin. 



These sauropod tracks likely belong to early neosauropods, such as Cetiosaurus, which is already known from nearby fossil sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-show-dinosaurs-walked-alone">Footprints show dinosaurs walked alone</h2>



One of the most curious aspects of the site is the apparent lack of direction. 



The dinosaurs weren’t marching in herds or following a leader. Instead, their tracks crisscross and overlap, suggesting solitary movement. Researchers describe this as “milling behavior,” where animals walked aimlessly or returned repeatedly to the same location.



The trackways do not show signs of interaction. Theropods and sauropods seem to have passed through at different times. 



This absence of coordinated travel supports a view of dinosaurs as more independent in their behavior, especially in these wetland settings.



The study site also lacks any prints from stegosaurs or ornithopods. This absence may reflect environmental differences or simply a preservation gap. 



The idea that only sauropods and theropods used this lagoon is plausible, but more evidence is needed in order to be sure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-and-ecological-importance">Historical and ecological importance</h2>



The researchers highlight a compelling overlap between historical significance and dinosaur footprints. Prince Charles’s Point is not only a rich fossil bed but also a key location in Scottish history.



“The footprints at Prince Charles's Point provide fascinating insight into the behaviors and environmental distributions of meat-eating theropods and plant-eating, long-necked sauropods during an important time in their evolution,“ Tone Blakesley and colleagues noted.



“On Skye, these dinosaurs clearly preferred shallowly submerged lagoonal environments over subaerially exposed mudflats. Intriguingly, the site also has some historical significance, as a place on Skye where Bonnie Prince Charlie landed and hid during his flight across Scotland following the Battle of Culloden.”



This dual legacy - one of fleeing royalty and ancient reptiles - gives the site a rare kind of depth. The stone remembers more than one kind of footstep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drone-technology-and-sediment-clues">Drone technology and sediment clues</h2>



Drone imaging played a crucial role in documenting the site. It allowed scientists to trace the orientation and depth of trackways from above. 



The aerial view revealed patterns that might have gone unnoticed from ground level. When the patterns were combined with on-site sediment analysis, the team could interpret how these footprints were formed and preserved.



Ripple marks across the site show the influence of water currents. However, dinosaur movements didn’t follow these ripples. That means the animals weren’t swimming or walking along shorelines. 



Instead, they wandered freely, and were unaffected by the flow. This supports the idea that they used the area casually rather than for migration or feeding.



The sediment itself offers more insight. Layers above the footprints contain finer material, suggesting occasional floods or rising tides. These conditions helped seal and protect the prints from erosion, locking their shapes in time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-film-features-the-dinosaur-footprints">Film features the dinosaur footprints </h2>



To bring the discovery to life, Tone Blakesley produced a feature-length documentary. The film explores how the site was found, what the footprints reveal, and why they matter. 



It captures the beauty of the Isle of Skye and the precision of scientific fieldwork. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ERQIEH7Epes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">You can watch the documentary here</a>.



This find doesn't just inform our understanding of dinosaur movement. It adds texture to a global picture of Middle Jurassic life. 



In a period where skeletal fossils remain rare, footprints tell a living story of ancient Scotland - one muddy step at a time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319862" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Footprints reveal ancient playground for giant Jurassic dinosaurs

The Isle of Skye is known for its rugged cliffs,...

Beekeepers across the United States are sounding the alarm. Last year, they lost over 55% of their managed colonies - the highest loss rate recorded since tracking began in 2011.This level of loss is not sustainable.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, working with international partners, have studied a new method that could help beekeepers breed healthier, more resilient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bee colonies</a>. 



The team tested a novel tool called the UBeeO assay, designed to measure bees' natural ability to spot and remove sick or dying young. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-growing-problem-for-beekeepers">A growing problem for beekeepers</h2>



"Beekeepers are losing bees at a rate that they say is unsustainable," said Samantha Alger, director of the Vermont Bee Lab at the University of Vermont and lead author of the study.



"In the '80s, beekeepers lost colonies 10–12% of the time … but now it's like 30–50%. Imagine that happening to someone who's a cattle farmer or a pig farmer every year."



While beekeepers have found ways to keep overall populations steady by raising new bees, it comes at a high cost - both in resources and in risk to wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>.



When pathogens from managed hives spread to native bee populations, the health of entire ecosystems can be affected.



Alger and her team work directly with beekeepers to breed stronger, disease-resistant honey bee colonies. One focus of their efforts is helping beekeepers select for hygienic behavior - the ability of bees to detect and remove unhealthy brood from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smart-sensors-help-beekeepers-monitor-hive-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hive</a>.



"It's definitely more desirable for a beekeeper to have bees that are better adapted at taking care of their diseases themselves, rather than using chemical treatments and interventions to try to reduce these pathogen loads, which, of course, may have negative impacts on the bees," noted Alger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-test-to-measure-bee-colony-hygiene">A test to measure bee colony hygiene</h2>



"Now the trick is, how does a beekeeper identify a colony that is really hygienic? And there's various tests that you can perform for that and this UBeeO is sort of a novel way of testing for it."



The UBeeO tool, developed by researchers at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, simulates the natural cues that honey bees use to detect sick brood. 



Instead of freezing brood cells, as traditional tests do, UBeeO uses synthetic pheromones that mimic the scent of diseased or dying bees.



"UBeeO has been known to identify colonies that are able to better resist <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-gives-up-on-efforts-to-eradicate-varroa-mites-which-are-wiping-out-bee-colonies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Varroa mites</a>, but it had not been used to look at other pests or pathogens," said Alger. "We found this new assay could be used to identify colonies that are resistant to these other stressors."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-bees-take-action">What makes bees take action</h2>



In a typical hive, each egg laid by the queen grows into a larva, which is fed and sealed into a wax cell by nurse bees. 



If something goes wrong - if the larva dies or becomes infected - nurse bees can uncap the cell and remove it. This hygienic behavior helps stop the spread of disease.



"Other folks have identified death pheromones, these compounds that are associated with death," said Kaira Wagoner, a research scientist at UNC Greensboro and co-author of the study.



"The famous biologist E.O. Wilson was one of the first to do this. He found oleic acid was emitted from dead ants. The same thing has been found with bees, and it's just likely a stronger signal - it's growing as the dead brood is basically decomposing in the cell. The signals that are coming out of an unhealthy brood are different and very likely more subtle than those death pheromones."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-more-selective-bee-colony-test">A more selective bee colony test</h2>



Unlike the freeze-kill test that uses liquid nitrogen to create dead brood, the UBeeO test simulates what bees would naturally encounter.



"Rather than using liquid nitrogen to kill the developing pupae or larvae, you are using a blend of synthetic pheromones that mimics the same chemicals that are emitted by dying or diseased brood," explained Alger.



"So rather than testing the bees' ability to identify dead brood, you are testing the bees' ability to identify diseased brood, which means that this test is a little bit more selective and realistic to what bees experience."



Wagoner began developing UBeeO during her doctoral studies and went on to co-found Optera, a company focused on bringing the test to beekeepers. Since becoming available in 2024, the test has been tried in over ten countries.



"It's a really young technology," said Wagoner. "We've now tested it in over 10 different countries, and there are breeding programs in at least five now, so there's a lot more data to come."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-colony-test-scores">Bee colony test scores</h2>



To examine how well UBeeO works, scientists used it in three regions - Vermont, North Carolina, and Australia.



The bee colony test is simple: synthetic pheromones are sprayed onto a patch of brood cells, and after two hours, researchers check how many cells the bees have uncapped.



This response is scored as the UBeeO percentage. Higher scores mean more cells were inspected, which usually indicates better hygienic behavior. 



The results showed that colonies with higher UBeeO scores tended to have lower levels of disease, including fungal infections like chalkbrood and parasites like Varroa mites.



"What we found, at least with this Australian dataset, is they only needed to achieve a 13% response on the UBeeO test to be really pretty resistant to chalkbrood. In contrast, colonies need to achieve a response of 55 or 60% on the UBeeO test to be resistant to mites," explained Wagoner.



"The honey bee responsiveness largely depends on how virulent or how harmful the specific disease is to the brood. Chalkbrood kills the brood, so the bees don't have to be as sensitive to detect it."



The Varroa mite poses a greater challenge. These tiny invaders reproduce inside sealed cells and feed on developing bees. 



If the nurse bees don't intervene, the mites are released into the colony, spreading disease and weakening the hive. By uncapping these cells early, bees can interrupt the mite’s life cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-colonies-without-chemicals">Smarter colonies without chemicals</h2>



Interestingly, the UBeeO test also detected colonies that were more resistant to Vairimorpha (formerly known as Nosema). This is a disease that affects adult bees, not brood. That raises new questions about how hygienic behavior might influence adult bee health.



"In the case of Vairimorpha, what they're doing is kind of the mystery," said Alger. "There might be other behaviors that hygienic colonies are performing aside of what we know."



As researchers continue to explore these questions, the hope is that tools like UBeeO will make it easier for beekeepers to raise stronger, more self-sufficient bees - and reduce their reliance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-beekeeping-is-equally-productive-as-methods-using-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical treatments</a>.



For a profession facing some of the steepest challenges in agriculture today, that help can’t come soon enough.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bee-science/articles/10.3389/frbee.2025.1509871/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Bee Science</a>.



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Science is giving beekeepers a better way to fight colony collapse

Beekeepers across the United States are sounding the alarm. Last...

In spring and summer, gardens explode with floral variety. Yet, watch a bumblebee closely, and you’ll notice something strange. Despite the buffet of colors and scents, the bee often sticks to one flower type per trip. 



It might move from one lavender bloom to another, ignoring daisies right beside them. This selective foraging, called flower constancy, has intrigued naturalists for centuries.



Charles Darwin proposed a simple explanation. He believed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-cause-of-honeybee-mortality-can-be-easily-reduced/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> chose the same flowers again and again because switching would require more memory effort. This idea held weight for a long time. After all, remembering different flower shapes, colors, and nectar rewards does demand mental work. 



But new research from the <a href="https://www.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tsukuba</a> offers a more refined view. It shows that bees don’t just aim to avoid thinking too much. They make smart, strategic choices based on their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bees-choose-flowers">How bees choose flowers</h2>



The study, led by Kentaro Takagi and Kazuharu Ohashi, shows that bees weigh two key costs: how much time it takes to remember a flower and how far they must travel to reach the next one. Their behavior results from balancing these two demands.



"We found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> do not simply avoid memory effort but rather choose a strategy that minimizes the total cost of memory use and travel," explained Professor Shoko Sugiura.



This shifts our understanding away from passive behavior. Flower constancy is not just about bees lacking the mental power to switch. It’s about making the best of what they have - adapting their strategy in real time as flower arrangements change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bees-switch-flowers">Why bees switch flowers </h2>



The researchers tested this theory using artificial flowers in controlled indoor cages. Some flowers had high color contrast - blue and yellow. Others had subtle differences - yellow and golden yellow.



They also varied how flowers were arranged. In some cases, flower types were thoroughly mixed. In others, each type was grouped in clear clusters.



In mixed arrays, bees faced a choice. If they kept visiting only one species, they had to fly farther between flowers. This raised travel time. But if they switched flower types, they had to recall a different memory. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> often chose to switch, especially when flowers looked similar and the memory cost was low.



In this setting, bees behaved like economists. They balanced the time spent flying with the time spent thinking. 



When travel costs went up, they tolerated memory costs. When the mental load increased, they minimized flights. The shift in constancy wasn’t random. It was logical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similar-flowers-make-switching-easier">Similar flowers make switching easier</h2>



One striking observation came from the trials involving subtly different flowers. When bees foraged among yellow and golden yellow blooms, they treated them almost as one type. 



Even though bees can tell these colors apart, the difference wasn’t strong enough to require separate memories. This helped them switch more freely and saved time.



But memory plays a second, subtler role. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-do-not-learn-to-be-cooperative-it-is-in-their-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> visit one flower type repeatedly, they begin to forget the other. The information in short-term memory fades back into long-term storage. This "memory decay" increases the retrieval cost if the bee later wants to switch.



"Pollinators are more flexible than previously assumed. They assess costs and make efficient choices," said Professor Takuya Kameda.



In clustered arrays, this decay worked in favor of constancy. Bees stuck to one type, moved short distances, and avoided memory shifts. But in spaced-out arrays, decay had the opposite effect. By the time a bee reached the next flower, memory had already faded. Switching became easier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-adapting-smartly">Bees adapting smartly</h2>



To test their ideas further, the researchers built a computer model. They simulated bees moving through different flower arrangements. In these simulations, the experts removed memory retrieval costs. The model only considered how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> would behave if they cared only about distance.



The result matched real-world bee behavior in several cases. Especially in arrays with low visual contrast or large spacing, real bees acted like the simulated ones. 



This confirmed that travel distance alone can push bees to switch. Only when flowers were tightly packed and visibly different did memory costs dominate and lead to stronger constancy.



These results challenge the traditional view that flower constancy is just about bees being creatures of habit. It is not about a mental cap. It is a trade-off. The bee calculates, perhaps not consciously, but clearly effectively, the best path through a sea of choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-plants-and-evolution">Why this matters for plants and evolution</h2>



This new understanding has important consequences for plants, too. When bees switch flowers frequently, pollen may land on the wrong species. That’s bad news for reproduction. 



So, many ecologists thought that having flowers look different from neighbors was a strong evolutionary pressure. But the data haven’t always backed that up. Some flower communities are highly diverse. Others are not. Sometimes, co-flowering plants look nearly identical.



The findings from this study explain why. It’s not just about color differences. It’s about spatial layout. If different species grow in patches, bees will stay constant regardless of color. If they grow all mixed up, bees will switch more unless there’s a strong visual cue to stop them.



So, flower constancy isn’t fixed. It’s flexible. And that flexibility changes the selective pressures plants face. 



Mixed communities may need stronger visual traits to keep bee visits clean and efficient. Clustered species may rely more on positioning than petals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-bees-teach-us-about-smart-foraging">What bees teach us about smart foraging</h2>



Ultimately, this research gives us a new way to look at bee intelligence. These insects make highly effective decisions. They don’t act from instinct alone. 



The behavior of bees is shaped by their environment, their memory, and their spatial awareness. They save time and avoid waste. They change plans when the layout changes. That’s not limitation - it’s strategy.



Bees teach us that loyalty to a single flower isn't about habit. It’s a calculated choice in a world full of options.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2435.70008" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Functional Ecology.</a>



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Why bees choose the same flowers again and again

In spring and summer, gardens explode with floral variety. Yet,...

Yellowstone National Park is often seen as a showcase of raw, wild nature. But beneath its stunning landscapes lies a subtler drama. Here, wolves, bears, and cougars - three of North America’s top predators - navigate not just the challenge of hunting prey but of sharing space.



They all rely on overlapping food sources, especially large ungulates like elk. What happens when those resources become scarce?



Conventional ecological theory suggests that fewer prey animals should spark more intense competition. Dominant predators like wolves and bears are expected to push out subordinate ones like cougars. 



However, a new study from the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota</a> challenges that assumption. The researchers discovered that it’s not just the abundance of prey that matters - but how big that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predator-found-in-one-of-the-deepest-parts-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cougars-downsize-their-dinner">Cougars downsize their dinner</h2>



Over 23 years of data reveal a strategic shift by Yellowstone’s cougars. As elk numbers declined, predators like cougars began hunting smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/well-built-fences-keep-predators-from-harming-livestock/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> more frequently. 



Mule deer, along with other medium and small species, became more common in cougar diets. The smaller kills come with advantages. They take less time to consume and are less visible, reducing the chance of theft by larger carnivores.



"This work really showcases the complex ways large carnivores make a living," said lead author Jack Rabe, a graduate student in the <a href="https://cfans.umn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Food, Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences</a>.



From 2016 to 2022, 37.6% of cougar kills were deer, compared to just 13.8% during the 1998–2005 period. Elk kills dropped from 74.2% to under 50 percent. 



Cougars increasingly targeted elk calves rather than adults, further reducing handling time. This allowed them to eat more quickly and retreat before wolves or bears arrived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-displacement-and-the-cost-of-being-caught">Displacement and the cost of being caught</h2>



When dominant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakes-use-invisible-colors-to-outsmart-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> arrive at a cougar kill, they often force the cat to flee. That process, known as displacement, has serious consequences. 



Cougars lose over 60% of the carcass when chased off, forcing them to hunt again much sooner. Kill intervals - the time between one successful hunt and the next - shorten from 5.6 days to just over 4.



Despite increasing wolf and bear numbers, displacement rates have actually declined. This runs counter to classic theories. But carcass size provides the missing link. 



Smaller kills are less visible, quicker to consume, and often made in terrain where wolves and bears struggle to follow. That means fewer confrontations and more food retained by the cougar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prey-choice-helps-predators-coexist">Prey choice helps predators coexist </h2>



"We found that shifting cougar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> is likely a key factor in the ecosystem's stability," said Rabe. 



"By opting for smaller prey, cougars reduce the amount of time they spend hunting to make up for kills lost to other carnivores. This allows them to maintain a relatively stable kill-rate, which in turn contributes to the overall balance of the predator-prey dynamics in the park."



This behavior not only protects cougars from losing meals, but also stabilizes their role in the ecosystem. Even though elk populations have fallen, cougars still manage to maintain their kill rates. 



That means they continue controlling deer and smaller ungulate numbers, while reducing risk of direct conflict with larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predators-evolved-the-perfect-fangs-for-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prey-size-controls-predator-conflict">Prey size controls predator conflict</h2>



The study found that carcass size - not prey density - was the strongest predictor of interference. Larger carcasses attracted more wolf and bear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-snails-evolved-defenses-against-invasive-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



 Displacements were 1.67 times more likely with each standard increase in prey size. Yet smaller kills, often weighing under 40 kg (about 88 pounds), drew far less attention.



This means cougars that kill smaller prey lose fewer meals. In turn, they can avoid the energy costs of defending kills or relocating frequently. Even predator-rich areas become manageable if cougars target the right kind of prey. 



The result? Less kleptoparasitism, fewer fights, and more peaceful coexistence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-diets-in-a-crowded-landscape">Evolving diets in a crowded landscape</h2>



Wolves and bears are adapting too. Wolves now hunt bison more often, especially in winter. 



From 1998–2005 to 2016–2022, bison rose from 10% to nearly 50% of the wolf diet. Bison favor open plains, far from the rough terrain preferred by cougars. This shift has reduced overlap between these predators.



Bears, though still frequent visitors in spring and summer, also showed a drop in displacement incidents. The rougher the terrain and the smaller the carcass, the lower the chance of a bear showing up. 



These changes show how prey choice shapes not only predator behavior, but the structure of the entire ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-food-risks-and-reproduction">More than food: Risks and reproduction</h2>



Displacement affects more than just dinner. For cougars, being forced off a kill also carries lethal risks. Though rare, wolf attacks can kill cougars. 



Two radio-collared cougars were killed by wolves between 2016 and 2022, both in terrain with poor escape options. By hunting smaller prey and staying mobile, cougars avoid such danger.



Interestingly, female cougars benefit even more. They kill smaller prey than males and are less likely to be displaced. Because females are crucial for reproduction, this strategy may support cougar population stability over time. 



Smaller prey means smaller meals, but more consistent access - an important tradeoff in a competitive environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-prey-helps-predators-stay-stable">Diverse prey helps predators stay stable</h2>



​This study helps reshape how ecologists understand predator guilds - groups of predators that share space and food sources. The <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone Wolf Project</a>, <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/yellowstone-cougar-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone Cougar Project</a>, and the University of Minnesota team demonstrate that prey diversity supports predator diversity



When ecosystems support a variety of prey sizes and types, predators adapt rather than fight. That flexibility, not aggression, helps maintain balance. Yellowstone offers a real-world case where smart choices by subordinate predators help everyone thrive.



As wolves hunt bison and cougars switch to deer, Yellowstone’s food web becomes more resilient. This insight may prove valuable far beyond the park, especially as predator and prey populations shift around the world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-07779-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Cougars hunt smaller prey to avoid conflict with other predators

Yellowstone National Park is often seen as a showcase of...

Questions about the vastness of our world can leave us speechless. How many stars twinkle in our galaxy? How many grains of sand stretch across the Sahara? How many ants roam the Earth?



For a long time, most questions like these seemed unanswerable. Yet, as research methods evolve, and with the emergence of AI and machine learning models, scientists have begun to solve these mysteries that not long ago seemed unsolvable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-seems-to-love-ants">Earth seems to love ants</h2>



Because estimating insect numbers can unlock important ecosystem insights, many experts throughout history have tried to count particular insect species and map their habitats, aiming to understand why these creatures flourish in certain places but remain scarce in others.



Biologists Sabine Nooten and Patrick Schultheiss from <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg</a> have devoted their work in this particular study to one of nature’s most resilient insects - ants.



There are about 22,000 known ant species worldwide. Their success hinges on their social structure, with certain members handling reproduction and others focusing on tasks like caring for offspring, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-specialized-medical-surgeries-on-injured-friends/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing the sick</a>, or gathering food.



Ants have no commander at the helm. They rely on collective activity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-employ-safeguards-social-distancing-to-prevent-spread-of-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">swarm intelligence</a>. Individual neurons in a human brain cannot do much on their own, yet the combined power of those neurons is amazing. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-have-a-communications-system-that-closely-resembles-mental-telepathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ant colonies</a> mirror that principle. They can create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-use-chemical-trails-to-guide-their-friends-to-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intricate trail networks</a>, use their bodies as bridges, and “farm” fungi or aphids. Some colonies even outperform humans in certain cooperative cognition tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-distribution-and-diversity-on-earth">Ant distribution and diversity on Earth</h2>



The study indicates that ants prefer tropical and subtropical climates. In forests, many nest among the leaves on the ground. In arid regions, they bustle across the exposed soil. 



These details help ecologists see how temperature, vegetation, and rainfall might affect ant populations. 



The team hopes to see more work done on factors shaping where ants thrive, especially as temperatures shift around the world.



With such immense numbers, ants bring both positive and negative outcomes. 



They can keep ecosystems healthy by recycling nutrients, and they sometimes form alliances with plants or insects in ways that boost local biodiversity. 



But not all interactions are benign. In certain places, invasive ants like fire ants harm native species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-far-reaching-influence">Far-reaching influence</h2>



Ants carry soil, move seeds, and alter many parts of their surroundings. Per hectare, ants move up to 13 tons of soil mass per year, and this movement can help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-farming-ants-work-hard-to-maintain-healthy-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keep nutrients cycling</a>. 



Their love of seeds means they spread some plants far beyond the mother plant’s reach. 



Scientists note that understanding the number of ants worldwide can help guide future conservation strategies, because it highlights areas that might need special attention to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protect the ecological balance</a>.



In addition to soil turnover, these insects also break down decaying materials, providing valuable services that enrich soil fertility. 



Forest regeneration often benefits from the constant churning of organic matter, and ants are key contributors. Such varied roles mean they hold ecological power disproportionate to their size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-to-count-earth-s-ants">Time to count Earth's ants</h2>



The tireless team of scientists, led by Nooten and Schultheiss, analyzed data from 489 smaller studies on ground-dwelling and tree-dwelling ants to create a large database of their global population. 



This approach offered a structured look at where ants flourish and in what numbers they appear. When they crunched the numbers, they found something remarkable.



“According to our estimates, the global ant population is 20 x 10 to the power of 15 - that is, 20 quadrillion animals. That is a 20 with 15 zeros, which is hard to grasp and appreciate," Nooten explains. 



The combined mass of these insects is also astonishing. 



According to Schultheiss, the total number of ants “exceeds the combined biomass of wild birds and mammals and corresponds to about 20 percent of humanity’s biomass,” a discovery that shows how vital ants can be in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-fill-a-150-year-gap-in-biodiversity-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems everywhere</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-earth-and-climate-change">Ants, Earth, and climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">As climates change</a>, scientists want to see how these creatures will shift their ranges. The research by this group was the first large-scale attempt at a quantitative overview of ant populations, and it points to many open questions about potential challenges. 



While ants have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thrived across continents</a>, altering habitat structures and climate could place pressure on species that are less adaptable.



In some areas, people view ants as pests. Yet these insects, when kept in balance, offer many unseen benefits. 



For instance, their tunnels can help water infiltration in soil. They also serve as prey for various animals, creating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-ants-art-science-sustainable-food-source-ant-cuisine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">links in the food chain</a>. 



Problems usually arise when invasive ants enter habitats and drive out local species that have no defenses against them. Fire ants, for example, can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-hold-a-grudge-against-aggressive-rivals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upend an entire environment</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-left-to-learn">What's left to learn?</h2>



Researchers are enthusiastic about finding methods to analyze trends, such as how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-not-properly-adapting-to-warming-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature extremes</a> might affect ants’ movements. 



Data from global, long-term monitoring can reveal how different species cope with droughts, hurricanes, or shifting seasons. There is also interest in exploring how farmland changes ant presence over time.



Moving forward, the team underscores the importance of refining data on these insects. By revisiting ecosystems that have been studied before, experts can learn whether ants have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-ants-use-earths-magnetic-field-for-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">settled in new zones</a> or left older ones. 



Such targeted work could inform farmers about pest control, point out regions at risk of invasion by harmful ant species, and guide decisions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-ants-make-a-huge-contribution-to-forest-regeneration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat restoration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Ants seldom top the list of creatures people think about. Yet they have an outsized role in shaping our surroundings. 



Their ability to transform habitats, redistribute resources, and affect local biodiversity suggests a need for more research. 



Different species often have specialized tasks, whether caring for aphids or forging trails that other creatures can follow. 



Learning about ant numbers brings these impacts into view, providing clues on how to preserve balance in fragile areas.



It also encourages reflection on how many hidden factors <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-destabilizing-ant-plant-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keep our ecosystems intact</a>. Though small, ants tackle responsibilities that otherwise would need a range of other organisms to manage. 



By studying these insects, scientists glean insights about resilience, adaptability, and the intricate web of life holding everything together.



Ants, often overlooked, deserve a central place in our discussions about the natural world. They shape environments, help distribute seeds, and are more populous than most of us imagined. 



Whether admired for their social complexity or managed for their potential risks, these insects illustrate how even the tiniest creatures can shift large-scale processes.



The full study, “The abundance, biomass, and distribution of ants on Earth,” was published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2201550119" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How many ants live on Earth? The number is staggering

Questions about the vastness of our world can leave us...

Mother,And,Cub,Of,Bonobo.,Green,Natural,Background.,The,Bonobo

Bonobos, our closest relatives, may not speak, but they use something strikingly similar to human language.



A new study from researchers at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> and <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> reveals that wild bonobos use complex vocal combinations. These resemble how humans string words together.



Researchers observed bonobos in the Kokolopori Community Reserve in the Democratic Republic of Congo. They found that bonobo calls follow the rules of compositionality, a core feature of human language.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonobo</a> calls are more than random noises. They are structured, purposeful, and, in some cases, surprisingly complex. This research doesn’t just hint at intelligence. It shows the skeleton of a system that mirrors how we construct meaning from words and phrases.



If correct, this means that the boundary between human and non-human communication is far more blurred than scientists used to think.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-human-language-special">What makes human language special</h2>



One feature of human language stands out - compositionality. This is our ability to string small parts together into meaningful wholes.



For example, a dancer can be blond; a dancer can be bad. In the first case, “blond” adds a trait, while in the second, “bad” modifies how we think about the dancing itself. The latter is more than a label - it’s judgment woven into structure.



Compositionality comes in two forms: trivial and nontrivial. Trivial compositionality occurs when each word keeps its independent meaning. Nontrivial compositionality occurs when the combination reshapes meaning, where one part changes the sense of the other. 



Until now, evidence for nontrivial compositionality in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> other than humans was missing. Some birds and primates showed signs of trivial compositionality. But no study had proven that any non-human species could modify meaning in such layered ways.



This is where the bonobos come in. Their vocal combinations suggest they may not only understand the value of combining sounds - but can manipulate meaning like we do, through structured, nontrivial arrangements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-calls-are-like-human-language">Bonobo calls are like human language</h2>



The researchers collected 700 vocal recordings of the Kokolopori bonobos over time.



Each utterance was annotated with more than 300 contextual features - what the bonobo was doing, who was nearby, what activity the group was engaged in. These features, called FoCs (features of circumstances), offered a way to map meaning.



To analyze the patterns, the team used a framework borrowed from distributional semantics, a linguistic method that typically applies to human languages. It maps meanings by looking at how words appear across similar contexts. Words used in similar situations tend to have related meanings.



Using this method, researchers projected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-thriving-in-salonga-national-park/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo</a> calls into a semantic space. In this space, calls with similar meanings cluster close together. 



This allowed the scientists to examine not just individual calls, but also what combinations formed - and whether those combinations held meaning greater than the sum of their parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-use-rules-similar-to-language">Bonobos use rules similar to language</h2>



The researchers applied a rigorous four-step process to evaluate each combination. First, they checked if individual call types had distinct meanings. 



Then, they assessed whether combinations had meanings that were different from the meanings of their parts. Next, they asked whether a combination’s meaning could be derived from its components.



Finally, they looked for cases where the meaning of the whole was different from simply adding up the parts - which would be evidence of nontrivial compositionality.



“All seven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orphaned-bonobos-can-regain-social-skills-and-empathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo</a> call types that were considered in our analysis combine into four compositional structures, of which three exhibit nontrivial compositionality,” the study's authors report.



This is a major shift. It means that not only are bonobos capable of combining calls meaningfully, but they also do so in ways that mirror the deeper, more abstract structures of human language.



The research found that combinations like High-hoot_Low-hoot, Peep_Whistle, and Peep-yelp_High-hoot all exhibited nontrivial compositionality. One combination, Yelp_Grunt, did not. It retained trivial structure, where the meaning was just the sum of the parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-these-bonobo-calls-might-mean">What these bonobo calls might mean</h2>



Understanding bonobo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peaceful-bonobos-are-actually-more-aggressive-than-chimps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication</a> means more than just identifying call types. It means deciphering the purpose behind each sound. Grunts, for example, seem to signal “look at me,” drawing attention in various social settings like grooming or feeding. 



High-hoots are louder and often used over distance or in tense moments, suggesting “pay attention to me.” Low-hoots emerge during excited moments, such as preparing a nest for the night.



The whistle plays another role entirely - it helps maintain group cohesion, perhaps saying “let’s stay together.” Peeps and yelps, though similar, differ in tone. Peeps are more suggestive - maybe “I’d like to…” - while yelps are firmer and more like commands: “let’s do that.”



Then come the combinations. Peep_Whistle, for example, may mean something like “I’d like us to stay together,” and often appears during sensitive moments such as displays or copulation. 



High-hoot_Low-hoot might signal distress, urging others to pay closer attention. Peep-yelp_High-hoot could be a way to organize group movement, coordinating actions with distant individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-combinations-reveal">What the combinations reveal</h2>



Determining whether a combination was trivial or nontrivial required more than guessing. 



Researchers compared each combination’s meaning against hypothetical “additive” meanings - where A and B’s meanings were just added together. If the real combination strayed significantly from this sum, it was labeled nontrivial.



“For all compositional combinations except Yelp_Grunt, the difference was greater than zero,” the study states. That made Yelp_Grunt the only trivial structure. The other three combinations carried a new kind of meaning. They didn’t just add. They transformed.



This means that in at least three cases, bonobos created new meanings from existing calls. This aligns closely with how humans use language to express ideas. Words shift and adjust each other in context. 



Bonobos, it seems, do this with their own form of language too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-our-evolutionary-past">A window into our evolutionary past</h2>



What do these findings tell us about ourselves? Quite a lot, it turns out.



“Since humans and bonobos had a common ancestor approximately 7 to 13 million years ago, they share many traits by descent, and it appears that compositionality is likely one of them,” said Harvard Professor Martin Surbeck.



“Our study therefore suggests that our ancestors already extensively used compositionality at least 7 million years ago, if not more,” added Simon Townsend.



This positions language not as a sudden leap in human evolution, but as a gradual development. It suggests that the foundations for structured communication were laid long before Homo sapiens arrived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-method-with-wide-possibilities">A method with wide possibilities</h2>



The study also offers a method to understand communication across species. By mapping vocal signals using minimal human judgment and focusing on context, the researchers showed that meaning could be measured more objectively.



“We present a method for reliably inferring the meaning of all the signals of an animal’s repertoire with minimal human judgment,” the authors explain.



This method doesn’t rely on assigning meaning through guesswork. It uses context and data, opening the door to future studies across different groups of animals, from dolphins to elephants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-language-remains-complex">Bonobo language remains complex</h2>



The researchers acknowledge that some utterances remain difficult to interpret. Calls might convey emotional states, not just intentions. Subtle acoustic variations may exist but go unnoticed. Some calls may serve structural roles, like those in birdsong, rather than conveying clear messages.



Also, vocalizations are not the only form of communication. Bonobos combine vocal calls with gestures and facial expressions. These multimodal signals likely shape meaning too. Future studies may show even richer layers of nonverbal language in bonobo society.



Even so, the evidence is strong. Bonobos do not just make noise. They communicate in structured, meaningful ways. They use building blocks. They rearrange, modify, and combine. And in doing so, they remind us that the roots of language run deep.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adv1170" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Bonobo communication shares many similarities with human language

Bonobos, our closest relatives, may not speak, but they use...

Modern birds have air-filled cavities in their bones to reduce weight for flight. Interestingly, this feature has also been discovered in dinosaur fossils. 



A new study of alvarezsauridae fossils has identified these same bone features in creatures that roamed the Earth nearly 70 million years ago.



Experts studying these slender dinosaurs uncovered evidence of hollow channels that link to their respiratory systems. 



The results suggest that <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.0160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pneumaticity</a> might have been more common in theropod dinosaurs than previously thought.



This work was led by <a href="https://www.patagonia.com.ar/General+Roca/450_Museo+Patag%C3%B3nico+de+Ciencias+Naturales.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Patagonian Museum of Natural Sciences</a> in Roca, and was founded as a project by the Patagonian Foundation of Natural Sciences. Researchers collaborated across Argentina and China to piece together details of these unusual bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-bones-were-hollow">Dinosaur bones were hollow</h2>



Bird skeletons stand out for their lightweight build. Many have air sacs that extend into bones, helping to manage body temperature, improve respiratory functions, and reduce overall mass.



Scans of these new fossils indicate that such air sacs already existed in some dinosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineages</a>. 



Paleontologists suggest this adaptation might have provided other benefits, particularly in oxygen circulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hollow-bones-helped-dinosaur-breathing">Hollow bones helped dinosaur breathing</h2>



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.284.5423.2137" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have long known that certain dinosaur groups had air pockets in their skeletons. Yet the extent of these cavities in <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/saurischia/theropoda.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropod dinosaurs</a> has been debated.



CT scans of the dinosaur fossil vertebrae uncovered interconnected voids that likely connected to respiratory structures. 



This structural pattern resembles what is seen in living birds, though the ancient dinosaur bones differ in shape and size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-tail-anatomy">Surprising tail anatomy</h2>



One unexpected twist came from the tail region. Internal air spaces showed up as far back as the middle segments, hinting at a more widespread distribution of air pockets than is found in some other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-case-of-the-two-clawed-dinosaur-duonychus-tsogtbaatari/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Specialists in dinosaur fossils and biology have typically focused on the neck and torso regions for signs of air sacs. 



However, seeing as the air sacs extend far into the tail, this raises fresh questions about how these creatures breathed and moved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-random-variability-in-bone-cavities">Random variability in bone cavities</h2>



Another puzzle emerged when the team compared separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specimens</a> of different sizes. They found uneven patterns of diverticula within the same type of vertebrae, suggesting no clear progression of these air pockets.



“This study is an important first step that paves the way for future studies to uncover the extent of pneumatic invasion among alvarezsauridaes, and its macroevolutionary implications,” explained J. G. Meso from The Patagonian Museum of Natural Science.



The authors described this uneven distribution of hollow spaces in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> bones as a seemingly random process that might relate to blood vessel pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-directions-in-dinosaur-research">New directions in dinosaur research</h2>



Scholars comparing these findings to those of other species note that air cavities might show up in surprising places once larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-eggs-found-in-utah-belong-to-multiple-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> datasets are examined.



Some suspect this adaptation appeared in different dinosaur families at various points, rather than following a steady evolutionary path.



With more advanced imaging, experts hope to learn if certain groups gained or lost these hollow spaces over time. This approach could reveal unexpected links between distant branches of the dinosaur family tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-bones-changed-with-evolution">Dinosaur bones changed with evolution</h2>



Lightweight skeletal features might have enhanced efficiency, but no one knows if they aided speed, temperature control, or other factors. 



<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00534.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> of bird flight have shown that reduced bone mass can help modern species, though alvarezsauridaes did not soar.



Further research might clarify whether these air-filled bones played a role in daily activity or growth. Specialists also want to explore how these structures evolved among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-discovered-in-australia-rewrite-dinosaur-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>, scavengers, and other lifestyles within <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/saurischia/coelurosauria.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coelurosaurians</a>.



Scientists remain cautious about comparing ancient air sacs to those of living birds. Different theropod families likely followed various paths to lighten their bones and enhance respiratory function.



Some paleontologists propose that future CT analyses of more fossils could confirm if these features evolved multiple times. Each new discovery brings fresh insights into how dinosaurs thrived in unique environments.



Future research may reveal complex bone cavities in species other than dinosaurs. Ongoing studies will broaden our view of how dinosaurs thrived.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0320121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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First evidence of 'hollow bones' found in dinosaurs, just like modern birds

Modern birds have air-filled cavities in their bones to reduce...

Hummingbird,With,Flower.,Rufous-gaped,Hillstar,,,Urochroa,Bougueri,,On,Ping

The shift into warmer days often brings a renewed interest in the outdoors. Gardens begin to hum with activity as new blooms appear, and the buzz of local pollinators adds a lively backdrop. The excitement of seeing a hummingbird hovering in your yard can brighten any afternoon.



It’s fitting to recognize that these remarkable birds have captured the attention of Dr. Emily Watkins from the <a href="https://www.audubon.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Audubon Society</a>, whose work highlights simple yard enhancements that can welcome them year after year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quick-and-colorful">Quick and colorful</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hummingbirds</a> weigh less than a nickel, yet they are capable of staying airborne in one spot and sometimes even flying backward. 



Their bright feathers reflect brilliant reds, greens, or purples, depending on the angle of the sunlight. This blend of color and agility has made them a favorite subject of conversation among neighbors who compare sightings around the yard.



When they rest, they often vanish into nearby branches or shrubs. These short breaks let them conserve energy before the next <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hummingbirds-deal-with-their-need-for-flight-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">burst of motion</a>. 



A quick appearance at a flower or a feeder can shift moods, spark a moment of joy, and motivate people to experiment with plants that might catch a hummingbird’s eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tough-and-tiny-travelers">Tough and tiny travelers</h2>



Every garden has its own rhythm, but hummingbirds bring an energy that delights the senses. 



Some people notice that these feathered visitors arrive just when the temperature nudges them to plant new flowers or hang fresh feeders. 



This timing often reinforces the feeling that a new season is officially underway.



These birds use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-adjust-their-wings-to-fly-through-very-tiny-spaces/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">incredible amounts of energy</a> with every wingbeat. Some species manage flights of thousands of miles each year, and certain ones even cross the Gulf of Mexico without a break.



Their wings can beat up to 80 times per second, and they may visit hundreds of flowers in a single day. With such intense demands, they require a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">steady supply of nectar</a> and insects. 



Filling your yard with the right kinds of flowers, such as azaleas, will guarantee that they have a steady supply of both.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-azaleas-yards-and-hummingbirds">Azaleas, yards, and hummingbirds</h2>



Azaleas come in many sizes, with some reaching 15 feet tall and others staying closer to the 3 to 6 foot range. 



Their funnel-shaped blooms are well-suited to a hummingbird’s long bill, making them a practical addition for those hoping to attract these birds. 



Beyond nectar, azaleas can draw insects such as aphids and mites, which make up about 80% of a hummingbird’s diet. 



Observers sometimes choose to pair azaleas with other nectar-rich plants, such as bee balm or salvia, to keep a yard filled with buzzing and fluttering activity throughout the growing season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-science-says">What the science says</h2>



Scientists took a close look at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-hummingbird-day-celebrating-natures-aerial-acrobats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbird sightings</a> across the mainland United States. 



They wanted to see if feeders, nectar-laden flowers, native species, or reduced pavement would affect the chances of hosting these tiny visitors. 



Findings showed that homes with a variety of blooms and regular feeders were more likely to spot hummingbirds, especially if those plantings included native flowers. 



Having less asphalt and concrete around also helped.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204619311284" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">This research</a> spanned both urban and rural regions. Results lined up with established advice from conservation groups that highlight the value of planting native species and preserving pockets of natural habitat. 



By following these suggestions, many homeowners find that their outdoor spaces become more inviting to local wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighborhood-hummingbird-havens">Neighborhood hummingbird havens</h2>



Many communities run programs that set aside open spaces for pollinator-friendly growth. Organizers point to hummingbirds as a symbol of how nature can thrive in a suburban or city environment. 



When property owners plant shrubs that offer both nectar and insect life, those choices can provide a more welcoming stopover for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbird-chick-mimics-a-toxic-caterpillar-to-evade-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traveling birds</a>.



In some areas, city councils partner with environmental groups to develop pollinator corridors. These aim to link multiple gardens into a network of habitats. 



Once enough backyards and public spaces join the effort, hummingbirds can move through neighborhoods more easily. Residents, in turn, share a united project that connects them in a positive way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-hummingbird-yard">Creating a hummingbird yard</h2>



To sum it all up, nationwide observations from the National Audubon Society's study confirm that straightforward gardening steps can do a lot for attracting hummingbirds to your yard. 



A clean feeder with fresh sugar water, replaced every few days, is a quick option for those just starting out. 



Azaleas and other native shrubs provide the natural nectar and insects these birds depend on, giving them the variety they need. 



Small efforts add up across the block, strengthening local greenery and helping these visitors refuel during migration or while raising young.



Some people see these actions as part of a broader push for healthier local ecosystems. Planting for pollinators may also balance out land lost to development. 



Local wildlife officials often applaud neighborhood collaborations because they promote a sense of unity and keep colorful creatures thriving close to home.



Observing one dart through sunlit foliage can lift anyone’s spirits, and these moments often spark an even deeper appreciation of the living world around us.



It's that time of year, the hummingbirds are here.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204619311284" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Landscape and Urban Planning</a>.



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How to turn your yard into a haven for hummingbirds

The shift into warmer days often brings a renewed interest...

A,Close-up,Photograph,Of,A,Juvenile,St,Andrew's,Cross,Spider

Whether it’s the constant hum of traffic or the repetitive clamor of construction, the noises produced by modern society can obstruct the abilities of spiders and all other animals to send and receive signals that are crucial for their survival.



Studying how animals pick up information can be hard, but web-building spiders give scientists a special chance to look at how external tools (like spider webs) help filter out the noises they don't care about and receive the signals that are important for their survival.



Now, a team of biologists at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln (<a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNL</a>) has published one of the first known studies demonstrating how one group of animals can react to human-made noise by adjusting its own method of sensing sounds. 



In an article published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2025.02.041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, researchers Brandi Pessman and Eileen Hebets show that funnel-weaving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-reveal-how-cave-creatures-lose-their-vision-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> alter how their silk webs transmit vibrations in response to local noise. 



This finding suggests that the spiders might deliberately change web structure to cope with the auditory chaos surrounding them, ensuring they receive vital cues from potential mates, prey, or predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-noise-and-web-adjustments">Spiders, noise, and web adjustments</h2>



Drawing on lab experiments, the study uncovered a particularly unexpected insight: the way a spider’s web conveys vibrations varies depending on whether its architect was collected from a rural or urban area. 



This discrepancy hints at the idea that prior exposure to noise - possibly even inherited across generations - may influence a spider’s malleability when it comes to spinning webs.



“One of the most interesting things that we found is that urban and rural spiders are reacting differently when they're put into a noisy environment,” said Pessman, a postdoctoral researcher in biological sciences and the lead author of the paper. 



“This means that spiders with different experiences with noise - whether they themselves experienced it or their mothers passed it down to them across generations - respond differently.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spider-webs-as-sensory-extensions">Spider webs as sensory extensions</h2>



It has been well documented that animals such as birds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-calls-and-voices-of-frogs-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> can change their calls or the timing of their vocalizations in the face of increased human noise. 



However, little was known about how animals manage to tweak the way they receive acoustic or vibratory signals.



The main challenge is the hidden nature of most animals’ sensory systems, which are located within their bodies. 



But web-building spiders are unique, as their webs function effectively like external sensory extensions that capture vibrations from the environment.



This distinction makes funnel-weaving spiders, also known as Agelenopsis pennsylvanica, an ideal test group. They rely predominantly on vibratory signals for vital information. 



Their webs connect to various surfaces - trees, rocks, or buildings - capable of transmitting the vibratory noise created by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-get-road-rage-when-exposed-to-traffic-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traffic</a>, industrial activities, and more. 



The research team hypothesized that funnel-weaving spiders might be able to reduce the volume of unwanted or irrelevant vibrations caused by human-related noise, which often shares the frequency range these spiders need for effective communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-in-urban-areas">Spiders in urban areas</h2>



Pessman started by collecting a total of 60 funnel-weaving spiders in and around Lincoln, Nebraska - some from city settings and others from out in the countryside. 



In the lab, the spiders were then placed in controlled environments that were either quiet or noisy as they spun webs over four nights.



Upon completion, the researchers introduced test vibrations into those webs, measuring how energy moved across the silk in different conditions.



They observed that spiders from urban areas tended to build webs that lost more energy in short-distance vibrations across a broader set of frequencies when placed under noisy conditions. 



Interpreted practically, these webs essentially “muffled” environmental noise. This may prevent sensory overload, giving the spiders a clearer signal from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> or other relevant vibrations in their immediate vicinity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-that-are-exposed-to-less-noise">Spiders that are exposed to less noise</h2>



Meanwhile, rural spiders assembled their webs in such a way that energy from biologically important long-distance vibrations was preserved. 



This indicates they might be amplifying or enhancing certain frequency ranges to pick out meaningful vibrations above the background noise.



“Rural spiders are not used to as much noise in their environment,” Pessman said. “When they suddenly get a lot of noise, they might try to 'turn up' the volume in their webs or amplify what's coming in to better hear certain signals above the noise.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Given the role of funnel webs as external sensory structures, these findings open a new window into how animals can adjust the way they receive signals, a research area that had remained largely unclear until now. 



The ability to alter web structure in response to different noise environments could prove vital as human-made noise continues to escalate across the planet.



In the future, the team plans to investigate precisely how the spiders are changing their webs - whether they adjust the tension of certain silk lines, vary anchor points, or adopt an entirely new shape to filter or boost specific frequencies. 



High-speed video of the web-building process, combined with digital tracking methods, will let them delve deeper into these construction nuances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-noise-and-spider-webs">Human noise and spider webs</h2>



“This study really highlights the role of receivers in overcoming environmental noise,” said Hebets, who is a professor of biological sciences at UNL. 



“It opens up entirely new avenues of research. For example, are receivers placing themselves at certain locations in the environment where signals are going to receive less attenuation or overlap of noise?”



By revealing that some species can modify their “sensor” for hearing, the team hopes to inspire more research on how other animals cope with rising noise levels. 



The funnels built by these little invertebrates may seem inconsequential to an urban passerby, but as the study shows, each strand of silk can be precisely tuned to help the spider thrive in a clamorous world.



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Spiders build their webs differently when the noise in their neighborhood gets too loud

Whether it’s the constant hum of traffic or the repetitive...

<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1079404" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-spread-of-butterfly-disease-revealed-in-museum-collections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-make-life-and-death-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a><a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"></a>Every spring, gardens and fields fill the air with rich, floral aromas. But it's more than just a pleasant smell; these plant-released scents play a vital role in the lives of butterflies and moths.



A new <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> study reveals how daily changes in plant aromas influence feeding behaviors among winged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/">insects</a> that belong to the group known as Lepidoptera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-scent-and-insect-diets">Plant scent and insect diets</h2>



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2426" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, unveils the Salient Aroma Hypothesis.



This new idea proposes that the chemical cues plants release - particularly during the daytime - are instrumental in shaping how specialized, or how flexible, a butterfly or moth becomes in its diet



“This idea provides a new perspective on why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-spread-of-butterfly-disease-revealed-in-museum-collections/">butterflies</a> and moths are picky eaters while others are not,” said Po-An Lin, an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/">National Taiwan University</a>. “It also highlights the critical role of plant volatiles, or scents, in shaping insect-plant interactions and evolutionary adaptations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-picky-eaters-and-their-plant-choice">Picky eaters and their plant choice</h2>



Scientists already knew that many Lepidopterans are surprisingly fussy with their dietary choices.



The insects feed only on specific plant groups that cater to the nutritional or chemical needs of their offspring. Others are the polar opposite, feeding on a broad range of vegetation.



The hypothesis explains these extremes by focusing on how butterflies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-defense-against-the-invasive-spongy-moth-is-fading/">moths</a> use their antennae to detect plant scents. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-scent-and-insect-antennae-size">Plant scent and insect antennae size</h2>



Researchers measured insect antennae on 582 specimens from 94 species and linked size to diet and activity patterns. 



Notably, they found that day-active females in particular had noticeably larger antennae than their nocturnal relatives. This adaptation allows them to detect and process the richer daytime scents in the environment.



“The relationship between antennal size and host plant breadth was very strong,” Felton said. “Larger antennal sizes have been associated with a greater number of sensilla, the sensory structures involved in the sense of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/">smell</a>, thereby increasing the surface area for sensory receptors." 



"The enhanced capacity may be a key adaptation for how certain Lepidoptera have evolved to feed on a limited and specific range of plants."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-cues-and-evolution">Chemical cues and evolution</h2>



The scientists confirmed that most vegetation releases a more varied and abundant blend of volatile compounds during the day, in comparison with the night.



This disparity lines up with the greater complexity observed in the olfactory systems of day-active insects. Daytime feeders use abundant daytime chemical cues to find, identify, and eat the plants that best suit their needs.



“This finding demonstrates how the availability of chemical signals influences the evolution of sensory organs in insects,” Felton said. “It provides a fascinating example of how plants have played a direct role in shaping the evolution of the insects that rely on them.”



The study also traced the evolutionary lineages of butterflies and moths in the Lepidoptera family tree. Researchers mapped species’ daily activity and linked it to host plant preferences to reveal feeding behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-specialization-in-the-daylight">Scent specialization in the daylight</h2>



The outcome is a nuanced picture of insect-plant dynamics. Daytime pollinators, like monarch butterflies, use their large antennae to detect specific plant scents, and this guides them toward a narrow range of host plants. 



“Insect herbivores, such as butterflies and moths, must find the right plants to feed on and, in the case of females, to lay their eggs,” said Professor Lin. “This is a crucial decision because caterpillars depend entirely on the selected plant for survival. 



In contrast, unlike humans, who eat a variety of foods to stay healthy, many insect herbivores specialize in just a few plant species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-diets-in-the-nighttime-quiet">Broader diets in the nighttime quiet</h2>



Nocturnal moths like the Polyphemus, encounter fewer distinct plant aromas in the dark. Without rich scent cues to guide them, these insects are less likely to lock in on a single preferred food source. Their evolutionary solution? Broaden their diet to improve their odds of survival.



By revealing how something as subtle as the timing and volume of plant odors can direct dietary choices, this study expands our understanding of ecological networks.



The research highlights the delicate interplay between insect sensory capabilities and plant chemistry, laying the groundwork for future research into how these relationships shape biodiversity across ecosystems.



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Scents of survival: How plant aromas shape insect diets

Every spring, gardens and fields fill the air with rich,...

Offshore wind farms are picking up speed around the world. Their expansion is a big part of the push to reduce emissions and respond to the climate crisis. But as this clean energy source expands, so do the concerns about how offshore wind farms might affect marine life.



A new study suggests that the places most suitable for offshore wind energy are often the same places where seabirds and marine mammals go to feed.



The research was conducted by experts at the University of Alicante, in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.umh.es/?lang=EN" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miguel Hernández University of Elche</a>, the University of Murcia, and the Complutense University of Madrid.



The teams findings raise a red flag: without careful planning, wind farms could unintentionally harm some of the ocean’s most vulnerable species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-location-of-offshore-wind-farms">Location of offshore wind farms </h2>



Building <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-turbines-are-displacing-bats-from-their-forest-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turbines</a> at sea may seem less intrusive than building them on land. Some impacts are positive. For example, wind farms often restrict fishing activity, which can create a kind of unofficial sanctuary for marine life. 



However, the negatives can’t be ignored. Turbines introduce underwater noise, disrupt habitats, and increase the risk of collision for birds.



“From the planning stages through to operation, offshore wind turbines can affect wildlife in many ways.” explained Professor Juan Manuel Pérez-García, who has previously researched the impact of onshore wind farms on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/renewable-energy-is-the-latest-threat-to-bird-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird populations</a>.



The study makes one thing clear: it’s not enough to pick windy spots. We need to understand which marine life might be put at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-marine-hotspots">Predicting marine hotspots</h2>



One of the biggest hurdles in offshore development is knowing where wildlife is most active. 



“We can’t monitor every animal in the sea, so we need to estimate where they’re likely to be using mathematical models,” noted Professor Pérez-García.



The team created these estimates by looking at marine food webs. From tiny phytoplankton up to fish and top predators like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-most-endangered-seabirds-are-also-threatened-by-plastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seabirds</a> and marine mammals, the food chain offers clues about where feeding is most likely to occur.



Interestingly, the study found that biomass matters more than biodiversity. “It’s not fish diversity that matters most, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/without-strong-action-global-fish-stocks-could-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomass</a>: having a large amount of available food is more important than having a variety of species,” said Professor Pérez-García.



Some animals eat plankton directly, while others eat the fish that rely on plankton. Either way, food-rich areas are magnets for hungry wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-farms-and-marine-life-hotspots">Wind farms and marine life hotspots</h2>



Using this information, the researchers built global risk maps by layering biodiversity hotspots over wind potential zones. The overlap was striking - especially in the Northern Hemisphere.



In contrast, there appeared to be less overlap in the Southern Hemisphere, though the team warns this could be due to limited data rather than lower risk.



“These risk maps are a key tool to foresee potential conflicts between conservation and energy development,” said Professor Pérez-García. “The goal isn’t to slow down the energy transition, but to make it compatible with biodiversity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-marine-life">Protecting marine life</h2>



One troubling finding is that many of the high-risk zones identified in the study fall outside existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine protected areas</a> (MPAs). This means that, as it stands, many wildlife-rich areas don’t have the legal protection needed to withstand large-scale development.



The researchers recommend expanding MPAs and making them stronger. They also urge governments to build “exclusion zones” where conservation takes priority. 



These decisions, they argue, should be guided by scientific data - not politics or convenience.



“We need to understand what species are doing, where they go, and where their resources are,” noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-tools-and-smarter-planning">Better tools and smarter planning</h2>



Technology can help. For example, attaching GPS trackers to seabirds allows scientists to see where they go, how they fly, and whether they’re avoiding or interacting with wind farms.



Some birds, it turns out, steer clear of the turbines. But scientists now need to dig deeper: are these birds also missing out on food? Could marine mammals be affected in similar ways?



Understanding these patterns will be key to balancing clean energy with ecosystem health.



This research serves as a reminder: renewable energy must also be responsible energy. With better tools and smarter planning, it’s possible to power the future without dimming the lives of the species that call the oceans home.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479724037940" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Environmental Management</a>.



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Offshore wind farms threaten marine life hotspots

Offshore wind farms are picking up speed around the world....

An international team of researchers took advantage of a rare chance encounter to explore a massive new expanse of seafloor exposed by the breakup of an Antarctic ice shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea.&nbsp;



On January 13, 2025, an iceberg named A-84 - which was the size of the city of Chicago - broke off from the George VI Ice Shelf, which sits along the Antarctic Peninsula. 



This event uncovered roughly 209 square miles (540 square kilometers) of seafloor that had previously been concealed under floating ice.



The team arrived aboard <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Schmidt Ocean Institute</a>’s R/V Falkor (too) at this newly exposed site on January 25, making them the first to study such a large underwater area that had previously been covered by an ice shelf.&nbsp;



Their effort marks the first large-scale interdisciplinary exploration of geologic, oceanographic, and biological features hidden beneath an extensive floating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-glacier-retreat-in-the-arctic-signals-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> front.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapidly-shifting-expedition-goals">Rapidly shifting expedition goals</h2>



Co-chief scientist Patricia Esquete is a researcher in the <a href="https://www.cesam-la.pt/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Environmental and Marine Studies</a> (CESAM) and the Department of Biology (DBio) at the <a href="https://www.ua.pt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Aveiro</a> in Portugal.&nbsp;



"We seized upon the moment, changed our expedition plan, and went for it so we could look at what was happening in the depths below,” said Esquete.



“We didn’t expect to find such a beautiful, thriving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-environmental-stress-strengthens-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>. Based on the size of the animals, the communities we observed have been there for decades, maybe even hundreds of years.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor-study_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor-study_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="The newly exposed Antarctic seafloor also allowed the team to gather critical data on the past behavior of the ice sheet. The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass over the last few decades due to climate change. Credit: Alex Ingle / Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963228"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The newly exposed Antarctic seafloor also allowed the team to gather critical data on the past behavior of the ice sheet. The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass over the last few decades due to climate change. Credit: Alex Ingle / Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



Originally, the science mission did not include venturing beneath a freshly fractured portion of the ice shelf. 



However, the movement of this newly calved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-iceberg-that-broke-away-from-antarctica-sparks-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg</a> offered a rare opportunity to explore a site that, until recently, had never been examined by any human.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-seafloor-reveals-lush-communities">Antarctic seafloor reveals lush communities</h2>



Using Schmidt Ocean Institute’s remotely operated vehicle, ROV SuBastian, the science team spent eight days surveying the seafloor at depths down to 1,300 meters (4,265 feet).&nbsp;



The experts discovered an unexpectedly rich ecosystem that was teeming with corals, sponges, icefish, giant sea spiders, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> - an indication that marine life can flourish under ice-covered regions of the Antarctic in ways not previously documented.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_octopus-resting_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_octopus-resting_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="An octopus rests on the seafloor 1150 meters deep, in the Bellingshausen Sea off Antarctica, at an area where the shelf break and slope are cut by several underwater gullies. Credit: ROV SuBastian / Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963224"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An octopus rests on the seafloor 1150 meters deep, in the Bellingshausen Sea off Antarctica, at an area where the shelf break and slope are cut by several underwater gullies. Credit: ROV SuBastian / Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



According to the researchers, these observations offer insight into how ecosystems function beneath the Antarctic ice sheet.&nbsp;Such an ecosystem has seldom been accessed. 



Earlier findings, notably by <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a> researchers in 2021, revealed possible bottom-dwelling life beneath ice, but the present study marks the first time an ROV survey has thoroughly documented wide areas of this vibrant seabed.



The experts were surprised by the large biomass and biodiversity in the ecosystem and suspect they have discovered several new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-marine-life-survives-in-darkness">How marine life survives in darkness</h2>



Deep-sea ecosystems generally depend on nutrients trickling down from surface waters. However, these Antarctic seafloors had been buried under ice some 150 meters (nearly 500 feet) thick for centuries.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_Sponge_Anemone_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_Sponge_Anemone_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="A large sponge, a cluster of anemones, and other life is seen nearly 230 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963226"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A large sponge, a cluster of anemones, and other life is seen nearly 230 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



With no direct sunlight, how such abundant organisms manage to feed is still uncertain. The scientists propose that ocean currents under the ice may be funneling essential nutrients to these communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-ice-sheet-behavior">Antarctic ice sheet behavior</h2>



Apart from their ecological discoveries, the international group - which included scientists from Portugal, the United Kingdom, Chile, Germany, Norway, New Zealand, and the United States - examined geological samples to gain knowledge about past changes in the Antarctic ice sheet.



The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass for decades in response to climate change.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_modis-satellite-view_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_modis-satellite-view_NASA_1s.webp" alt="The MODIS Corrected Reflectance satellite imagery showing the iceberg calved from George VI Ice Shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea on 19 January 2025. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963222"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The MODIS Corrected Reflectance satellite imagery showing the iceberg calved from George VI Ice Shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea on 19 January 2025. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



“The ice loss from the Antarctic Ice Sheet is a major contributor to sea level rise worldwide,” said co-chief scientist Sasha Montelli of <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>, who is also a 2019 Schmidt Science Fellow.&nbsp;



“Our work is critical for providing longer-term context of these recent changes, improving our ability to make projections of future change - projections that can inform actionable policies. We will undoubtedly make new discoveries as we continue to analyze this vital data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-samples-from-the-antarctic-seafloor">Samples from the Antarctic seafloor </h2>



During this mission, the team collected both biological and geological samples. 



In addition, they deployed autonomous underwater vehicles, called gliders, to analyze how meltwater from the ice shelf impacts the region’s physical and chemical properties.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/antarctic-iceberg_Solitary-Hydroid_unseen-ecosystem_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/antarctic-iceberg_Solitary-Hydroid_unseen-ecosystem_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="A solitary hydroid drifts in currents approximately 380 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Solitary hydroids are related to corals, jellyfish, and anemones, but do not form colonies. Credit: SOI" class="wp-image-1963895"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A solitary hydroid drifts in currents approximately 380 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Solitary hydroids are related to corals, jellyfish, and anemones, but do not form colonies. Click image to enlarge. Credit: SOI</figcaption></figure>



Preliminary measurements hinted at high biological productivity and strong meltwater flow from the George VI ice shelf, providing further context for how such deep-sea populations may thrive in these surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-part-of-a-larger-global-initiative">Part of a larger global initiative</h2>



The expedition is part of Challenger 150, a global cooperative dedicated to deep-sea biological study, and recognized by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (<a href="https://www.ioc.unesco.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IOC/UNESCO</a>) as an Ocean Decade Action.&nbsp;



This alignment ensures that findings from the George VI Ice Shelf breakage feed into broader international efforts to understand and safeguard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.



“The science team was originally in this remote region to study the seafloor and ecosystem at the interface between ice and sea,” noted Schmidt Ocean Institute’s executive director, Jyotika Virmani.&nbsp;



“Being right there when this iceberg calved from the ice shelf presented a rare scientific opportunity. Serendipitous moments are part of the excitement of research at sea - they offer the chance to be the first to witness the untouched beauty of our world.”



Looking ahead, the researchers plan to continue analyzing the collected data for insights into both ice sheet behavior and the unique marine life that has flourished unseen for centuries beneath the ice.&nbsp;



With accelerating climate change, the study’s findings about species adaptability and the resilience of Antarctic habitats carry implications for future conservation and policy decisions on a global scale.



<a href="https://schmidtocean.photoshelter.com/galleries/C0000QszlkoaNkKU/G0000p4LRtGEAfWo/I0000X_S5KjUr4QU/FKt250110-20250126-IceScanningCollectionAndIcebergViewing-Ingle-0202-jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">See more of the photos taken on this mission by the Schmidt Ocean Institute here...</a>



Images Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute



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Ecosystem never seen by humans discovered after iceberg breaks away from Antarctica

An international team of researchers took advantage of a rare...

Human activity is rapidly altering ecosystems, leading to biodiversity loss and the decline of animal cultures. This includes behaviors acquired through social learning - known as cultural behaviors. These are crucial for species adapting to change.



"Cultural behaviors range from the songs of whales to the tool use of primates," said Ammie Kalan of the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Victoria</a>.



"These adaptations to environmental change not only benefit the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, but also provide important insights into the origins of behavior and learning across species. However, shrinking global animal populations pose a challenge to what we can still hope to learn."



Cultural behaviors such as tool use enhance survival. They help species exploit food, water, and mates. These behaviors also shape ecosystems by promoting flexibility and adaptation. But many animals that show these skills face extinction, risking the loss of valuable behavioral insights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-pass-down-a-cultural-legacy">Animals pass down a cultural legacy</h2>



Tool use is one of the most visible cultural traits. Tools create physical artifacts that remain long after the behavior has ended. This makes tool use easier to study than behaviors like communication or play.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> like chimpanzees, capuchins, and macaques, habitual tool use is passed down socially. They use stone tools as hammers and anvils, creating lasting marks on the landscape. These tools often gather in the same spots over generations, forming what researchers call “technological landscapes.”



Tools show how animals teach, learn, and innovate. They also help scientists interpret early human behavior, especially when comparing ancient stone tools with those made by primates today. Some stone flakes made by monkeys even mimic tools once thought exclusive to human ancestors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-tools-complicate-human-history">Animal tools complicate human history</h2>



Recent research has shown that nonhuman primates can produce stone flakes unintentionally. 



These resemble early human tools and challenge long-held views about our ancestors' intelligence. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine animals</a> like otters also use stone anvils, suggesting coastal archaeological finds could be nonhuman.



This overlap forces researchers to refine how they interpret ancient sites. They must now separate human and animal material culture with care. Comparative research across species helps clarify which behaviors are truly human and which are not.



"These uniquely complex creatures are threatened with extinction, highlighting the urgent need to protect and conserve them and their way of life," noted Lydia Luncz of the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/institutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-digital-preservation-matters">Why digital preservation matters</h2>



Removing tools from the wild can damage animal cultures. These objects help pass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-size-and-cancer-risk-surprising-new-details-have-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> from one generation to the next. Instead of removing them, researchers now use digital tools.



Technologies like laser scanning and 3D modeling let scientists record tools without disturbing ecosystems. These digital records are detailed, shareable, and ideal for long-term study. They allow for global collaboration without risking the loss of rare materials.



Some tools are made from vegetation and degrade quickly. Others, like stone, survive longer and create clearer evidence of cultural habits. Digital preservation captures both types and helps maintain a full record of animal behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-cultures-not-just-species">Protecting cultures, not just species</h2>



There’s no global plan to protect animal material culture. Most artifacts survive only if found in protected areas. That’s not enough. To preserve these cultures, animals must have access to the resources they use—like specific stones or plants.



Efforts like the United Nations Convention on Migratory Species (<a href="https://www.cms.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CMS</a>) have started to include cultural protections. They’ve taken steps to preserve behaviors in chimpanzees and sperm whales. These moves show a growing respect for the social knowledge of animals.



Recognizing animal cultures expands how we see conservation. It’s not just about survival. It’s about honoring shared evolutionary stories and keeping the legacy of other species alive. These stories teach us about learning, creativity, and resilience in the natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-cultural-legacy-of-animals">Preserving the cultural legacy of animals</h2>



As ecosystems change, time is running out to record and protect the behaviors of wild animals. Their cultures reflect a rich history shared with us. These are not just curiosities. They are keys to understanding intelligence, adaptation, and social bonds.



Protecting the cultural legacy of animals honors more than science. It honors a living connection between species - one that still shapes the world we all share.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adj3716" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>. 



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Saving the cultural legacy of wild animals

Human activity is rapidly altering ecosystems, leading to biodiversity loss...

Most people have never seen a civet, let alone heard of one. Yet these elusive, cat-like mammals play an irreplaceable role in the web of life across Africa and Asia. 



On April 4th each year, conservationists, researchers, and animal lovers come together to celebrate World Civet Day - an initiative launched in 2024 by The Civet Project Foundation.



This day marks a turning point for civet awareness. Long overlooked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife conservation</a>, civets now have a voice. Their habitats, behaviors, and unfortunate exploitation are being discussed more widely, pushing them out of the shadows. 



World Civet Day is not just about admiration - it’s about action, compassion, and education.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-of-civets">The world of civets</h2>



Civets are small, nocturnal mammals belonging to the family Viverridae. Their appearances vary by species, but most civets have a long, slender body, masked faces, and ringed tails. Although they look somewhat like cats, civets are more closely related to mongooses and hyenas.



They live in forests, grasslands, and even city outskirts across India, Southeast Asia, and parts of Africa. Civets feed on fruits, insects, and small vertebrates. 



One of their most important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological roles</a> is seed dispersal. By eating fruits and excreting seeds in different areas, civets help maintain forest diversity. They also help control insect populations. In short, civets are silent ecological engineers.



But despite their usefulness to the environment, civets face mounting threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-lurking-in-the-shadows">Threats lurking in the shadows</h2>



The biggest danger to civets comes from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a>. Habitat loss, urban encroachment, and deforestation have taken a toll on their populations. 



Some species, like the Malabar civet, are now critically endangered. Others remain poorly studied, slipping through the cracks of conservation priorities.



Civets have long been forgotten in mainstream conservation. But they are key players in our ecosystems, and we owe them more attention.



Beyond environmental destruction, civets are victims of direct exploitation. One of the most infamous examples is their involvement in the luxury coffee trade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dark-side-of-civet-coffee">The dark side of civet coffee</h2>



Kopi Luwak, or civet coffee, is one of the most expensive coffees in the world. It is made using beans that have passed through a civet’s digestive system. This process supposedly improves the flavor, making the beans smoother and less acidic.



Originally, civet coffee was rare because it relied on beans collected from wild civet droppings. But rising global demand turned this niche product into an industry. 



Today, many civets are captured, caged, and force-fed coffee cherries in cramped and unsanitary conditions. These animals often suffer from malnutrition, stress, and early death.



Ethical concerns are growing louder. Researchers and animal welfare organizations have repeatedly called for bans on caged civet coffee farms. Yet in many countries, the trade continues unchecked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-world-civet-day-stands-for">What World Civet Day stands for</h2>



World Civet Day shines a spotlight on these issues. It urges individuals and institutions to consider the ethical costs of consumerism. More importantly, it gives civets the recognition they deserve as vital members of our shared environment.



The Civet Project, which started the initiative, uses the day to promote awareness through talks, exhibitions, and social media campaigns. Their mission is twofold: to educate people about civets and to advocate for their protection in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-success-stories-offer-hope-for-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild</a> and in captivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-research-and-rescue">Role of research and rescue</h2>



Academic researchers are now giving civets more attention. Studies focus on their diet, territory, reproductive behavior, and role in seed dispersal. 



Conservation organizations partner with zoos and local authorities to rescue civets from illegal captivity and rehabilitate them for return to the wild.



Zoos such as Hoo Zoo and Dinosaur World in the UK hosted educational events for the first World Civet Day, showing the public how civets live and why they matter. Meanwhile, grassroots conservationists are pushing for civet-friendly laws in India, Indonesia, and the Philippines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-help-civets-on-world-civet-day">Help civets on World Civet Day</h2>



World Civet Day is not only for scientists or conservationists. Everyone has a role to play. Choosing not to buy civet coffee can protect animals from cruelty. Supporting eco-tourism helps preserve their natural homes. Sharing facts and updates online spreads <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-using-technology-to-protect-our-natural-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">awareness</a>.



Organizations like&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thecivetproject.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Civet Project</a>&nbsp;work year-round to protect civets. You can follow and support their efforts.



By making ethical choices, raising awareness, and respecting wildlife, you help ensure civets have a safe future. These quiet forest dwellers deserve to thrive in the wild places they help sustain.



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World Civet Day 2025 reveals the dark side of a luxury coffee

Most people have never seen a civet, let alone heard...

Staying awake when tired feels like walking through fog. For humans, missed sleep dulls our thinking, slows our reflexes, and clouds our focus. Yet we often push through. In the wild, though, the price of sleep deprivation can mean life or death. 



Animals have evolved strange and clever sleep strategies to manage this. Birds, in particular, display some of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fascinating adaptations</a> in the animal kingdom.



One of their most intriguing tricks is the ability to sleep with one eye open. This behavior lets birds keep half their brain alert while the other half rests deeply. It’s a survival skill. But what happens when even this isn’t enough?



A new study on European jackdaws reveals the limits of this behavior. It shows that, when pushed too far, even birds that sleep with one eye open may give in to full, vulnerable rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-art-of-asymmetric-sleep">The art of asymmetric sleep</h2>



Sleep takes many forms across species. In humans, we move through stages like REM and non-REM sleep in 90-minute cycles. Our brains rest in waves, switching between deep rest and vivid dreams. 



Birds follow a similar pattern but in shorter segments. They rest in bursts, adjusting their rhythm to match their surroundings.



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decoding-evolution-how-birds-can-help-us-prevent-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> go even further by sleeping asymmetrically. This means one half of the brain stays awake while the other half slips into non-REM sleep. 



Ducks often use this trick to remain watchful while still getting rest. The open eye faces out, keeping a lookout for danger. The closed eye faces inward, allowing that side of the brain to recharge.



This type of sleep helps birds navigate dangerous environments. It allows them to remain partially conscious without fully sacrificing rest. But this ability isn’t as powerful as full, deep sleep. It provides protection but not full restoration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-deep-sleep-matters-for-birds">Why deep sleep matters for birds</h2>



Asymmetric sleep helps with safety, but it’s not always enough. Deep non-REM sleep clears waste from the brain and helps consolidate memory. It recharges the system. 



Doing this with only one hemisphere takes longer and isn’t as effective. That’s why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> still need periods of symmetrical sleep, when both brain hemispheres rest at the same time.



Researchers have long wondered how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> decide when to use one sleep type over another. What triggers the shift? When does safety win, and when does the need to recover push past the risk?



The new study on jackdaws brings these questions closer to answers. By observing how these birds recover from sleep loss, scientists uncovered a tipping point. When deprived of sleep, the jackdaws gave up their asymmetric sleep patterns. 



They chose full, deep sleep in both hemispheres, even though it made them more vulnerable to threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exhausted-birds-choose-deep-sleep">Exhausted birds choose deep sleep</h2>



The research, led by scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence and the <a href="https://www.rug.nl/research/gelifes/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences</a>, focused on how jackdaws balance safety and sleep. Other studies have shown that many animals use flexible sleep strategies in tough conditions. 



Great frigatebirds sleep mid-flight using one side of the brain. Mallard ducks sleep with one eye open when they’re at the edge of their group. Northern fur seals also sleep asymmetrically when floating in the ocean.



Humans aren’t so different. On the first night in a new place, one half of our brain often stays more alert than the other. It’s a kind of natural night watch. But unlike birds, we don’t have the ability to fully control this process or keep one eye open at will.



In jackdaws, sleep deprivation shifted the balance. The birds spent more time in deep, symmetrical sleep, especially early in the night. They needed to recover fast, and asymmetric sleep wasn’t enough.



“Sleep is a dangerous part of life for many animals, as it leaves them exposed to all kinds of risks,” noted Niels Rattenborg, group leader at the <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a>.



“Some birds can function surprisingly well on far less sleep than we can, but even that strategy appears to have its limits. We have found that when they’re tired, jackdaws are more likely to sleep deeply – even if that means becoming more vulnerable." 



"Observing how birds navigate the trade-off between vigilance and sleep may help us better understand sleep in general.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-jackdaw-brain">Inside the jackdaw brain</h2>



To explore how the birds managed their sleep after deprivation, researchers tracked nine jackdaws using EEG recordings. These scans measured brain activity during different sleep phases. 



The team wanted to know which parts of the brain rested more deeply, and how that might relate to the bird’s behavior when awake.



Their findings were revealing. Some areas of the brain slept more deeply than others, suggesting that parts that had been more active during the day needed more rest at night. For example, areas linked to vision and decision-making showed stronger sleep signals. The hippocampus, associated with memory, showed less change.



This selective rest could help birds recover without completely losing awareness. But when exhaustion built up, even this wasn’t enough. Deep, full-brain sleep took over. The birds prioritized recovery over safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-strategies-are-shaped-by-evolution">Sleep strategies are shaped by evolution</h2>



“Our findings reveal that even the highly flexible sleep strategies used by jackdaws have limits,” said Peter Meerlo, a group leader at the Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences.



“That tells us something fundamental about sleep: it’s not just a passive state, but a behavior shaped by both evolution and environmental demands."



"The study offers a fresh perspective on how animals balance the need for sleep with the risk of predation or other threats – and could help us better understand how sleep loss affects brain function more broadly, including in humans.”



Sleep isn’t just a biological requirement. It’s a behavior shaped by millions of years of challenge and change. Animals like jackdaws show us the trade-offs involved in survival. They sleep lightly when they can, but give in when they must.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-humans-can-learn-from-jackdaws">What humans can learn from jackdaws</h2>



This research on jackdaws goes beyond bird behavior. It speaks to something shared across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. The need to rest. The limits of endurance. And the invisible costs of staying awake too long.



Even the most flexible sleepers hit a wall. The jackdaws remind us that sleep is not optional. Whether in the trees or in our beds, recovery matters. Our brains, like theirs, have limits – and sometimes, the only way to recover is to truly switch off.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00293-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Tired birds sleep more deeply, trading safety for rest

Staying awake when tired feels like walking through fog. For...

Each year, billions of animals migrate in search of better conditions. These journeys shape ecosystems, drive evolution, and challenge individual survival. 



Migration, however, is not a simple instinctual response. It demands a blend of physical traits and behavioral choices. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, even a subtle anatomical difference - like eye size - can influence who migrates and who stays behind.



Recent research from <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> reveals that the European roach (Rutilus rutilus), a common freshwater fish, shows a surprising link between eye structure and migration behavior.



Specifically, roach that migrate between lakes and streams tend to have larger pupils than those who remain year-round in a single habitat. This physical feature helps them see better in murky water and boosts their ability to find food, a vital edge in the energy-intensive act of migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-a-fish-migrate">What makes a fish migrate</h2>



Roach are partial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-fish-species-are-facing-double-trouble/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrants</a>. That means only some individuals in a population leave the lake each winter to enter connected streams. 



The rest stay put, braving seasonal changes in place. This difference in behavior offers researchers a unique lens through which to understand how physical traits affect life strategies.



The research team, led by biologist Kaj Hulthén, tracked more than 2,000 roach across two Danish lakes - Loldrup Sø and Søgård Sø - over several years. 



They photographed the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-freshwater-fish-toward-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, implanted each one with a tiny transponder, and monitored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a> using underwater antennas placed at stream inlets and outlets.



“We started by taking photos of the fishes’ eyes and then followed the migration patterns of 2,000 individual roaches over several years and in two different lakes by using implanted electronic transponders,” said Hulthén, who is a biology researcher at Lund University.



“It was shown that roach that migrated had larger pupils relative to individuals that chose to stay in the lake throughout the year.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-size-matters-for-fish-that-migrate">Eye size matters for fish that migrate</h2>



Larger pupils allow more light into the eye, improving vision in low-light conditions. For roach, this visual boost helps detect tiny prey like zooplankton. Using simulations, the researchers showed that roach with larger pupils could see farther - especially in dim twilight conditions, when many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> feed.



Even a 1-4% increase in pupil diameter led to as much as a 5% increase in the volume of water a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> could visually scan.



That matters because in aquatic environments, visual range often dictates feeding success. These small gains are enough to help migratory roach gather the energy reserves they need before entering food-poor winter streams.



In twilight, detection range for 1 mm prey reached up to 20 cm - enough for practical foraging. The advantage fades under starlight but remains relevant during dusk and dawn, which are key feeding times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-now-to-survive-later">Feeding now to survive later</h2>



Migrating roach face a trade-off. Streams have fewer predators but offer less food. To survive the winter, migrants must build up fat stores beforehand. Larger pupils may be a tool to gather more food before departure and to stay active longer each day by foraging in low light.



This connection between eyesight and feeding has deep evolutionary roots. Eye size reflects both opportunity and cost. Bigger eyes offer better vision, but they require more energy to build and maintain. For a migrating roach, the benefits seem to outweigh the cost.



“The fact that migrating individuals have an improved ability to detect visual objects such as zooplankton indicates strong selection for effective food searches. This is crucial to cover the energy needs that migration requires," said Hulthén.



"These results correspond well with previous research, which showed that migrating roach with insufficient energy reserves run a higher risk of dying in the streams."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-with-big-eyes-are-likely-to-migrate">Fish with big eyes are likely to migrate</h2>



In both study lakes, researchers found a clear pattern: roach with larger relative pupil sizes were more likely to migrate. 



The correlation was strongest in Søgård Sø, where murkier water creates a dimmer visual environment. This suggests that visual demands may vary by location, shaping individual behaviour accordingly.



On average, migrant roach in Søgård Sø had pupils 4.2% larger than residents. In Loldrup Sø, the difference was smaller at 1.1%. While modest, these changes are functionally significant. Larger pupils helped fish see better, especially in the dim light that dominates northern winters.



Roach are planktivores. They feed on small, fast-moving prey that require sharp eyesight to detect. Under experimental conditions, fish given more food before winter were more likely to migrate, did so earlier, and stayed in streams longer. Those with less food died more often. 



This supports the idea that strong visual skills, like those enabled by larger pupils, help fish meet their energy needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-migratory-syndrome-takes-shape">A migratory syndrome takes shape</h2>



The study’s findings contribute to a growing view that migration is not just a behavioral choice. It’s a full-body strategy involving vision, body shape, energy storage, and risk-taking.



Together, these traits form a “migratory syndrome” - a suite of characteristics that help fish survive the challenges of moving between habitats.



The eye, often taken for granted in ecological studies, now appears central to this survival kit. By enhancing foraging efficiency, it helps determine who has the resources to leave and who stays behind.



“Roach play an important role in the ecosystem. By understanding why some individuals migrate and other don’t, we can gain a deeper insight into how fish populations respond to environmental changes, which in turn could affect both fish stocks and the lake dynamics as a whole,” said Hulthén.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-eyes-can-change-shape">Fish eyes can change shape</h2>



Whether these differences in eye morphology are genetic or a response to the environment remains unknown. 



However, past studies show that fish eyes can change shape depending on food availability and predator pressure. That means both nature and nurture could play roles in shaping eye size and which fish migrate.



Interestingly, the benefits of bigger eyes seem to matter most in moderate turbidity. In very clear water, all fish see well. In extremely dark or muddy water, vision may become useless. This window of usefulness hints at why migration-related eye differences show up more clearly in some lakes than others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-size-and-fish-migration">Eye size and fish migration</h2>



Roach migration has ecological ripples beyond the fish themselves. Migrants affect predators, prey, and nutrient cycles. 



Understanding how physical traits like pupil size influence migration choices can help scientists predict how fish populations may respond to environmental change.



In this study, a tiny difference in pupil size revealed a key factor in migratory success. It highlights the tight link between form, function, and behavior.



Eyes, often symbols of awareness and insight, prove once again to be more than just windows to the world—they are tools of survival, helping fish decide whether to stay or go.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.70015" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



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Bigger pupils help migrating fish survive

Each year, billions of animals migrate in search of better...

Insects quietly run the world. They pollinate crops, recycle organic matter, and feed countless animals. Despite their importance, scientists know very little about how most insect species are doing. 



There are about one million known insect species. Yet only 1% - roughly 12,100 species - have been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>). Among these, around 20% face threats of extinction.



Monitoring efforts have mostly focused on butterflies, dragonflies, and bumblebees in North America and Europe. Other regions, especially Africa, Asia, and South America, remain largely unstudied. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global picture</a> of insect health is still blurry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-plan-to-track-insect-declines">Urgent plan to track insect declines</h2>



To address this, scientists from the UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology (<a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UKCEH</a>) and the Zoological Society of London (<a href="https://www.zsl.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZSL</a>) propose a broader method. Their goal is to act quickly before climate change, pollution, land use shifts, and invasive species cause irreversible harm.



The new method integrates several ways of studying insects. It includes long-term tracking of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> and abundance, comparisons across different habitats, structured expert input, and controlled experiments. The researchers believe this mix offers a more complete view than any single approach.



Dr. Rob Cooke is an ecological modeler at UKCEH and joint lead author of the study.



“We need to find out whether insect declines are widespread and what’s causing them. The challenge is like a giant jigsaw puzzle where there are thousands of missing pieces, but we do not have decades to wait to fill these gaps and then act,“ noted Dr. Cook.



“There is a lot of interest in monitoring charismatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-farming-insect-waste-reshapes-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> such as bees and butterflies, but few people care about the supposedly unpleasant insects, even though they too provide benefits for us." 



"For example, earwigs feed on aphids and other garden pests while cockroaches eat decaying material and keep soils healthy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-insect-monitoring-system-that-works">An insect monitoring system that works</h2>



The framework combines time series trends, such as counting how butterfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> shift over a decade. It also uses spatial comparisons to see how insects vary between forests, grasslands, or farms. 



Researchers conduct experiments that test insect responses to threats, like removing pesticides or invasive species from certain areas. When hard data is missing, they gather expert judgments to predict how insects may react to different pressures.



This layered approach lets scientists make more informed decisions while still being open about gaps and uncertainties. It balances speed and precision in a way that single-method studies cannot match.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-for-insect-inclusion">Case for insect inclusion</h2>



“Insects are an incredibly important part of our ecosystems, pollinating around 80% of flowering plant species and vital for 35% of global food production, yet they are undervalued and understudied,“ noted Dr. Charlotte Outhwaite of ZSL’s <a href="https://www.zsl.org/what-we-do/institute-of-zoology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Zoology</a>, joint lead author of the study.



“With a million described species it would take too long to figure what works best for each species. Instead we want to find large-scale actions that benefit the most insects. For this, we need to use all the available information we have.”



To meet this goal, the scientists propose using known responses from well-studied insects to estimate how lesser-known species might respond under similar conditions. This gives policymakers a usable way forward, even if some data is still missing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-phase-of-the-glitrs-project">Next phase of the GLiTRS project</h2>



The new framework will now guide the Global Insect Threat-Response Synthesis (GLiTRS) project. Researchers aim to model insect responses to major threats across many environments. 



By combining all sources of data - field studies, expert insights, and experiments - they hope to build a reliable picture of insect health worldwide. This new framework doesn’t pretend to be perfect.



But it offers something we desperately need: a way to understand insect declines in real time, using every piece of information available. It also shows how science can adapt when faced with complex, global challenges.



Insects have been quietly supporting life on Earth for hundreds of millions of years. Now they need our attention. The question is not whether we care, but whether we will act before it's too late.



The project is backed by the&nbsp;Natural Environment Research Council (<a href="https://www.ukri.org/councils/nerc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NERC</a>). It involves teams from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>, and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq2110" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Very little is known about 99% of all insects on Earth

Insects quietly run the world. They pollinate crops, recycle organic...

In the final era of the Cretaceous, giant reptiles were not the only ones navigating a changing planet. Tiny fossils suggest that many small mammals embraced ground-based living long before the arrival of the asteroid that ended the dinosaur age.



Researchers say these creatures were already exploring terrestrial spaces several million years ahead of that cosmic event. 



This challenges the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-the-cultural-legacy-of-wild-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> only moved down from the trees to the ground after dinosaurs were out of the picture.



<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Christine-Janis-450fb945-9d7d-4004-a540-2524be359b3e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Christine Janis</a> from the University of Bristol’s <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/earthsciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Earth Sciences</a> has contributed to this idea. She and her team analyzed the ends of small mammal limbs and found structures suited to movement on solid ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-before-the-dinosaurs-died">Before the dinosaurs died</h2>



The Maastrichtian Age was the last chapter of the Late Cretaceous, running from about 72 to 66 million years ago. 



During this time, Earth looked very different from today - sea levels were high, and warm shallow seas covered large parts of the continents. 



Dinosaurs still ruled the land, with massive herbivores like Triceratops and duck-billed hadrosaurs grazing in herds, while predators like Tyrannosaurus rex stalked them. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-extinction-influenced-fruit-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flowering plants</a> had spread widely by this point, shaping new ecosystems, and early birds and mammals were quietly evolving in the background.



But beneath the surface, change was brewing. Volcanic activity in what's now India was ramping up, pumping gases into the atmosphere. The climate started to shift, and ecosystems became more fragile.



Then came the asteroid. It triggered wildfires, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate chaos</a>, and the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event that wiped out around 75% of all species, including the non-avian dinosaurs. 



Thankfully, mammals were part of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-led-to-the-emergence-of-ant-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surviving group</a>, which is the reason that we're all here today and able to read this article.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-helped-mammals-move-to-ground">Flowers helped mammals move to ground</h2>



Mammals were not just contending with large reptiles. They also inhabited landscapes that were rapidly filling with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">angiosperms</a>, or flowering plants, that provided rich understory habitats in which to live.



“The vegetational habitat was more important for the course of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982206002454">Cretaceous mammalian evolution</a> than any influence from dinosaurs,” said Professor Janis. 



This idea emphasizes how expanded ground-level plant cover created new opportunities for smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-new-plants-reshaped-habitats">How new plants reshaped habitats</h2>



Beneath prehistoric canopies, modestly sized creatures needed spaces to hide, and diverse food sources to keep them going. 



Old forests dominated by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/gymnosperm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gymnosperms</a> had provided fewer ground-based feeding options, but flowering plants added more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-mixodectes-pungens-prehistoric-mammal-and-relative-of-primates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variety</a>.



Experts link the diversification of flowering plants to changes in habitat structure. The vegetation supported denser undergrowth at lower levels, which let many small mammals roam freely without competing for the treetops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fossil-fragments-matter">Why fossil fragments matter</h2>



Most early studies of mammal locomotion relied on full or partial skeletons. Scientists had a hard time finding enough complete specimens to reconstruct how prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-molecule-tells-starfish-and-humans-when-to-stop-eating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> moved around.



By examining partial bones, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/epiphysis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epiphyses</a>, researchers overcame that hurdle. Subtle features on these limb ends can hint at whether an animal spent more time on the ground or clinging to branches.



Some epiphyses revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal</a> limbs were built for sturdy footing rather than gripping bark.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mammals_first-ground-dwellers_Dryolestes_Credit-James-Brown_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mammals_first-ground-dwellers_Dryolestes_Credit-James-Brown_1s.webp" alt="Dryolestes, a Late Jurassic relative of the Cretaceous therians. Credit: Artist James Brown. Pamela Gill" class="wp-image-1964794"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dryolestes, a Late Jurassic relative of the Cretaceous therians. Click imaeg to enlarge. Credit: Artist James Brown. Pamela Gill</figcaption></figure>



Prior thinking painted a picture of mostly arboreal lifestyles, but these fossils suggest that a gradual transition to the ground began sooner than once believed.



This method let scientists track a broader range of species. They no longer had to rely on the rare jackpot of finding an intact skeleton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ground-living-mammals-fared-better">Ground-living mammals fared better</h2>



Experts have suggested that non-arboreal species were more likely to endure the impact that devastated life at the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0458" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">K-Pg boundary</a>. 



This event may have dealt a harsher blow to treetop animals, as forests took a serious hit.



Many <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/therian" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therian groups</a>, which include marsupials and placentals, showed signs of a terrestrial lifestyle long before disaster struck. 



Researchers propose that ground-based behaviors opened new diets and protective nooks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-evolved-features-suited-for-ground">Mammals evolved features suited for ground</h2>



In Western North America, there is a rich record of small fossils that span the late Cretaceous and earliest Paleogene periods. 



By comparing these remains with modern-day mammals of similar size, scientists noticed a slow but steady upswing in the presence of terrestrial forms.



Bone shapes from different intervals, such as the <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/89230" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Judithian</a> and <a href="https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/periodicals/nmg/6/n4/nmg_v6_n4_p72.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lancian</a>, reflect shifts in locomotion strategies. By the dawn of the Paleogene, ground-adapted features appeared more commonly than once imagined.



Observations of these ancient bone fragments suggest that mammals responded to plant-driven changes by easing out of the treetops and onto solid ground. 



Ecology and environment often act in tandem, and this scenario might be a prime example.



Before the asteroid struck, these animals had been fine-tuning a flexible approach to living. That choice may have helped them weather the harsh aftermath of an altered planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Some scientists plan to explore whether similar patterns can be found in other regions. 



There is also an interest in refining techniques that deduce locomotion strategies from small bones, so that scientists can determine whether these terrestrial traits show up worldwide.



Future work may confirm whether this early move to the ground played a big role in mammal survival. For now, these small fossils highlight how living things can shift gears in response to changes in habitat availability. 



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pala.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



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Mammals survived the asteroid impact that killed the dinosaurs, now we know how they did it

In the final era of the Cretaceous, giant reptiles were...

Microplastics are showing up in more and more places where they were never meant to be. This time, it's inside the organs of sea turtles, including in their reproductive systems.



That’s the troubling conclusion of a new study that examined stranded loggerhead sea turtles and found tiny plastic particles throughout their bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-turtle-bodies-full-of-microplastics">Sea turtle bodies full of microplastics</h2>



The research, conducted by scientists from the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>, focused on 10 turtles that were accidentally caught in fishing nets and later recovered by the <a href="https://www.oceanografic.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oceanogràfic Foundation</a> of Valencia.



The team discovered significant levels of microplastics in male reproductive tissues and found the particles in other major organs in both male and female turtles. 



These included the heart, kidneys, liver, spleen, stomach, intestines, skeletal muscle, subcutaneous fat, and even the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-reach-turtle-fertility-organs">Microplastics reach turtle fertility organs</h2>



This is the first study to offer direct evidence that microplastics can travel from the gut to other parts of the body in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-plastic-items-found-in-deceased-sea-turtles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea turtles</a>.



The findings suggest that these particles don’t just pass through the digestive system - they may end up accumulating in places that are critical to the animals’ health and reproduction.



“Microplastics are a pervasive marine environmental pollutant, on a par with other global threats such as climate change and ozone depletion," said lead author Leah Costello, a Ph.D. researcher at the University of Manchester.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_internal-invasion_illustration_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_internal-invasion_illustration_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1s.webp" alt="Graphical abstract of microplastics invading the internal organs of sea turtles. Credit: Marine Environmental Research (2025)" class="wp-image-1964694"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Graphical abstract of microplastics invading the internal organs of sea turtles. Credit: Marine Environmental Research (2025)</figcaption></figure>



"Our study is the first to show direct evidence of the presence of microplastics in the reproductive and other organs of loggerhead sea turtles.” 



Sea turtles already face many pressures from human activity and although we have been aware that they ingest plastic throughout their range, the finding of microplastics in almost every tissue sample was quite shocking. 



"These findings show that even seemingly healthy individuals could be under physiological stress, impacting the reproductive success of vulnerable and recovering populations," Costello continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scale-and-composition-of-the-pollution">Scale and composition of the pollution</h2>



The analysis found that nearly every tissue sample - 98.8% to be exact - contained foreign microparticles. Around 70% of those were identified as microplastics.



The most common types were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plastic-straws-degrade-faster-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polypropylene</a>, polyester, and polyethylene.



Polypropylene is often used in food packaging, bottle caps, ropes, and personal care products, all of which can end up in the ocean. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disposable-coffee-cups-release-trillions-of-plastic-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polyethylene</a>, the material used in plastic bags, poses a direct threat to turtles that often mistake it for jellyfish and ingest it directly. 



Size-wise, the largest median particles (about 25 microns) were found in the intestines and fat tissue. The smallest particles (around 15 microns) showed up in the stomach and reproductive organs.



Polyester microfibers, shed from clothing, are also a major contributor to marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-found-in-every-aquatic-species-tested/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a>. In a particularly striking finding, the scientists visually confirmed cotton microfibers embedded in heart tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-impact-of-microplastics">Long-term impact of microplastics</h2>



Each year, an estimated 3 million tons of primary microplastics are released into the environment. On top of that, another 5.3 million tons of larger plastics break down into smaller particles over the same time.



Sea turtles, which can retain plastics in their digestive systems for up to four months, may be absorbing these particles into their bloodstream, allowing them to spread to other organs.



The potential health consequences could be serious. Microplastics have already been linked to inflammation in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, and similar effects are suspected in turtles.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_heart-tissue_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-turtles_microplastics_heart-tissue_credit-Marine-Environmental-Research_1s.webp" alt="Plastic fiber lodged in sea turtle heart. Credit: University of Manchester" class="wp-image-1964692"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Plastic fiber lodged in sea turtle heart. Credit: University of Manchester</figcaption></figure>



“Microplastic accumulation is likely to be associated with organ damage and toxicity in these incredible marine reptiles that can live for 70 years,” said co-author Professor Holly Shiels from the University of Manchester.



“Of particular concern is the impact on reproduction, with implications on growth, development and viability of offspring which could spell trouble for the stability of these already vulnerable sea turtle populations. However, further studies are required to more broadly assess the biological and health impacts of microplastic on sea turtle reproduction," Shiels concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deeper-problem-than-we-realized">Deeper problem than we realized</h2>



The findings raise urgent questions about how plastics are affecting wildlife far beyond the obvious signs of entanglement or ingestion. 



These invisible microplastics could be disrupting key biological systems in turtles and other animals already under threat.



As research continues, what’s clear is that microplastics are not just a surface-level issue. They’re working their way deep into living creatures - sometimes right into the organs that are essential for species survival.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141113625001576?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Environmental Research</a>.



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Microplastics found in 99 percent of tested sea turtles' internal organ tissue

Microplastics are showing up in more and more places where...

Reptiles from diverse habitats display a stunning range of colors, from those that match the glow of a sun-drenched desert to those that camouflage in the cool shadows of a dense jungle. But these patterns are more than skin deep - they reflect a long history of environmental change and adaptation.



Recent findings from researchers at <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> in Sweden reveal that habitat openness, more than any other factor, drives how reptiles evolve their color over millions of years. The results offer a fresh way to understand how species respond to climate shifts, and what may lie ahead as the world warms and dries.



Reptile coloration has fascinated scientists for decades. It’s well known that animals adjust their appearance for camouflage, communication, or thermoregulation. But one big question remained - what explains the global variation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-provide-new-clues-about-the-diets-of-extinct-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptile</a> color across time and space?



The new study, which combines advanced modeling with over 10,000 reptile images, brings us a step closer to answering that question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptiles-and-the-color-habitat-connection">Reptiles and the color-habitat connection</h2>



To investigate, the researchers studied 1,249 species of scaled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-shifts-the-origin-of-lizards-back-35-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> from around the world. They focused on dorsal brightness - how light or dark the animal's back is - since brightness plays a critical role in how animals interact with sunlight.



The team analyzed this trait alongside six key eco-environmental variables: habitat openness, latitude, altitude, body mass, concealment, and activity time.



The researchers found one pattern that held steady across time, space, and species. Reptiles living in open environments, for example deserts, grasslands, and savannas, tended to have brighter, lighter colors. In contrast, reptiles in closed, forested areas were darker.



“Color evolves under the influence of several competing selection forces from different ecological and environmental factors. By identifying the driving forces behind global patterns of color variation, we can gain a deeper understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-take-bigger-risks-when-they-are-hungry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> can adapt to changing environmental conditions,” explained biology researcher Jonathan Goldenberg.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-habitat-openness-matters-most">Why habitat openness matters most</h2>



Among the six variables tested, only habitat openness was consistently linked to reptile color brightness. Latitude and altitude had some influence, but only in species with small body sizes. Even activity patterns - whether species are active by day or night - had little effect.



Instead, the clearest signal came from vegetation density. More open landscapes allowed more sunlight to reach the animals, increasing the need for lighter coloration.



The researchers suggest this might help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-lizard-day-2024-celebrating-our-scaly-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> reflect sunlight and avoid overheating. Bright colors may also play a role in visual communication under open skies, but the link to heat absorption is particularly strong.



Interestingly, subterranean species didn’t follow this trend, which is unsurprising given that light rarely reaches them underground.



“We also discovered that the rate of color brightness evolution probably follows major changes towards a colder and drier climate. This suggests that reptiles have probably adapted their coloration to new habitats in response to changes in the landscape,” said Goldenberg.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-cooling-led-to-lighter-reptile-colors">Global cooling led to lighter reptile colors</h2>



Reptiles have walked the Earth for over 200 million years, and their color patterns tell a story of change. The team found that periods of rapid environmental transformation, especially during global cooling events, coincided with major bursts in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tadpoles-speed-up-their-growth-to-outsmart-a-deadly-virus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of brightness.



Using δ18O - a chemical marker of past temperatures - the study showed that color brightness increased during the Miocene and Pliocene.



These epochs saw large-scale aridification, which led to more open landscapes. As deserts and grasslands expanded, reptiles likely evolved lighter colors as a means of adapting to these new environments.



The data revealed that almost all families followed this trend. After long periods of evolutionary stasis, sudden bursts of change emerged when the climate became colder and drier. 



Exceptions included some early-bright species like those in the families Phrynosomatidae and Varanidae, which may have adapted more rapidly to those conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptation-across-time-and-lineage">Adaptation across time and lineage</h2>



Not all reptile families reacted the same way. Iguanas and geckos grew brighter over time, while snakes in the Elapidae family and lizards in the Teiidae family became darker. These shifts likely reflect local adaptations and different ecological strategies, such as body size or preferred habitat.



Smaller-bodied reptiles showed more sensitivity to variation in temperature and elevation. These reptiles heat and cool faster and therefore experience greater pressure to adapt their color for thermoregulation. Larger species, in contrast, maintain more stable internal temperatures and show less dramatic color changes.



At the family level, some surprising results emerged. In the Phrynosomatidae, smaller species in open areas were darker than those in forests, reversing the usual trend. But as body mass increased, this pattern flipped. 



These complex interactions suggest that color evolution is not only about sunlight exposure but also about how species handle heat exchange.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brighter-colors-new-opportunities">Brighter colors, new opportunities</h2>



The study argues that integumentary color brightness helped reptiles enter new habitats during climate stress. As grasslands and deserts spread, reptiles with lighter skin had an edge. This led to adaptive radiation, where species rapidly diversified to occupy vacant ecological niches.



“Scaled reptiles are the largest extant order of four-limbed animals. The study helps us to understand how climate change and habitat shifts may affect animals’ survival and adaptation in relation to color. This is crucial for predicting the consequences of future climate change,” concluded Goldenberg.



These insights not only enrich our understanding of the past but also serve as a warning. As climate change continues to reshape ecosystems, reptiles may again face pressure to adjust their colors and behaviors. Some will adapt. Others may not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-colors-and-conservation-efforts">Reptile colors and conservation efforts</h2>



The researchers have created a massive database of reptile brightness across space and time. Future studies could use it to explore how individuals from different genera or regions respond to climate extremes.



With many reptiles already under threat from habitat loss and warming, these findings could prove vital for conservation.



Understanding how reptiles use color to cope with their environments offers a new lens on evolution. It also highlights how one environmental factor - habitat openness - can shape life in a particular lineage for generations. 



In a world that is currently growing hotter and more open, the colors of reptiles may once again begin to shift.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57547-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Why reptiles are more colorful in open habitats

Reptiles from diverse habitats display a stunning range of colors,...

A recent experiment has shown that certain lichen species can remain metabolically active in an environment similar to that found on Mars. The study challenges assumptions that Mars is entirely inhospitable, highlighting the life's adaptability under extreme conditions.



This research, published in the open-access journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/imafungus.16.145477">IMA Fungus</a>, demonstrates that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-trees-help-the-endangered-wolf-lichen-survive/">lichens</a> can function despite exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation and other harsh factors that characterize the planet’s surface.&nbsp;



The discovery builds on prior findings suggesting that some microorganisms can endure environments analogous to Mars, but this is the first time the metabolic activity of the fungal component in lichens has been observed under such conditions.&nbsp;



In this study, the focus centered on two lichen species, Diploschistes muscorum and Cetraria aculeata. 



The researchers found that the former was especially able to continue its metabolic processes and resistance mechanisms despite exposure to doses of X-ray radiation and temperatures reflecting extremes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-water-reservoir-discovered-medusae-fossae-formation-two-miles-deep/">Mars</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lichens-accept-the-mars-challenge">Lichens accept the Mars challenge</h2>



Mars has captivated scientists for centuries, primarily because it is the most Earth-like planet in our solar system. 



Yet its thin atmosphere, lack of a global magnetic field, and the resulting bombardment of radiation make the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> an extreme and potentially lethal environment for most known life-forms. 



Temperatures can fluctuate widely, and intense ionizing radiation - particularly during periods of heightened solar activity - is considered a principal threat to any organisms that might attempt to exist there.



Despite these obstacles, researchers have gradually gathered evidence suggesting that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-life-exist-below-the-icy-surface-of-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">terrestrial extremophiles</a> may find ways to cope with the Red Planet’s challenging conditions. 



This latest study takes that line of reasoning one step further, revealing that lichens - a symbiotic partnership between fungi and photosynthetic organisms - have a surprising capacity for survival and metabolic activity in simulated Mars-like conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-lichens-the-basics">Understanding lichens - the basics</h2>



Lichens are remarkable organisms formed through a symbiotic partnership between a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium. 



The fungus provides structure and absorbs moisture and minerals from the environment, while the algal or bacterial partner produces food through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-photosynthesis-could-transform-power-generation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>. 



Together, they create a highly adaptable organism capable of surviving in some of the harshest environments on Earth - from tree bark and rocky cliffs to deserts and polar regions. They don’t require soil to grow and can thrive with minimal resources.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_Cetraria-aculeata-species_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_Cetraria-aculeata-species_1s.webp" alt="Cetraria aculeata is a species of lichen that’s known for its tough, spiny appearance and ability to survive in harsh, nutrient-poor environments. It belongs to the Parmeliaceae family and typically forms dark brown to blackish, bushy mats on soil, moss, or rocks." class="wp-image-1964640"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cetraria aculeata is a species of lichen that’s known for its tough, spiny appearance and ability to survive in harsh, nutrient-poor environments. It belongs to the Parmeliaceae family and typically forms dark brown to blackish, bushy mats on soil, moss, or rocks. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



What makes lichens especially fascinating is their resilience and ecological value. 



Many species grow extremely slowly, sometimes only a few millimeters per year, yet they can live for decades or even centuries. Scientists often study lichens to monitor air quality, as some species are highly sensitive to pollutants. 



Though they may appear simple, lichens play an important role in ecosystems and continue to offer insight into the complexities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exposing-lichens-to-mars-like-conditions">Exposing lichens to Mars-like conditions </h2>



In the new study, scientists exposed Diploschistes muscorum and Cetraria aculeata lichen species to a mixture of factors replicating what might be encountered on Mars. 



These factors included a rarefied atmospheric pressure, temperatures that could dip and rise in short order, a Mars-like gas composition, and X-ray radiation on par with what would be expected over a year of strong solar activity. 



The experts ran this experiment for five hours, then looked at whether the fungal component of the lichen remained metabolically active.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-lichens-survive-on-mars">Could lichens survive on Mars?</h2>



The results indicated that D. muscorum was particularly adept at coping with these trials. According to the team, this species managed to carry out essential biochemical functions despite being subjected to Mars-like conditions. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-fungi-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">fungus</a> also showed clear signs of triggering defense mechanisms to mitigate the harmful effects of ionizing radiation.



“Our study is the first to demonstrate that the metabolism of the fungal partner in lichen symbiosis remained active while being in an environment resembling the surface of Mars," Kaja Skubała, team leader explained. 



"We found that Diploschistes muscorum was able to carry out metabolic processes and activate defense mechanisms effectively."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-radiation-survival">Exploring radiation survival</h2>



Ionizing radiation poses a grave danger for any organism lacking robust protective strategies or the ability to repair damage to cellular components. 



The research team specifically scrutinized whether high levels of X-ray radiation would effectively halt metabolic activity. 



Previous assertions held that a steady stream of intense radiation from the Sun and cosmic sources might render the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-surface-contains-more-organic-matter-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> permanently sterile. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_survival-experiment_illustration_credit-IMA-Fungus_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_lichens_survival-experiment_illustration_credit-IMA-Fungus_1s.webp" alt="Experiment arrangement of vacuum chamber with the additional facility, including metal grate with lichens, cooling table, temperature, pressure and humidity sensors, X-ray lamp with the controller, CO2 valve with cylinder, controllers of vacuum chamber, pressure, cooling table, and computer. Credit: IMA Fungus (2025)" class="wp-image-1964642"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Experiment arrangement of vacuum chamber with the additional facility, including metal grate with lichens, cooling table, temperature, pressure and humidity sensors, X-ray lamp with the controller, CO2 valve with cylinder, controllers of vacuum chamber, pressure, cooling table, and computer. Click image to enlarge. Credit: IMA Fungus (2025)</figcaption></figure>



Yet in this experiment, the fungal partner was clearly able to maintain function, offering insight into how certain organisms might defy radiation-related stress.



These findings expand our understanding of biological processes under simulated Martian conditions and reveal how hydrated organisms respond to ionizing radiation - one of the most critical challenges for survival and habitability on Mars. 



Ultimately, this research deepens our knowledge of lichen adaptation and their potential for colonizing extraterrestrial environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



By establishing that lichen fungi can endure - and remain active - amid Mars-like conditions, the study opens new doors for astrobiology. 



It challenges the belief that Mars’s radiation exposure alone is an insurmountable barrier for life, prompting further investigations into how multiple species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extremophiles-and-the-quest-for-alien-life/">extremophiles</a> might cope with the various hazards of the Martian environment.



"The findings call for longer-term studies that examine how chronic exposure to radiation influences lichens and other organisms, as well as how they might adapt or evolve when subjected to such stressors for months or even years," Skubała concluded.



Understanding these processes could be integral not only for unearthing ancient life on Mars (if it ever existed) but also for potentially selecting candidate species that could be used in experimental greenhouses or bio-based life-support systems during future crewed missions to the Red Planet.



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The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://imafungus.pensoft.net/article/145477/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IMA Fungus</a>.



Image Credit: Cetraria aculeata, a species of lichens, superimposed on Mars. Credit: Lichen: Skubała et al. Design: Pensoft Publishers.



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Lichens thrive in Martian simulation, another step towards life on Mars

A recent experiment has shown that certain lichen species can...

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