A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Fossils newly unearthed in southeastern Australia have upended long-held assumptions about dinosaur evolution, revealing the world’s oldest known megaraptorid and the first confirmed evidence of carcharodontosaurs on the continent.&nbsp;



These discoveries paint a vivid picture of an unusual predator hierarchy that once roamed the region during the Early Cretaceous, adding a crucial piece to the puzzle of dinosaur history.



The research was carried out by a team led by <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/research-institute/">Museums Victoria Research Institute</a> and <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a> PhD student Jake Kotevski.&nbsp;



The study focused on five <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/">theropod</a> fossils found along Victoria’s coastline. They were collected in the upper Strzelecki (Bass Coast, dating back roughly 121.4–118 million years) and the Eumeralla Formation (Otway Coast, about 113–108 million years old).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-thriving-in-australia-nbsp">Dinosaurs thriving in Australia&nbsp;</h2>



The newly studied remains suggest an unexpected arrangement of carnivorous dinosaurs. They indicate that large megaraptorids - measuring between six and seven meters long - coexisted alongside smaller carcharodontosaurs that reached only two to four meters in length, as well as the agile, meter-long unenlagiines (nicknamed “southern raptors”). 



This stands in stark contrast to better-known ecosystems where carcharodontosaurs typically surpassed other predatory dinosaurs in size.



“The discovery of carcharodontosaurs in Australia is groundbreaking,” Kotevski said. “It’s fascinating to see how Victoria’s predator hierarchy diverged from South America, where carcharodontosaurs reached <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>-like sizes up to 13 metres, towering over megaraptorids. Here, the roles were reversed, highlighting the uniqueness of Australia’s Cretaceous ecosystem.”



Two of the newly identified fossils rank among the earliest megaraptorids known worldwide, prompting experts to reconsider their evolutionary timeline.&nbsp;



Because these megaraptorids thrived in Australia at such an early date, they may have played a more pivotal role in Gondwanan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/">predator</a> communities than previously recognized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-clues-about-dinosaur-migration-nbsp">New clues about dinosaur migration&nbsp;</h2>



According to Dr. Thomas Rich, senior curator of vertebrate palaeontology at Museums Victoria Research Institute, the fossils also hint at broader patterns of dinosaur dispersal in the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



He noted that the findings not only expand Australia’s theropod fossil record but offer compelling evidence of faunal interchange between Australia and South America through Antarctica during the Early Cretaceous.&nbsp;



“The findings also challenge previous assumptions about body-size hierarchies in Gondwanan predator ecosystems highlighting Victoria’s unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/">Cretaceous</a> fauna,” xplained Dr. Rich.



These links to other Gondwanan regions bolster the theory that dinosaurs and other animals migrated between connected landmasses before shifting continents isolated certain populations.&nbsp;



Over time, such isolation could have led to distinct paths of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/">evolutionary development</a>, explaining why Australian megaraptorids, rather than carcharodontosaurs, occupied the apex predator niche.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-museum-collections">Significance of museum collections </h2>



Beyond revealing hidden chapters of Australia’s dinosaur history, the study demonstrates the significance of museum collections in fueling new scientific breakthroughs. 



Researchers often depend on carefully preserved fossils that can remain unclassified for decades, awaiting fresh analytical methods or new comparative specimens before their true importance is revealed.



“Museum collections are crucial to advancing our understanding of prehistoric life,” said Tim Ziegler, the vertebrate palaeontology collection manager at Museums Victoria Research Institute.&nbsp;



“Specimens preserved in the State Collection for decades - unidentifiable until now - are providing new insights into the evolution of dinosaur ecosystems.”



The project also illustrates a longstanding tradition of mentorship, continuity, and collaboration among palaeontologists. Senior curator Dr. Rich, at Museums Victoria since 1974, has worked with multiple generations of researchers.&nbsp;



These efforts culminate in cutting-edge studies like Kotevski’s PhD research, forming a chain of inquiry that steadily advances what we know about ancient life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volunteers-in-the-field">Volunteers in the field</h2>



Three of the fossils in this study were first identified between 2022 and 2023 by a Museums Victoria volunteer, Melissa Lowery, demonstrating the critical role that community members play in paleontology.&nbsp;



With an eye for intriguing shapes and textures, volunteers often detect clues that lead to major discoveries.



Kotevski and his colleagues continue to search for additional remains at key sites, including the location where the large megaraptorid was found.&nbsp;



These expeditions form part of the long-running <a href="http://dinosaurdreaming.monash.edu/">Dinosaur Dreaming project</a>, responsible for uncovering over 10,000 fossils - from dinosaurs and birds to mammals and marine reptiles - since it began.&nbsp;



Each new bone or tooth refines scientists’ understanding of the richly varied ecosystems that existed on Australia’s ancient coastlines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-of-cretaceous-australia">Dinosaurs of Cretaceous Australia</h2>



Unusual for reversing the roles typically observed in other continents, Victoria’s predator lineage helps paleontologists envision a world where megaraptorids reigned supreme while smaller carcharodontosaurs prowled in their shadow.&nbsp;



By confirming that early megaraptorids inhabited the region and that carcharodontosaurs were present yet less dominant, these fossils challenge orthodox views on predator size hierarchies and evolutionary pathways within Gondwana.



As fieldwork continues, each new fragment of bone has the potential to reshape our perspective on how dinosaurs spread across the prehistoric southern supercontinent, adapted to different environments, and carved out ecological niches.&nbsp;



Together, the fossils detail a singular evolutionary story that sets Cretaceous Australia apart, forever changing how we see the era’s predatory power dynamics - and offering fresh directions for future discoveries.



Image Credit: Artwork by Jonathan Metzger. Source: Museums Victoria



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Fossils discovered in Australia rewrite dinosaur history

Fossils newly unearthed in southeastern Australia have upended long-held assumptions...

Male fruit flies buzzing around in a small, contained arena sounds like a pretty ordinary science experiment. Yet one group of researchers noticed something unusual about how some of them reacted to a spinning disk.



They observed that while many flies stayed away from the disk, a select few hopped onto it and stayed for surprising amounts of time. 



<a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/2253355" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Wolf Huetteroth</a> from the <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leipzig</a> notes that these findings could open new questions about how body awareness develops in living creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-with-purpose">Flies spin with purpose</h2>



Many people think of fruit flies as tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> flitting around fruit bowls. Yet a recent study suggests that they might show optional behavior patterns that fit the definition of play. This observation challenges old assumptions about insects.



“Using several carousels, we generated and analyzed a total of around seven years of film data,” says Dr. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tilman-Triphan" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tilman Triphan</a>, the first author of the study. 



Researchers used several rotating platforms placed under a thin glass cover. Some flies dashed to the edge, but others returned to the carousel again and again.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-preferences">Individual preferences</h2>



A fraction of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> sought the disk and rode it in repeated sessions. Those individuals spent extended periods on the spinner, while their peers avoided it altogether. The behavior looked deliberate, rather than forced or random.



One aspect was the difference in how these seekers got onto the spinning surface. 



“However, we were able to distinguish whether the flies had deliberately walked onto the carousel or jumped onto it in an uncoordinated way. This allowed us to show that unplanned visits to the carousel were rather atypical for the playing flies,” says co-author <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/our-staff/f/clara-ferreira/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Clara H. Ferreira</a>, an assistant Professor at <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northumbria University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-value-of-body-sense">Possible value of body sense</h2>



The repeated interaction with the moving disk seems to involve <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00048.2011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proprioceptive feedback</a>, which refers to the body’s sense of position and motion.



If some flies are actively seeking the extra sensation, it might be fulfilling a hidden benefit. This is reminiscent of how certain mammals, like <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9861614/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a>, engage in rough-and-tumble routines that refine their coordination.



Some insects ended up swapping mealtime for more spins on the carousel. That trade-off hints at a possible reward gained from the turning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-develop-waxy-coating-to-withstand-warmer-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motion</a>. 



The interesting part is that these insects showed no direct advantage other than what seems to be playful amusement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-by-choice-not-force">Flies spin by choice, not force</h2>



Natural curiosity is often observed in higher animals, but insects rarely get credit for it. 



Here, the setting was calm, with continuous observation over days to capture genuine conduct. There were no artificial triggers that forced the flies onto the disk.



The team set up the environment to ensure no threat forced the flies to remain. If the spinning platform caused anxiety, they could easily walk away. 



Instead, some made a personal choice to return. This self-directed action adds weight to the suggestion of a real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-are-more-vulnerable-to-climate-change-than-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">playful attitude</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-it-matter-for-humans">Why does it matter for humans?</h2>



“This could help us to find out how we humans also develop efficient self-awareness of our bodies,” says Huetteroth. 



The clue lies in how the spinning motion may sharpen the brain’s ability to map physical space. Because the flies appear to seek out extra movement, they might be training themselves to adapt and respond to unexpected motion.



Similar responses appear in many species that enjoy roller coasters or spinning rides. Researchers believe the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-brain-connects-unrelated-concepts-through-reasoning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain learns</a> from these experiences, reinforcing internal models of balance and orientation.



If a small insect displays a version of this, it might show that the drive to engage in such activity evolved long ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-despite-easy-alternatives">Flies spin despite easy alternatives</h2>



The flies had easy access to food and water. They also had corners to rest without interruption. Despite these calmer options, some crawled over for a spin. 



That behavior did not enhance survival, which points toward a motivational factor besides hunger or fear.



Scientists have used <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5787388/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">open-field tests</a> to measure caution or stress in animals. 



Usually, creatures stay near edges when anxious. The carousel-seeking flies, however, went to the center and stayed. This breaks usual fear-driven patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



So far, scientists have only glimpsed how fruit flies pick between exploration, feeding, and spinning. The genetic tools available in fruit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemicals-are-changing-insects-in-subtle-yet-deadly-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> might shine more light on the neural wiring behind this playful bent. 



Perhaps targeted genetic studies will uncover exactly which circuits reward them for spinning.



In time, deeper understanding could reveal ways that controlled motion shapes a creature’s internal map. 



That concept might prove relevant to other animals, including humans learning how to handle complex movement or interactive environments.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00055-7?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225000557%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Flies like to play and have fun like other animals, according to a fascinating new study

Male fruit flies buzzing around in a small, contained arena...

Scientists have devised an affordable way to permanently remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by converting common minerals into highly reactive substances that spontaneously lock away CO2. 



This breakthrough could play a critical role in curbing global warming by addressing one of its primary causes.



The new technique was developed by chemists at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> Matthew Kanan, a professor of chemistry and senior author of the paper, explained the motivation behind the carbon capture research.



“The Earth has an inexhaustible supply of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinas-rare-earth-jackpot-1-15-million-tons-of-minerals-uncovered/">minerals</a> that are capable of removing CO2 from the atmosphere, but they just don’t react fast enough on their own to counteract human greenhouse gas emissions. Our work solves this problem in a way that we think is uniquely scalable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-carbon-removal-with-new-chemistry">Rapid carbon removal with new chemistry </h2>



In nature, silicate minerals gradually bind with CO2 through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-rock-weathering-is-a-co2-source-comparable-to-volcanoes/">weathering</a>, forming stable carbonates over hundreds or thousands of years.&nbsp;



Researchers worldwide have long sought methods to accelerate this slow process, often referred to as enhanced weathering. 



Kanan and Stanford postdoctoral scholar Yuxuan Chen found a way to make silicates rapidly absorb carbon, thanks to what Chen describes as a “new chemistry.”



“We envisioned a new chemistry to activate the inert silicate minerals through a simple ion-exchange reaction,” said Chen, who led the lab work. “We didn’t expect that it would work as well as it does.”



By speeding up mineral reactions that would otherwise unfold over centuries, this approach has the potential to remove significant amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/">carbon dioxide</a> from the air in a fraction of the time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-efficient-mineral-transformation">More efficient mineral transformation</h2>



Existing carbon removal strategies - such as direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capturing-carbon-directly-from-the-air-is-now-much-more-efficient-thanks-to-new-material/">air capture</a> - often rely on energy-intensive equipment, including large fans, chemicals, and other methods to filter out CO2. They can be both costly and difficult to scale. In contrast, the Stanford scientists point to the energy savings of their approach.



“Our process would require less than half the energy used by leading direct air capture technologies, and we think we can be very competitive from a cost point of view,” said Kanan, who is also a senior fellow at the <a href="https://energy.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Precourt Institute for Energy</a> in the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability.



In their experiments, the team heated limestone (calcium carbonate) in a kiln to produce calcium oxide, then combined this material with silicate minerals containing magnesium.&nbsp;



When the two substances were heated together, they exchanged ions and yielded magnesium oxide and calcium silicate - both of which readily take up carbon from the air.



“The process acts as a multiplier,” Kanan noted. “You take one reactive mineral, calcium oxide, and a magnesium silicate that is more or less inert, and you generate two reactive minerals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trapping-carbon-with-simple-chemistry">Trapping carbon with simple chemistry </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-crack-resistant-cement-material-inspired-by-nature/">Cement</a> manufacturers have used kilns for centuries, processing limestone at high temperatures to create key ingredients for concrete. The Stanford method adapts this time-tested approach but substitutes part of the cement mixture with magnesium silicates.



When these newly formed minerals are exposed to water and carbon dioxide - even at the relatively low concentrations found in ambient air - they spontaneously convert CO2 into stable carbonates.&nbsp;



Laboratory tests showed that wet samples of magnesium oxide and calcium silicate could trap carbon in weeks to months, far outpacing natural weathering.



“You can imagine spreading magnesium oxide and calcium silicate over large land areas to remove CO2 from ambient air,” Kanan said.&nbsp;



“One exciting application that we’re testing now is adding them to agricultural soil. As they weather, the minerals transform into bicarbonates that can move through the soil and end up permanently stored in the ocean.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-benefits-for-farmers">Potential benefits for farmers</h2>



Soil treatments commonly include calcium carbonate (lime) to raise pH when it is too acidic. In principle, farmers could switch to these new reactive minerals instead of conventional lime.&nbsp;



“Adding our product would eliminate the need for liming, since both mineral components are alkaline,” Kanan explained.&nbsp;



“In addition, as calcium silicate weathers, it releases silicon to the soil in a form that the plants can take up, which can improve crop yields and resilience. Ideally, farmers would pay for these minerals because they’re beneficial to farm productivity and the health of the soil - and as a bonus, there’s the carbon removal.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-up-for-global-impact">Scaling up for global impact</h2>



According to Kanan’s team, ramping up production to a meaningful scale would require converting millions of tons of silicate minerals each year.&nbsp;



“Each year, more than 400 million tons of mine tailings with suitable silicates are generated worldwide, providing a potentially large source of raw material,” Chen said.&nbsp;



“It’s estimated that there are more than 100,000 gigatons of olivine and serpentine reserves on Earth, enough to permanently remove far more CO2 than humans have ever emitted.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-carbon-solution">Nature's carbon solution</h2>



After factoring in emissions from heating kilns using natural gas or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofuels-may-eliminate-90-of-black-smoke-emissions-from-cars/">biofuel</a>, the researchers estimate that each ton of their final material can remove one ton of CO2 from the atmosphere.&nbsp;



For context, fossil fuel emissions of carbon dioxide surpassed 37 billion tons in 2024, demonstrating the pressing need for large-scale solutions.



“Society has already figured out how to produce billions of tons of cement per year, and cement kilns run for decades,” Kanan said. “If we use those learnings and designs, there is a clear path for how to go from lab discovery to carbon removal on a meaningful scale.”



Work is also underway to develop electric-powered kilns in collaboration with electrical engineering associate professor Jonathan Fan. 



If successful, this innovation could reduce or eliminate the carbon footprint of the heating process, further boosting the climate benefits.



By combining well-established industrial methods with a novel chemical reaction, this approach could offer a promising and relatively low-cost way to draw down billions of tons of CO2 from the atmosphere - and help mitigate the accelerating effects of climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08499-2">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Renhour48 via Wikimedia



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Common rocks turned into great carbon trappers with new technology

Scientists have devised an affordable way to permanently remove carbon...

Stars are born in dense clouds of gas and dust, but new evidence suggests that conditions in the early universe may have shaped their formation in surprising ways.&nbsp;



In a recent study, observations of the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) revealed that about 40% of the star-forming clouds in this distant dwarf galaxy exhibit a “fluffy” shape.&nbsp;



This discovery potentially alters our understanding of how many stars - similar to our own Sun - came into being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-across-cosmic-history">Star formation across cosmic history </h2>



The research was led by Kazuki Tokuda, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a>’s Faculty of Science. The findings may shed new light on the evolution of star formation across cosmic history.



In the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/">Milky Way</a> today, stars generally form within elongated, filamentary molecular clouds.&nbsp;



Astronomers believe our own Solar System originated in such a structure, where a large filament broke apart into smaller cores - often called “stellar eggs.” 



Over hundreds of thousands of years, gravity pulled gas into each core to forge a new star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conditions-of-the-early-universe">Conditions of the early universe</h2>



Tokuda noted that our understanding of star formation is still developing, and comprehending how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-formation-reignited-in-the-galaxy-leo-p-after-billions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars formed</a> in the earlier universe is even more challenging. 



“The early universe was quite different from today, mostly populated by hydrogen and helium. Heavier elements formed later in high-mass stars," explained Tokuda.



"We can’t go back in time to study star formation in the early universe, but we can observe parts of the universe with environments similar to the early universe.”



The Small Magellanic Cloud meets these conditions. It lies about 20,000 light-years from Earth - very close by cosmic standards - and contains only one-fifth the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-white-dwarf-stars-eat-heavy-metals/">heavy elements</a> (sometimes called “metals” by astronomers) found in the Milky Way.&nbsp;



This makes the SMC an excellent proxy for conditions that would have been prevalent around 10 billion years ago, when the universe itself contained fewer heavy elements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-fluffy-molecular-clouds">Observing fluffy molecular clouds </h2>



Despite the SMC’s usefulness, it has proven challenging to gather high-resolution data on its star-forming regions. 



Astronomers need to distinguish whether filaments - like those that give rise to stars in the Milky Way - also exist in the SMC, or if some entirely different process might govern star formation there.



Fortunately, new observations from the ALMA radio telescope in Chile offered the resolution needed to analyze molecular clouds in the Small Magellanic Cloud. 



“In total, we collected and analyzed data from 17 molecular clouds. Each of these molecular clouds had growing baby stars 20 times the mass of our Sun,” Tokuda said.&nbsp;



“We found that about 60% of the molecular clouds we observed had a filamentary structure with a width of about 0.3 light-years, but the remaining 40% had a ‘fluffy’ shape. Furthermore, the temperature inside the filamentary molecular clouds was higher than that of the fluffy molecular clouds.”



Higher temperatures in the filamentary clouds appear to reflect a more recent formation. After their initial collisions, these clouds start off relatively hot, with weak turbulence.&nbsp;



As the gas cools, the incoming energy from further collisions creates increased turbulence, which can smooth out the filamentary structure - resulting in the “fluffy” clouds that Tokuda’s team observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colossal-star-forming-factories">Colossal star-forming factories</h2>



The shift from filamentary to fluffy shapes could have profound implications for the stars that eventually emerge. If the filaments remain intact, they tend to fragment along their lengths, producing many stars (some of them low-mass stars like the Sun).&nbsp;



On the other hand, if the clouds lose their structure too quickly and become fluffy, the formation of these stellar cores may be disrupted, potentially affecting how many Sun-like stars (and planetary systems) can form.



The difference in temperature between filamentary and fluffy clouds is likely linked to their age. Initially, all molecular clouds formed as filamentary structures with high temperatures, primarily due to the impact of cloud collisions. In this heated state, turbulence within the cloud remains weak.&nbsp;



However, as the cloud cools over time, the kinetic energy from incoming gas increases turbulence, gradually breaking down the filamentary structure and transforming it into a more diffuse, fluffy cloud.



Such differences highlight the importance of heavy elements in stabilizing molecular clouds - elements that play a key role in radiative cooling and help regulate the dynamics within these colossal star-forming factories.&nbsp;



“This study indicates that the environment, such as an adequate supply of heavy elements, is crucial for maintaining a filamentary structure and may play an important role in the formation of planetary systems,” Tokuda added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-star-formation">Mysteries of star formation </h2>



Given that heavy elements were far scarcer in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-monsters-challenge-what-we-know-about-the-early-universe/">early universe</a>, these findings hint that many primordial stars might have formed under conditions more akin to the “fluffy” clouds in the SMC. That scenario could alter our perspective on the first generations of stars and the overall evolution of galaxies in the cosmos.



“In the future, it will be important to compare our results with observations of molecular clouds in heavy-element-rich environments, including the Milky Way galaxy. Such studies should provide new insights into the formation and temporal evolution of molecular clouds and the universe,” Tokuda said.



Whether filamentary or fluffy, molecular clouds remain at the heart of one of astronomy’s greatest questions: How, and under what circumstances, do stars emerge?&nbsp;



By studying the SMC and beyond, researchers aim to map out these stellar birthplaces more completely, revealing how different cosmic eras might have shaped the countless stars that fill our skies today.



The study is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ada5f8">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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‘Fluffy’ molecular clouds may change our understanding of star formation

Stars are born in dense clouds of gas and dust,...

Flowers that lose their initial charm often end up in the trash. This might seem normal when the petals wither, yet many of these blooms are still valuable.



Scientists are exploring opportunities to use edible varieties of these flowers. They are checking their nutrients, flavors, and possible effects on food quality and shelf life.



“Rose flowers are still going to be rose flowers on Valentine’s Day. But we are looking at what happens the day after Valentine’s Day to those flowers,” said Anand Mohan, associate professor in UGA’s College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences.



Some flowers offer natural pigments that could replace synthetic colorants. Others contain antioxidants and proteins that might strengthen nutritional content in everyday meals.



Flowers with broad petals sometimes carry protective compounds that can guard meats, cereals, or even beverages against spoilage. These qualities are drawing attention in food science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-promise-of-ultrasound">The promise of ultrasound</h2>



Researchers highlight that ultrasound waves help process many foods with less time and resource use. They also see the potential for ultrasound to extend a flower’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-crisis-why-u-s-goals-remain-out-of-reach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">usability</a> beyond a typical bouquet’s lifespan.



Ultrasound equipment works by sending waves into the material. Those waves move water away more efficiently and release beneficial compounds locked inside the petals.



When handled properly, this low-frequency technology can disrupt cell walls and let colorants, proteins, and vitamins flow into a solution. Once extracted, these compounds can be turned into powders or liquids.



Ultrasound may open up new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-freezer-can-play-a-key-role-in-reducing-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prospects</a> for turning leftover petals into color boosters or dietary enhancements. This shift could reduce waste and get more mileage out of every bloom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-petals-as-food-ingredients">Flower petals as food ingredients</h2>



“We are trying to use edible flowers as a source of protein, food colorant and vitamins,” said Mohan. 



Some species of broccoli flowers have protein content that can be blended into cereals. Others, like hibiscus, yield a vibrant color that can replace artificial dyes.



Much of the effort involves pinpointing the right flower for the right purpose. Roses might suit meat preservation, while marigolds might fit as an ingredient in certain sauces.



Scientists also look at how different varieties thrive in changing climates. The goal is to identify flowers that stay strong and maintain a steady supply for the food <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-labels-help-grocers-cut-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">market</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-flavor-and-shelf-life">Balancing flavor and shelf life</h2>



Edible flowers might shift taste profiles. Some bring a delicate note, while others contribute a mild bitterness or herbal kick.



Preserving these flowers isn’t always easy. Traditional drying can be slow and may destroy color and aroma.



Hot air drying often leads to a dimmer petal hue. Ultrasound pretreatment shortens drying time and cuts the browning that heat can trigger.



The result is a dried ingredient that can be crushed or powdered. This form is simple to ship and store, making it perfect for large-scale food production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-color-intact">Keeping color intact</h2>



Many edible flowers get their bright appearance from anthocyanins or other plant chemicals. Heat can degrade these compounds, turning a vibrant petal into a dull one.



Ultrasound can reduce this risk by aiding quick water removal and limiting direct high-heat exposure. It also stalls enzymes like polyphenol oxidase, which spark browning.



A mild ultrasound phase maintains crucial pigments. The finished product retains most of its original shade.



Manufacturers see this as a bonus since vibrant natural colors attract consumers who want fewer artificial additives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extracting-beneficial-compounds">Extracting beneficial compounds</h2>



Beyond color, certain petal extracts carry valuable antioxidants that can guard against cell damage in the body. Ultrasound helps release these compounds into a friendly solvent.



Shorter extraction times mean less chance of thermal stress. This helps safeguard delicate vitamins or volatile oils.



Blue butterfly pea flower is one example. Studies show ultrasound extraction can bolster its antioxidant content while preserving its bright blue color.



Manufacturers can incorporate these concentrates into teas or juices. They gain both natural coloring and potential health perks in one go.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-advanced-techniques">Other advanced techniques</h2>



Microwave drying is another approach that rapidly heats petals. While quick, it can cause uneven heat distribution that may damage fragile flowers.



Infrared drying works at lower temperatures and keeps more nutrients intact. Its reach is shallower, so thicker petals might need extra time.



Ionizing radiation shows promise for sterilizing edible flowers. Yet consumer perception around radiation remains skeptical.



Ultrasound stands out for its mild thermal impact, which protects fragile compounds and saves energy. It has its own set of hurdles, but the results are enticing enough to keep it in the spotlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safe-consistent-results">Safe, consistent results</h2>



Ultrasound tools can be loud. The process involves intense vibrations that could affect hearing if workers aren’t shielded or if machines aren’t set up properly.



High-powered waves might also damage petal tissues if misused. Researchers must find the ideal treatment for each flower type.



The scale of production equipment is another factor. Small labs produce small batches, but bigger systems must ensure even coverage. Careful regulation of wave intensity and duration is essential for safe, consistent results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-flowers-into-food-products">Turning flowers into food products</h2>



Companies in the beverage sector can look into floral extracts that add aroma or color. Start-ups might explore using leftover wedding or holiday flowers as raw material.



Supermarkets that toss out unsold blooms could partner with local facilities to transform them into new products. This idea saves money and reduces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-age-group-is-responsible-for-the-most-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trash</a>.



Shoppers might soon see ready-to-use flower powders or meal-ready petals in store aisles. The next step involves marketing that resonates with people looking for color and flavor without synthetic additives.



Many chefs are already known for edible petals on plates. Scaling this practice for everyday consumers is the bigger challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edible-flowers-can-reduce-waste">Edible flowers can reduce waste</h2>



Flowers are grown year-round and shipped worldwide, but not all get purchased. Food scientists are pointing to these extras as a wasted resource.



Turning unsold flowers into extracts or powders addresses sustainability goals. It also recovers part of the cost that might otherwise vanish.



This loop of repurposing reduces the carbon footprint of the floral industry. People who want environmentally friendly options appreciate any step that rescues edible raw materials. Ultrasound-based processing could be a central tool in achieving that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-in-food-and-skincare">Flowers in food and skincare</h2>



Scientists are testing how flower-derived proteins boost nutritional value in everyday items like bars, cereals, or wraps. Others are exploring their potential in functional drinks or skincare lines.



The synergy between vitamins in certain petals and antioxidants in others might produce new solutions to common nutritional gaps. Such breakthroughs hinge on fine-tuning extraction and drying methods.



As more labs share positive data, companies could invest in research for large-scale production. This shift might reshape how we treat floral byproducts across multiple industries. 



Consumers might not see the behind-the-scenes processes, but they’ll notice new labels highlighting real flower extracts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-edible-flowers">The future of edible flowers</h2>



Some researchers see a future where local florists have partnerships with local food processors. The idea might grow as the data becomes more widely circulated.



Regulatory bodies need to establish clear guidelines for these new ingredients. Safety checks and labeling rules must be in place so that shoppers can trust the products.



Ultrasound might remain popular because of its non-destructive nature. Expanding beyond flowers, it might someday help reclaim other items that go to waste. For now, the excitement around edible flowers keeps building.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.70012" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Food Process Engineering</a>.



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Flowers as food: How ultrasound makes it possible

Flowers that lose their initial charm often end up in...

iron ore deposit - 1

Far away, on a remote island in the northwestern Pacific, stands a volcano that many people have never heard of. It quietly shaped global events nearly two centuries ago by sending clouds of ash high into the atmosphere.



This imposing feature is known as Zavaritzki, a caldera that rests within the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kuril-Islands" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kuril Islands</a>. Once overlooked by explorers and mapmakers, it recently drew attention when scientists linked it to a mysterious weather shift in the early 1800s.



<a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/earth-sciences/people/wh39/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">William Hutchison</a>, a volcanologist at the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St. Andrews</a>, matched sulfur-laden ice core samples with the distinct rock chemistry found on Zavaritzki’s slopes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-zavaritzki-puzzle">Unraveling the Zavaritzki puzzle</h2>



Ice cores preserve chemical and mineral traces that help researchers identify old volcanic explosions. For decades, one major blast from 1831 baffled experts because they could not figure out <a href="https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=290180" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">which volcano</a> triggered such dramatic cooling.



Historical journals from that year described unusual hues in the sky, including a Sun that took on a greenish cast. 



Many reports also noted a stark drop in temperature, which pointed to a significant injection of volcanic material into the air. 



Scientists suspected that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/faster-global-warming-linked-to-fewer-aerosols-in-ship-pollution/">sulfur aerosols</a> had reflected sunlight, but pinpointing the exact source to Zavaritzki proved challenging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potassium-poor-ash-as-the-key">Potassium-poor ash as the key</h2>



Clues emerged when geologists examined tiny shards of minerals, from the cores, under powerful microscopes. 



Tests showed these particles were low in potassium, which indicated a composition unlike many of the well-known volcanoes in Iceland or Alaska.



The discovery led researchers toward the Kurils, a remote chain of islands bridging northern Japan and Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula. 



Additional analysis revealed that these shards mirrored fresh samples from the slopes of the Zavaritzki caldera, which led to a breakthrough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cinder-cones-from-the-zavaritzki-caldera">Cinder cones from the Zavaritzki caldera</h2>



Zavaritzki’s complex includes several <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/cinder-cones.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cinder cones</a>, which arise when gas-charged lava splatters and cools in steep mounds. These clusters often form around larger vents, adding layers of material each time an eruption occurs.



Cinders and ash accumulate at angles that can reach around 30 degrees, sometimes forming cones a few hundred feet tall. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Zavaritski-Caldera_volcanic-eruption-1800s_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Zavaritski-Caldera_volcanic-eruption-1800s_nasa_1s.webp" alt="The Zavaritskogo volcano (also called Zavaritskii) is a striking feature on Simushir Island, in the middle of the archipelago. It is made up of nested, steep-walled calderas surrounding a central lake. The OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8 captured these images of Zavaritskogo and its complex edifice on September 12, 2024. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1960590"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Zavaritskogo volcano (also called Zavaritskii) is a striking feature on Simushir Island, in the middle of the archipelago. It is made up of nested, steep-walled calderas surrounding a central lake. The OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8 captured these images of Zavaritskogo and its complex edifice on September 12, 2024. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



These structures can collapse inward if lava flows breach the sides, creating a patchwork of vents and channels.



<a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/monogenetic-volcanic-fields.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monogenetic cones</a> typically appear during a single eruptive phase, but multiple cones can punctuate the same region. 



The presence of these features in Zavaritzki’s caldera indicates a history of intermittent volcanic episodes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-eruption-s-impact">Tracing the eruption’s impact</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-volcanoes-chaos-poisoned-ferns-for-millions-of-years/">Volcanoes</a> that push sulfur aerosols into the stratosphere can affect temperatures far from their origin. In 1831, the fallout is believed to have caused widespread weather anomalies and a notable chill.



Diarists in Europe described summer storms and hail that damaged crops, while some regions reported an early onset of colder spells. 



These conditions aligned with the timeline suggested by scientists from their ice core studies.



Radiocarbon analysis offered further confirmation that a major event happened around that date. By matching carbon signatures in volcanic deposits with those in dated materials, experts pieced together a more accurate chronology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threats-and-modern-lessons">Invisible threats and modern lessons</h2>



Remote volcanoes can create havoc when they erupt, as they often remain off the usual monitoring grids. 



William Hutchison pointed out that blasts in higher latitudes can still impact worldwide climate by spreading sulfate aerosols.



Historic examples, like the 1991 <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/1510/pinatubo-erupts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pinatubo eruption</a> in the Philippines, illustrate how a single volcano can lower global temperatures for months or years. 



Even with modern satellite data, it is easy to overlook the activities of lesser-known peaks.



Scientists now prioritize collaborative efforts to expand surveillance networks. Improving early detection could reduce the toll of such eruptions on agriculture, infrastructure, and public health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-beneath-the-waves">Peering beneath the waves</h2>



Some Kuril volcanoes lie partially submerged, forming flooded calderas where the ocean flows in. Others have steep-walled basins dotted with cinder cones and small lakes, as seen in Zavaritzki’s terrain.



During the Cold War, parts of this archipelago hosted submarines and hidden bases. Today, geologists map remnants of older eruptions to better grasp how these islands evolved over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-zavaritzki-eruption-matters">Why the Zavaritzki eruption matters</h2>



Powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/">volcanic eruptions</a> can leave behind evidence in ice cores, tree rings, and written accounts. These clues reveal how the planet responds to sudden injections of ash and gases.



Distant events can disrupt harvests, freeze waterways, and shift weather patterns, reminding us that we share a connected atmosphere. 



Understanding these processes helps us plan for future episodes that might catch us unprepared.



Zavaritzki highlights the importance of watching every corner of our planet, no matter how remote, in order to avoid the disasters associated with surprise volcanic eruptions. 



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2416699122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Volcanic eruption that cooled the Earth and turned the Sun green

Far away, on a remote island in the northwestern Pacific,...

For years, scientists have been eager to tune in to the subtle vibrations sent across the universe by cataclysmic events. Gravitational-wave observatories provide that opportunity, but capturing the weakest signals demands innovative advancements.



A newly developed optical system offers a possible route to higher laser power levels, which is crucial for capturing more distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-particles-solution-gravitational-wave-mystery-bose-einstein-condensate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>.



Jonathan Richardson, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Riverside</a>, noted that the research represents a leap forward in our ability to control the heat-related distortions that hamper current detectors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ring-like-targeted-heating">Ring-like targeted heating</h2>



The new system directs infrared radiation onto mirrored surfaces with carefully shaped patterns. The ring-like approach corrects the warping that arises from intense laser power.



Each main mirror weighs about 88 pounds, so minimizing distortions is not easy. With precisely controlled heating zones, the system keeps the reflections crisp and stable, which is a major benefit for detecting faint <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gravitational-waves-dark-matter-big-bang-breakthrough/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a>.



Conventional adaptive optics in astronomy often corrects atmospheric blurring, but controlling thermal effects on a massive mirror is a different challenge. 



Engineers must ensure that the heating pattern doesn't add noise or degrade the device's sensitivity.



By shaping the heat precisely, the technique preserves the optical path. This safeguard is essential for measuring tiny disturbances in spacetime without spurious signals creeping in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-faint-gravitational-wave-signals">Detecting faint gravitational wave signals</h2>



The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (<a href="https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LIGO</a>) has already recorded events involving black holes and neutron stars, broadening our knowledge of cosmic collisions. 



The path to even fainter signals involves pushing laser power beyond 1 megawatt inside the detectors.



"We expect this technology, and future versions of it, will be able to achieve more power in the interferometer," said Professor Richardson. This boost brings greater heat, which introduces more distortion.&nbsp;



Quantum noise presents another obstacle, since gravitational-wave detectors rely on laser beams that exhibit quantum fluctuations. 



Researchers use techniques like light squeezing to reduce these uncertainties and gain clearer measurements.



Larger laser power amplifies the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-cosmic-object-detected-gravitational-wave-signal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum effects</a>, making it vital to have stable mirrors. The new ring-like heating control is expected to help maintain mirror quality in those high-power conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-vision-for-tomorrow">A vision for tomorrow</h2>



Moving beyond current facilities, the proposed <a href="https://cosmicexplorer.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cosmic Explorer</a> aims for arms about 25 miles in length. That vast distance should help capture gravitational ripples from earlier chapters in the universe.



Researchers predict that such a facility could show us signals when the cosmos was a small fraction of its present age. 



This might clarify puzzling details about the <a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2302.05709" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expansion rate</a> of the universe, which has two conflicting measurements right now.



Cosmic Explorer's design is guided by lessons learned from LIGO's upgrades. Each expansion in size and power requires solutions that can handle more severe thermal and quantum effects.



Scientists are also evaluating materials that can endure higher energy levels without warping. Selecting the right substrates and coatings can make or break the performance of next-generation observatories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-unlocked-with-gravitational-waves">Secrets unlocked with gravitational waves </h2>



Accurate gravitational-wave observations might offer new insights into how general relativity works under extreme conditions. 



Researchers also see a chance to confirm or challenge alternative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-draco-1es-1927-654-just-awoke-is-spewing-material-at-incredible-speeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theories</a>, especially near the boundaries of a black hole.



"If you look at the history of astronomy, every time we’ve developed electromagnetic telescopes that can observe a different wavelength, we have discovered new objects," said Professor Richardson, who hopes gravitational waves will reveal something equally unanticipated.



By detecting more subtle signals, researchers can gather data on the evolution of black holes, including their spins and possible interactions with nearby objects. This might reveal patterns that haven't been visible with current methods.



Gravitational waves can also function as a different kind of cosmic ruler. When combined with traditional light-based observations, they could refine distance measurements to far-off galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-gravitational-wave-detection">New era of gravitational wave detection</h2>



Experts plan to pair advanced optical systems with quantum-enhanced lasers to open new frontiers in detection. 



Studies show that combining these methods can lower noise across multiple frequency bands, allowing for the detection of weaker signals.



This work highlights the value of practical engineering in exploring cosmic mysteries. It also strengthens the case for building next-generation observatories that demand intense laser power and precise mirror control.



Ongoing experiments aim to integrate adaptive heating with other sensor improvements. Scientists are testing prototypes that can switch heating patterns in real time for different operating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/detecting-warp-drives-extraterrestrial-spacecraft-using-gravitational-waves-experiment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>.



A coordinated global network of detectors might share insights on mirror shaping techniques, so the entire community benefits from every development. This synergy could accelerate our progress toward capturing signals from even more distant events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-worldwide-network">Creating a worldwide network </h2>



Other projects, like Europe's proposed <a href="https://www.et-gw.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Einstein Telescope</a>, aim to use underground tunnels arranged in a triangular shape to reduce seismic noise. 



This approach could complement what Cosmic Explorer attempts on a larger scale, creating a worldwide network.



Such coordination increases the odds of catching elusive signals and pinning down their sources. By comparing data across different detectors, scientists can refine their estimates of where in the sky a gravitational wave originated.



Collaborative data analysis is crucial, as it confirms detections and further refines estimates of each signal's origin.



Upgrades to existing facilities are already showing how small engineering tweaks can sharpen our vision of the cosmos. The adaptive heating approach is one such tweak, but it sets the stage for more ambitious changes.



Each incremental improvement broadens our view of gravitational-wave sources, whether they lurk billions of light-years away or hide in our local cosmic neighborhood. 



As these technologies advance, new mysteries might emerge that redefine our understanding of space and time.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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New technology dramatically boosts gravitational wave detection

For years, scientists have been eager to tune in to...

Animals are not just wandering around aimlessly. They’re rearranging dirt, redirecting water, and influencing ecosystems in ways that scientists once considered impossible. 



New research reveals that animals of all shapes and sizes make surprising contributions to landscape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-losing-the-battle-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formation</a>. The sheer variety of these living movers and shakers has never been so carefully documented.



According to Professor Gemma Harvey, a geography specialist at Queen Mary University of London, this comprehensive look at animals as engineers changes how we view habitat dynamics.



Professor Harvey worked alongside collaborators in an effort to pinpoint exactly where and how these organisms move sediment, build structures, or alter waterways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-reshaping-landscapes">Animals reshaping landscapes </h2>



Scientists first noticed <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-abstract/38/11/753/294302?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beaver dams</a> having a major impact on river flow and wetland formation decades ago. They observed notable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-a-mix-of-habitats-are-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a> in water chemistry, fish populations, and flood patterns.



Since then, additional discoveries have spotlighted unexpected players like ants, <a href="https://gorongosa.org/hippos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippos</a>, and a wide range of fish species. Each creature modifies its surroundings in a specific way by shifting soil, building mounds, or even rerouting stream channels.



The research team gathered data on 603 distinct species, genera, or families that measurably change the earth’s surface.



The experts calculated that at least 76,000 gigajoules of energy are channeled into shaping landscapes every year, putting these activities on par with enormous flood events.



This figure is almost certainly on the lower side, because many regions such as tropical zones remain understudied. Many of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> are home to countless organisms that have yet to be fully documented.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-insects">A closer look at insects</h2>



Termites stand out for constructing intricate networks of mounds, sometimes visible over large distances. Their excavation and relocation of soil alter drainage, create microhabitats, and may even influence plant growth patterns.



<a href="https://portal.nifa.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/1022904-environmental-dynamics-of-ecosystem-engineering-ants-and-their-modifications-of-soil-structure.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ants</a> also manipulate their environment with small yet frequent digs that reshape the topsoil. This has implications for water infiltration and nutrient cycling - two factors that determine how plants thrive or struggle. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-and-flowing-waters">Fish and flowing waters</h2>



Salmon rearrange the gravel in streams when they prepare spawning sites, creating areas known as redds. This digging changes sediment composition, oxygen flow, and even nutrient distribution.



Other fish, such as certain species of catfish, disturb riverbeds while feeding or nesting. The effects can ripple out, sometimes encouraging different plants and invertebrates to settle in the newly created pockets of calm or fast water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-animals-could-disrupt-landscapes">Losing animals could disrupt landscapes</h2>



The study reveals that nearly 30% of these identified species are rare, <a href="https://www.iberdrola.com/sustainability/endemic-species" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endemic</a>, or threatened. If these animals disappear, their unique ways of moving earth and water could disappear along with them.



Environmental groups often focus on big predators or charismatic mammals, but these natural shapers deserve attention too. A collapse in their activities might lead to significant shifts in erosion, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-different-habitats-greatly-increase-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> formation, and nutrient flow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-for-restoration">Strategies for restoration</h2>



Projects that introduce or protect earth-moving species are gaining momentum, especially in places grappling with flooding and soil erosion. By giving these organisms room to be productive, communities might tap into a natural way to slow down water or stabilize fragile ground.



Conservationists have looked at <a href="https://rewildingeurope.com/what-is-rewilding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rewilding</a> efforts involving beavers in various U.S. states. The results hint that their dam-building can help recharge aquifers and keep precious water from draining away too quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-animal-landscapes-from-above">Viewing animal landscapes from above</h2>



Advanced satellite <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07459-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> has opened our eyes to the large-scale patterns created by species like termites. Their sprawling mounds can sometimes stretch for hundreds of miles, forming patchwork landscapes that affect everything from water runoff to vegetation growth.



High-resolution imagery also shows how animals alter terrain in desert regions and mountainous areas. Such observations confirm that our planet’s architecture is shaped by claws, mandibles, and hooves as much as by wind or rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthier-landscapes-for-the-future">Healthier landscapes for the future</h2>



Conserving these animal-engineered systems may become a critical part of climate resilience strategies. They offer a low-cost way to manage floods, maintain fertile soils, and preserve the diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-caps-may-only-exist-because-of-unusual-climate-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> that humans rely on.



Studies suggest that reintroducing certain species or encouraging their return could be more effective than large-scale engineering fixes. There is growing optimism that these surprising architects might help us secure healthier landscapes for the future.



“This research shows that the role of animals in shaping Earth’s landscapes is much more significant that previously recognized,” noted Professor Harvey.



Experts suspect that losing certain species might disrupt vital processes, including how wetlands form and how soils develop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed </h2>



Large-scale community engagement could encourage solutions that blend nature’s own building crews into restoration projects. Whether it’s constructing wetlands or improving soil quality, allowing animals to continue their ancient routines might cut costs and preserve biodiversity.



Some regions have already embraced these approaches, but further research is needed to confirm their long-term viability. More insights will likely emerge as technology helps us keep an eye on these ecosystem architects from space.



Moving ahead, scientists aim to map more species that churn soil, channel water, or shape habitats in overlooked corners of the planet. These efforts may add fresh scientific insights that see animals not only for their beauty, but also for their indispensable role in steadily shaping our world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2415104122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Animals secretly reshape landscapes in powerful ways

Animals are not just wandering around aimlessly. They’re rearranging dirt,...

Blue whales, the largest creatures on Earth, remain remarkably elusive despite their immense size. One of the most intriguing mysteries about them is their reproductive cycle.



Only two blue whale births have ever been recorded in human history - both decades ago. This is puzzling, considering that the global blue whale population is estimated at between 10,000 and 25,000 individuals, and they give birth every two to three years.



With so many births expected over time, why have so few been documented? Sightings of calves remain significantly low, raising concerns among marine biologists.



A University of Washington study may explain why blue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-predicts-whale-movements-to-reduce-deadly-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> calves are rarely seen. The researchers analyzed long-term data and historical records to explore this mystery.



The findings suggest that blue whale calves are out there - but scientists may not be looking in the right place at the right time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-sightings-of-blue-whale-calves">Rare sightings of blue whale calves</h2>



Blue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-whales-use-songs-to-hide-from-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> calves are rarely seen, even though pregnancies are common. They are sometimes spotted with their mothers, but far fewer pairs are recorded than expected. 



Many theories have attempted to explain this mystery. Some scientists have speculated that blue whale calves have low survival rates. Others have proposed that many pregnancies do not reach full term. 



Another theory suggests that mother and calf pairs avoid areas where researchers typically conduct studies. Each of these possibilities has been considered, but none fully explains why calves are so rarely observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-theory-emerges">A new theory emerges</h2>



Trevor Branch, a professor of aquatic and fishery sciences at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>, analyzed multiple hypotheses to determine why so few blue whale calves are sighted. His research points to a simple but often overlooked factor: the seasonal timing of field studies.



Most blue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale research</a> takes place in the summer months when these massive creatures gather in feeding grounds to consume krill. However, blue whale births occur in fall and winter, when they migrate to warmer waters. 



By the time researchers return to their usual study areas in summer, the calves have already grown and separated from their mothers, making them much harder to identify.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-migration-patterns">Seasonal migration patterns </h2>



Blue whales follow a well-established migratory pattern. During the summer, they travel to colder waters to feed on dense populations of krill. 



Locations such as the California coast serve as primary feeding grounds. However, when it is time to give birth, they move toward warmer waters, such as the Gulf of California and the eastern tropical Pacific.



Calves remain with their mothers for about seven months after birth. By the time they return to feeding areas in the summer, they are already independent and no longer travel alongside their mothers. 



This could explain why researchers, who focus on summer feeding grounds, rarely encounter mother-calf pairs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-blue-whale-calves">Observations of blue whale calves </h2>



Pregnancy rates among different blue whale populations range from 33% to 50% annually. However, recorded sightings of mother-calf pairs make up only about 3.1% of all blue whale observations.



This gap has raised concerns about the health of blue whale populations. Some researchers feared that the species might be experiencing high calf mortality or declining birth rates, but the new findings suggest that this may not be the case. 



"My conceptual model can explain the mystery of the missing calves: Blue whales produce calves, or give birth, shortly after departing their summer feeding grounds, and wean their calves seven months later, just before they return,” explained Professor Branch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-blue-whale-populations">Monitoring blue whale populations </h2>



Professor Branch analyzed long-term field studies and whaling records. He found more blue whale calves in wintering regions than in summer feeding areas. This suggests calves are born and raised in places that are rarely studied.



Branch is now coordinating a large-scale collaboration to gather data across different months and locations. His goal is to confirm this pattern by tracking calf sightings and estimating their size throughout the year. 



If successful, this study could reshape how scientists monitor and protect blue whale populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-hopeful-outlook-for-blue-whales">A hopeful outlook for blue whales</h2>



Instead of indicating a population crisis, the low sightings of blue whale calves could be a result of research bias. If scientists shift their focus to winter and spring habitats, they may discover that more calves exist than previously thought.



"This new idea provides an alternative explanation for why some blue whale populations appear to produce very few calves: It's not a failure of calf production, it's because fieldwork in those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-poop-is-a-natural-fertilizer-that-keeps-the-ocean-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> is understandably concentrated in easily accessible summer feeding areas," noted Professor Branch.



The findings highlight the importance of adjusting research methods to account for seasonal migration patterns.



If researchers focus more on wintering regions, they may gain a better understanding of blue whale reproduction and calf survival rates.



This study, supported in part by the <a href="https://iwc.int/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Whaling Commission</a>, could change how scientists study blue whales. Expanding research beyond summer feeding areas may reveal more about their births and improve their protection.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/esr/v56/p53-67/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endangered Species Research</a>.



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Why blue whale calves are rarely seen in the wild

Blue whales, the largest creatures on Earth, remain remarkably elusive...

Scientists have been investigating colossal structures that exist deep inside of Earth's mantle. Located beneath Africa and the Pacific Ocean, the underground "islands" were first discovered in the late 20th century.



These vast areas, positioned more than 1,242 miles (2,000 kilometers) below the surface, are about the size of a continent and are estimated to be at least half a billion years old.



The location and staggering age of these subsurface features has drawn attention from geophysicists. 



A recent study led by Professor Arwen Deuss from Utrecht University suggests that the massive structures may be more stable than previously thought.



The research challenges the long-held idea that Earth’s mantle is a rapidly mixing environment. Instead, the results suggest that there is much less flow within the mantle than previously believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-mantle-structures">Mysterious mantle structures </h2>



Earth’s mantle is the thick layer between the crust and the core. It includes a graveyard of <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/news/science-snippet/earthword-subduction">subducted tectonic plates</a> that have been pushed downward over millions of years by plate collisions.&nbsp;



Experts have been using seismic signals from large earthquakes to examine the hidden structures. Deuss and her colleague at Utrecht University, Dr. Sujania Talavera-Soza, incorporated a novel approach to studying seismic waves. 



Beyond analyzing how much waves slow down, they also measured “damping,” or how much energy the waves lose as they travel through the Earth.



“Nobody knew what they are, and whether they are only a temporary phenomenon, or if they have been sitting there for millions or perhaps even billions of years,” said Professor Deuss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-zones-inside-earth-s-mantle">Hidden zones inside Earth's mantle</h2>



Researchers call these deep regions Large Low Seismic Velocity Provinces (<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-22185-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LLSVP</a>) because seismic waves lose speed as they pass through them. However, the new study has introduced an extra piece of information about just how much energy the waves lose.



“Against our expectations, we found little damping in the LLSVP, which made the tones sound very loud there. But we did find a lot of damping in the cold slab graveyard, where the tones sounded very soft,” explained Dr. Talavera-Soza.



This difference could be explained by larger mineral grains in the LLSVPs compared to the smaller grains present in old slabs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-clues-about-earth-s-mantle">New clues about Earth’s mantle</h2>



The presence of large, ancient features suggests the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-brittle-star-tissue-could-transform-regenerative-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a> is not fully churning everything into a uniform mixture. 



Slower convection in these deep sections challenges assumptions found in standard textbooks, and offers a new perspective on Earth’s dynamics.



Mantle motions feed processes such as vulcanism and mountain formation. Hot blobs, known as plumes, may start at the edges of these big structures and eventually cause volcanic activity on the surface, as observed in spots like Hawaii.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-into-the-past-with-earthquakes">Peering into the past with earthquakes</h2>



Ultra-strong earthquakes have been vital in probing our planet’s deep interior. One classic case is the 1994 Bolivia quake, which struck at a depth of around 403 miles (650 kilometers).



Seismometers collect data on how Earth “rings” following such events. Researchers analyze this ringing to detect wave speed changes and energy losses, which helps form a detailed picture of what lurks far beneath our feet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-grains-ancient-foundations">Large grains, ancient foundations</h2>



Older slabs sink, recrystallize, and become full of tiny grains. These small particles cause waves to lose more energy because the wave boundaries are more frequent. 



Meanwhile, the huge underground “islands” appear to have larger grains that likely took a very long time to develop. 



The discrepancy in grain size implies that these deep features have been around for many millions of years, adding weight to the theory that they predate much of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-hole-drilled-into-earths-mantle-scientific-goldmine-magma-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>’s modern surface geography.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



New observations may reveal how these hidden structures influence surface geology. Shifts in Earth's mantle flow might lead to changes in volcanic patterns over millennia, and the alteration of landscapes and ecosystems.



Scientists also aim to investigate whether similar deep pockets exist elsewhere. If further research uncovers more ancient zones, it could lead geologists to refine their understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a> convection and the formation of continents.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08322-y">Nature</a>.



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Hidden mountains: The mysterious structures deep inside Earth's mantle

Scientists have been investigating colossal structures that exist deep inside...

In a world where gender roles are continually shifting, a fresh study illuminates the unexpected benefits of extended paternity leave.



According to the research, an extended break for dads after the arrival of a new baby can enhance their co-parenting dynamics with mothers in a rather significant manner. However, the effects of longer paternity leave aren't just limited to the fathers.



The study was led by Reed Donithen and Professor Sarah Schoppe-Sullivan at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ohio State University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extended-paternity-leave-and-co-parenting">Extended paternity leave and co-parenting</h2>



Mothers have been reported to interfere less with the father's involvement in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/child-care-quality-has-direct-impact-on-later-success-in-science-and-math/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childcare</a> when the fathers take an extended break from work after the birth of their child.



"When fathers take longer leaves, mothers might take that as a sign that fathers are more interested in being an active parent and be less likely to try to prevent them from participating in childcare," said Donithen, the lead author of the study.



In addition, longer leave for fathers is linked to mothers changing their attitudes about fathers and child care, noted Professor Schoppe-Sullivan.



When dads take more time off after the birth of their baby, moms relax unrealistically high standards for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-give-children-an-educational-advantage-by-playing-with-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">father's parenting</a> and are less reliant on others’ evaluations about their fulfillment of the maternal role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-parental-roles">Redefining parental roles </h2>



Remarkably, a more extended paternity leave not only modifies mothers' reaction to fathers' involvement in childcare but also their perception of parental roles. 



"It is difficult to change people’s attitudes. But a longer paternity leave appears to change not only how mothers respond to fathers’ involvement in child care but how they view <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parent-children-relationships-are-key-to-lifelong-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parental roles</a>," said Professor Schoppe-Sullivan. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-how-new-parents-adjust">Studying how new parents adjust </h2>



The researchers based their findings on data from the New Parents Project, a long-term study led by Professor Schoppe-Sullivan.



The project investigates how dual-earner couples adjust to becoming parents and how families and children evolve over time. 



The study involved 182 couples who were predominantly married and white. The participants were assessed four times: once during the mother's third trimester of pregnancy, and then when the baby was 3, 6, and 9 months old.



When the baby was nine months old, both parents were questioned about their behaviors and attitudes regarding "maternal gatekeeping."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-dynamics-with-paternal-leave">Shifting dynamics with paternal leave</h2>



The term "maternal gatekeeping" describes the extent to which a mother either inhibits or encourages a father's involvement in childcare.



Here, "gateopening behaviors" include encouraging the father's engagement in parenting, for example, by seeking his opinion on childcare behaviors. 



Conversely, "gateclosing behaviors" include instances when moms discourage dads, such as through criticism.



Interestingly, when fathers took longer leaves, both parents agreed that mothers were less likely to employ gateclosing behaviors. 



However, the researchers noticed that it didn't necessarily lead to increased gateopening by the moms, which was unexpected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-societal-expectations-of-moms">Societal expectations of moms</h2>



Donithen noted that this reluctance could possibly be attributed to the societal perception that mothers should predominantly handle childcare.



"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moms-are-more-worried-about-chores-and-its-a-heavy-mental-load/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mothers</a> may think they are the default main parent and so they don't go out of their way to encourage dads to get more involved," noted Donithen.



However, Professor Schoppe-Sullivan suggests a more optimistic interpretation - mothers observing fathers take longer paternity leaves and assume a more active parenting role might not feel the need to push for further involvement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-balanced-parenting">The future of balanced parenting</h2>



In essence, the study signifies that longer paternity leave could trigger a series of changes to reduce the load new mothers usually carry in childcare. 



Professor Schoppe-Sullivan believes this could be a pathway towards establishing more balanced parental roles.



"This study suggests that a longer paternity leave may be a way out of the trap, that it may lead to a situation where fathers do have more of an equal role in parenting," she explained.



In conclusion, the benefits of extended paternity leave extend beyond the fathers. As we progressively move towards a society keen on gender equality, we may need to pay more attention to strategies that encourage balanced co-parenting.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-025-01565-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sex Roles</a>.



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How paternity leave changes parenting dynamics

In a world where gender roles are continually shifting, a...

Imagine navigating the intricate pathways of your mind, deciphering the signals that shape your decisions. Whether it's choosing where to eat or making a life-changing move, your brain is constantly balancing risk and reward.



The complex puzzle of how the brain navigates these choices continues to inspire extensive research and remarkable discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-reward-based-decisions">Navigating reward-based decisions </h2>



Recently, a team of researchers from <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a> made a compelling discovery. The study connected machine-learning concepts to mouse experiments to explore deeper into the brain circuitry that governs reward-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/navigating-uncertainty-how-to-make-transformative-life-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decisions</a>.



The experts identified two distinct groups of neurons in the brains of mice. One group aids in learning about outcomes that are above-average, while another associates with below-average results.



Together, these neurons grant the brain the capacity to assess the entire spectrum of potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-brain-identify-rewards-and-punishments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rewards</a> linked with a decision.



Jan Drugowitsch is the co-senior author of the study and an associate professor of neurobiology at the Blavatnik Institute at Harvard Medical School.



"Our results suggest that mice - and by extension, other mammals - seem to be representing more fine-grained details about risk and reward than we thought before," explained Professor Drugowitsch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-approach-to-risk-and-reward">A new approach to risk and reward</h2>



Neuroscience has long explored how past experiences influence future decisions. Yet, as Professor Drugowitsch pointed out, traditional theories often fall short in capturing the intricate patterns and subtle complexities of real-world behavior.



For instance, choosing between familiar good food at a known restaurant or testing a new place with a mix of good and not-so-good dishes is a choice that goes beyond mere averages. Existing theories fail to account for such risk-seeking or safe-playing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>.



A new theory of decision-making borne out of machine learning research has begun to address these gaps. The new algorithm learns from the entire distribution of outcomes rather than just focusing on averages.



This approach significantly enhances performance, as observed in Atari video games and several other tasks involving multiple potential outcomes for each decision.



"They basically asked what happens if rather than just learning average rewards for certain actions, the algorithm learns the whole distribution, and they found it improved performance significantly," explained Professor Drugowitsch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decisions-and-potential-rewards">Decisions and potential rewards</h2>



In the latest study, Drugowitsch collaborated with Naoshige Uchida, a professor of molecular and cellular biology at Harvard University. The goal was to gain a better understanding of how the potential risks and rewards of a decision are weighed in the brain.



The experts devised experiments with mice to unravel how the decision-making process unfolds within the ventral striatum - a region of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-brain-decides-which-memories-to-remember/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> that stores data about potential rewards linked with a decision.



"We used high-density probes (neuropixels) to record striatal activity from mice performing a classical conditioning task in which reward mean, reward variance and stimulus identity were independently manipulated," explained the researchers.



The team trained mice to associate different odors with varying extents of rewards, effectively teaching mice about the range of potential outcomes for each decision.



The researchers then observed the mice's licking behavior (an indication of their anticipation for better rewards) alongside recordings of neural activity in the ventral striatum. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-neurons-that-make-decisions">The neurons that make decisions </h2>



The results were remarkable. The experts identified two distinct groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> that were guiding decisions made by the mice.



When the researchers silenced "optimistic" neurons, mice acted as if they anticipated lesser rewards. Conversely, when "pessimistic" neurons were silenced, the mice behaved as if they expected a more valuable treat.



Professor Drugowitsch compared this to "having an optimist and a pessimist in your brain, both giving you advice on what to do next."



Continuing the exploration of these intriguing findings will provide insights into how the brain makes decisions in situations of greater uncertainty.



"These two groups of brain cells work together to form a representation of the full distribution of potential rewards for a decision," explained Drugowitsch.



He believes that these insights could help us understand why people with conditions like depression or addiction struggle with assessing risks in decisions.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08488-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Our decisions are shaped by optimistic and pessimistic neurons

Imagine navigating the intricate pathways of your mind, deciphering the...

While sexual reproduction is the predominant strategy among animals, some species have evolved the ability to reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis. In these species, females can produce offspring without mating.&nbsp;



However, even in predominantly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-asexual-ants-maintain-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asexual species</a>, rare males occasionally appear. What remains unclear is whether these males retain reproductive functions or if they are merely evolutionary remnants. 



Understanding this question could provide crucial insights into the evolution and persistence of reproductive strategies in nature.



A new study, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4522" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>, addresses this mystery by examining the rare males of Ramulus mikado, a species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stick-and-leaf-insects-have-all-evolved-the-same-basic-body-parts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stick insect</a> in Japan where parthenogenetic reproduction is the norm. 



The research was led by assistant professor Tomonari Nozaki from the <a href="https://www.nibb.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute for Basic Biology</a>, professor Kenji Suetsugu from <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>, and associate professor Shingo Kaneko from <a href="https://english.adb.fukushima-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fukushima University</a>.



The results provide compelling evidence that these males, despite their mating attempts, have completely lost their reproductive function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-males-with-no-reproductive-function">Males with no reproductive function </h2>



The researchers closely studied the behavior and physiology of these rare males and found that, although they actively engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-trick-their-way-into-mating-by-removing-testosterone-from-their-bodies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating</a> with females, they did not contribute genetically to the next generation. 



Genetic analysis confirmed that no male-derived genes were passed on to the offspring, indicating that these males are effectively sterile.



The findings revealed that, although the males display typical stick insect morphology and mating behaviors, they do not produce functional sperm. This means that sexual reproduction cannot be restored in the species, even in the presence of males.&nbsp;



Interestingly, female reproductive organs associated with sexual reproduction showed signs of degeneration, further suggesting that the species has been evolving without sexual reproduction for a long time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-rare-males-to-study">Finding rare males to study</h2>



One of the major hurdles in conducting this study was obtaining specimens of these rare males.



“In fact, we have never personally encountered a male R. mikado in the wild, despite extensive field collections of stick insects across Japan,” Suetsugu said. “To overcome this, our research team collaborated with museums and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-gain-a-stronger-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citizen science</a> groups, successfully collecting seven males over four years.”



The collected males were then observed in controlled conditions, where their mating behavior was recorded. Additionally, researchers conducted detailed morphological and histological analyses to examine their reproductive anatomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-reproductive-traits-in-males">Loss of reproductive traits in males</h2>



The study raises important questions about the long-term evolutionary trajectory of asexual species.



“Surprisingly, the rare males of this stick insect have completely lost their reproductive function,” Kaneko remarked.



“Unlike female sexual traits, the loss of male sexual traits is generally thought to take an extremely long time. In many other species, even rare males often retain their reproductive capabilities.”&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that R. mikado has relied solely on parthenogenesis for such an extended period that even neutral mutations have accumulated, leading to the complete loss of male reproductive traits.”



This suggests that once a species becomes fully dependent on parthenogenesis, the re-emergence of sexual reproduction may become impossible. Over time, genetic changes accumulate that further reinforce the asexual mode of reproduction, making the reversal to sexual reproduction unlikely.



“This study demonstrates that parthenogenesis in R. mikado has become irreversible. Although asexual reproduction is often considered evolutionarily short-lived due to the lack of genetic recombination, our previous research estimated that this species has persisted for hundreds of thousands of years," said Nozaki.



"How has R. mikado managed to survive for such a long time? This remains an intriguing mystery for future research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-viability-of-asexual-reproduction">Long-term viability of asexual reproduction</h2>



Biologists have long debated the evolutionary fate of asexual organisms. Many studies suggest that asexual reproduction, while advantageous in the short term, can be an evolutionary dead end due to the absence of genetic recombination.&nbsp;



Without recombination, harmful mutations can accumulate, and the population may struggle to adapt to environmental changes or resist emerging pathogens.



Yet, the persistence of R. mikado challenges this assumption. If this stick insect species has survived for hundreds of thousands of years without sexual reproduction, it raises the question of what mechanisms allow it to maintain<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> genetic diversity</a> and adaptability. 



One possibility is rare genetic mutations that provide variation even in the absence of recombination. Another explanation could be environmental stability, where selective pressures have remained relatively constant, reducing the need for genetic diversity.&nbsp;



There is also the potential for cryptic mechanisms of genetic exchange, such as occasional hybridization events with related species - though no evidence of this has been found in R. mikado.



These possibilities open new avenues for research into the sustainability of asexual reproduction in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The study on R. mikado is part of a broader effort to understand how parthenogenetic species evolve and persist. Future research may focus on identifying the genetic changes responsible for male sterility and exploring whether other parthenogenetic stick insect species have undergone similar irreversible transitions.



Additionally, scientists are interested in investigating how R. mikado avoids the pitfalls associated with asexual reproduction, such as genetic stagnation and vulnerability to environmental shifts. Comparative studies with other stick insect species, both sexual and asexual, could provide valuable insights into these evolutionary dynamics.



By continuing to study rare cases like R. mikado, researchers hope to unravel the complexities of reproductive evolution and better understand the forces shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in nature.



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Some male insects have lost the ability to reproduce but still have sex

While sexual reproduction is the predominant strategy among animals, some...

Evolution has shaped life on Earth for billions of years. Organisms adapt to their surroundings, developing traits that help them survive. From bacteria resisting antibiotics to viruses mutating to evade vaccines, evolution is always at work. 



But what if evolution itself could change over time?



A new study from the University of Michigan (U-M) explores this very idea. The research suggests that evolution does not just happen - it improves itself. 



The ability to evolve, known as "evolvability," might be something that organisms can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance over generations</a>.



Luis Zaman, an evolutionary biologist at <a href="https://umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U-M</a> and the study’s lead author, finds this concept fascinating. 



"Life is really, really good at solving problems. If you look around, there's so much diversity in life, and that all these things come from a common ancestor seems really surprising to me," said Zaman. 



"Why is evolution so seemingly creative? It seems like maybe that ability is something that evolved itself."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-and-the-potential-to-adapt">Evolution and the potential to adapt</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary theories</a> focus on how mutations increase an organism’s fitness in its environment. A beneficial mutation gives an organism a survival advantage, helping it pass those traits to future generations. 



However, evolvability is different. It does not focus on immediate fitness. Instead, it increases an organism’s potential to adapt to new challenges in the future.



"This forward-looking feature of evolvability makes it contentious. We think it's important. We know it happens. Why it happens and when it happens is something we're less clear about," Zaman explained.



"We were trying to figure out: Can we see the evolution of evolvability in a more realistic computational model?"



To answer this question, the researchers designed an experiment to simulate evolution. They wanted to explore whether populations could develop an improved ability to evolve when faced with changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-model-to-test-evolution">Building a model to test evolution</h2>



To test their hypothesis, the researchers built a computational model using logic functions. They compared the model to a population that could only consume certain types of berries. 



In one environment, red berries were beneficial, while blue berries were toxic. In another, the roles reversed. A population could only thrive in one of these two conditions at a time.



They ran two different scenarios. In one, the environment remained stable, meaning a population only had to adapt once. 



In another, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment changed regularly</a>, forcing the population to shift between eating red and blue berries.



The goal was to observe how populations adapted under these different conditions and whether their ability to evolve improved over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-change-boosts-evolvability">Environmental change boosts evolvability</h2>



The results revealed something remarkable. Populations exposed to shifting environments showed a significant increase in evolvability. 



Instead of becoming specialists in one condition, they developed traits that allowed them to survive in both.



Mutations increased a thousandfold in populations that had to switch between eating red and blue berries. 



This meant that organisms were not just adapting to their current surroundings - they were also developing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability to adapt</a> to future changes more efficiently.



The key takeaway was that exposure to varying conditions could push populations to evolve in a way that made them better at evolving itself. 



This supports the idea that evolvability is not just a byproduct of evolution but a trait that natural selection can shape over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-mutational-neighborhoods">Role of mutational neighborhoods</h2>



The researchers used a computational system called Avida to simulate evolutionary processes. This system allowed them to track how populations changed in response to fluctuating environments.



"You can think of the evolved computer programs as pathways of multiple genes made up of computer codes," said Zaman. "Each time the environment fluctuates, this pathway needs to be reconfigured to eat the new berries."



Mutational neighborhoods played a crucial role in this process. These neighborhoods represent genetic variations that allow populations to shift their survival strategies. 



Instead of relying on entirely new mutations, organisms could modify existing genetic pathways to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-both-predictable-and-random/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt</a> more quickly.



By studying these genetic shifts, the researchers gained deeper insights into how organisms adjust to unpredictable environments. Rather than starting from scratch each time, populations could "learn" how to evolve more efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-time-on-evolvability">Impact of time on evolvability</h2>



The researchers also investigated how the timing of environmental changes influenced evolvability. 



They tested three different scenarios: one where environments changed every generation, one where they changed every ten generations, and another where they changed every hundred generations.



The results showed that when environments changed too quickly, populations struggled to develop evolvability. 



However, even long cycle periods - hundreds of generations - could lead to significant improvements in an organism’s ability to adapt.



"Once a population has achieved this evolvability, it seems like it didn't get erased by future evolution," Zaman said.



This suggests that once evolution improves its ability to evolve, that trait does not disappear. Instead, it becomes a permanent feature, shaping how future generations adapt to their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-way-of-thinking-about-evolution">New way of thinking about evolution</h2>



This study challenges the traditional view of evolution as a purely reactive process. Instead, it suggests that evolution can refine itself over time, becoming more efficient in adapting to changing environments.



If evolvability can evolve, it raises new questions about how life has <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-walking-ecosystems-and-microbes-rule-their-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">persisted and diversified</a> over billions of years. 



Organisms that develop a greater capacity for adaptation may have a long-term advantage over those that rely solely on immediate survival traits.



By demonstrating that evolution itself can evolve, this research opens new possibilities for understanding the complexity of life. 



It suggests that the ability to change and improve is not just a random occurrence but a fundamental aspect of how life progresses.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2413930121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Evolution itself is found to be evolving as life constantly learns to adapt

Evolution has shaped life on Earth for billions of years....

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by the Wallace Line, had such different wildlife. They saw tigers and elephants on one side, while marsupials lived just a short boat ride away.



Dr. Penny Van Oosterzee, an ecological researcher at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a>, has studied these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> for years. She sees them as a reminder of how physical barriers can split habitats even when they sit close by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-separates-species">The Wallace Line separates species</h2>



The Wallace Line runs through Southeast Asia, marking where Asian species give way to Australian species. 



It crosses narrow waters between Borneo and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok, which lie only about 15 miles apart.



Even though it is not an official border, it acts like one for many animals. Flocks of Asian birds thrive on one side, but groups of Australian cockatoos stay on the other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-invisible-fence">An invisible fence </h2>



A deep ocean trench, known as the Makassar Strait, is key to this puzzle. During past ice ages, many islands were connected by land bridges when sea levels dropped.



Yet that submerged gap never vanished here, so animals could not simply wander across. Highly specialized species remained where they could find food, avoid predators, and keep up their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-development-shows-how-evolution-had-many-options-to-choose-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival strategies</a>.



Even birds, which can fly, tend to stay within their familiar habitats because of differences in climate and food availability. The Wallace Line, in many ways, acts like an invisible fence shaped by nature’s own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolving-evolution-how-life-learns-to-adapt-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">design</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-makassar-strait-the-basics">Understanding the Makassar Strait - the basics</h2>



The Makassar Strait is a narrow stretch of water that runs between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. 



It connects the Celebes Sea in the north to the Java Sea in the south, making it a key passage for ships traveling between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 



The strait isn’t just a busy maritime route - it’s also home to some incredible marine life. 



Strong ocean currents flow through, bringing nutrient-rich waters that support vibrant coral reefs, fish, and even deep-sea creatures. 



It’s a hotspot for divers and researchers alike, offering a glimpse into Indonesia’s rich underwater biodiversity.



The region is also a key focus for climate change research, as rising sea levels and shifting currents affect both marine ecosystems and coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-shaped-evolution">The Wallace Line shaped evolution</h2>



This unique divide helped shape some early ideas about how species change over time. It sparked thoughts on biogeography, the study of how plants and animals are distributed across the planet.



When Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/1800s/natural-selection-charles-darwin-alfred-russel-wallace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wrote</a> about natural selection in the mid-1800s, they each pointed to real-world examples of animals adapting to local conditions. 



The stark difference between these islands stood out to Wallace.



His observations supported the idea that species do not appear randomly but evolve based on their environment. 



The Wallace Line became one of the strongest cases for how geographic barriers can drive the formation of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-perspective">A different perspective</h2>



There are debates over the geographic accuracy of the line. Researchers have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/130/1/225/5802023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">called</a> for the boundary line to be redrawn.&nbsp;



“We suggest that Wallace’s Line be redrawn such that the landmass is placed on the Australasian side of this fundamental biogeographical boundary,” wrote Jason Ali and colleagues from the University of Hong Kong.



Shifting a line on a map may seem simple, but it shows how active science can be. As more research appears, definitions can move, and old ideas can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-and-human-history">The Wallace Line and human history</h2>



The idea of a boundary extends to humans and not only wildlife. The racial and political effects of the line have been studied at length.&nbsp;



“The difference between these two people had already been noticed by early European travelers, together with the difference in flora and fauna,” noted Fenneke Sysling from the University of Utrecht in The Netherlands.



Many decades ago, claims emerged that certain groups east of the line shared traits with Papuans, while those west of the line fit the Malay category. 



Debates around these claims have carried into modern times, highlighting how complex human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-borders-and-human-evolution">Geographic borders and human evolution</h2>



Various projects track bird populations, insects, and even marsupials (kangaroo) to see how borders and evolution link together. 



Shallow seas no longer block human travel, yet animals remain bound by their own quirks.



Scientists ask whether climate changes or habitat loss might shift wildlife distributions in the future. Updates on these studies add another layer of intrigue to a line first drawn in the 19th century.



The Wallace Line demonstrates how subtle geographic forces can create stark contrasts in living things. It also reminds us that physical distance is not always the main factor - evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> and chance play major roles.



With all of the debates and shifting perspectives, one thing is clear: the planet holds more surprises than any single line can capture.



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The Wallace Line: A natural border line that no species will cross

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by the...

Large birds, the closest relatives of dinosaurs, have demonstrated their intelligence by solving physical challenges to access food. Scientists have now shown that emus and rheas, part of the palaeognath group, can tackle complex tasks.



Despite their reputation for lacking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a>, emus successfully developed a new technique to obtain food. They aligned a hole with a food chamber and adjusted its position efficiently in 90% of trials.



A male rhea not only used this method but also invented another - rotating a central bolt until the task collapsed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-crows-and-parrots">Beyond crows and parrots</h2>



Dr. Fay Clark, from Bristol’s <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/psychology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Psychological Science</a>, emphasized the importance of expanding avian research beyond commonly studied species.



“A large body of research shows that crows and parrots are effective problem-solvers, and while scientists have recently taken interest in other birds like gulls and birds of prey, all of these birds belong to the same phylogenetic group, Neognathae," noted Dr. Clark.



“The problem? The more we study the same species repeatedly, the more we create an ‘echo chamber’ of knowledge and create a false impression that other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> are less ‘intelligent’ but in reality they haven’t been studied to the same level.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-limits-of-palaeognaths">Cognitive limits of palaeognaths</h2>



Dr. Clark's research involved three palaeognath species - emus, rheas, and ostriches - at a local zoo.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-brain-evolution-birds-and-mammals-took-different-paths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> participated in ten test sessions using a rotating wheel that had to be aligned with a hole to receive a food reward. While emus and rheas demonstrated problem-solving abilities, the ostriches in this study did not innovate.



“We classify palaeognath innovation as low level or simplistic – and it is certainly not as complex as the innovation we see in crows and parrots," Dr. Clark explained.



“However, it is still a very important finding. There were no reports of technical innovation in palaeognaths before our study, and there was a prevailing view that they are ‘dumb’ birds."



“Our research suggests that is not true and that technical innovation may have evolved far earlier in birds than previously thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The study's authors plan to extend their research to more bird species, particularly those that have not been traditionally studied in cognitive science. 



A broader sample of birds interacting with the same rotating wheel task could help identify patterns in problem-solving abilities across different evolutionary groups.



Additionally, future research could explore how environmental factors influence intelligence. 



Do birds that face frequent challenges in the wild develop better problem-solving skills? How does social structure impact cognitive development? Answering these questions could deepen our understanding of avian intelligence.



“The more we study palaeognath birds, the more we can understand the broader picture of bird cognition. And because palaeognaths birds are the closest living relatives to dinosaurs, research might shed light on how dinosaurs behaved,” said Dr. Clark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-environment-in-bird-intelligence">Role of environment in bird intelligence</h2>



Bird intelligence does not exist in isolation - it develops in response to environmental challenges. Species that regularly face obstacles in the wild may develop problem-solving skills as a survival strategy.



For instance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-navigate-using-clues-from-earths-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> that forage in unpredictable conditions or compete for scarce resources might be more likely to innovate. 



Emus and rheas, which live in diverse habitats, may benefit from adaptability. Ostriches, however, tend to rely on speed and size rather than problem-solving to escape predators, which could explain their different approach to the task.



By studying birds in different settings, scientists can better understand how environment influences cognitive development. Future research could compare problem-solving abilities between wild and captive birds to see how natural challenges shape intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-bird-intelligence">Rethinking bird intelligence</h2>



The study challenges long-standing assumptions about intelligence in birds. By shifting the focus beyond traditionally studied species, scientists are uncovering new insights into the cognitive abilities of different bird groups. 



Palaeognaths, once thought to be among the least intelligent birds, have now demonstrated problem-solving skills that suggest a more complex picture of avian intelligence.



As research continues, it is likely that more bird species will prove to be capable of innovation and learning. The findings not only reshape how we view bird intelligence but also prompt new discussions about the evolutionary roots of problem-solving behavior. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-88217-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Large flightless birds are more intelligent than we realized

Large birds, the closest relatives of dinosaurs, have demonstrated their...

For centuries, sea turtles have followed the rhythms of the ocean, returning to the same shores where they were born for nesting and to lay their eggs. These ancient creatures, some of which have existed since the time of the dinosaurs, have always relied on nature’s consistency. 



But now, the climate is changing faster than ever, and the turtles must adapt - or risk losing entire generations.



New research offers a glimpse into how these resilient animals are responding. Scientists monitoring green and loggerhead turtles in <a href="https://cyprusturtles.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cyprus</a> have observed a remarkable shift. These turtles are nesting earlier each year, a subtle yet crucial adjustment that could determine the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">future of their species.</a>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shift-in-turtles-nesting-patterns">Shift in turtles nesting patterns</h2>



Temperature plays a crucial role in determining the survival and sex ratio of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-use-earths-magnetic-field-like-an-invisible-map/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea turtle</a> hatchlings. Unlike mammals, sea turtles do not have genetically predetermined sexes at birth. 



Instead, the temperature of the sand where the eggs are incubated decides whether more males or females will hatch. Warmer sand results in a higher number of female hatchlings, while cooler sand leads to more males. 



However, when temperatures rise too much, it can become too hot for the eggs to develop properly, leading to fewer hatchlings surviving.



Another important factor in turtle reproduction is "natal philopatry," a behavior where turtles return to the same beach where they hatched to lay their own eggs. This strong instinct means they may struggle to find new nesting sites even if their birthplace becomes too warm for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-show-signs-of-recovery-but-conservation-issues-remain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">successful hatching</a>.



A research team from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> and the Society for the Protection of Turtles studied nesting patterns over three decades. Their data suggests that if temperatures keep rising at the current rate, loggerhead turtles could face severe reproductive challenges by 2100. 



Without adapting their nesting schedule and laying eggs earlier in the season, they may struggle to produce enough viable offspring to sustain their population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-s-impact-on-turtle-nesting">Temperature’s impact on turtle nesting</h2>



Researchers placed temperature loggers in nests while females were laying eggs. They later retrieved them after the hatchlings emerged. The data indicated that turtles need to adjust their nesting by 0.5 days per year to maintain the current sex ratio and by 0.7 days per year to prevent egg failures.



Fortunately, loggerhead turtles seem to be adapting. The study shows they have already been nesting 0.78 days earlier per year since 1993. This shift has helped maintain hatching success, at least for now.



“This is a bit of good news, as we’ve shown that these turtles are responding to the elevated temperatures brought about by climate change by shifting to cooler months to nest," Professor Annette Broderick explained.



"There is no guarantee that they carry on doing this though – it’s very much dependent on how much the temperature rises, and also what they are eating. If the timing of production in terms of where their food's coming from shifts, then they could start to be disconnected ecologically between where they forage and where they breed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adjusting-the-nesting-schedule">Adjusting the nesting schedule </h2>



The research team also examined over 600 green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> nesting at a beach in North Cyprus. Their study aimed to understand what determines when these turtles start laying eggs each year.



The findings revealed that individual turtles adjust their nesting schedule based on sea temperature. 



For every 1°C rise in ocean temperature, they nested 6.47 days earlier. Temperature alone accounted for about 30% of this advancement. More experienced females and those laying multiple clutches also nested earlier.



“To know if the advancement we see now will continue into the future, it is crucial to understand the combined effects of changes in, for example, the age structure of the population, and how individual turtles respond to environmental change,” noted lead author Mollie Rickwood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-challenges-for-turtle-populations">Future challenges for turtle populations</h2>



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> are currently adapting to temperature changes, long-term survival remains uncertain. Cyprus may eventually become too warm for nesting, though cooler locations in the Mediterranean might provide alternative sites.



“Although our turtles appear to be coping with current rising temperatures, it is unclear how long they may be able to do this before conditions in Cyprus are no longer suitable, but cooler locations in the Mediterranean may become available for them to nest,” said Dr. Damla Beton from the Society for the Protection of Turtles.



The findings were published in Endangered Species Research and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Beating the heat: How sea turtles cope with warming waters

For centuries, sea turtles have followed the rhythms of the...

A rare, nearly complete skull unearthed in the Egyptian desert has led scientists to the identification of a new species of Hyaenodonta - an extinct group of powerful carnivorous mammals that once ruled as apex predators.&nbsp;



The research describes a leopard-sized creature nicknamed Bastetodon after an ancient Egyptian goddess. 



Boasting a robust bite and sharp, slicing teeth, this newly discovered predator would have preyed on primates, early elephants, and other mammals in a forested region that is now desert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bastetodon-predator-ruled-ancient-egypt">Bastetodon predator ruled ancient Egypt</h2>



The fossil was found by a team informally known as the Sallam Lab during an expedition to the Fayum Depression - a famous site for Paleogene fossils in northern Egypt.&nbsp;



Study lead author Shorouq Al-Ashqar is a paleontologist at <a href="https://www.mans.edu.eg/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mansoura University</a> and the <a href="https://www.aucegypt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American University</a> in Cairoù.



“For days, the team meticulously excavated layers of rock dating back around 30 million years,” said Al-Ashqar. Just as we were about to conclude our work, a team member spotted something remarkable - a set of large teeth sticking out of the ground."



His excited shout brought the team together, marking the beginning of an extraordinary discovery: a nearly complete skull of an ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apex carnivore</a>, a dream for any vertebrate paleontologist.



Using the preserved skull, the researchers determined that this apex predator was a member of Hyaenodonta, a group that thrived in African ecosystems well before the appearance of modern cats, dogs, or hyenas.&nbsp;



Despite the name, hyaenodonts were not closely related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-hyena-returns-to-egypt-after-5000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hyenas</a> but formed their own evolutionary lineage of formidable hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruler-of-a-prehistoric-food-chain">Ruler of a prehistoric food chain</h2>



Bastetodon draws its name from Bastet, the cat-headed goddess of protection in ancient Egyptian mythology, underscoring both the fossil’s feline-like snout and its Egyptian origin.&nbsp;



The “-odon” suffix, meaning “tooth,” emphasizes this animal’s defining trait: powerful jaws with slicing teeth designed for capturing and cutting through flesh.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_timeline_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_timeline_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1s.webp" alt="Locality map, stratigraphic column, and reconstruction of Bastetodon syrtos. A, map of Egypt showing the location of the Fayum Depression (rectangle); B, map of the Jebel Qatrani area displaying the distribution of vertebrate fossil quarries and their ages; C, stratigraphic column of the Jebel Qatrani area; D, reconstruction of the head and neck region of the new genus. Credit: Ahmed Morsi" class="wp-image-1960384"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Locality map, stratigraphic column, and reconstruction of Bastetodon syrtos. A, map of Egypt showing the location of the Fayum Depression (rectangle); B, map of the Jebel Qatrani area displaying the distribution of vertebrate fossil quarries and their ages; C, stratigraphic column of the Jebel Qatrani area; D, reconstruction of the head and neck region of the new genus. Credit: Ahmed Morsi</figcaption></figure>



Like the goddess Bastet, which symbolized protection and good health, Bastetodon would likely have ruled the prehistoric food chain in what was then a lush, forested environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-bastetodon-fossils">Revisiting Bastetodon fossils</h2>



Beyond describing Bastetodon, the study also revisits fossils discovered in the same region more than a century ago. 



These lion-sized hyaenodont remains were reclassified under the genus Sekhmetops, named for the lion-headed Egyptian goddess Sekhmet, a deity associated with war and wrath. 



The findings show Bastetodon and Sekhmetops both belonged to an African lineage of hyaenodonts that later spread into Asia, Europe, India, and North America. 



This new evidence challenges older assumptions that placed such fossils with hyaenodont groups from Europe.



The symbolic link between Bastet and Sekhmet in ancient Egyptian lore is mirrored in these two genera of apex predators. 



The researchers noted that by 18 million years ago, some related hyaenodonts evolved into the largest mammalian carnivores of their time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-predators-in-egypt-nbsp">Ancient predators in Egypt&nbsp;</h2>



The Fayum Depression, now an arid desert, once hosted a flourishing tropical habitat teeming with mammalian life. 



Its rock layers, dating from the Eocene through the Oligocene, capture a 15-million-year window during which global climates shifted from warmer to cooler conditions. 



The hyaenodonts thrived in this dynamic part of Egypt, feeding on the abundant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivores</a> and smaller predators.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_skull-diagram_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_skull-diagram_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1s.webp" alt="Cranium of Bastetodon syrtos. A, C, E, the paratype (MUVP 634) cranium of Bastetodon syrtos in A, dorsal; C, ventral; and E, left lateral view. B, D, F, cranial bones defined and identified on MUVP 634 in B, dorsal; D, ventral; and F, left lateral view. Credit: Ahmed Morsi" class="wp-image-1960382"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cranium of Bastetodon syrtos. A, C, E, the paratype (MUVP 634) cranium of Bastetodon syrtos in A, dorsal; C, ventral; and E, left lateral view. B, D, F, cranial bones defined and identified on MUVP 634 in B, dorsal; D, ventral; and F, left lateral view. Credit: Ahmed Morsi</figcaption></figure>



Over time, tectonic events in Africa allowed modern types of carnivores - cats, dogs, and hyenas - to move in, while changing environments diminished prey for specialized hunters like Bastetodon.&nbsp;



Eventually, hyaenodonts disappeared, leaving newer predators to dominate the evolving African ecosystems.



“The discovery of Bastetodon is a significant achievement in understanding the diversity and evolution of hyaenodonts and their global distribution,” Al-Ashqar noted. 



“We are eager to continue our research to unravel the intricate relationships between these ancient predators and their environments over time and across continents.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-predators-to-modern-carnivores-nbsp">Prehistoric predators to modern carnivores&nbsp;</h2>



“The Fayum is one of the most important fossil areas in Africa,” said study co-author Matt Borths, curator of fossils at the <a href="https://lemur.duke.edu/discover/dlcmnh/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke Lemur Center Museum of Natural History</a>.&nbsp;



“Without it, we would know very little about the origins of African ecosystems and the evolution of African mammals like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinct-elephant-fossils-reveal-early-evidence-of-animal-butchery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a>, primates, and hyaenodonts."



Paleontologists have been working in the Fayum for over a century, but the Sallam Lab demonstrated there is more to discover in this remarkable region.



Over the decades, research in Fayum has contributed major findings about early elephants, early primates, and now, additional hyaenodont species.&nbsp;



Each new fossil further clarifies the interplay between climatic shifts and the rise - or extinction - of ancient mammals.&nbsp;



Researchers plan to continue unearthing fossils and refining the complex narrative of how prehistoric African predators adapted, diversified, and eventually gave way to modern carnivores.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2024.2442472" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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'Fearsome' predator was once king of the ancient Egyptian forests, then mysteriously vanished

A rare, nearly complete skull unearthed in the Egyptian desert...

Scientists have developed an AI-powered modeling method that mimics how birds produce songs, similar to how large language models like ChatGPT generate human sentences.&nbsp;



By training on birdsong recordings, the model successfully recreates sequences of Bengalese <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finch-beaks-and-bird-songs-a-new-story-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">finch</a> songs, revealing important insights into how birds structure their vocalizations.&nbsp;



The research, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0522-24.2024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Neuroscience</a>, could enhance understanding of the neurobiology behind language processing and how humans and animals form complex vocal patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birdsongs-and-human-language">Birdsongs and human language</h2>



Both birds and humans arrange their vocal expressions in structured ways. In human speech, words follow specific grammatical rules, while birds sing in organized syllabic patterns.



“Although much simpler, the sequences of a bird’s song syllables are organized in a similar way to human language, so birds provide a good model to explore the neurobiology of language,” said Dezhe Jin, an associate professor of physics at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>’s Eberly College of Science and lead author of the study.



One key aspect of both birdsong and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human language</a> is context dependence - where previous sounds influence what comes next. In English, for example, the phrase “flies like” can have different meanings depending on what follows.&nbsp;



For instance, while “time flies like an arrow” is a statement about time, “fruit flies like bananas” is one about insects and food. If we mix these up - “time flies like bananas” - the meaning becomes nonsensical.&nbsp;



The same principle applies to birds: the order of their syllables is not random but follows specific patterns that make their songs recognizable.



“We know from our previous work that the songs of Bengalese finches also have context dependence,” Jin said. “In this study, we developed a new statistical method to better quantify context dependence in individual birds and start to understand how it is wired in the brain.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-training-a-generative-birdsong-model">Training a generative birdsong model</h2>



The research team analyzed previously recorded songs from six Bengalese finches, each of which sings 7 to 15 syllables per sequence. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-monitor-biodiversity-through-animal-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> model, similar to large language models, learns the probability of different syllables appearing in sequences - akin to how ChatGPT predicts words based on past text.



The model is built using Markov models, a method that maps sequences of events by tracking what comes next based on past occurrences. Imagine a flowchart where each syllable leads to a range of possible next syllables, with probabilities assigned to each transition.



“Basic Markov models are quite simple, but they tend to overgeneralize, meaning they might result in sequences that don’t actually exist,” Jin explained.&nbsp;



“Here, we used a specific type of model called a Partially Observable Markov Model that allowed us to incorporate context dependence, adding more connections to what syllables typically go together. The added complexity allows for more accurate models.”



Using their approach, the team generated a range of possible models for each bird’s song, gradually refining them to ensure they only produced sequences that actually exist in the bird’s natural repertoire.&nbsp;



The final models accurately reflected each bird’s real singing patterns while identifying which syllables were context-dependent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-birdsong-model-revealed">What the birdsong model revealed</h2>



The results showed that all six birds displayed context dependence in their songs, meaning they carefully structured their syllable sequences rather than singing randomly. However, the degree of context dependence varied between individuals.



“This could be due to several factors, including aspects of the birds’ brains,” Jin explained. “Or, because these songs are learned, this could be related to the amount of context dependence in their tutor’s songs.”



To explore this further, the researchers studied birds that could not hear their own songs. The results were striking. These birds showed a dramatic reduction in context-dependent syllables, suggesting that auditory feedback is crucial in shaping how birds refine their songs.



This finding supports the idea that birds listen to themselves and adjust their vocal patterns based on what they hear, much like how humans refine speech and grammar while learning a language.



“The birds are listening to themselves and adjusting their song based on what they hear, and the related machinery in the brain likely plays a role in context dependence,” Jin said.&nbsp;



“In the future, we would also like to map neuron states to specific syllables. Our study suggests that, even when a bird is singing the same syllable, different sets of neurons might be active.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-applications-of-the-research">Broader applications of the research </h2>



The researchers emphasize that this new AI-based modeling technique could be applied not just to birdsong, but to other animal vocalizations and behavioral patterns.



“We actually used this method with the English language and were able to generate text that is mostly grammatical,” Jin said. “Of course, we’re not trying to create a new generative language model, but it is interesting that the same kind of model can handle both birdsong and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-songs-share-very-similar-patterns-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human language</a>.”



This suggests that the neural mechanisms behind birdsong and human language may share deeper similarities than previously thought.&nbsp;



Some philosophers argue that human grammar is a uniquely complex feature of cognition, but this study raises questions about how truly unique human language is if birds follow similar rules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-human-language-and-communication">Understanding human language and communication </h2>



This research opens up new possibilities for understanding how brains - both bird and human - encode language and communication. In the future, scientists hope to map neuronal activity during song production to see which brain circuits control context dependence.



The experts would also like to apply AI models to other vocal species - such as whales, dolphins, and primates - to identify common patterns in communication.



Furthermore, the goal is to develop better speech-related AI systems based on how real biological brains organize vocalization sequences.



Ultimately, this work bridges the gap between neuroscience, AI, and linguistics, offering new clues about how brains generate structured communication across species.&nbsp;



As AI technology continues to evolve, models trained on birdsongs could help us better understand how our own brains process language and adapt speech over time.



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AI-generated birdsongs may shed new light on human language

Scientists have developed an AI-powered modeling method that mimics how...

For decades, scientists believed that arachnids, a group that includes spiders, scorpions, mites, and horseshoe crabs, made a single transition from water to land. This long-standing view shaped evolutionary biology, influencing how researchers classified and studied these creatures. 



However, a new study presents a different picture, suggesting that this transition happened multiple times rather than once.



The research also highlights the role of whole-genome duplication in shaping key traits in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australias-deadliest-spider-is-actually-three-different-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> and scorpions, particularly silk production and venom synthesis. These genetic changes may have played a crucial role in their evolutionary success. 



By challenging traditional ideas, this study reshapes the way we understand chelicerate evolution and provides new directions for future research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-details-about-arachnid-evolution">New details about arachnid evolution</h2>



Dr. Efrat Gavish-Regev from The National Natural History Collections at <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hebrew University</a> of Jerusalem and Professor Prashant P. Sharma from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin</a> have taken a fresh approach to chelicerate evolution. 



Their review explores how molecular phylogenetics, evolutionary developmental biology, and genomic research have transformed our understanding of these arthropods.



Traditionally, arachnids were classified as a monophyletic terrestrial group, meaning they descended from a single land-dwelling ancestor. However, recent phylogenomic studies challenge this notion. 



The studies indicate that horseshoe crabs are not a separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slingshot-spiders-listen-for-the-right-moment-to-launch-their-webs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineage</a> but are actually nested within the arachnid group.



This suggests that arachnids did not evolve from a single land colonization event. Instead, different arachnid groups may have independently <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fungus-gibellula-attenboroughii-infects-and-controls-spiders-turning-them-into-zombies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapted</a> to life on land at different points in their evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arachnid-groups-evolved-independently">Arachnid groups evolved independently </h2>



“The idea that all arachnids share a single terrestrial ancestor has been widely accepted for decades, but the latest molecular evidence and a different interposition of some homologies points to a more complex scenario,” said Dr. Gavish-Regev.



“Instead of a straightforward transition from water to land, our research suggests that different arachnid groups may have independently adapted to terrestrial life at different points in their evolutionary history.”



This revelation raises important questions about how these adaptations occurred. If multiple groups of arachnids transitioned to land separately, then different environmental pressures and genetic changes must have influenced their evolution. 



Some species may have gradually developed adaptations for land, while others may have made more sudden transitions. This multi-event hypothesis challenges existing evolutionary models and forces scientists to rethink how arachnids adapted to terrestrial life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-whole-genome-duplication">Role of whole-genome duplication</h2>



One of the key findings of this study is the role of whole-genome duplication in arachnid evolution. This process, where an organism duplicates its entire genetic code, is a powerful driver of evolutionary change. 



By having extra copies of genes, species can experiment with new traits while retaining essential functions.



In spiders and scorpions, whole-genome duplication may have played a direct role in the evolution of important characteristics like silk production and venom synthesis. 



These traits have been crucial to the survival and diversification of arachnids, allowing them to hunt, defend themselves, and adapt to different environments. 



Without whole-genome duplication, the vast diversity of spiders and scorpions seen today might not have been possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-evolutionary-changes-in-arachnids">Key evolutionary changes in arachnids</h2>



“Arachnoid evolution has been shaped by a number of factors, including gene duplications that likely played a role in the development of key traits,” explained Professor Sharma.



“By combining phylogenetic research with new gene-editing tools, we are now in a position to explore these evolutionary changes in greater detail than ever before.”



With modern genetic research tools, scientists can now examine the effects of whole-genome duplication more closely. By studying these genetic changes, they can trace how certain genes evolved and what role they played in shaping arachnid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>. 



This research not only improves our understanding of evolutionary biology but also provides insights into how genes influence the development of complex traits across different species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancements-in-chelicerate-phylogeny">Advancements in chelicerate phylogeny</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary relationships between different chelicerate species has been a long-standing challenge. 



Some relationships remain unresolved, but advances in genomic techniques are beginning to provide more clarity. As more high-quality genomic data becomes available, researchers expect to answer some of the remaining questions about arachnid evolution.



By mapping out the evolutionary tree of chelicerates, scientists can better understand how different species are related and how their traits evolved. This has broader implications for studying the diversity of life and the mechanisms that drive adaptation in different environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This research has significance beyond evolutionary biology. Understanding arachnid evolution has practical applications in various fields, including pest management, biomedicine, and bio-inspired materials.



By studying how certain traits evolved, scientists can develop new approaches to pest control, design medical treatments based on venom components, and create materials inspired by spider silk.



A growing body of genetic data continues to shape scientific understanding of evolutionary history. As new studies build on these findings, researchers will gain an even clearer picture of how arachnids adapted to their environments.



These discoveries could lead to new breakthroughs in biology, genetics, and even biotechnology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-research-on-arachnids">Evolutionary research on arachnids</h2>



While this study provides valuable insights, it also opens up many new questions. 



If arachnids transitioned to land multiple times, what environmental factors drove these changes? Were there specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic mechanisms</a> that made the transition easier for some groups? How do these findings compare to other arthropod lineages that also moved from water to land?



Future research will likely explore these questions using even more advanced genomic tools. As genetic sequencing technology improves, scientists will be able to examine ancient evolutionary events with greater precision. 



This will help refine evolutionary models and improve our understanding of how life adapts to new environments.



The journey of arachnids from water to land is more complex than previously thought. By revising traditional evolutionary models, this study lays the foundation for new discoveries in evolutionary biology. As more data emerges, the fascinating story of arachnid evolution will continue to unfold.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-022024-011250" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annual Review of Entomology</a>.



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Rethinking arachnid evolution: The surprising history of spiders

For decades, scientists believed that arachnids, a group that includes...

Does your dog ignore your gestures when it matters most? Many owners find that simple commands and gestures sometimes fall flat, especially when distractions creep into the picture.



Researchers have been testing how to capture a dog’s interest using high-tech gear that tracks eye movement. Dr. Christoph Voelter from the <a href="https://www.vetmeduni.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Veterinary Medicine</a> in Vienna led a team that has pinpointed a powerful combination for guiding a dog’s focus. 



“The owner’s gaze and gesture are useful separately, but combined they are stronger,” said Dr. Voelter, lead author of the study. 



His group designed special headgear to pinpoint precisely where dogs look under different conditions, and were able to shed light on what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-learn-better-with-praise-and-petting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> really respond to and why that matters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-understand-human-gestures">How dogs understand human gestures</h2>



Most people believe their pets can read basic cues, but scientists have been keen to explore how dogs interpret our gestures.



<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2765" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> in Austria tested multiple breeds of dogs that were fitted with helmets that tracked eye movements in real time. They found that dogs locked onto a target most reliably when a person simultaneously stared and pointed at the same object.



The findings line up with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11926681/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">previous work</a> suggesting that domesticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-personality-algorithm-will-improve-work-and-home-placement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> have learned to follow specific signals through centuries of living with humans. 



In many cultures, pointing is used every day to show a pet where to go or what to do. Gaze, however, has not always been seen as a strong indicator on its own.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pointing-works-better-with-eye-contact">Pointing works better with eye contact</h2>



Pointing by itself can guide a dog in the right direction. However, the new research noted that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-breed-does-not-define-performance-and-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> don’t always follow the point unless the human also looks directly at the object. Eye contact that is focused on the target seems to cement the dog’s understanding.



Fake throws - a playful tease that many owners try - were not nearly as successful. Eye trackers showed that dogs glanced toward the direction of the pretend toss but consistently failed to pick the correct spot.



This suggests that dogs need more than a big motion; they rely on precise visual hints to zero in on what you want them to see.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-through-ostensive-cues">Focus through ostensive cues</h2>



Ostensive signals, such as calling the dog’s name or making clear eye contact, often signal that communication is about to happen.



Dogs appear to respond better when they sense we are talking to them directly. Adding a gesture, like pointing, clarifies the message. When pointing is paired with a gaze toward the object, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewards-of-dog-ownership-outweigh-the-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> show increased attention and are more likely to do what we ask.



Researchers in other <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982211013935">studies</a> have observed that dogs can follow a human’s gaze, though not as reliably as they follow a pointed hand. This difference might be rooted in what dogs experienced while growing up. 



The more exposure they have to humans who use combined signals, the more these dogs will interpret eye contact and pointing as meaningful directions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-tracking-reveals-how-dogs-focus">Eye-tracking reveals how dogs focus </h2>



Cutting-edge technology that straps onto a dog’s head may sound strange, but it gives valuable insight. It captures where a dog’s gaze lands within fractions of a second. If you think of it as a GPS for a dog’s eyes, you can see which parts of a person’s face or body the dog is looking at.



The researchers noticed that when dogs saw a scientist point and look, their line of sight jumped quickly between the pointing hand, the person’s face, and the correct object. This pattern did not appear when the scientist only pretended to throw a ball.



In this scenario, the dogs glanced in the broad direction but often missed the hidden treat, which backs up the idea that precise cues matter more than just big movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-open-questions-and-next-steps">Open questions and next steps</h2>



“Is it for them more like an imperative directive to go somewhere? Or do they understand it more in a communicative way?” Dr. Voelter hopes to explore these ideas further.



New research is looking at whether dogs also learn and memorize things better when people speak to them and give them pointed gestures at the same time.



Some experts think these insights could apply to practical training. If a dog trainer or veterinarian knows that eye contact plus gestures work best, they might incorporate both cues for faster results. 



Many owners might not realize that a clear gaze cue can be the extra push that turns a confused dog into a confident companion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-dog-bond-in-everyday-life">Human-dog bond in everyday life</h2>



Taking a step beyond tricks, the new study highlights just how much dogs pay attention to facial and body movements.



Many owners use a baby voice or wave their hands wildly to get attention, but the study suggests that clarity is key. A calm, purposeful look at the object while pointing may be more convincing than chaotic movements.



Behavioral experts say the results might help older dogs or rescue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-simple-technique-instantly-reduces-heat-stress-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> adjust to new homes. Clear signals could reduce stress, since the dog understands exactly what’s being indicated, rather than random commotion that leaves them guessing. 



This approach also benefits people who rely on service dogs, where precise communication is crucial.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2765" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Scientists learn how to make dogs 'pay attention' and focus more on what their humans want

Does your dog ignore your gestures when it matters most?...

Bird populations depend on a stable food supply, especially during breeding seasons when their energy needs are highest. Insect-eating birds rely on various prey, but moths play a particularly important role in some regions. 



A recent study explored how fluctuations in moth abundance influence bird populations across Finland. Researchers found that this relationship varies by region, with northern areas showing a stronger connection between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moth-makes-its-flat-wings-appear-3d-to-trick-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moth numbers</a> and bird abundance.



By analyzing long-term data, scientists uncovered patterns that highlight how changes in insect populations might affect bird survival and reproduction. 



These findings provide valuable insights into broader ecological dynamics, reinforcing concerns about the cascading effects of insect declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-season-moths-and-bird-abundance">Early-season moths and bird abundance</h2>



The study revealed a clear link between birds that depend on caterpillars and the abundance of moths that overwinter as eggs or adults. 



These early-season moths provide a crucial food source for many resident and long-distance migratory forest birds during their breeding period. 



The strongest connection was observed in the north-boreal zone, where early-season moth populations had a noticeable impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-defense-against-the-invasive-spongy-moth-is-fading/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird numbers</a>.



Birds in these regions rely heavily on insect prey during spring, and any fluctuations in moth populations can significantly influence bird abundance. 



The results suggest that if insect populations decline, birds that rely on these food sources could face serious challenges.



The study emphasizes how environmental conditions shape species interactions, reinforcing the idea that changes in one part of the ecosystem can have far-reaching effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-birds-depend-more-on-moths">Northern birds depend more on moths</h2>



One of the key findings of the study was the regional variation in the moth-bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationship</a>. 



While a strong connection was evident in the north, the same dependency was not found in southern and central Finland. Researchers believe that environmental differences explain this pattern.



“The reason why moth abundance affected bird abundance only in northern Finland is that, in the north, bird breeding seasons are short, food webs are relatively simple, and temporal moth abundance fluctuations from year to year are naturally strong," explained Mahtab Yazdanian, the lead author and a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.oulu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oulu</a>.



"Therefore, abundance changes of a particular group of insect prey more likely reflect in bird abundance in northern Finland than in central or southern Finland." 



In other words, birds in the north are more reliant on moth preys compared to birds in the central and southern regions of Finland.



This explanation highlights how ecological conditions shape species interactions. In the north, birds have fewer alternative food sources, and their breeding seasons are tightly linked to the availability of moths. 



As a result, any fluctuations in moth numbers directly affect bird populations, making them more vulnerable to environmental changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-moth-connection">Bird-moth connection</h2>



One of the most valuable aspects of the study was its use of long-term monitoring data. Spanning 26 years, the dataset provided a unique opportunity to examine patterns that might not be visible in short-term studies.



“This study highlights the value of long-term monitoring programmes. We are fortunate in Finland to have detailed abundance data for both moths and birds, which our study combines in full for the first time,” explained Tuomas Kankaanpää, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Oulu.



Long-term datasets are rare in ecological research, yet they are essential for understanding complex interactions in natural ecosystems. 



Without sustained monitoring efforts, it would be nearly impossible to detect gradual shifts in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-moths-develop-smaller-wings-survive-light-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> populations or identify key factors influencing their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-food-webs">Complexity of food webs</h2>



The study also sheds light on the challenges of studying ecosystem dynamics. Understanding how fluctuations in insect populations influence birds is difficult because natural environments are shaped by multiple interacting factors.



“Complexities in the ecosystem, the food web, and the insect populations' fluctuations have cascading effects on higher trophic levels like birds that are really difficult to systematically study in nature, where everything affects everything,” Yazdanian commented.



Finland’s exceptional long-term monitoring programs provided valuable data on nearly 80 bird species and 400 moth species dating back to 1993. 



These datasets allow researchers to track ecological changes over time, offering insights that would otherwise be impossible to obtain.



The study highlights how detailed monitoring can help identify critical patterns in species interactions, ultimately contributing to better conservation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-and-conservation-efforts">Future research and conservation efforts</h2>



The study’s findings highlight the urgent need for continued research on how insect declines affect bird populations. 



Insect populations worldwide face threats from habitat loss, climate change, and pollution, and it is essential to understand how these changes impact animals that are at higher levels in the food web.



Ongoing research at the University of Oulu aims to pinpoint which moth species are most important as food sources for different bird species. 



Advances in DNA meta-barcoding technology are helping researchers analyze bird diets more accurately. 



By identifying multiple species from mixed samples, scientists can gain a deeper understanding of the specific relationships between birds and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-moving-north-and-breeding-earlier-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-strategies">Conservation strategies</h2>



The results of this study have significant implications for conservation efforts. Declining insect populations not only threaten biodiversity but also disrupt entire food webs. 



By considering the entire food web, conservation strategies can be more effective in protecting bird populations. 



Supporting insect diversity through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-we-failing-the-worlds-most-threatened-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat conservation</a> and sustainable land-use practices will help maintain the delicate balance between species.



Protecting natural ecosystems requires a comprehensive approach that takes into account both the direct and indirect effects of environmental change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-collaborative-research-effort">A collaborative research effort</h2>



The study was led by the University of Oulu and brought together experts from multiple institutions.



Their combined expertise played a crucial role in uncovering new insights into the relationship between moths and birds.



As researchers continue to investigate these complex ecological interactions, studies like this will provide valuable knowledge for conservation efforts. 



Understanding the intricate connections between species helps ensure that both birds and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moths-may-struggle-to-move-in-response-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> prey can thrive in a rapidly changing world.



-----



The study was led by the University of Oulu and multiple institutions, including the Finnish Environment Institute (<a href="https://www.syke.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SYKE</a>), Finnish Museum of Natural History (<a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en/luomus/visit-us/natural-history-museum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUOMUS</a>), <a href="https://www.ulapland.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lapland</a>, and <a href="https://www.vub.be/nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Brussel</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.14467" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>.



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Birds communities struggle as moth populations decline

Bird populations depend on a stable food supply, especially during...

Bird evolution has taken a remarkable turn with the discovery of two ancient fossils from a species named Baminornis zhenghensis, which lived in what is now southeast China's Fujian Province.



Dated to approximately 149 million years ago, these Jurassic-era fossils provide crucial insights into the early diversification of birds. 



The fossils were unearthed by a team of scientists from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology <a href="http://english.ivpp.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(IVPP)</a> of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which is a leading institution in paleontological research.



Spearheading the study was Professor Wang Min, whose work continues to reshape our understanding of avian ancestry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-evolution-theory-the-basics">Bird evolution theory - the basics</h2>



The current leading theory on bird evolution says that modern birds evolved from small, feathered theropod dinosaurs - yep, the same group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T. rex</a>.



Scientists believe that around 150 million years ago, some of these dinosaurs developed feathers not just for warmth but also for gliding and eventually powered flight. 



The famous Archaeopteryx, often called the "first bird," had both dinosaur-like traits (teeth, claws, and a long bony tail) and bird-like features (feathers and wings). 



Over millions of years, these early birds became lighter, developed better flying skills, and adapted to different environments, eventually giving rise to the diverse bird species we see today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-shadows-of-archaeopteryx">From the shadows of Archaeopteryx</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeopteryx</a>, despite its feathered wings, bears close resemblance to non-avialan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-going-strong-when-the-deadly-asteroid-struck/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>.



Notably, this is due to its distinctively long reptilian tail - a vivid departure from the short-tailed morphology observed in modern and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-known-bird-footprints-discovered-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous birds</a>.



Reflecting on the classification of Archaeopteryx, recent studies have placed it as a deinonychosaurian dinosaur, a sister group to birds.



This brings up an intriguing question: Do we have any definitive records of Jurassic birds?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-baminornis-zhenghensis">Meet Baminornis zhenghensis</h2>



This is where the new discovery steps in. Among the two fossils found in Fujian Province, the team named one Baminornis zhenghensis. 



This fossil exhibits an exclusive set of features: the shoulder and pelvic girdles resemble ornithothoracine birds, and there is an early-stage hand structure similar to that found in non-avialan dinosaurs.



Perhaps a standout feature of Baminornis zhenghensis is its short tail that ends in a compound bone called the pygostyle, a feature that is also prominent in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-bird-skulls-retain-some-dinosaur-traits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contemporary birds</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-evolution_Baminornis-zhenghensis-species_timeline-pushed-back_credit-Zhao-Chuang_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-evolution_Baminornis-zhenghensis-species_timeline-pushed-back_credit-Zhao-Chuang_1s.webp" alt="Life reconstruction of the Jurassic bird Baminornis zhenghensis from the Zhenghe Fauna. Credit: Zhao Chuang" class="wp-image-1960254"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Life reconstruction of the Jurassic bird Baminornis zhenghensis from the Zhenghe Fauna. Credit: Zhao Chuang</figcaption></figure>



"Previously, the oldest record of short-tailed birds is from the Early Cretaceous. Baminornis zhenghensis is the sole Jurassic and the oldest short-tailed bird yet discovered, pushing back the appearance of this derived bird feature by nearly 20 million years," Prof. Wang stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-a-large-gap-in-bird-evolution">Bridging a large gap in bird evolution</h2>



What makes this discovery so intriguing? 



These fossils present compelling evidence that birds began diversifying much earlier than previously thought.



Typically, Earth's most diverse group of terrestrial vertebrates - birds, are believed to have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/">diversified </a>during the Jurassic period. 



But the details of this diversification were shrouded in mystery due to a significant shortage of tangible fossil records.



Until now, the only widely accepted Jurassic bird was Archaeopteryx.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baminornis-zhenghensis-an-early-bird">Baminornis zhenghensis: An early bird</h2>



To fully understand the positioning of Baminornis zhenghensis in the bird evolution tree, the research team utilized several investigative methods.



The results indicated that this bird had evolved from Archaeopteryx, making it one of the oldest birds ever found.



"If we take a step back, and reconsider the phylogenetic uncertainty of Archaeopteryx, we do not doubt that Baminornis zhenghensis is the true Jurassic bird," Dr. Zhou Zhonghe, a co-author of the study, stated confidently 



The second fossil is far from complete and consists solely of a furcula (a bone in the chest of birds). 



Despite its poor preservation, the team remains hopeful that it might help in establishing the evolutionary link between non-avialan and avialan theropods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The researchers revealed that the results of the analyses support that this furcula belonged to a member of the Ornithuromorpha, a diverse set of Cretaceous birds.



Yet, given its preserved state, they refrained from naming a new species based on this single bone.



In conclusion, this discovery, might not have answered all the questions regarding bird evolution, but it surely has opened up a new arena for possibilities and future discoveries. 



Supporting the importance of fossils in piecing together the past, these artifacts from the Jurassic era have given us a glimpse into the true evolutionary journey of birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baminornis-zhenghensis-and-bird-evolution">Baminornis zhenghensis and bird evolution</h2>



The discovery of Baminornis zhenghensis provides compelling evidence that bird evolution was already well underway by the late Jurassic period.



By bridging a crucial gap in the fossil record, these newly unearthed fossils reshape our understanding of how early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-have-adapted-to-human-activities-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds diversified and adapted</a>. 



Scientists believe that such findings will continue to refine the evolutionary timeline, revealing more about the structural transformations that led to modern avian species. 



Future excavations may yet unveil more missing pieces in the intricate puzzle of bird evolution.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08410-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Bird evolution timeline pushed back at least 20 million years by new discovery

Bird evolution has taken a remarkable turn with the discovery...

Monarch butterflies are among the most studied insects in the world due to their impressive seasonal journeys across North America. Yet, their populations face mounting challenges as climate change alters the landscapes they rely on.



Harlan Radcliff is an amateur butterfly enthusiast. For over 17 years, he dedicated his lunch breaks to observing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-face-steep-decline-in-the-western-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monarchs</a> at Camp Dodge, a military installation in Iowa.



What started as a personal passion turned into an invaluable scientific record. His meticulous notes allowed researchers to analyze how climate variations are affecting monarch migration patterns in the 21st century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-record-of-monarch-activity">Long-term record of monarch activity</h2>



Between April and November, from 2003 to 2019, Radcliff carefully recorded the dates, times, locations, and numbers of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-new-forests-to-assist-monarch-butterfly-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> he spotted. 



He had no idea at the time that his efforts would one day shape a significant scientific study. His dataset provided a rare long-term record of monarch activity in the heart of their summer breeding range.



Professor Diane Debinski, head of Montana State University’s <a href="https://www.montana.edu/ecology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ecology</a>, led a research team that used Radcliff’s observations to study monarch migration.



Funded by the <a href="https://www.defense.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a>, the study was part of a broader effort to understand how climate change is affecting butterfly species on military lands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-monarch-migration">Climate change and monarch migration</h2>



Monarch butterflies are unique in their migration patterns. Eastern monarchs travel between Mexico and the U.S., spending summers east of the Rocky Mountains. Western monarchs winter in California and migrate west of the Rockies during the summer.



The study aimed to examine the phenology of Camp Dodge’s monarchs. This involved looking at the timing of key events in their life cycle, such as arrival, departure, and peak abundance. 



Changes in these timings can affect their survival, reproductive success, and overall population health.



“We wanted to look at phenology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-shift-to-winter-breeding-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> and test whether it was shifting, and if it was, to ask how that might affect the viability of the populations over the long term,” explained Professor Debinski.



The team also analyzed the phenology of milkweed, the monarchs’ primary host plant. Monarch caterpillars rely on milkweed for survival, making it essential to understand whether its growing season was shifting in sync with butterfly migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-phenological-shifts-in-monarchs">Testing phenological shifts in monarchs</h2>



The researchers conducted fieldwork in 2020 to test whether monarch arrival times had changed over the years. 



They placed monarch eggs on milkweed plants at different intervals - some two weeks earlier than historical records, some at the expected time, and others two weeks later. This approach helped them determine whether changes in migration timing had consequences for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-monarch-butterflies-vanishing-in-the-winter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies' development</a>.



The initial hypothesis was that monarchs would arrive earlier due to climate change, mirroring patterns observed in other species. However, the data revealed something unexpected. 



The timing of monarch arrival remained consistent from 2003 to 2019, but their fall departure was delayed. By 2019, monarchs were staying at Camp Dodge about nine days longer than they had in 2003.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-of-a-longer-fall-season">Risks of a longer fall season </h2>



The shift in fall departure raised important questions about the effects of climate change on monarchs. Interestingly, milkweed also showed a similar pattern, blooming later into the season.



“What we saw was that milkweed herbarium specimens were collected later over time, indicating that they were blooming longer over time, and monarchs were in the field as adults longer over time, which means that the fall season was actually indicating a change,” noted Professor Debinski.



While a longer fall season might seem beneficial, it carries potential risks. Butterflies staying in the field longer could be exposed to more predators and parasites. 



Additionally, a longer growing season might create a “development trap,” where monarchs begin a phase of their life cycle too late to complete it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shifts-may-help-or-harm-monarchs">Climate shifts may help or harm monarchs</h2>



A development trap occurs when environmental changes encourage butterflies to lay eggs late in the season, but those eggs fail to develop into adults before winter arrives. This could lead to increased mortality rates, reducing overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-may-be-added-to-the-endangered-species-list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> numbers.



The field experiment confirmed that a shift in monarch timing could have costly effects. The researchers observed that early-season larval survival was highest when egg hatching matched historical monarch arrivals. 



However, when eggs were placed on milkweed two weeks earlier than usual, survival rates dropped. 



These findings highlight the delicate balance monarchs must maintain with their environment. Even small changes in climate and plant growth cycles can disrupt their lifecycle, potentially leading to population declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-monarch-population-changes">Tracking monarch population changes</h2>



Although Radcliff has since passed away, his careful documentation provided an essential foundation for this research. 



His records allowed scientists to track monarch population changes at Camp Dodge over nearly two decades. The study confirmed that monarch populations declined between 2003 and 2019, reflecting broader trends observed by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a>.



“Discussions about phenology often exclude migratory butterflies, because they experience climates in multiple places,” said Professor Debinski.



“Our research showed that even migratory species can show shifts in phenology. The more information we have about phenology, population sizes and population growth rates, the better we will be able to conserve monarch butterflies and many other species of conservation concern.”



This research serves as a reminder of the importance of long-term ecological data. Without Radcliff’s commitment to documenting monarchs year after year, scientists might have missed these critical trends. 



As climate change continues to shape ecosystems, studies like this one will help conservationists understand how best to protect the iconic monarch butterflies for future generations.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2656.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>. 



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Monarch butterflies are delaying their migration in a warmer climate

Monarch butterflies are among the most studied insects in the...

Toxins can give valuable insights into how molecules interact with biological targets, helping scientists design safer and more effective compounds.



Whether for life-saving drugs, species control, or agriculture, understanding a molecule’s precise targets is crucial for ensuring its safe and effective use.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute</a> in Israel have developed an innovative AI-powered pipeline to predict how natural toxins interact with proteins. 



By combining artificial intelligence with traditional research methods, they are unlocking new possibilities in ecological studies and drug development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-a-deadly-snail-toxin">Secrets of a deadly snail toxin</h2>



The journey of these scientists kicked off from an unlikely source - a toxin from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cone-snail-venom-could-be-used-to-produce-painkillers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cone snail</a> (Conus striatus) that affects both insects and fish. This protein is composed of 60 amino acids and is shot into the prey by the snail using a sharp barb.



Dr. Izhar Karbat and Dr. Eitan Reuveny set out to investigate how the cone snail toxin Conkunitzin-S1 (Cs1) works to immobilize fish, despite not affecting mammals or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mollusks-evolution-shishania-aculeata-spiny-armor-no-shells-500-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mollusks</a>.



The experts found that Cs1 blocks potassium channels that are central to cell function in fruit flies and other insects. However, the molecular target of this toxin in fish remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-to-ai-for-answers">Turning to AI for answers</h2>



Unable to pinpoint the target of the Conkunitzin toxin using traditional methods, the scientists turned to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-proves-very-useful-to-doctors-when-diagnosing-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a>.



“Three years ago, we tried our best tools at the time to find the target of the Conkunitzin toxin, and we failed because the tools were not good enough. And then came a big revolution in structural biology driven by artificial intelligence,” said Karbat.



This presented an invaluable tool for their research, which enabled the experts to use a two-pronged approach to identify the fish potassium channels that were most vulnerable to Cs1.



They harnessed the power of AlphaFold, an AI program, to predict how the toxin might bind to different fish potassium channels. 



Next, the researchers developed another AI model, ET3, to analyze how water molecules navigate around these channels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-pinpoints-the-toxin-s-true-targets">AI pinpoints the toxin’s true targets</h2>



By leveraging ET3 to analyze a broad range of fish potassium channels - beyond what was previously possible - the experts identified the exact channels targeted by Cs1 and how the toxin disrupts their function.



Essentially, if potassium channels act as tiny doors regulating ion flow in and out of cells, Cs1 functions like a lock that jams those doors shut.



“Using molecular dynamics and the new AI-driven structural tools, we were able to find the small subset of channels in fish which bind our toxins with high affinity and are probably the real target of the cone snail,” said Dr. Karbat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-precise-targets-for-new-drugs">Identifying precise targets for new drugs </h2>



Beyond unraveling the mystery of Cs1’s impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, the researchers see broader applications for their AI-powered approach. 



“This new pipeline offers exciting opportunities and future prospects with ecological studies, to study real chemical interactions in real ecological systems,” said Dr. Karbat.



Additionally, the same methodology could be applied to drug development, helping to identify precise targets for new drugs while avoiding unintended interactions.



“If you develop a drug that would activate a channel in the human brain, you wouldn’t want the same drug to affect a channel in the human heart and cause a heart attack,” noted Dr. Karbat.



“The power of this pipeline is that we can concentrate on a target, or any molecule that we are interested in, and find its match,” added Dr. Reuveny, emphasizing the effectiveness of this approach. .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-ai-s-role-in-molecular-research">Expanding AI’s role in molecular research</h2>



The success of this AI-powered pipeline extends far beyond the study of cone snail toxins. 



The ability to predict molecular interactions accurately could transform the way scientists approach drug discovery, environmental toxicology, and even disease treatment.



One of the most promising applications lies in developing highly specific drugs that target only the intended receptors, thus minimizing side effects. By refining molecular targeting, AI can help create treatments that are both safer and more effective.



Additionally, this approach could be used to study natural toxins other than Cs1, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-snail-venom-possible-key-to-improving-diabetes-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a> components from other marine creatures, snakes, scorpions or even plants.



Understanding how these compounds interact with biological systems could inspire new medical treatments, from pain relief to antimicrobial drugs.



The research also holds promise for ecological conservation. By mapping how toxins influence different species, scientists can better predict how environmental changes or chemical pollutants may affect ecosystems.



As AI continues to revolutionize molecular biology, tools like AlphaFold and ET3 will likely become standard in many areas of research, bridging the gap between computational predictions and real-world biological interactions.



The work will be presented at the <a href="https://www.biophysics.org/2025meeting/program/">69th Biophysical Society </a>Annual Meeting in Los Angeles.



Image Credit: Courtesy of Eitan Reuveny and Izhar Karbat.



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Cone snail toxin has inspired a breakthrough in drug discovery

Toxins can give valuable insights into how molecules interact with...

Across Kenya, grasslands serve as a crucial lifeline for both local communities and wildlife, from elephants and giraffes to hyenas. However, climate-driven drought is drying out these habitats, forcing animals and people to vie for diminishing resources - and fueling conflict.&nbsp;



Now, new research shows that restoring more grassland significantly reduces clashes and boosts safety for everyone.



“Grassland restoration is playing a role in reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wildlife-overlap-is-rapidly-rising-across-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-wildlife conflicts</a>, social conflicts and the overall feeling of insecurity in Chyulu Hills, Kenya,” said study leader Camila Donatti, a scientist at Conservation International.&nbsp;



“Grasslands maintain 60% of the livestock produced in Kenya and support 70% of all the wildlife that is found outside protected areas, so people, livestock, and wildlife rely on those grasslands for their survival and live in close proximity. This means this system is ideal for studying the connections between grassland restoration and peace and security.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-droughts-escalate-competition-for-resources">Droughts escalate competition for resources</h2>



With the climate crisis intensifying, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a> have grown more severe, reducing vegetation and leaving less food for both livestock and wildlife.&nbsp;



In Chyulu Hills, researchers surveyed 1,567 households and found that 89% faced some form of conflict with wildlife, while 32% experienced social disputes with other residents. The area is predicted to suffer even more pronounced droughts in the next 30 years, further imperiling resources and livelihoods.



“Grasslands prevent soil erosion while supporting agriculture and livestock grazing, which sustain the livelihoods of pastoralists and farmers in Kenya,” explained Maureen Mwanzia, formerly with Conservation International Kenya and now a statistician at the World Health Organization.&nbsp;



“Additionally, they support rich biodiversity. Beyond their ecological functions, grasslands hold cultural significance and offer tourism and recreation opportunities, making their protection and restoration essential for both environmental and human well-being.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-conflicts-in-restored-grasslands-nbsp">Tracking conflicts in restored grasslands&nbsp;</h2>



Beginning in October 2021, 11,000 hectares of grassland in the Chyulu Hills were earmarked for rehabilitation. 



From September 2022 to October 2023, researchers interviewed local households near these restored sites to understand the scale of human-wildlife interactions, such as crop raids and livestock attacks. The team also wanted to document social tensions, like disagreements over land use.



“Of the total households interviewed, 23% had at least one member experiencing non-lethal attacks by wildlife,” Donatti said. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-elephant-conflict-will-escalate-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elephants</a>, giraffes, lions, spotted hyenas, and buffalos were the most likely species to be involved.”&nbsp;



Conflicts often spiked during the rainy season, when predators sometimes turn to livestock and herbivores stray into ripening fields.



However, the study revealed that households near larger restored grassland areas encountered fewer wildlife conflicts, though overall conflict levels stayed relatively flat across time. Researchers attribute this to the still-limited size of restored grasslands compared with animals’ broad ranges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restored-grassland-reduces-community-disputes">Restored grassland reduces community disputes</h2>



Besides curbing wildlife clashes, restored grassland appeared to lower social conflicts and a sense of insecurity within local populations. 



Over the study period, people’s perceptions of safety generally improved where more habitat restoration was underway - though women-led households reported more social conflict and uncertainty than male-led households.



“However, we only have 16 months of data,” Donatti cautioned. “Tracking conflicts should continue in the area to understand long-term patterns.”&nbsp;



“Additionally, the information we requested from household members relates to the conflicts and mitigation strategies we have previously identified; other conflicts and strategies may have been happening in the area.”



“Finally, household surveys do not properly capture retaliatory measures on wildlife. These should be assessed using a different methodology.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-large-scale-grassland-restoration-nbsp">Potential of large-scale grassland restoration&nbsp;</h2>



Based on these findings, Mwanzia underscored the potential for large-scale grassland restoration to foster both ecological and social benefits.



“I would like to see the integration of grassland restoration into national and international environmental and development strategies, with dedicated funding and resources,” said Mwanzia.&nbsp;



“Policies should address human-wildlife and social conflicts while incorporating gender-sensitive approaches that consider the unique challenges faced by men and women in grassland areas.”



With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-are-racing-to-adapt-to-climate-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a> intensifying and tensions escalating, the study highlights grassland restoration as a nature-based approach that can defuse conflicts, support livestock, and protect wildlife. 



As other regions face similar climate pressures, Kenya’s experience may offer a guide on how bolstering natural habitats can help sustain communities and preserve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-earths-biodiversity-can-be-tracked-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1431316" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Environmental Science</a>.



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Restored grasslands bring more peace to Africa 

Across Kenya, grasslands serve as a crucial lifeline for both...

Coyotes are wily hunters that also scavenge for a catholic array of food. They kill rabbits and other small vertebrates, will take scraps from dustbins, and sometimes munch on backyard fruit. But recent evidence shows they also take an interest in harbor seal pups.



Motion-triggered cameras have captured these wild canines dragging baby seals away from mainland beaches. This discovery has sparked questions about how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-life-has-a-huge-impact-on-coyote-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> use the shore as part of their menu.



Led by UC Santa Cruz Ph.D. student <a href="https://rclab.ucsc.edu/people/grad-students-postdocs/frankie-gerraty" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frankie Gerraty</a>, the investigation uncovered details of coyote hunting patterns near seal rookeries. 



Working alongside <a href="https://www.noyocenter.org/our-team-staff" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sarah Grimes</a> from the <a href="https://www.noyocenter.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Noyo Center for Marine Science</a>, the team noticed a puzzling pattern of seal-pup carcasses and set out to find out who was to blame.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cameras-reveal-coyotes-hunting-seal-pups">Cameras reveal coyotes hunting seal pups</h2>



<a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> set up cameras on a stretch of sand where harbor seals give birth. Footage revealed coyotes seizing newborn pups and carting them off into the dune vegetation.



“I had a hunch it was coyotes,” said Gerraty. “Terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-live-longer-in-densely-populated-human-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> that eat seafood are a major focus of mine, and we know that coyotes are very adaptable.”



The team found that coyotes often returned to the same hiding spots with their prey. Investigators also discovered remains that showed a consistent pattern in the way these canines fed, pointing to more than simple random scavenging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coyotes-hunt-seal-pups-for-seasonal-food">Coyotes hunt seal pups for seasonal food</h2>



“There was consistency, they weren't scattered here and there,” said Gerraty. The pups are born seasonally, so coyotes can hunt them when other typical prey might be less abundant.



Fatty foods are enticing for many species. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-coyotes-may-be-fueling-their-population-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a>, a blubbery pup provides a calorie-packed option in spring.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Coyote-hunting-and-killing-a-harbor-seal-pup-in-Bolinas-Lagoon-on-July-4-2022_credit-Clint-Graves_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Coyote-hunting-and-killing-a-harbor-seal-pup-in-Bolinas-Lagoon-on-July-4-2022_credit-Clint-Graves_1s.webp" alt="Coyote hunting and killing a harbor seal pup in Bolinas Lagoon on July 4, 2022 (Observation #40). A single coyote (A) was observed ambushing a group of hauled‐out adult harbor seals and pups (B) and killing a harbor seal pup (C, D). Seals flushed into the water to avoid coyote predation (E). Photo credit: Clint Graves." class="wp-image-1960174"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Coyote hunting and killing a harbor seal pup in Bolinas Lagoon on July 4, 2022 (Observation #40). A single coyote (A) was observed ambushing a group of hauled‐out adult harbor seals and pups (B) and killing a harbor seal pup (C, D). Seals flushed into the water to avoid coyote predation (E). Photo credit: Clint Graves.</figcaption></figure>



The study observed that vultures, ravens, and eagles also fed on leftover carcasses. This suggests that predators and scavengers alike see newborn seals as a valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-coyotes-have-developed-a-taste-for-human-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food source</a> at certain times of year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-about-rookeries">New questions about rookeries</h2>



A <a href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/rookery" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rookery</a> is a breeding ground where seals gather to give birth. These areas may attract opportunistic land predators, like coyotes, because pups are vulnerable when resting onshore.



Coyotes are known to explore beaches for stranded fish and bird eggs, but recorded instances of hunting seals are limited.



This project captured some of the most detailed accounts of coyotes stalking and killing seal pups in California. Scientists have started to wonder if more rookeries might show similar patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-predator-absence">History of predator absence</h2>



Historically, wolves and <a href="https://tarpits.org/california-grizzly-bear" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grizzlies</a> were the main large land predators in many parts of California. With those animals gone from most coastal areas, seals have expanded their rookeries onto mainland beaches.



<a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/coyote.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coyotes</a> have filled that void as they spread throughout the state over the past century. They weigh about 20 to 50 pounds (9 to 23 kilograms) in some regions, which makes a harbor seal pup a manageable but significant prey item.



In past centuries, seals may have kept their pups on remote islands to avoid the attention of bigger predators. 



Now, researchers are seeing a shift where some seals return to rocky outcrops farther from shore, presumably to decrease the chance of coyote encounters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-perceptions">Balancing perceptions</h2>



Some people see coyotes as a nuisance or threat. Others admire their resilience and willingness to adapt.



“Coyotes have a PR problem,” noted Gerraty. He does not want this research to stir more anger toward the species, since this is natural behavior between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-coyotes-actually-boosts-their-numbers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native animals</a>.



Still, it is jarring for onlookers to find baby seals missing or discovered partially eaten in the dunes. The study raises questions about how often this happens and whether seals will change rookery spots to protect their young.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-in-the-ecosystem">Ripple effects in the ecosystem</h2>



Pinnipeds are a group of marine mammals that includes seals and sea lions, and they carry a lot of fat. If coyotes gain enough energy from hunting pups, they might multiply faster or shift their ranges nearer to rookery sites.



Researchers want to learn whether this interaction influences how coyotes behave elsewhere. For example, if pups are an easy meal in spring, coyotes might focus on farmland or suburban edges at other times.



Harbor seals may start choosing haul-out sites that offer more protection from land predators. These shifts could impact local beaches, tourism, and conservation efforts focused on both seals and coyotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-have-coyotes-always-hunted-seal-pups">Have coyotes always hunted seal pups?</h2>



Reports from nearby counties hint that coyotes have hunted seal pups at Drakes Estero and Bolinas Lagoon. Wildlife observers in <a href="https://www.sealifer3.org/news/elephant-seal-pup-treated-after-likely-coyote-attack" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington state</a> and Massachusetts have also recorded similar predation events.



Scientists say land-based predators hunting marine mammals is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352550924000642" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">not new</a>, but thorough research on it has been missing for a long time. 



This study is unique because it shows how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-can-make-puppy-dog-eyes-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a> may regularly return for blubber-rich meals, especially when pups are small.



The authors suggest that more data on coyote abundance, behavior, and health in coastal zones could help conservationists manage human–wildlife conflicts. 



By shedding light on this predator–prey link, biologists can better track coastal ecosystems and anticipate future shifts in animal populations.



The study is published in <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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Photos capture coyotes hunting and eating baby seals for the first time

Coyotes are wily hunters that also scavenge for a catholic...

A recent study has found that reintroducing wolves to the Scottish Highlands could contribute to an expansion of native woodland that would sequester up to one million tons of CO2 annually.



Experts from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a> used ecological and modeling techniques to estimate how wolf predation on red deer might allow depleted forests to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-are-rebuilding-forests-and-restoring-ecosystem-balance-in-yellowstone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recover</a>. 



By reducing the deer population, the researchers project that new tree growth would flourish, resulting in substantial carbon sequestration.



In their study, the experts have detailed a potential path toward balancing biodiversity restoration with climate mitigation goals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-the-impact-of-wolves">Modeling the impact of wolves</h2>



The red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-climate-change-affect-deer-its-complicated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deer</a> population in Scotland has grown considerably in the absence of top predators. As deer graze heavily on saplings, many once-forested areas remain treeless, inhibiting the region’s long-term ecological health.&nbsp;



The research team used a predator–prey model to simulate how wolves could control deer numbers if reintroduced to specific regions classified as Scottish Wild Land, including areas in the Cairngorms, South-west Highlands, Central Highlands, and North-west Highlands.



From their simulations, the scientists concluded that a population of around 167 wolves spread across these regions would likely reduce deer densities enough to enable natural woodland regeneration on a large scale.&nbsp;



This vegetation recovery, they estimate, would annually sequester roughly one million tons of CO2 - equivalent to about 5% of the <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Climate Change Committee</a>’s recommended woodland carbon removal target for meeting net-zero emissions by 2050.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-climate-benefits-of-wolves">Potential climate benefits of wolves</h2>



One of the study’s most notable findings is that each wolf would lead to an annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-carbon-sinks-are-being-pushed-to-their-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> uptake capability of 6080 tonnes of CO2, effectively making each predator “worth” £154,000 based on current carbon valuation metrics.&nbsp;



Researchers see these results as further proof that large carnivores can provide significant ecosystem services by restoring natural processes.



Wolves were eradicated from Scotland approximately 250 years ago, leaving red deer without any natural predators. While humans do hunt and manage deer, numbers have still surged, hampering tree regrowth.&nbsp;



According to the study, substantial reforestation could now be achievable through ecological processes alone - if wolves were allowed to return and perform their predator role in the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-toward-climate-ready-conservation">A step toward climate-ready conservation</h2>



“There is an increasing acknowledgement that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate and biodiversity crises</a> cannot be managed in isolation,” said lead author Dominick Spracklen, a professor at the University of Leeds’ School of Earth and Environment.



“We need to look at the potential role of natural processes such as the reintroduction of species to recover our degraded ecosystems and these in turn can deliver co-benefits for climate and nature recovery.”&nbsp;



Diminished native woodlands pose ecological and economic risks. The study makes it clear that a wolf reintroduction initiative could turn this around, providing new habitat for other species.



Wolves could also reduce deer-related issues (such as road collisions and damage to young trees), and even create potential ecotourism opportunities - as observed in other countries that have reintroduced large predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weighing-the-risks-and-benefits">Weighing the risks and benefits</h2>



The researchers acknowledge that reintroducing wolves would be controversial, especially among livestock farmers and deer stalkers concerned about their livelihoods.&nbsp;



Advocates argue that the economic value of improved carbon sequestration (along with reduced deer cull costs and new ecotourism revenues) could offset some of these concerns.



They also stress that any move toward wolf reintroduction would require extensive stakeholder engagement, transparent decision-making, and well-thought-out management plans to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-based-solutions-and-climate-benefits">Nature-based solutions and climate benefits </h2>



From a broader perspective, the findings add to a growing body of literature suggesting that nature-based solutions - in this case, leveraging a predator’s ecological role - can deliver meaningful climate benefits.&nbsp;



By harnessing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamic</a> to spur woodland recovery, Scotland could see a substantial boost in carbon storage capacity and ecological resilience.



Still, the exact outcome of wolf reintroduction would depend on public support, regulatory frameworks, and the practicalities of managing a newly returned apex predator.&nbsp;



As discussions evolve, the team’s data provide a baseline for measuring potential gains in both conservation and carbon uptake.



In line with these insights, the study offers a new vantage point on how large carnivore restoration might affect the UK’s broader climate and biodiversity goals.&nbsp;



If pursued, the reintroduction of wolves could shape not just local landscapes but also the national conversation on how best to unite climate action with wildlife recovery.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.70016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Solutions and Evidence</a>.



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Reintroducing wolves could help Scotland fight climate change 

A recent study has found that reintroducing wolves to the...

For years, scientists and ocean lovers alike have marveled at the unique relationship between clownfish and sea anemones. 



The small, brightly colored fish seem to move fearlessly among the stinging tentacles of their hosts, completely unharmed. Their ability to thrive in this seemingly dangerous environment has fascinated researchers for over a century.



Sea anemones use specialized cells called nematocysts to deliver powerful stings to unsuspecting prey and predators. These stings can be deadly to most marine creatures, yet clownfish remain untouched. 



How do these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clownfish-count-stripes-on-other-fish-to-defend-their-territory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> avoid being stung? What makes them immune to a defense mechanism designed to kill? Scientists have now uncovered the secret behind this remarkable adaptation, revealing an intricate and finely tuned biological process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-protective-layer-in-clownfish-mucus">A protective layer in clownfish mucus</h2>



Researchers from the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) and international collaborators made a remarkable discovery. 



The team found that clownfish produce mucus with exceptionally low levels of sialic acid. This sugar molecule, present in most living organisms, plays a crucial role in cellular communication. However, it also serves as a trigger for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anemonefish-can-distinguish-between-anemone-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anemone</a> stings.



Interestingly, sea anemones themselves also lack sialic acid in their mucus. This suggests they may have evolved this trait to avoid stinging their own tentacles. By maintaining similarly low levels of this sugar compound, clownfish are essentially "invisible" to the anemone’s stinging cells. 



The study, published in BMC Biology, provides strong evidence that clownfish have evolved a defense strategy that mimics their hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clownfish-anemone-relationship">Clownfish-anemone relationship</h2>



To explore this adaptation, the researchers examined both clownfish and damselfish - a close relative that does not live with anemones.



The team used glycobiology, which focuses on the study of sugars, along with transcriptomics, which analyzes the expression of genes through RNA. 



By measuring mucus samples, the experts were able to identify key differences in composition between the two fish species.



Using liquid chromatography, an advanced technique for separating and analyzing complex mixtures, they found that clownfish have significantly lower levels of sialic acid in their mucus compared to damselfish. 



While clownfish still retain sialic acid in vital organs like the brain and gut, their skin mucus remains nearly free of this compound. This prevents them from activating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-anemones-can-regrow-their-entire-body-in-its-original-shape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anemone</a>’s stinging response, allowing them to move freely among the tentacles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-clownfish-get-stung-until-they-adapt">Young clownfish get stung until they adapt</h2>



Anemonefish are not born with this special adaptation. The researchers discovered that juvenile clownfish, which have not yet established a relationship with anemones, possess normal levels of sialic acid. If they attempt to enter an anemone’s tentacles at this stage, they get stung just like any other fish.



As they grow and develop their signature bright orange and white coloration, their mucus chemistry changes. Their sialic acid levels gradually decrease, allowing them to safely integrate into anemone colonies. This transition marks a crucial stage in their survival, ensuring they receive the protection anemones offer against predators.



A similar pattern was found in the domino damselfish. As juveniles, these fish can temporarily live among anemones, and researchers discovered that their mucus also exhibits reduced sialic acid levels during this stage. This suggests that multiple fish species have independently evolved similar biological adaptations to coexist with anemones.



“Our findings represent a major advancement because it's one of the first studies to combine glycobiology with transcriptomic analysis to investigate this mechanism,” explained Dr. Natacha Roux of CRIOBE, a former researcher at OIST’s <a href="https://www.oist.jp/research/research-units/cne" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Computational Neuroethology Unit</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-bacteria-help-clownfish-avoid-stings">Can bacteria help clownfish avoid stings?</h2>



While the absence of sialic acid in clownfish mucus explains much of their immunity, researchers are now investigating whether bacteria also play a role in this process. They have two main theories.



The first theory suggests that clownfish produce enzymes that actively remove sialic acid from their mucus. The second hypothesis points to bacteria in their microbiome that could help break down these sugars.



Previous studies show that when clownfish and sea anemones live together, their bacterial communities become increasingly similar over time. This supports the idea that bacteria may influence the fish’s ability to resist stings. If true, this would add another layer of complexity to the already intricate clownfish-anemone relationship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clownfish-and-anemones-help-each-other-survive">Clownfish and anemones help each other survive</h2>



The symbiotic bond between clownfish and anemones is not just about avoiding stings. Both species benefit from their association in multiple ways. 



Clownfish gain a safe habitat, protected from larger predators that avoid anemone tentacles. In return, the fish defend their hosts from anemone-eating species and provide nutrients by stirring up the surrounding water.



Professor Vincent Laudet, head of OIST’s <a href="https://www.oist.jp/research/research-units/meedu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Eco-Evo-Devo Unit</a>, emphasized the complexity of this relationship. 



“Other factors might include the thickness of fish scales, the exchange of nutrients between species, and possible adjustments by the anemones themselves," said Professor Laudet.



"The relationship is mutually beneficial, with anemonefish receiving protection from predators while helping to defend the anemone and providing nutritional benefits."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-proving-this-hypothesis">Challenge of proving this hypothesis</h2>



While the research strongly supports the idea that low sialic acid levels help clownfish evade <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-anemones-use-their-shyness-survive-heatwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anemone</a> stings, scientists want to confirm this by manipulating the process directly. 



If they can artificially raise sialic acid levels in clownfish mucus and make them vulnerable to stings, or reduce the levels in damselfish to make them resistant, it would serve as definitive proof. However, this is easier said than done.



The process of altering mucus composition in live fish is complex, requiring precise genetic and biochemical interventions. For now, scientists continue to explore ways to test their findings in controlled environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-milestone-in-marine-research">A milestone in marine research</h2>



This discovery represents more than just a scientific breakthrough; it also marks the first major research paper from a new collaboration between France’s National Centre for Scientific Research (<a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en/the-cnrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a>) and OIST. 



The work provides new insights into one of nature’s most fascinating partnerships and could open the door to further studies on marine symbiosis.



For now, the clownfish remains a symbol of the ocean’s hidden wonders, demonstrating how nature continuously shapes life through adaptation and survival. As research continues, scientists may uncover even more about the secrets behind this remarkable fish and its unusual way of life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-025-02144-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Biology</a>.



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Clownfish have evolved a neat trick to live safely among stinging anemones

For years, scientists and ocean lovers alike have marveled at...

Deep below the ocean’s surface, underwater mountains rise from the seafloor, creating landscapes few have explored. These seamounts, often teeming with life, stand in stark contrast to the vast, open ocean surrounding them. 



New research has revealed that these hidden peaks hold far more predators than the open sea, drawing large numbers of sharks and other marine hunters.



A study led by the University of Exeter and the Ascension Island Government found that seamounts in the South Atlantic Ocean support astonishing levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>. 



The research focused on three seamounts near Ascension Island, uncovering why these locations serve as prime gathering spots for predators. 



Scientists discovered that shallow seamounts, with peaks less than 100 meters below the surface, were particularly rich in marine life, including sharks and tuna.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-seamounts-attract-predators">Why do seamounts attract predators?</h2>



Scientists have long suspected that seamounts act as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-like-marine-life-found-on-underwater-mountains-includes-100-new-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hubs for marine life</a>. Some of these underwater mountains create nutrient-rich upwellings that boost phytoplankton growth, which forms the foundation of ocean food chains.



 However, this new study found no evidence of such upwellings at the seamounts near Ascension Island. Instead, the researchers observed a different pattern. Marine life increased at every level of the food web, even without a surge in phytoplankton.



Zooplankton, which consume phytoplankton, were twice as abundant near the seamounts as in the open ocean. Sharks, at the top of the food chain, were 41 times more numerous than in surrounding waters.



“Seamounts have been likened to oases of life in the comparative deserts of the open ocean,” said Dr. Sam Weber from the <a href="https://ecologyconservation.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centre for Ecology and Conservation</a> at Exeter’s Penryn Campus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-seamounts-attract-predators">Why seamounts attract predators </h2>



Several factors explain why seamounts attract so many predators. The underwater peaks interrupt ocean currents, pushing smaller organisms into concentrated areas. This creates an easy feeding ground for fish, which, in turn, draws larger predators.



Dr. Weber and his team suggest that filter-feeding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-underwater-mountains-impact-ocean-circulation-climate-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> benefit from food being swept over the seamount peaks, making prey easier to catch.



The peaks may also prevent prey from escaping into deeper waters, effectively trapping them in a confined space. This allows predators to hunt with greater success, making these locations an efficient source of food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seamounts-are-social-hubs">Seamounts are social hubs </h2>



Beyond hunting opportunities, seamounts appear to serve another function. Researchers found that some predators use these underwater mountains as social meeting points. 



Sharks and other species may gather to interact, mate, or rest before returning to the open ocean.



“Also, some predators appear to use seamounts as ‘hubs’ to gather, socialise, mate or rest, and as a base to return to after hunting in the open ocean. This may lead to more top predators on seamounts than you would expect based on the amount of food available,” Dr. Weber explained.



The findings suggest that seamounts are more than just feeding zones. They may be essential gathering sites for marine predators, helping them interact and maintain social structures within their populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-found-at-seamounts">Species found at seamounts</h2>



The experts found that certain species consistently gather at seamounts. Among them are Galapagos and silky sharks, along with yellowfin and bigeye tuna.



Some individuals remained at a single seamount for long periods, while others traveled between seamounts up to 80 kilometers apart.



The researchers also noted a “halo” effect around the seamounts, where marine life remained abundant up to five kilometers into the surrounding ocean. This suggests that the influence of seamounts extends beyond their immediate area, affecting a much larger ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-for-seamount-ecosystems">Conservation for seamount ecosystems</h2>



The seamounts included in the study fall within the <a href="https://www.ascensionmpa.ac" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ascension Island Marine Protected Area</a>. This vast 445,000 square kilometer zone is free from large-scale commercial fishing and seabed mining, ensuring that marine life can thrive without human interference.



“Our results reinforce the conservation significance of shallow seamounts for many top predators,” Dr. Weber said.



“This research also offers fundamental insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seamounts</a>’ role as activity hubs and oases for marine species and shows how these remarkable habitats influence the oceans that surround them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deeper-understanding-of-seamounts">A deeper understanding of seamounts</h2>



Despite their importance, seamounts remain one of the least studied ecosystems in the ocean. This research sheds light on the critical role they play in supporting marine predators and influencing broader oceanic food webs. 



Understanding these underwater structures is essential for ocean conservation, as protecting seamounts could help maintain predator populations and overall marine biodiversity.



The study gathered data from a National Geographic Pristine Seas expedition aboard the British Antarctic Survey research vessel <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/polar-operations/sites-and-facilities/facility/rrs-james-clark-ross/rrs-james-clark-ross-computing-facilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RRS James Clark Ross</a>. Funding came from a European Union BEST grant and the UK government’s <a href="https://www.darwininitiative.org.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Darwin Initiative</a>. 



As scientists continue to explore these hidden underwater worlds, seamounts may reveal even more secrets about the complex relationships that shape life in the ocean.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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Seamounts are gathering hubs for ocean predators

Deep below the ocean’s surface, underwater mountains rise from the...

When people hear "Chernobyl," they often think of the 1986 nuclear disaster that led to mass evacuations. Yet, the region remains home to diverse wildlife, including dogs that have become a focus of genetic research.



In 2018, researchers collected blood samples from eight canines in Ukraine’s Chernobyl Exclusion Zone - four near the power plant and four in Chornobyl city, roughly 10 miles away. Preliminary findings sparked questions about how environmental toxins might shape these animals over time.



Dr. Matthew Breen is a professor in the Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences at the <a href="https://cvm.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NCSU College of Veterinary Medicine</a>. He played a central role in analyzing the animals’ DNA. 



The findings revealed a notable genetic split between the dogs, despite their close proximity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-in-chernobyl-dogs">Differences in Chernobyl dogs</h2>



A team from <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> and <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> Mailman School of Public Health discovered that the canines near the power plant were genetically distinct from those in the nearby city. 



The results challenge the assumption that animals living so close together would share similar genetic profiles.



“We have been working with two dog populations that, while separated by just 16 kilometers, or about 10 miles, are genetically distinct,” explained Dr. Matthew Breen. 



The genetic differences raise new questions about how decades of exposure to unique contaminants can shape survival strategies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-back-at-chernobyl-s-legacy">Looking back at Chernobyl's legacy</h2>



The meltdown at the plant is considered one of history’s worst nuclear power accidents. According to the International Atomic Energy Agency, significant levels of radioactive material from the compromised nuclear plant spread across much of Eastern Europe.



Residents were evacuated, and many areas remain off-limits due to lingering contamination. Despite these challenges, animals continued to roam the area, forming populations that today provide unique insights into long-term genetic outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-exposure-to-chernobyl-contaminants">Dog exposure to Chernobyl contaminants </h2>



The Chernobyl Exclusion Zone is an area where lingering radioactive contaminants and heavy metals may pose long-term challenges for local species. 



Scientists suspect that ongoing contact with these hazards could leave detectable marks in a population’s <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a>, which is the complete set of genetic instructions in each cell.



Study co-senior author Norman Kleiman is a professor of environmental health sciences at Columbia Mailman.



“Most people think of the Chernobyl nuclear accident as a radiological disaster in an abandoned corner of Ukraine, but the potential adverse health implications are much wider,” said Kleiman.



It is likely that other pollutants, including lead and pesticides, also influence the dogs’ genetic composition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radiation-exposure-and-genetic-changes">Radiation exposure and genetic changes</h2>



By sifting through DNA at the chromosomal level and moving down to individual nucleotides, the researchers looked for signs of accumulated damage. They focused on sections tied to repairing DNA, since that is where potentially harmful mutations might show up.



Low-level exposure to radiation over many generations could create subtle changes that become evident in how genes function. Early results did not reveal obvious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-surprising-mutations-in-sars-cov-2-virus/">mutations</a> that could be traced directly to this radiation.



The team considered that only the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-wolves-have-evolved-resistance-to-cancer/">hardiest dogs</a> may have reproduced successfully in the difficult environment of Chernobyl following the 1986 accident. Researchers are investigating whether these survivors already carried traits that shielded them from ongoing threats.



Such inherited advantages might have given future litters a better shot at coping with residual waste and radioactive particles. Experts note that selective pressures can rapidly refine a population’s genetic framework under harsh circumstances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The lessons from these dogs could be applied to human communities from around the world that confront toxic exposures. If certain genetic signatures indicate enhanced resilience, related research may illuminate how people respond to contaminants in their own neighborhoods.



“Studying companion animals like these dogs offers a window into the kinds of adverse health risks that people may face,” said Kleiman. In regions where industrial pollution remains high, the health implications could be far-reaching.



Scientists plan to measure other forms of pollution in the area to see if there are interactions that mask or enhance certain gene variants. Work continues as the region remains politically unstable, adding logistical hurdles to ongoing projects.



Nevertheless, researchers hope that ongoing data collection will further clarify how diverse environmental factors shape living organisms across the generations. 



Megan Dillon, a doctoral candidate at NC State, believes that uncovering these patterns will help in designing strategies to protect animals and people in future disaster zones.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0315244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



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Chernobyl dogs carry unexpected genetic characteristics

When people hear "Chernobyl," they often think of the 1986...

For six decades, marine biologists at UC Santa Cruz have closely monitored northern elephant seals that make their way to Año Nuevo Natural Reserve.&nbsp;



With thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-have-genetic-scars-from-intense-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> gathering on the beach for breeding and molting, researchers have been able to collect over 350,000 individual observations on more than 50,000 animals.&nbsp;



This long-term study has provided invaluable insights into the fitness, foraging patterns, and population dynamics of these massive marine mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seals-as-smart-sensors">Seals as smart sensors </h2>



Now, a new study suggests that elephant seals can serve as “smart sensors” for monitoring fish populations in the ocean’s twilight zone - the deep, dimly lit layer between 200 and 1,000 meters below the surface.&nbsp;



The research was led by Roxanne Beltran, assistant professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Cruz</a>.



The study demonstrates how tracking the seals’ foraging success can offer a novel way to estimate fish abundance across vast ocean regions, a task that conventional monitoring tools have struggled to accomplish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephant-seals-in-the-twilight-zone">Elephant seals in the twilight zone</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">twilight zone</a> is a critical region in the ocean, containing the majority of the planet’s fish biomass. However, studying it presents significant challenges. Ships and buoys can only sample limited areas, while satellites cannot penetrate below the ocean’s surface.&nbsp;



Because the twilight zone is where elephant seals hunt for food, their movements provide a previously impossible method to assess fish populations on a large scale.



“Given the importance of the ocean for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-ocean-holds-carbon-hidden-mechanisms-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a>, climate regulation, oxygen production, and food for billions of people, there is an urgent need to measure changes in marine ecosystems,” Beltran said.&nbsp;



“Our research shows that the vast foraging extent and millions of feeding attempts by elephant seals make them a fantastic ecosystem sentinel, both for fish populations and top predators in the open ocean.”



Each elephant seal makes approximately 75,000 foraging dives over a seven-month period, covering nearly 6,000 miles across the Pacific Ocean.&nbsp;



The researchers estimate that tracking just 14 seals per year could provide fish abundance data across an astonishing 4.4 million cubic kilometers of ocean volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seal-foraging-success-and-oceanic-changes">Seal foraging success and oceanic changes</h2>



Beyond simply tracking where seals search for food, weighing them before and after their foraging migrations provides crucial information about prey availability. This offers a long-term record of fluctuations in fish populations, which is particularly important as commercial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/">fisheries</a> push into deeper waters in search of new protein sources.&nbsp;



Sustainable management of these fisheries requires reliable assessments of fish stocks and their responses to environmental changes.



Beltran and her colleagues integrated data from decades of elephant seal research to analyze how their foraging success correlates with oceanographic conditions.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that changes in seal pup survival rates over the past 40 years are tightly linked to variations in the ocean environment, reinforcing the seals’ role as natural indicators of ecosystem health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-data-on-elephant-seals">Decades of data on elephant seals</h2>



In addition to its scientific implications, the study highlights the importance of hands-on research training for students. The paper includes 14 undergraduate co-authors, all of whom participated in a field-based course led by Beltran and <a href="https://anonuevoreserve.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Año Nuevo Natural Reserve</a> Director Patrick Robinson.&nbsp;



Through this immersive program, students analyzed six decades of data, developed scientific questions, and contributed directly to the study’s findings.



“We want the students to feel like they are part of a community of scientists,” said Allison Payne, a graduate student in the Beltran Lab who served as the course’s teaching assistant.&nbsp;



“It’s an incredible opportunity for the students and instructors alike to collaborate on real-world science, and it builds students’ confidence in navigating the scientific process.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-oceanographic-research">Biological oceanographic research </h2>



One of the undergraduate co-authors, Madi Reed, examined how oceanographic conditions influence seal pup survival. She found dramatic fluctuations in elephant seal reproductive success that strongly correlated with changing ocean conditions.&nbsp;



“It was really exciting to directly experience how the concepts we learned in our classes could be applied to real research,” Reed said. “This discovery has hugely inspired my current drive to pursue a career in biological oceanographic research.”



Beltran’s lab has also published a related perspective in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14482" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>, discussing the importance of long-term studies in providing inclusive research opportunities for students.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seals-and-twilight-zone-conservation">Seals and twilight zone conservation</h2>



The twilight zone plays a crucial role in marine food webs, serving as an essential feeding ground for economically valuable species like tuna and squid.&nbsp;



However, scientific estimates of twilight-zone fish populations remain highly uncertain, with a 10-fold range of possible values. This uncertainty presents a major challenge for fisheries management, especially as discussions about commercially harvesting twilight-zone fish gain momentum.



The new study, which builds on decades of research led by Burney LeBoeuf and Dan Costa, helps bridge this gap by linking elephant seal foraging success to broader oceanographic trends.&nbsp;



“This effort documented the coupling between the elephant seals' behavior thousands of miles at sea, to their breeding success on the beach,” said Costa, a distinguished professor of ecology and evolutionary biology.&nbsp;



“This could only be accomplished with a long-time series coupled with a multidisciplinary team, including oceanographers, demographers, modelers, and seal biologists.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-ocean-s-pulse">Measuring the ocean's pulse</h2>



Past studies from this long-term research program revealed several groundbreaking discoveries, including the long-distance foraging migrations of elephant seals, the sheer volume of their feeding attempts, and the connection between maternal foraging success and pup health.



Now, the latest findings demonstrate that elephant seal foraging success aligns closely with broad-scale oceanographic indices that can be monitored by satellites.&nbsp;



“This linkage allowed us to measure the ocean's pulse and estimate fluctuations in fish availability five decades into the past and a few years into the future,” Beltran explained.



By providing a critical ecological baseline, this research can help inform sustainable fishing policies and assess the impacts of climate change on deep-sea fish populations.&nbsp;



With growing concerns about human-driven environmental changes, long-term studies like this one are becoming increasingly essential for understanding and protecting the ocean’s vast, yet largely unexplored, ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp2244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Elephant seals provide a window into the ocean’s twilight zone

For six decades, marine biologists at UC Santa Cruz have...

The persistence of certain toxic chemicals in the environment has emerged as a modern threat. Among them, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) pose a severe menace to wildlife and humans, infiltrating and accumulating in our systems over time. 



New research suggests a particularly high concentration of these chemicals in migratory birds, contributing to alarmingly high levels of these substances in our environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pfas-a-lasting-threat-to-birds">PFAS: A lasting threat to birds</h2>



PFAS, known as "forever chemicals" due to their resilience, are synthetic substances found in countless industrial and consumer products - from non-stick cookware to waterproof clothing, food packaging, and firefighting foams. 



Due to their non-degradable nature, these compounds persist in the environment and infiltrate living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-navigate-using-clues-from-earths-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a>.



These chemical contaminants not only exist in the air we breathe and the food we consume, but are also present in human blood. 



The accumulation of PFAS can lead to serious health implications such as liver damage, immune system suppression, endocrine disruption, reduced fertility, and various forms of cancer.



Despite increasing awareness, their pervasive use makes complete avoidance nearly impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pfas-pollution-spreading-in-birds">PFAS pollution spreading in birds</h2>



Recent studies have shown more alarming levels of PFAS in different ecosystems, particularly in birds migrating long distances. 



“The biggest increase is in the livers of wading birds. We found up to 180 times more PFAS than previously,” noted Junjie Zhang, a postdoctoral fellow formerly affiliated with the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.ntnu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NTNU</a>).



This discovery indicates that our previous understanding of contamination levels significantly underestimated the actual situation.



Animals, particularly migratory birds, ingest PFAS through their diet and drinking water. As these birds rely on various habitats during their journeys, they are likely to consume polluted food sources, thereby ingesting these toxic substances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-bird-and-seafood-contamination">Analyzing bird and seafood contamination</h2>



Recently, Zhang's team analyzed samples from migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and the shellfish they consume. The goal was to learn more about how PFAS infiltrate the ecosystem.



The samples were collected from the East Asian-Australian Flyway, which is a critical migratory route for millions of shorebirds.



The results of the analysis indicated that shellfish living in polluted waters absorb these chemicals. Birds then ingest the shellfish, leading to an accumulation of toxins within their bodies, which they carry across continents, spreading contamination further.



A significant development in the recent study is the successful use of the Total Oxidizable Precursor (TOP) assay. This advanced detection method, developed by co-author Lara Cioni, allows scientists to identify PFAS compounds previously difficult to identify.



“The TOP results show a significant increase in several types of harmful substances in all of the samples,” noted Zhang.



With studies like these, we are gaining insights into the hidden sources of contamination and how they are impacting our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-further-research">Urgent need for further research</h2>



Given the unknown sources of contamination and the alarming rate at which these substances are infiltrating our ecosystems, further research is crucial. 



As these chemicals also find their way into seafood, humans, particularly those relying on seafood, could be at severe risk.



“We need to find out more about the sources, but also about the effects PFAS have on wading birds, other animals and humans,” said Professor Veerle Jaspers of NTNU’s Department of Biology.



The PFAS issue is not isolated to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>; it is a global human health crisis. The rising levels discovered in migratory birds emphasize the urgency for immediate action. The fact that birds carry these chemicals across the globe means that no region is immune to this threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-populations-of-shorebirds">Declining populations of shorebirds </h2>



The researchers noted that shorebirds are under threat worldwide and are particularly threatened in the East Asian Australian Flyway, where many species are declining by up to 8% per year.



"The causes for these population declines can be diverse including habitat loss, habitat alterations, climate change but also pollution along the East Asian Australian Flyway, especially in coastal China, has been suggested to play a role," wrote the experts.



"The coast of China is the most important replenishing area for shorebirds in the EAAF where they are feeding on the tidal mudflats on a diet of shellfish and other benthic invertebrates." 



"At the same time, this coastline is heavily impacted by mollusc aquaculture&nbsp;and industry, resulting in environmental contamination including PFAS."



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389425001013?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Hazardous Materials</a>. 



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Migratory birds reveal alarming new clues about the spread of PFAS

The persistence of certain toxic chemicals in the environment has...

In many parts of the world, traditional landscapes once dominated by wild herbivores are undergoing dramatic changes.&nbsp;Livestock grazing has replaced native grazers, leading to shifts in soil composition, plant diversity, and the delicate balance of predator-prey interactions. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-have-an-unexpected-role-in-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transformations</a> are often subtle, unfolding over years, but their consequences can be far-reaching.



A long-term study in the Spiti valley of the Himalayas sheds light on how this shift is affecting ground-dwelling arthropods, including spiders, ticks, and mites. 



The findings reveal a concerning trend - spider populations are dwindling while disease-carrying organisms such as ticks and mites are thriving. 



These changes have direct implications for biodiversity, ecological stability, and even human health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-livestock-grazing-the-basics">Global livestock grazing - the basics</h2>



The expansion of livestock grazing areas has been reshaping landscapes around the world for decades. As global demand for meat and dairy products grows, ranchers and agribusinesses clear more land for cattle, sheep, and other grazing animals. 



In places like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a>, vast stretches of trees are cut down to create pastures, contributing to deforestation and habitat loss. 



Grasslands, savannas, and even arid regions are also being converted into grazing land, often at the cost of native ecosystems. 



Some regions are turning to regenerative grazing techniques, which involve rotating animals across different pastures to mimic natural grazing patterns and allow the land to recover. 



Others are exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-based-food-production-would-have-extremely-positive-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based</a> alternatives and lab-grown meat to reduce pressure on the planet. 



The challenge is balancing food production with environmental sustainability, and as global appetites grow, finding solutions becomes even more urgent.



While livestock farming plays a major role in feeding the world, its rapid expansion raises a multitude of concerns, many of which we will discuss in this article.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-in-livestock-grazed-areas">Spiders in livestock-grazed areas</h2>



The researchers found that livestock-grazed areas had fewer spiders but more grasshoppers, ticks, and mites. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-arachnid-evolution-the-surprising-history-of-spiders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiders</a> play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance by controlling insect populations.



Study co-author Sumanta Bagchi is an associate professor at the Centre for Ecological Sciences (<a href="https://ces.iisc.ac.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CES</a>), Indian Institute of Science (IISc).



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiders</a> are predators; their ecological roles are similar to wolves, lions, and tigers. A low abundance of spiders can release grasshoppers from predator control, and lead to many downstream changes in an ecosystem. Together, these effects alter material and energy flow,” explained Bagchi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-replacing-wild-herbivores-with-livestock">Replacing wild herbivores with livestock</h2>



Bagchi and his team have studied livestock’s impact on Spiti valley <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-supplements-reduce-methane-in-grazing-cattle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> for over 15 years. They note that wild herbivores like yak and ibex once thrived globally but are now confined to protected areas. Elsewhere, domesticated animals dominate.



For the study, the researchers tracked over 25,000 arthropods from 88 taxa, including spiders, ticks, mites, bees, wasps, and grasshoppers. 



They monitored fenced plots with either wild or domestic grazers and analyzed soil moisture, pH, and vegetation biomass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupting-arthropod-habitats">Disrupting arthropod habitats</h2>



Shamik Roy, former PhD student at CES and co-first author, pointed out that arthropods have long-established ties with native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-grasslands-bring-more-peace-to-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grazers</a>.



“Vegetation and soil biotic and abiotic variables are intertwined in complex ways that we are still unravelling. Arthropods heavily depend on them for food and home, an association developed over centuries with native grazers in the ecosystem,” noted Roy.



Replacing these grazers disrupts arthropod populations. The study found that spiders declined in livestock-grazed areas, while ticks and mites flourished. 



The reasons behind spider declines are unclear, but reduced prey availability and vegetation changes may contribute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-disease-carrying-arthropods">Increasing disease-carrying arthropods</h2>



Pronoy Baidya, former PhD student at CES and co-first author, highlights a concerning trend. 



“One of the most surprising observations was the massive difference in tick and mite abundance between native grazers and livestock,” Baidya said.



Eighty percent of cattle worldwide carry ticks, which poses risks to both animals and humans. “This is a major concern for zoonotic diseases and One Health,” said Baidya.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-livestock-grazing-and-vegetation">Livestock grazing and vegetation</h2>



Livestock grazing affects vegetation structure and soil health in complex ways. The study revealed that areas with domestic grazers had different plant compositions compared to those with native herbivores. 



Changes in plant types influence arthropod diversity and alter food availability for different species.



Soil conditions, including moisture and pH levels, also shift under livestock grazing. These changes impact microbial communities, further influencing the ecosystem. 



Healthy soil supports diverse vegetation, which in turn sustains a balanced arthropod population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-land-management">Conservation and land management</h2>



To mitigate these effects, the researchers suggest reintroducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-succession-animal-herbivore-mass-migration-serengeti/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native</a> herbivores and monitoring vector-borne diseases. Conservation policies should focus on balancing livestock grazing and preserving ecosystems.



“Currently, most of the commons are rather mismanaged, allowing people from villages to unsustainably utilise these commons for their livelihoods, and in the process denying the local herbivores their grazing areas,” said Baidya.



“Our study will hopefully be an example which may nudge governments to take serious steps for freeing up the commons first and then starting proper ecological restoration of these lands.”



Restoring wild herbivores and managing grazing lands could help rebuild ecosystems and reduce disease risks. 



These changes require action to protect biodiversity and maintain ecological balance. Sustainable land-use practices and better management of grazing areas can prevent further ecological disruption.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.3091" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Applications</a>.



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Livestock grazing is changing soil, plants, and insect populations

In many parts of the world, traditional landscapes once dominated...

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