A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

For 130 years, the enigmatic nature of the orchid Stigmatodactylus sikokianus puzzled scientists and botanists alike.



Named in 1889 by renowned Japanese botanist MAKINO Tomitaro, the fungus-consuming plant features a distinct appendage reminiscent of a tiny finger on its stigma - the part of the flower that accepts pollen.



But why is this appendage there, and what purpose does it serve? Despite its popularity among Japan's iconic orchids, the function of this unique feature remained a mystery - until now.



<a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> botanist SUETSUGU Kenji specializes in orchids that feed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-fungi-determine-the-gradient-of-forest-diversity-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil fungi</a> rather than sunlight. Stigmatodactylus, he realized, fit this bill perfectly.



“I’m particularly interested in their pollination mechanisms, employing an interdisciplinary approach that integrates taxonomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology," said Kenji.



His fascination with these unique orchids propelled him to investigate further, questioning the purpose and ecological role of the finger-like appendage that had attracted so much attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-orchid-that-self-pollinates">The orchid that self-pollinates </h2>



Kenji's research sheds light on a unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-apocalypse-australasia-is-facing-a-hidden-pollination-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a> method. He found that Stigmatodactylus sikokianus predominantly self-pollinates, which means it doesn’t require insects to transport pollen from one plant to another.



Interestingly, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-faced-with-competition-some-plants-learn-to-self-pollinate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-pollination</a> occurs roughly three days after the flower opens. This delay bears significant ecological implications.



Given the plant's natural habitat in dark forest understories, it is rarely visited by potential pollinators.



“While self-pollination likely guarantees reproductive success, relying solely on this method risks inbreeding. This may drive the evolution of mechanisms that combine the benefits of self-pollination and outcrossing," said Kenji.



"Delayed self-pollination, postponed until opportunities for outcrossing are exhausted, is likely one such adaptation - a failsafe mechanism.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-novel-self-pollination-mechanism">Novel self-pollination mechanism </h2>



While meticulously observing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-plants-adapt-to-changing-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, Kenji noticed that the finger-like appendage plays a crucial role in self-pollination.



On the third day after the flower opens, the stigma collapses and makes contact with the pollen-carrying anther, aided by the finger-like appendage, thereby fertilizing the plant. 



“The movement of the stigma appendage represents, to the best of our knowledge, a novel self-pollination mechanism in orchids,” said Kenji.



He noted that since there are 28 species in the Stigmatodactylus family, many of which share this unique appendage, this self-pollination mechanism could be common in other species too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-traditional-research-with-modern-science">Bridging traditional research with modern science</h2>



Kenji hopes his work will help bridge the gap between historical botanical research and contemporary scientific inquiries. 



“The significance of this discovery lies in its ability to bridge historical botanical research and contemporary scientific inquiry. It underscores the value of integrating meticulous taxonomic analysis with ecological and evolutionary studies to gain novel insights," said Kenji.



"This study demonstrates that traditional natural history research, unifying taxonomy, evolution and ecology, still has the power to uncover new phenomena today.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchids-self-pollinate-to-survive">Orchids self-pollinate to survive</h2>



Understanding the unique pollination mechanism of Stigmatodactylus sikokianus offers significant implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/despite-their-incredible-adaptability-orchids-are-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchid conservation</a> efforts.



Many orchid species are highly specialized and depend on specific ecological conditions to thrive. 



The newfound knowledge about the self-pollination strategy of Stigmatodactylus sikokianus sheds light on how other orchid species may have evolved to adapt to low-pollinator environments.



This insight can guide conservationists in designing better habitat protection strategies and cultivation techniques to ensure the survival of orchids facing similar ecological challenges. 



Furthermore, it highlights the need to preserve the dark forest understories where these delicate plants flourish, as habitat destruction poses a major threat to their existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-evolutionary-significance">Broader evolutionary significance</h2>



The discovery of the delayed self-pollination mechanism in Stigmatodactylus sikokianus raises intriguing questions about the broader evolutionary adaptations of orchids and other flowering plants.



In ecosystems with scarce pollinators, plants must develop creative reproductive strategies to ensure their survival. 



This ability to self-pollinate suggests that evolution has equipped some orchids with a dual approach - allowing time for potential cross-pollination before resorting to self-fertilization as a last resort.



The findings contribute to our understanding of plant reproductive biology and may inspire further research into similar mechanisms in related plant families.



By studying these adaptations, scientists can better comprehend how plants respond to environmental pressures and how they might adapt to future changes, such as climate shifts and habitat fragmentation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



Image Credit: IKEDA Tetsuro



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Some orchids have 'fingers' to pollinate themselves

For 130 years, the enigmatic nature of the orchid Stigmatodactylus...

The,Interior,Of,Main,Public,Baths,In,Ruins,Of,Ancient

Many of us are aware that the ancient city of Pompeii met a catastrophic end, sealed under a relentless downpour of ash and pumice from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. 



Recently, though, archaeologists have managed to unearth an incredible reminder of the grandeur of Pompeii's heyday - an elaborate private bathhouse, believed to be the largest of its kind within a private home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extravagant-roman-life">Extravagant Roman life</h2>



Nestled within the confines of a wealthy residence, the bathhouse serves as a poignant reminder of the city's affluent inhabitants. 



Only the elite could afford such luxury, so this bathhouse indicates the presence of thriving industry in the city, alongside robust financial and political networks.



The remnants of two people who sought refuge in a smaller room capture the terrifying moment that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tragic-end-of-pompeii-was-not-solely-caused-by-mount-vesuvius/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vesuvius</a> erupted, their fate sealed by a collapsed wall and a lethal flood of volcanic gas and ash.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pompeii-s-lavish-bathhouse">Pompeii's lavish bathhouse</h2>



The bathhouse featured a range of rooms designed to cater to different bathing needs.



Primary among these was a large plunge pool that was surrounded by scarlet columns and frescoes of athletes.



There were hot, cold, and warm rooms, each serving its unique purpose. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_plumbing_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_plumbing_1s.webp" alt="An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths, complete with plumbing systems, to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park" class="wp-image-1957642"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths, complete with plumbing systems, to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park</figcaption></figure>



A warm room, presumably for oil massages, led to a sauna-like hot room. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sauna-bathing-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sauna</a> had a specially designed suspended floor that allowed hot air to flow underneath the room.



Beyond these comforts, the bathhouse was resplendent with a changing room that boasted a mosaic floor adorned with geometric patterns that were made using marbles sourced from across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-ai-to-decode-the-legacy-of-the-roman-empire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Empire</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-pompeii-s-final-moments">Glimpse into Pompeii’s final moments</h2>



A team of archaeologists, accompanied by a crew from the BBC and Lion TV, have discovered an entire city block, which also houses a laundry, bakery, and a grand banquet hall, apart from the luxurious private residence containing the bathhouse. 



The block is believed to have been owned by Aulus Rustius Verus, a notable Pompeii politician.



Near a small prayer room, the remains of two individuals were found - a woman aged between 35 and 50 who was clutching jewelry and coins, and a young man in his late teens or early twenties.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_1s.webp" alt="An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park" class="wp-image-1957625"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park</figcaption></figure>



"The pyroclastic flow from Vesuvius came along the street just outside this room, and caused a wall to collapse, and that had basically crushed him to death," said Dr. Sophie Hay, an archaeologist at Pompeii, as she described the tragic scene.



"The woman was still alive while he was dying - imagine the trauma - and then this room filled with the rest of the pyroclastic flow, and that's how she died."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reality-of-the-pompeii-bathhouse">Reality of the Pompeii bathhouse</h2>



The grand bathhouse, a once-in-a-century find, also bears witness to the grim reality of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-ancient-rome-smelled-like-patchouli/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman life</a>. 



Behind the hot room, a sweltering boiler room lies, where slaves would have had to toil in intolerable heat.



In the coming weeks, the excavation will conclude, and the public will get a chance to witness this incredible find.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_public-bath-house_ornate-frescoes_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_public-bath-house_ornate-frescoes_1s.webp" alt="In comparison, this was the inside of a public bathhouse in Pompeii. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park" class="wp-image-1957628"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">In comparison, this was the inside of a public bathhouse in Pompeii. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park</figcaption></figure>



Apart from the bathhouse discovery, a previous study, led by the University of Naples Federico II, also shed light on a massive Alexander the Great mosaic that was unearthed in Pompeii in 1831.



The mosaic, made of nearly two million pieces, may have utilized rocks from various Mediterranean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lead-pollution-may-have-caused-the-fall-of-the-roman-empire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mining</a> areas, including Greece, Tunisia, and the Iberian Peninsula, which supports the idea that the Roman Empire had far-reaching connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pompeii-s-ash-locked-history-in-time">Pompeii's ash locked history in time</h2>



The extraordinary preservation of Pompeii’s structures and artifacts, including the recently discovered bathhouse, is a reflection of the unique conditions created by Mount Vesuvius' eruption. 



The volcanic ash and pumice that blanketed the city acted as a protective seal, preserving architectural details, organic materials, and even human remains in remarkable detail. 



Layers of fine ash solidified over time, creating a mold of the city's final moments and allowing modern archaeologists to reconstruct daily life with unparalleled accuracy.



Advanced imaging techniques have played a crucial role in revealing hidden structures beneath the hardened layers of volcanic debris. 



These technologies not only help locate previously unknown sites but also allow researchers to study fragile artifacts without intrusive excavation.



The bathhouse discovery highlights the ongoing importance of scientific innovation in archaeology. 



As the excavation progresses, experts hope to uncover even more details about the materials used, the engineering marvels of the time, and the social dynamics of Pompeii’s elite.



The full study was reported in a BBC <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c15zgvnvk4do" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">press release</a>.



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Wealthy Pompeii homes had opulent bathhouses with plumbing before the volcano struck

Many of us are aware that the ancient city of...

The clever coyotes of San Francisco are proving just how adaptable they can be to urban life. 



These native predators, who returned to the city in the early 2000s after a century-long absence, aren't just surviving in the concrete jungle - they're thriving. The coyotes have learned to switch up their menu based on what each neighborhood has to offer.



Scientists from the University of California, Davis, recently conducted a study to better understand how these animals are adapting to urban life. 



The findings reveal how restaurant density, pavement levels, and other urban features influence what coyotes eat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-coyotes-diets-are-changing">Urban coyotes’ diets are changing</h2>



Urban environments present new challenges and opportunities for wildlife. As green spaces shrink, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-coyotes-actually-boosts-their-numbers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a> in San Francisco are forced to modify their food sources. 



The researchers found that these adaptable predators consume a significant amount of human-provided food. “Chicken is a really big diet item; we found it in 72% of the scat samples analyzed in the study,” noted lead author Tali Caspi, a Ph.D. candidate at <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>.



Despite their reliance on human food, coyotes still hunt natural prey when available. Pocket gophers, a common rodent in the area, were the second most frequent food source, found in 57% of scat samples. 



Other notable items in their diet included pig (human-sourced) and raccoon (natural prey). 



While concerns about coyotes hunting domestic cats exist, the study showed that feline remains appeared in only 4.5% of analyzed samples. This suggests that predation on pet cats is not a significant part of their diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-urban-coyote-diets">Investigating urban coyote diets</h2>



To uncover these dietary patterns, the researchers collected more than 700 coyote scat samples from different parts of San Francisco between September 2019 and April 2022.



The team analyzed the samples at UC Davis’ <a href="https://vgl.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Veterinary Genetics Laboratory</a>, using genotyping to match scat to individual coyotes and DNA metabarcoding to determine what they had eaten.



One key finding was that urban coyotes living in areas with high restaurant density, such as downtown and other heavily paved neighborhoods, consumed more human food. 



In contrast, those living in greener areas, such as the Presidio or Golden Gate Park, relied more on natural prey. This variation highlights how coyotes adapt their foraging behavior based on their surroundings.



The study also revealed that while individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-can-make-puppy-dog-eyes-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a> within the same family had similar diets, the diets of different family groups varied significantly. 



“This study highlights the huge range of dietary and habitat affinities of coyotes as a species. That is a trait for which they are already well-known, but the study also joins a growing body of evidence pointing to relatively narrow proclivities of coyotes as individuals. They tend to stick with what they know,” noted senior author Ben Sacks, director of the <a href="https://mecu.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mammalian Ecology and Conservation Unit</a> at UC Davis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-return-of-coyotes-to-san-francisco">Return of coyotes to San Francisco</h2>



Coyotes are native to San Francisco, but they were eradicated from the city in the early 1900s. For nearly a century, they were absent from the urban landscape. 



However, in the early 2000s, coyotes made a comeback and have since established a stable population in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-live-longer-in-densely-populated-human-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban areas</a>. 



Today, they share space with more than 870,000 people in a city that spans just 47 square miles, making San Francisco the second-most densely populated major city in the United States.



Despite their return, many people remain unaware of how to coexist with these animals. Coyotes are opportunistic feeders, meaning they take advantage of whatever food is easiest to access. 



While they can hunt naturally, human-provided food - whether intentionally given or found in trash - has become a major part of their diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coexisting-with-urban-coyotes">Coexisting with urban coyotes</h2>



As coyotes continue to thrive in San Francisco, it is important for residents to take steps to reduce conflicts. 



Many conflicts arise when people inadvertently provide food, either by leaving pet food outside, improperly disposing of trash, or feeding them directly. This can make coyotes more comfortable around humans, increasing the chances of unwanted encounters.



“There’s a misconception that coyotes are starving and need our help finding food in San Francisco, and clearly they don’t,” noted Caspi.



In reality, coyotes are highly adaptable and capable of surviving without human intervention.



Another way to minimize conflicts is by keeping domestic pets safe. Coyotes may not actively hunt cats, but they are opportunistic predators. Keeping cats indoors and ensuring that small pets are supervised can help reduce negative interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-wildlife-and-adaptation">Urban wildlife and adaptation</h2>



San Francisco’s urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-life-has-a-huge-impact-on-coyote-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a> are part of a larger trend of wildlife adapting to city life. Around the world, animals are learning new ways to survive in urban environments. 



Song sparrows in Portland, Oregon, adjust their song frequencies to be heard over city noise, while cockatoos in Australia have figured out how to open trash cans for food. These behaviors demonstrate how different species develop unique survival strategies when faced with human-made landscapes.



“There are a lot of different ways to survive city life as an animal,” Caspi said. “It speaks to the plasticity and resilience of these species to see all of these different strategies for coping with urban life.”



Coyotes, known for their intelligence and adaptability, are no exception. They have successfully integrated into one of the country’s most densely populated cities, using their keen instincts to navigate an environment vastly different from their historical range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-coyotes-in-san-francisco">Future of coyotes in San Francisco</h2>



The study’s findings provide valuable insights into urban wildlife management. By understanding what coyotes eat and how they adapt to their environment, city officials and conservationists can implement better strategies to reduce conflicts while protecting both wildlife and human residents.



The research was funded by a Christine Stevens Wildlife Award from the Animal Welfare Institute, along with support from UC Davis, <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a>, and the UC Davis <a href="https://education.ucdavis.edu/center-community-and-citizen-science" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Community and Citizen Science</a>. 



Contributions from community scientists via iNaturalist also played a crucial role in the study, helping researchers locate fresh scat samples and even leading to a rare discovery of fin whale DNA in a coyote’s diet. This was traced back to a beached whale recorded on the app.



As San Francisco continues to evolve, so will its urban coyotes. They have proven their ability to adapt, and their presence in the city is likely to remain a fixture of the urban ecosystem. Learning to coexist with them will be essential in maintaining a balance between wildlife conservation and city life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.70152" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosphere</a>.



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Urban coyotes have developed a taste for human food

The clever coyotes of San Francisco are proving just how...

A recent study led by the University of Oxford challenges the widely held notion that plants actively communicate with each other to warn of impending threats.



Instead, the findings suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-complex-biochemical-communication-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> are more likely to passively “eavesdrop” on their neighbors through shared fungal networks rather than engage in altruistic signaling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underground-communication-network">Underground communication network</h2>



Beneath the soil, plants are connected by an intricate fungal network popularly referred to as the “wood wide web.” This network emerges from the symbiotic relationships between plant roots and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mycorrhizal fungi</a>.&nbsp;



In this partnership, plants supply fungi with carbon while the fungi provide essential nutrients to the plants. These networks also enable the transmission of resources and information among plants.



Previous studies have demonstrated that when one plant is attacked by herbivores or pathogens, neighboring plants connected to the same fungal network often strengthen their defenses.&nbsp;



However, it has remained unclear whether these responses result from active warnings sent by the attacked plant or passive cues interpreted by its neighbors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questioning-altruism-in-plant-behavior">Questioning altruism in plant behavior</h2>



The idea that plants actively warn their neighbors poses a puzzle for evolutionary biologists. Altruistic behavior is generally rare in nature and typically occurs when it offers mutual benefits. For plants competing for resources like sunlight and nutrients, warning their neighbors would seem counterintuitive.



To address this paradox, an international research team from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and <a href="https://vu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam</a> developed mathematical models to explore whether plants would evolve to signal threats to one another.&nbsp;



The results suggest that it is highly unlikely for plants to develop active warning mechanisms, as such behavior would not confer significant evolutionary advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-communicate-in-deceptive-ways">Plants communicate in deceptive ways</h2>



The study revealed that plants might even engage in deceptive signaling to gain an advantage over their competitors.&nbsp;



“Our results indicate that it is more likely that plants will behave deceptively toward their neighbors, rather than altruistically,” said lead author Thomas Scott from the Department of Biology at the University of Oxford.&nbsp;



“For instance, plants may signal that a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivore-extinctions-drastically-affect-forest-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivore</a> attack is occurring, even when no herbivore is present. Plants can gain a benefit from dishonest signaling because it harms their local competitors, by tricking them into investing in costly herbivore defense mechanisms.”



The findings challenge the idea of plants as cooperative entities and instead suggest that what appears to be altruistic behavior may often serve competitive or self-interested purposes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-neighboring-plants-still-respond">Why do neighboring plants still respond?</h2>



If plants are not actively warning their neighbors, why do connected plants upregulate their defenses when one is attacked? The researchers proposed two alternative explanations.



First, plants might unintentionally emit cues when under stress, similar to humans blushing when embarrassed. These involuntary emissions could be picked up by neighboring plants as signals of a threat, even though the emitting plant gains no direct benefit from sharing this information.



Second, the fungal networks themselves could play an active role in transmitting warnings. Mycorrhizal fungi rely on healthy plants for their survival, as plants provide them with carbohydrates. By relaying signals about potential threats, the fungi may protect their host plants and ensure the stability of the network.&nbsp;



“Maybe it is the fungal networks themselves that are sending the warning signals,” Scott said. “Mycorrhizal fungi rely on the plants on their network for carbohydrates, so it’s important to keep these plants in good condition. Perhaps the fungi are listening in on their plant partners, detecting when one has been attacked, and warning the others to prepare themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nosy-plants-that-eavesdrop">Nosy plants that eavesdrop</h2>



Co-author Toby Kiers from Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam offered another perspective, likening plants to neighbors gossiping about a shared environment:



“There is no dispute that information is transferred. Organisms are constantly detecting and processing information about their environment. The question is whether plants are actively sending signals to warn each other. Maybe just like gossiping neighbors, one plant is simply <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eavesdropping-viruses-the-unseen-war-within-our-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eavesdropping</a> on the another.”



This reinterpretation highlights the possibility that plants are more passive participants in these networks, interpreting cues rather than engaging in intentional communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-plant-ecology-and-conservation">Implications for plant ecology and conservation</h2>



The study’s findings have significant implications for our understanding of plant behavior and ecosystem dynamics. Recognizing that plants may rely more on passive information gathering than active signaling shifts the focus of research to the role of fungal networks in mediating plant interactions.&nbsp;



This knowledge could be valuable in predicting how plant communities will respond to environmental changes such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a> or climate change.



Understanding these dynamics also has potential applications in agriculture and conservation. For instance, manipulating fungal networks might enhance crop resilience or help restore ecosystems by improving communication between plants in stressed environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While the study provides compelling theoretical support for the eavesdropping hypothesis, further empirical research is needed to validate these models.&nbsp;



Experiments could focus on isolating the role of fungi in transmitting signals and exploring whether different plant species vary in their ability to interpret these cues.



Additionally, studying how plants and fungi interact in diverse ecosystems could reveal whether certain environments favor passive communication over active signaling.&nbsp;



Expanding the research to include underrepresented plant species and regions would also provide a more comprehensive understanding of these interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-plants-communicate">Rethinking how plants communicate </h2>



This study fundamentally challenges the idea of plants as altruistic communicators, suggesting instead that their behavior may be driven by competition, self-interest, and passive eavesdropping.&nbsp;



By highlighting the role of fungal networks, the research opens new avenues for exploring the intricate relationships that sustain plant communities.



As Scott and his team continue to refine their models and expand their investigations, the hidden dynamics of plant communication promise to reveal even more about the complex strategies plants use to survive and thrive in their environments.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2420701122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS).



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Plants use underground networks to ‘eavesdrop’ on their neighbors 

A recent study led by the University of Oxford challenges...

White-faced capuchin monkeys in Costa Rica displayed a surprising ability to withstand extreme drought conditions, according to a new study led by University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) researchers.&nbsp;



The research highlights how a robust stress response during mild droughts prepared these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capuchin-monkeys-use-clever-tools-to-access-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">capuchin monkeys</a> to endure catastrophic events like the severe El Niño drought from 2014 to 2016. 



The study offers fresh insights into the adaptive role of stress responses in wild animals, with implications for both evolutionary biology and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-response-helps-monkeys-survive">Stress response helps monkeys survive</h2>



Stress is often viewed as harmful, associated with “wear-and-tear” on the body. However, this study aimed to explore how the physiological stress response might serve an adaptive function.&nbsp;



“We wanted to understand how the stress response adaptively helps these individuals survive greater challenges,” explained Susan Perry, a <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> evolutionary anthropologist and co-author of the study.



Perry and her team leveraged the devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-event-may-push-earth-towards-its-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a> drought as a natural experiment to investigate how hormonal stress responses correlated with survival outcomes in white-faced capuchin monkeys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-el-nino-s-impact-on-monkeys">El Niño’s impact on monkeys</h2>



The El Niño <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megadroughts-are-becoming-more-frequent-and-severe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a>, the most severe in recent history, significantly altered the lives of the monkeys at the Lomas Barbudal Capuchin Monkey Project in Guanacaste, Costa Rica. For over 35 years, Perry and her team have documented the lives and social behaviors of these monkeys. 



However, the extreme drought pushed the population to its limits, with widespread food shortages leading to visible weight loss, abandonment of infants, and drastically reduced caretaking behaviors. Mortality rates soared, especially among infants and older females.



According to Perry, this was the only time in their longitudinal study that these monkeys, who are usually behaviorally flexible, did not manage to adapt to an environmental stressor by simply changing how they behaved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indicators-of-stress-in-monkeys">Indicators of stress in monkeys</h2>



The researchers analyzed fecal samples collected between 2008 and 2013 from 28 female monkeys - 14 who survived the drought and 14 who did not. These samples contained glucocorticoids, hormones that regulate metabolism, immune response, and inflammation.



The findings revealed that monkeys exhibiting a more pronounced rise in glucocorticoid levels during mild droughts were significantly more likely to survive the severe El Niño drought. This result held true even after accounting for variables like pregnancy and time of day.



The study provides a clearer understanding of how an adaptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> response looks in this species. These findings suggest that a steeper hormonal response to milder stressors might prepare individuals to cope with more extreme challenges in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-studies-in-a-changing-climate">Long-term studies in a changing climate</h2>



The research underscores the importance of longitudinal studies in understanding how animals cope with increasingly extreme weather events caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-impact-the-immune-system-of-wild-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



Perry’s team believes that such studies can reveal which species possess the physiological flexibility to adapt to rapidly changing environments and which are more vulnerable.



For instance, the white-faced capuchins' inability to adapt behaviorally during the drought marked a stark departure from their usual flexibility, raising questions about the limits of such adaptability in other species.&nbsp;



Long-term data like this can help conservationists identify species or populations at risk and guide interventions.



According to the experts, a population of highly endangered animals that cannot quickly adapt to change might need to be moved to a place that now has climatic conditions that match the environment in which that population evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-biology-and-conservation">Evolutionary biology and conservation</h2>



The study not only sheds light on the origins and maintenance of individual differences in stress responses but also has broader implications for evolutionary biology. Understanding how certain physiological traits enhance survival can provide clues about the pressures that shape species over time.



As climate change continues to intensify, studies like this are essential for identifying species’ resilience thresholds and informing conservation strategies.&nbsp;



For white-faced capuchins, their robust stress response during mild droughts was a life-saving adaptation during an extreme environmental crisis - offering a glimmer of hope for the survival of species in an increasingly volatile world.



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Stress helps capuchin monkeys survive in extreme weather 

White-faced capuchin monkeys in Costa Rica displayed a surprising ability...

According to official statistics, over 100,000 annual cases of illness in Germany are likely the result of microorganisms in food, such as bacteria, viruses, or parasites. Experts believe these numbers reflect only a fraction of the true scale, as many cases go unreported. 



Despite the actual risks posed by poor kitchen hygiene, the <a href="https://www.bfr.bund.de/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment</a> (BfR) reports that public concern about this issue remains surprisingly low.&nbsp;



In the latest BfR consumer monitor, a mere 17% of respondents expressed concern about kitchen hygiene and related illnesses, whereas 68% worried about microplastics and 52% about residues of plant protection products in their food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misconceptions-mistakes-only-happen-elsewhere">Misconceptions: Mistakes only happen elsewhere</h2>



Dr. Heidi Wichmann-Schauer, a hygiene specialist at the BfR, attributes this gap in perception to a widespread belief that mishandling of food occurs primarily outside one’s own home.&nbsp;



“Most people assume that they themselves do not make mistakes in their own kitchen, but that the mistakes are produced by others,” she explained in an episode of the BfR’s science podcast <a href="https://podcast.bfr.bund.de/6-unterschatztes-risiko-keime-in-der-kuche-006" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Risko</a>.&nbsp;



Contrary to such assumptions, even minor lapses in everyday kitchen routines can facilitate the transfer of pathogens to meals, resulting in severe foodborne illnesses. 



These infections can pose life-threatening risks, particularly for vulnerable groups like young children, pregnant women, seniors, or individuals with weakened immune systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-products-and-foodborne-illnesses">Animal products and foodborne illnesses </h2>



Foods of animal origin, such as meat, fish, eggs, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-raw-milk-health-hazard-pasteurization-important/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unpasteurized milk</a>, often host pathogens capable of causing disease in both animals and humans - a classification known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-u-s-is-alarmingly-unprepared-for-zoonotic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zoonotic</a> pathogens. Common culprits include Campylobacter, salmonella, and certain strains of Escherichia coli.&nbsp;



Healthy animals can carry these microorganisms without displaying any signs of sickness. However, the microbes may contaminate food during processes like slaughter, milking, or egg collection, significantly raising the risk of infection for humans.



Given these potential dangers, Dr. Wichmann-Schauer underscores the importance of avoiding raw consumption of such products, particularly among those most susceptible to infection. She noted that “especially very young children, very old people, people whose body’s defences are weakened by previous illness or pregnant women” should never eat these foods raw.&nbsp;



Yet even for the general population, thorough cooking is critical for ensuring safety. “If a product is heated to at least 70 degrees Celsius uniformly throughout for at least two minutes, then we can assume that most existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathogens</a> have been killed,” said Dr. Wichmann-Schauer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-common-risks-in-the-kitchen">Common risks in the kitchen</h2>



Cross-contamination is another formidable hurdle. The direct transfer of bacteria from one item - often raw foods - to another is a frequent source of infection.&nbsp;



For instance, using the same cutting board or knife for raw meat and fresh vegetables, without proper cleaning, allows germs from the meat to infiltrate the vegetables. A salad that harbors these undetected pathogens can then provoke serious illness upon consumption.&nbsp;



Dr. Wichmann-Schauer emphasized that cleanliness in the kitchen and the correct handling of food are essential, advocating practices such as washing hands frequently, separating utensils for raw and ready-to-eat products, and sanitizing all surfaces thoroughly between uses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-awareness-about-kitchen-risks">Lack of awareness about kitchen risks</h2>



Despite the severity of these risks, public awareness remains focused on more visible or widely publicized threats. The concern about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-steadily-increasing-in-freshwater-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>, for instance, may overshadow the persistent and pervasive threat of pathogens in the home kitchen.&nbsp;



While substances like microplastics or pesticide residues indeed merit attention, the data show that microbial contamination likely contributes to a more immediate and frequent risk profile.&nbsp;



According to the BfR, bridging this awareness gap is vital to preventing unnecessary illnesses that could be mitigated through improved personal habits and hygiene measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-foodborne-illnesses-nbsp">Preventing foodborne illnesses&nbsp;</h2>



In practice, preventing foodborne diseases involves a comprehensive approach to safe food handling - one that extends from the point of purchase to the moment of consumption.&nbsp;



Storing raw meat separately in sealed containers, refrigerating perishables promptly, and regularly cleaning refrigerators and kitchen tools are all essential steps.&nbsp;



For particularly vulnerable populations, additional precautions, such as consistently verifying cooking temperatures, become even more critical. These measures serve to reduce the survival and spread of harmful microorganisms in domestic environments.



Ultimately, the strong emphasis on kitchen hygiene is not about generating undue alarm but reinforcing a set of simple, practical habits that can save lives.&nbsp;



By recognizing the gravity of seemingly trivial oversights, consumers and households can better protect themselves, reducing the incidence of foodborne illnesses and fostering a safer food culture overall.



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Kitchen germs are an underestimated threat to public health

According to official statistics, over 100,000 annual cases of illness...

In a collaborative effort between geneticists and archaeologists, new evidence about the structure of Iron Age society has been uncovered. At the heart of this discovery lies the surprising and influential role of women in both social and political arenas.



Their findings stem from an extensive DNA analysis conducted in Dorset, Southern England, where they sequenced over 50 ancient genomes from burial sites used before and after the Roman Conquest in the year 43 CE.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-women-in-the-iron-age">Power of women in the Iron Age</h2>



The genetic data opened up a new narrative, revealing a society built around strong female-lineage.



"We reconstructed a family tree with many different branches and found most members traced their maternal lineage back to a single woman, who would have lived centuries before. In contrast, relationships through the father's line were almost absent," explained Dr. Lara Cassidy, assistant professor in <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/Genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin's</a> Department of Genetics and the leader of the study.



Such a discovery alters our understanding of societal norms during that time, and indicates that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-women-were-not-just-gatherers-they-were-hunters-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">women</a> held sway in both political and social aspects.



"This tells us that husbands moved to join their wives' communities upon marriage, with land potentially passed down through the female line," Cassidy added.



"This is the first time this type of system has been documented in European prehistory and it predicts female social and political empowerment. It's relatively rare in modern societies, but this might not always have been the case."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matrilocality-in-iron-age-society">"Matrilocality" in Iron Age society</h2>



More astonishingly, this form of social organization, known as "matrilocality," was not exclusive to Dorset.



After scrutinizing earlier genetic surveys, the team found echoes of the same pattern throughout Iron Age Britain.



"Across Britain we saw cemeteries where most individuals were maternally descended from a small set of female ancestors," remarked Dan Bradley, professor of population genetics in Trinity's Department of Genetics, and co-author of the study. 



"In Yorkshire, for example, one dominant matriline had been established before 400 BCE. To our surprise, this was a widespread phenomenon with deep roots on the island," he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-iron-age-the-basics">Understanding the Iron Age -- the basics</h2>



The Iron Age was an exciting period in ancient history when people began using iron to make tools, weapons, and everyday items instead of relying on bronze or stone. 



This shift was a game-changer because iron was more durable and widely available, allowing communities to build <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-shift-to-farming-may-have-influenced-our-ancestors-height/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stronger farms</a>, better homes, and more effective weapons. 



With these advancements, societies grew bigger and more complex, leading to the rise of powerful kingdoms and empires. 



Farming became more efficient, which meant more food was available, supporting larger populations and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beer-iron-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sparking innovations</a> in various aspects of daily life.



Different regions around the world entered the Iron Age at their own pace, but it generally took place between 1200 BCE and 500 BCE in places like Europe and the Near East, drifting into the first century CE. 



During this time, trade routes expanded as people exchanged iron goods and ideas, fostering cultural exchanges and technological progress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-archaeological-discoveries">Archaeological discoveries</h2>



The team tapped into a rich vein of well-preserved burials in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/">Dorset</a>, which is a rarity in Britain. The local inhabitants of the time, known by the Romans as "Durotriges," had distinct burial customs that led to this abundance of data.



The village of Winterborne Kingston, amusingly nicknamed "Duropolis," was one of the excavation sites where the more elaborately decorated burials were usually those of women.



"Beyond archaeology, knowledge of Iron Age Britain has come primarily from the Greek and Roman writers, but they are not always considered the most trustworthy," observed Dr. Miles Russell, the excavation's director and co-author of the study.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/iron-age-society_female-centric_Durotrigian-burial-site_credit-Bournemouth-U_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/iron-age-society_female-centric_Durotrigian-burial-site_credit-Bournemouth-U_1s.webp" alt="Durotrigian burial of a young woman from Langton Herring sampled for DNA (c) Bournemouth University. She was buried with a mirror (right panels) and jewelry, including a Roman coin amulet showing a female charioteer representing Victory.jpg. Credit: Bournemouth University." class="wp-image-1957615"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Durotrigian burial of a young woman from Langton Herring sampled for DNA (c) Bournemouth University. She was buried with a mirror (right panels) and jewelry, including a Roman coin amulet showing a female charioteer representing Victory. Credit: Bournemouth University.</figcaption></figure>



"That said, their commentary on British women is remarkable in light of these findings. When the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-romans-made-such-incredibly-durable-concrete-is-no-longer-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Romans</a> arrived, they were astonished to find women occupying positions of power. Two of the earliest recorded rulers were queens - Boudica and Cartimandua - who commanded armies," Russel added.



"It's been suggested that the Romans exaggerated the liberties of British women to paint a picture of an untamed society. But archaeology, and now genetics, implies women were influential in many spheres of Iron Age life. Indeed, it is possible that maternal ancestry was the primary shaper of group identities."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digging-deeper-into-the-past">Digging deeper into the past</h2>



Beyond the insights into societal structure, the research from <a href="https://www.bournemouth.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bournemouth University</a> also picked up previously unnoticed waves of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> into coastal southern England during the Iron Age.



A re-examination of the arrival of the Celtic language in Britain is now on the horizon.



"Migration into Britain during the later Bronze Age has previously been detected, leading some to hypothesize that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-reached-the-faroe-islands-much-earlier-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Celtic</a> language arrived during this period. But our results point towards substantial cross-channel mobility during the Iron Age as well," Cassidy concluded.



"Narrowing down the arrival time of Celtic will be difficult. Indeed, it is quite possible that Celtic languages were introduced to Britain on more than one occasion."



This investigation into the past has thus brought forth unexpected insights into the role of women, and has shed light on a crucial piece of Iron Age societal structure while also opening up new pathways for understanding Britain's historical timelines.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-04214-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Iron Age societies were more progressive than most, including modern times

In a collaborative effort between geneticists and archaeologists, new evidence...

Data from the European Space Agency’s Swarm mission has revealed a fascinating discovery. Researchers have found that faint magnetic signals created by ocean tides can help map magma distribution beneath the seabed.



These signals could also provide insights into long-term changes in global ocean temperatures and salinity.



Swarm’s ability to detect these subtle magnetic variations is a significant step forward in geophysical research. By studying these weak signals, scientists can better understand the complex interactions between Earth’s magnetic field, ocean currents, and even volcanic activity beneath the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swarm-s-unique-capabilities">Swarm’s unique capabilities</h2>



Swarm is a constellation of three satellites that orbit the Earth between 462 km (287 miles) and 511 km (318 miles) above the surface. 



Launched in 2013, these satellites were designed to study Earth’s geomagnetic field with unprecedented accuracy.



Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a> extends into space and acts as a protective shield against solar radiation. The primary source of this field is believed to be the movement of liquid iron in the outer core. 



However, other factors contribute to the planet’s overall magnetism, including magnetized rocks in the crust.



While the oceans are not typically considered a source of magnetism, salty seawater is a moderate conductor of electricity. 



As ocean tides move across Earth’s magnetic field, they generate weak electric currents, which, in turn, produce faint magnetic signals.



These signals are extremely weak compared to those generated by the planet’s core, but Swarm’s highly sensitive instruments can detect them from space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-s-hidden-magnetic-signature">Ocean’s hidden magnetic signature</h2>



Swarm’s advanced sensors, including state-of-the-art magnetometers, can distinguish the faint tidal magnetic signals from other, stronger sources. This ability allows researchers to study the entire water column of the ocean in ways never before possible.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“This study shows that Swarm can provide data on properties of the entire water column of our oceans,” noted Anja Strømme, ESA’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO/Swarm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swarm Mission</a> Manager.
</blockquote>



This capability is a game-changer for oceanography and climate science. By analyzing these magnetic signatures, scientists can gain new insights into ocean dynamics, including variations in temperature and salinity over time. 



These factors play a crucial role in understanding climate change and predicting future environmental shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-of-magma-beneath-the-ocean">Distribution of magma beneath the ocean</h2>



Beyond its contributions to ocean science, Swarm is also helping researchers study the distribution of magma beneath the ocean floor. This information is essential for understanding volcanic activity, particularly in seismically active regions.



One of the most significant volcanic events in recent history, the 2022 Hunga-Tonga eruption, demonstrated the destructive power of underwater volcanoes. 



Understanding how magma moves and accumulates beneath the seabed could improve early warning systems for such eruptions in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swarm-s-unexpected-longevity">Swarm’s unexpected longevity</h2>



Swarm was originally designed as a four-year mission, yet it has been operational for over a decade. The extended mission duration has provided scientists with the opportunity to explore new research questions that were not initially considered.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“This is one of the benefits of flying missions for longer than originally planned. So, by flying as long as the scientific output is of excellent quality and resources allow, you can tackle scientific questions that weren’t originally envisaged,” said Anja Strømme.
</blockquote>



As the satellites gradually descend due to atmospheric drag, they are now positioned to capture even weaker magnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origin-of-the-suns-magnetic-field-discovered-after-400-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a> from the ocean that were previously beyond the reach of their instruments.



This unintended benefit has opened new avenues of research, allowing Swarm to contribute even more valuable data in its later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-activity-and-faint-signals">Solar activity and faint signals</h2>



One of the key factors that allowed Swarm to detect these weak oceanic magnetic signatures was the Sun’s period of low activity around 2017. 



During this time, known as a solar minimum, there was less interference from space weather, allowing the satellites to collect cleaner data.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“These are among the smallest signals detected by the Swarm mission so far,” explained study lead author Alexander Grayver from the <a href="https://portal.uni-koeln.de/es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cologne</a>.
</blockquote>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The data are particularly good because they were gathered during a period of solar minimum, when there was less noise due to space weather.”
</blockquote>



The solar minimum is a phase in the Sun’s 11-year cycle when its surface activity is at its lowest. During this time, the Sun emits fewer charged particles and less electromagnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetism-at-earths-core-simulations-offer-breakthrough-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiation</a>. 



This reduction in solar interference makes it easier for Swarm’s instruments to detect weak geomagnetic signals that would otherwise be obscured.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-of-subtle-magnetic-signals">Future studies of subtle magnetic signals </h2>



Scientists are hopeful that Swarm will continue to operate beyond 2030, despite its gradual descent. If the mission remains active during the next solar minimum, it will have another opportunity to detect these subtle magnetic signals with even greater clarity.



With each new discovery, Swarm reinforces the value of long-term space missions. What began as a project to study Earth’s magnetism has evolved into a powerful tool for understanding the planet’s oceans, climate, and even volcanic activity.



As Swarm continues its journey, its data will remain a critical resource for researchers seeking to unravel the hidden forces shaping our planet. 



Whether through tracking ocean currents, mapping magma flows, or detecting the smallest fluctuations in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-north-pole-is-moving-faster-than-ever-as-it-races-toward-russia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s magnetic field</a>, Swarm is proving that even the faintest signals can reveal profound scientific insights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2024.0078" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A</a>.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a>



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Satellites detect hidden magnetic signals in Earth's oceans

Data from the European Space Agency’s Swarm mission has revealed...

Imagine a future where one of the biggest pollutants of our environment, the production of ammonia, is no longer a headache. Instead, the Earth itself could become a productive partner in generating this chemical. All it takes is the use of Earth's natural forces and heat.



In an unexpected twist of events, a scientific breakthrough at the globally renowned Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), points in this very direction.



The ground-breaking study was motivated by a mysterious natural phenomenon observed in Mali, West Africa, in the 1980s.



Locals came across a well that was gushing with hydrogen gas, an oddity that scientists attributed to a water-rock chemical reaction beneath Earth's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-shift-in-the-fertilizer-industry">Green shift in the fertilizer industry</h2>



“It was an ‘aha’ moment,” shared senior author Iwnetim Abate of MIT. "We may be able to use Earth as a factory, harnessing its heat and pressure to produce valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decline-in-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-an-encouraging-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a> like ammonia in a cleaner manner."



Ammonia's importance cannot be overstated. It is a key ingredient in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-emissions-from-fertilizers-could-be-cut-by-80-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilizers</a> and potentially a clean fuel source. However, its current production methods are far from energy-efficient or green. 



Today's industrial ammonia production is a significant consumer of global energy and a major emitter of CO2. In fact, for every ton of ammonia produced, there's a release of around 2.4 tons of CO2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-ammonia-production">Traditional ammonia production</h2>



For over a century, the production of ammonia has been dominated by the Haber-Bosch process, an energy-intensive method that relies heavily on the use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-fossil-fuels-kills-5-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuels</a>.



This conventional approach operates at high temperatures and pressures, consumes vast amounts of natural gas and contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.



Despite its efficiency in meeting global fertilizer demands, the process is far from sustainable. 



As industries face mounting pressure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-changes-in-diet-can-greatly-reduce-your-carbon-footprint/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reduce their carbon footprints</a>, the search for greener alternatives has intensified. 



Scientists and engineers are now exploring innovative methods that utilize Earth's natural processes to revolutionize ammonia production, offering a path toward cleaner, more efficient solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-solution-under-our-feet">Finding the solution under our feet</h2>



With sustainability in their sights, the research team at MIT set out to test this idea of an "Earth factory." They constructed an environment that replicated the conditions beneath Earth's surface.



Iron-rich minerals were exposed to nitrogen-laced water, which ignited a chemical reaction that transformed the rock and gave rise to what they termed "geological ammonia."



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/ammonia-fertilizer_new-green-process_illustration_MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/ammonia-fertilizer_new-green-process_illustration_MIT_1s.webp" alt="Researchers cooked up a new recipe—without any energy input or CO2 emission—for generating ammonia, a key chemical for the agriculture industry, by mixing nitrogen-laced water with iron-rich rocks. Credit: Yifan Gao and Iwnetim Abate" class="wp-image-1957605"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers cooked up a new recipe - without any energy input or CO2 emission - for generating ammonia, a key chemical for the agriculture industry, by mixing nitrogen-laced water with iron-rich rocks. Credit: Yifan Gao and Iwnetim Abate</figcaption></figure>



Remarkably, the process didn't require any additional energy input, and there were no CO2 emissions. To top it all, the entire process even took place under ambient conditions!



To replicate real-world conditions, the team replaced synthetic mineral with olivine, a naturally iron-laden rock. They optimized the process further by introducing a copper catalyst and elevating the heat to 300°C.



In just 21 hours, they managed to produce about 1.8 kg of ammonia per ton of olivine, demonstrating the method's feasibility and sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-green-ammonia-production-matter">Why does green ammonia production matter?</h2>



"These rocks are all over the world, so the method could be adapted very widely across the globe," enthused Abate.



However, he acknowledged that implementation would come with its own set of challenges, including drilling into iron-rich rocks deep within the Earth and dealing with the complexities of the rocks' interactions with gases and liquids.



On the economic front, geological ammonia production is encouraging. The cost is around $0.55 per kilogram, roughly equivalent to the price of conventional methods. 



But the game-changer is the potential to address environmental crises like CO2 production and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/staggering-amount-of-wastewater-impacts-coastal-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wastewater pollution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-life-and-ammonia">Nature, life, and ammonia</h2>



Yifan Gao of MIT, the first author of the study, postulated a win-win strategy. 



"Nitrogen sources are considered as pollution in wastewater, and removing them costs money and energy," he explained.



The team suggested turning this problem on its head by using wastewater to produce ammonia. This perspective could potentially add an additional profit of $3.82 per kilogram of ammonia formed.



"Ammonia is pretty important for life. The only other natural way that ammonia is produced on Earth is when lightning strikes nitrogen gas," commented senior author Ju Li.



"That’s why the geological production of ammonia is quite interesting when you think about where life came from,” Li concluded.



This initiative by the scientists at MIT highlights the innovative solutions that can arise when we look towards nature for inspiration.



With every small step, we move closer to a future where sustainable chemical production is not just a dream but a reality.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2542435124005415" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joule</a>.



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New green tech produces ammonia fertilizer using Earth's natural forces

Imagine a future where one of the biggest pollutants of...

The battle against brain aging has a surprising new player: the X chromosome we inherit from our mothers. Recent research reveals that this genetic hand-me-down could influence how quickly our brains age, particularly in women. 



While we've long known that women have two X chromosomes compared to men's single X, it turns out that which parent those X chromosomes come from might matter more than we thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-x-chromosome-in-brain-function">X chromosome in brain function</h2>



The X chromosome has long been linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-the-secret-to-keeping-your-brain-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. Many intellectual disabilities stem from mutations in genes located on the X chromosome. 



Women with Turner syndrome, a condition where only one X chromosome is present instead of two, often experience cognitive impairments. Scientists have suspected that the X chromosome plays a role in memory, learning, and susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s.



Dr. Samira Abdulai-Saiku, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSF</a> and first author of the study, emphasized the significance of these findings.



“Given the fact that the X chromosome is enriched for brain-related genes, it became very important for us to know what roles it might be playing in brain aging,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-x-chromosome-matter">Why does X chromosome matter?</h2>



In females, every cell requires only one active X chromosome. To maintain balance, the body randomly inactivates one X chromosome in each cell. 



Some cells use the maternal X chromosome, while others rely on the paternal X chromosome. This mosaic pattern of gene expression creates a unique genetic environment in women.



However, the process of X inactivation is not always perfectly balanced. Some women, purely by chance, may have more cells that activate the maternal X chromosome than the paternal one. This variation, known as X chromosome skewing, has been largely overlooked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-25-years-of-research-revealed-about-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain aging</a> research - until now.



“Skewing of the X chromosome is common among humans, and there are certainly women who are walking around with much higher or lower levels of maternal X chromosomes than others, just by chance,” said Dr. Dena Dubal, senior author of the study and professor of neurology at UCSF.



“There has been little research on the potential consequences of this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maternal-x-chromosome-accelerates-brain-aging">Maternal X chromosome accelerates brain aging</h2>



To understand the effects of X chromosome activation, the UCSF research team bred female mice in a way that ensured some had only an active maternal X chromosome, while others retained a mix of maternal and paternal X chromosomes. 



The results revealed that female mice with only a maternal X chromosome suffered from worse memory and learning abilities as they aged.



Further investigation showed that the hippocampus - a brain region essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-habits-may-age-the-brain-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory and learning</a> - aged more rapidly in mice with only an active maternal X chromosome.



The researchers observed significant differences in gene expression, with certain genes on the maternal X chromosome being completely silenced, while they remained active on the paternal X chromosome.



“What we showed is that these animals’ brains were really aging faster than the brains of their genetically identical sisters who had both mom’s and dad’s X chromosomes turned on,” Dubal explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reactivating-the-silenced-genes">Reactivating the silenced genes</h2>



To further explore the effects of X chromosome expression, the researchers turned to CRISPR gene-editing technology. By reactivating the silenced genes on the maternal X chromosome in older female mice, they were able to improve cognitive function. 



The mice that underwent this genetic intervention demonstrated enhanced learning and memory, suggesting that reversing gene silencing could be a potential strategy for slowing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hobbies-keep-the-brain-sharp-and-slow-cognitive-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain aging</a>.



Abdulai-Saiku highlighted the importance of this discovery. “Together, all these experiments suggested to us that the parental origin of an X chromosome can have a big impact on brain health,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-evolutionary-tradeoff">An evolutionary tradeoff?</h2>



The study was not designed to determine why the maternal X chromosome accelerates brain aging compared to the paternal X chromosome. 



However, Dubal proposed a possible evolutionary explanation. “It may be that this gene expression pattern is actually really beneficial to brain development, but then there is this tradeoff later in life,” she said.



This hypothesis raises important questions about the genetic mechanisms underlying aging and neurodegeneration. 



If certain genes promote brain growth and function during youth but accelerate decline with age, understanding these tradeoffs could lead to interventions that extend cognitive health into old age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Dubal and her team plan to continue their investigation into the role of the X chromosome in brain aging. Their findings could help explain why some people are more prone to cognitive decline than others and may offer new strategies for preventing diseases like Alzheimer’s.



“The X chromosome you inherited from your mom is turning off genes, accelerating aging, and impairing cognition,” Dubal said. “Can we reverse this?”



The potential for reversing age-related cognitive decline by modifying gene expression is an exciting avenue for future research. If scientists can identify ways to balance X chromosome expression, it may open doors to new therapies for brain aging in both men and women.



This remarkable research not only deepens our understanding of the genetic factors influencing brain aging but also offers hope for innovative approaches to maintaining cognitive health across the lifespan.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08457-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Genes inherited from our mothers make our brains age faster

The battle against brain aging has a surprising new player:...

We often admire the alpha males of the world - think of a lion ruling his pride, a CEO commanding a boardroom, or a wolf leading his pack. These males have dominance, respect, and the first pick of resources. But what if being on top wasn’t as great as it seemed? For alpha baboons, the price of power is steep.



A new study shows that alpha male baboons live under intense stress. Surprisingly, their stress doesn’t come from fighting rivals but from guarding their mates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pressure-of-leadership-on-alpha-baboons">Pressure of leadership on alpha baboons</h2>



Becoming an alpha male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baboon</a> is no easy feat. Males must battle their way up the ranks - relying on strength, strategy, and persistence. But reaching the top is only the beginning. Staying there demands constant vigilance.



The dominant male must protect his status against challengers, ensuring that no rival steals his position. But his biggest concern is not other males - it is the females.



During fertile periods, he must closely monitor them and prevent other males from mating with them. This requires following the females around for days on end, ensuring that he remains their only mate.



“They’re essentially staking a claim; preventing other males from gaining access,” said Professor Susan Alberts of <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>.



This near-constant surveillance takes a toll. Instead of using their time to rest, eat, or socialize, alpha males devote their energy to guarding their mates. Over time, this effort drains them both physically and mentally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-in-alpha-male-baboons">Stress in alpha male baboons</h2>



For decades, scientists have studied wild baboons in Kenya as part of the <a href="https://amboselibaboons.nd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amboseli Baboon Research Project</a>. Since 1971, researchers have closely tracked the social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visually-striking-primate-features-ease-tension-and-reduce-conflict/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions and behaviors</a> of these animals, collecting valuable data about their lives.



A study published in 2011 provided one of the first clues that being an alpha male comes with a cost. The research, led by senior scientist Laurence Gesquiere at Duke University, found that alpha males had significantly higher levels of glucocorticoids - hormones linked to stress and the "fight-or-flight" response.



“In humans, this response is activated for every kind of challenge we face, whether it’s running down the block because you’re late for a meeting, running a marathon, or going into a stressful meeting with your boss,” Alberts explained.



The new study builds on these findings. The research team analyzed 14 years of behavioral data from 204 male baboons and measured their stress hormone levels using droppings left behind in the wild.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-source-of-stress">Surprising source of stress</h2>



The results confirmed that life at the top is stressful. Alpha males had 6% higher glucocorticoid levels than lower-ranking males. 



But the study also revealed something unexpected: aggressive behaviors such as fighting, bullying, or threatening rivals had no impact on the stress levels of alpha male baboons. “That was a big surprise!” Gesquiere exclaimed.



The researchers had expected that constant battles with other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-evolution-completing-the-timetree-of-life-for-all-of-our-closest-relatives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">males</a> would be the main cause of stress. Instead, they found that stress hormones spiked when alpha males spent more time guarding females.



Their thyroid hormone levels also dropped, indicating they were burning more calories than they consumed. This suggested that being an alpha male is not just stressful - it is physically exhausting as well.



“Being alpha really has energy consequences,” Gesquiere noted. Unlike lower-ranking males, who can focus on feeding and resting, alpha males are constantly on alert, even when they attempt to eat.



“They’re constantly interrupted,” Alberts said. “They'll start to dig up or pry open a tasty morsel, but then the female gets up and walks away, and they have to abandon it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-cost-for-short-term-rewards">High cost for short-term rewards</h2>



The constant stress of being an alpha male baboon appears to have lasting effects. Previous research on Amboseli <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-human-primate-chromosomes-mapped-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baboons</a> found that top-ranking males age faster and have shorter lifespans than their lower-ranking counterparts.



Chemical changes in their DNA suggest that stress accelerates aging, and weakens their bodies over time. Once they lose their alpha status, they may struggle to recover from years of physical and emotional strain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-humans-learn-from-baboons">What can humans learn from baboons?</h2>



While baboon society is different from human society, some parallels exist. Alpha males live in a rigid hierarchy, but humans navigate multiple social structures. A person may be a low-ranking employee at work but a leader in their sports team or community.



Still, the study on alpha male baboons highlights an important lesson: leadership comes with challenges, and constant stress can take a toll on well-being. In humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-primates-must-prioritize-survival-over-long-term-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baboons</a> alike, maintaining power requires energy, focus, and sacrifice.



For dominant male baboons, the cost of being on top is clear. “Stress definitely has long-term consequences,” noted Gesquiere.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1790#d1e1714" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Alpha male baboons sacrifice good health for power

We often admire the alpha males of the world -...

Marine protected areas are proving to be a game-changer in boosting "catch-per-unit-of-fishing-effort" without harming marine ecosystems.



Large-scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs), such as Revillagigedo in Mexico, are leading the way.



These vast conservation zones, many of which have been established recently, could hold the key to safeguarding migratory species while potentially enhancing fisheries' success rates beyond their borders.



This promising development was recently highlighted in a scientific study published in the journal Science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-age-of-conservation-a-win-win-for-all">The age of conservation: A win-win for all</h2>



The study presented several real-world instances where LSMPAs dramatically increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-consequences-of-catch-and-release-sport-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">catch rates</a> outside of their boundaries.



The research findings showed an average jump of 12 to 18 percent in the fishing productivity of waters near protected areas. These "spillover benefits" seemed to be consistent across various tuna species.



The spillover effect ranged from 2 to 11 percent, and it was particularly beneficial for bigeye tuna.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spillover-benefits-get-stronger-over-time">Spillover benefits get stronger over time</h2>



Nations prioritizing conservation efforts are reportedly reaping the highest economic benefits.



For instance, nearly all of the spillover benefits derived from the Revillagigedo protected area in Mexican waters were directed towards Mexican <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-fleets-hidden-industrial-fishing-activity-exposed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> vessels.



Study co-author Juan Carlos Villaseñor-Derbez is an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.earth.miami.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science. He also serves as a core faculty member at the Frost Institute for Data Science and Computing.



"We found that the spillover benefits, measured as the change in catch rates, are strongest just outside the boundaries of these MPAs and get stronger over time. The effects were strongest for the MPAs that were heavily fished prior to protection and are now well-enforced,” explained Villaseñor-Derbez.



The findings highlight the growing importance of well-managed marine protected areas in balancing conservation and economic interests. These areas can offer a promising blueprint for sustainable fisheries worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-protected-areas-and-tuna-stocks">Marine protected areas and tuna stocks</h2>



Understanding the links between LSMPAs, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bluefin-tuna-a-sushi-delicacy-will-likely-be-extinct-within-50-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuna</a> stocks, and fisheries becomes crucial when we consider global targets such as protecting 30 percent of the world’s ocean area by 2030.



The study is also relevant in the context of the United Nations' Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement, which aims to safeguard biodiversity in international waters.



The researchers evaluated data from 9 LSMPAs across the Pacific and Indian oceans.



An intriguing feature of this study was the creation of a global tuna catch database that was developed solely from publicly available data. This hasn't been feasible during earlier investigations into large-scale MPA impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expansion-of-large-scale-marine-protected-areas">Expansion of large-scale marine protected areas</h2>



In 2004, the world had a single large-scale MPA - the Galápagos Marine Reserve in Ecuador.



Fast forward two decades, and we now have over 20 such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-marine-protected-areas-boost-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protected spaces</a>, including the Papahānaumokuākea in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands. Most of these conservation zones coexist with tuna fisheries.



This proliferation of LSMPAs enables us to test their impact on the populations of important tuna species like ahi and skipjack that underpin a global industry valued at over $40 billion.



One striking revelation from the study was a 10% increase in bigeye tuna catch rates near the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, the world’s largest no-fishing zone.



Ultimately, large-scale marine protected areas seem to be ushering in an era of sustainable fishing, where conservation and higher catch rates go hand in hand.



This serves as a reflection of the power of balanced coexistence - a perfect example of the harmony we can achieve when we respect nature's boundaries while fulfilling our needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-future-prospects">Challenges and future prospects </h2>



While large-scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs) offer promising solutions for balancing conservation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fisheries</a>, their long-term success hinges on several critical factors. 



Effective enforcement, adequate funding, and international cooperation are essential to ensure these protected zones achieve their intended goals. 



Without proper surveillance and compliance, illegal fishing activities could undermine the progress made in enhancing tuna stocks and preserving biodiversity.



Another challenge lies in balancing the needs of local communities that rely on fishing for their livelihoods. 



Although spillover benefits from LSMPAs have shown positive trends, the transition period before these benefits materialize can be challenging for communities that depend on immediate access to fishing grounds. 



Policies are needed to support sustainable fishing practices while providing economic alternatives during the adjustment period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-ocean-management">Sustainable ocean management </h2>



Looking ahead, expanding LSMPAs to meet global conservation targets will require strategic planning and collaboration. 



Advances in satellite monitoring and data-driven fisheries management could enhance the effectiveness of these protected areas, ensuring both ecological and economic gains. 



If implemented effectively, LSMPAs could serve as a cornerstone of sustainable ocean management, enhancing resilience in marine ecosystems amid climate change and increasing human pressures.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn1146" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Marine protected areas have 'spillover benefits' protecting life well beyond their boundaries

Marine protected areas are proving to be a game-changer in...

A spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) has been documented in Egypt for the first time in over 5,000 years. This lone individual was caught and killed by locals in the Elba Protected Area, a remote region in southeastern Egypt about 30 km from the Sudanese border. 



The discovery, detailed in a recent&nbsp;Mammalia&nbsp;journal publication, challenges long-standing beliefs about the species’ historical range and survival in North Africa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-egypt-s-long-history-without-hyenas">Egypt’s long history without hyenas</h2>



For centuries, spotted hyenas have been absent from Egypt, with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-animal-day-2024-building-a-legacy-of-compassion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> thought to be confined to sub-Saharan Africa.



Occasional reports hinted at their presence, but no verifiable records existed. That changed in February 2024, when local pastoralists encountered the hyena after it killed two of their goats.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“My first reaction was disbelief until I checked the photos and videos of the remains. Seeing the evidence, I was completely taken aback. It was beyond anything we had expected to find in Egypt,” noted Dr. Abdullah Nagy, the lead author of the study from <a href="https://azhar.edu.eg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Al Azhar University</a>.
</blockquote>



This unexpected sighting forces researchers to reconsider the distribution of spotted hyenas, raising critical questions about the animal’s movement patterns, the environmental factors influencing its migration, and the possibility of further incursions into Egypt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-the-hyena-travel-so-far-north">How did the hyena travel so far north?</h2>



One of the biggest mysteries surrounding this discovery is how the hyena managed to travel&nbsp;500 km north of its known range in Sudan. 



Spotted hyenas are highly adaptable predators and scavengers, capable of traveling up to 27 km per day in search of food. However, moving such a vast distance into a region where they have not been recorded for millennia suggests a significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lion-numbers-have-reached-a-critical-low-in-uganda/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological shift</a>.



To explore possible explanations, researchers analyzed Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data from satellite images spanning from 1984 to 2022. 



NDVI is an indicator of vegetation health and density, which in turn reflects precipitation and grazing conditions. The study revealed striking trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-alters-migration-paths">Climate change alters migration paths</h2>



Over the past four decades, the region has experienced&nbsp;prolonged droughts interspersed with relatively wet periods. 



However, the last five years - between 2019 and 2024 - showed a marked increase in NDVI values compared to the previous two decades. This suggests that increased rainfall has led to improved grazing conditions, potentially supporting a larger prey base for carnivores.



Dr. Nagy suggested that this changing landscape may have created a corridor for the hyena’s migration.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The fact that the corridor area has become less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancestors-of-giant-pandas-had-a-completely-different-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmentally harsh</a>, offering easier passage along ‘the highway,’ may explain how the hyena reached this far north. However, the motivation for its extensive journey into Egypt is still a mystery that demands further research,” Dr. Nagy said.
</blockquote>



The possibility that climate change is reshaping wildlife movement patterns is a significant area of concern. If these climatic shifts continue, Egypt may witness more unexpected wildlife appearances in the coming years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fatal-encounter-in-wadi-yahmib">A fatal encounter in Wadi Yahmib</h2>



The hyena’s journey into Egypt ultimately ended in a deadly conflict with humans. In February 2024, it entered Wadi Yahmib, a remote part of the Elba Protected Area, and preyed on two goats belonging to local pastoralists. 



The livestock depredation prompted an immediate response from herders, who are experienced trackers and intimately familiar with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammoth-remains-found-in-deadly-quicksand-trap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> in their region.



Determined to eliminate the threat, they&nbsp;pursued the hyena&nbsp;over rugged terrain, eventually running it down with a&nbsp;pickup truck on February 24, 2024. The body was left for scavengers after it was photographed and geolocated, allowing researchers to confirm its identity and document the unprecedented sighting.



This event highlights the ongoing&nbsp;human-wildlife conflict&nbsp;in rural regions. Unlike in parts of the Horn of Africa, where communities have a long history of coexisting with spotted hyenas, Egyptian herders have no experience dealing with this species. 



Their livelihoods depend on livestock, and any predator that threatens their animals is viewed as a direct economic threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-more-hyenas-be-heading-to-egypt">Could more hyenas be heading to Egypt?</h2>



The presence of a spotted hyena so far north raises the question of whether this was a&nbsp;one-time event&nbsp;or the beginning of a larger trend. Scientists speculate that the combination of&nbsp;climate change, shifting pastoralist practices, and political instability in Sudan&nbsp;could contribute to increased movement of hyenas into Egypt.



The Elba Protected Area, where the hyena was discovered, is&nbsp;Egypt’s most floristically diverse region, with unique environmental conditions that may attract more wildlife in the future. Researchers note that this is not the first case of a large predator appearing in the region. 



In 2014, a&nbsp;male leopard (Panthera pardus) was killed&nbsp;in southeastern Egypt after it preyed on livestock. This suggests that the region may still function as a migration corridor for carnivores, despite centuries of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprising-number-of-hyenas-are-killed-by-vehicles-every-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decline in their populations</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-grazing-patterns">Role of grazing patterns</h2>



One possible factor influencing the hyena’s movement is&nbsp;livestock grazing patterns. In recent years, local herders have shifted toward&nbsp;free-range grazing, allowing their animals to move across wider areas instead of confining them to specific enclosures. 



This change, combined with improved rainfall and vegetation, may have created a more favorable landscape for predators like hyenas.



Additionally, nearby human settlements, including&nbsp;a slaughterhouse in the town of Shalatin, could serve as an attraction for scavengers. 



Scavengers such as Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus) and lappet-faced vultures (Torgos tracheliotos) have already been observed frequenting the area, suggesting that spotted hyenas may also have been drawn to human-related food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-hyenas-establish-in-egypt-again">Will hyenas establish in Egypt again?</h2>



Despite the favorable environmental conditions, scientists believe that&nbsp;spotted hyenas are unlikely to establish a permanent population in Egypt&nbsp;due to intense human persecution. 



Large predators are already rare in the country, and any attempt to recolonize former habitats would likely face strong resistance from local communities.



Spotted hyenas have a long history of adapting to human-altered landscapes - sometimes even increasing their populations in areas where they scavenge on waste. However, in regions where they are seen as threats rather than ecological contributors, they are often killed before they can establish a foothold.



The study suggests that&nbsp;conservationists should monitor hyena movements and reassess their conservation status in response to changing climate conditions. 



Spotted hyenas are already listed as a species of&nbsp;Least Concern&nbsp;by the IUCN Red List, but their ability to expand into new territories may require new considerations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-for-egyptian-wildlife">A new chapter for Egyptian wildlife</h2>



The discovery of a&nbsp;spotted hyena in Egypt after 5,000 years&nbsp;is a remarkable ecological event that highlights the&nbsp;dynamic relationship between climate change, human activity, and wildlife movement. 



Whether this was an isolated occurrence or the&nbsp;beginning of a larger pattern&nbsp;remains to be seen, but the evidence suggests that Egypt’s wildlife landscape is evolving.



This event also serves as a reminder that nature is constantly adapting to environmental changes. The return of a predator long thought extinct in the region may be a sign of deeper ecological shifts that scientists must continue to investigate.



For now, the mystery of Egypt’s wandering hyena remains unsolved. But as researchers dig deeper into the factors influencing its journey, the world may soon learn whether Egypt is witnessing the start of a wildlife resurgence - or just an unusual anomaly in the shifting sands of time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/mammalia-2024-0031/html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mammalia</a>.



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Spotted hyena returns to Egypt after 5,000 years

A spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) has been documented in Egypt...

A recent study led by researchers at Cornell University has revealed that smaller fish species offer significant advantages for both public health and environmental conservation.&nbsp;



Conducted in the Amazon River, the study highlights that smaller fish are more nutritious, contain lower levels of mercury, and are less vulnerable to overfishing compared to larger species. 



These findings, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2024.12.010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Earth</a>, have global implications for biodiversity preservation and food security.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-holistic-approach-to-fish-consumption">A holistic approach to fish consumption</h2>



The study, titled “Accessible, Low-mercury and Nutritious Fish Provide Win-Wins for Conservation and Public Health,” was authored by a team of <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell</a> researchers in collaboration with colleagues from <a href="https://www.brooklyn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brooklyn College</a> and the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Conservation Society</a>.&nbsp;



The research moves beyond traditional siloed assessments of fish consumption, which typically focus on either nutritional value or environmental impact.



“Fish can provide a nutritious source of food at lower environmental cost than other animal-sourced foods, but fish can also potentially expose consumers to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mercury-emissions-from-human-activities-are-declining/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mercury</a> contamination, and overexploitation of oceans and rivers harms biodiversity,” said lead author Sebastian Heilpern, a postdoctoral fellow in Cornell’s College of Veterinary Medicine.&nbsp;



“Often, these risks versus benefits are looked at in siloes, but we wanted to look at them holistically.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-fish-species-are-most-beneficial">Small fish species are most beneficial</h2>



The research team analyzed 59 fish species in the Amazon River, examining their nutritional value, mercury content, price, and abundance.&nbsp;



The results showed that smaller, more common fish species tend to be more nutritious, lower in mercury, and less expensive than their larger counterparts. These fish also pose a lower risk of overfishing due to their faster reproduction cycles.



Larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-are-getting-smaller-as-waters-temperatures-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> species, by contrast, accumulate more mercury as they live longer and consume mercury-contaminated prey. This issue is particularly severe in the Amazon, where poorly regulated gold mining introduces mercury into waterways. 



The bioaccumulation of mercury in species like goliath catfish is a pressing concern, especially as these fish are often culturally prized and preferred for their size and ease of preparation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-environmental-toll-of-large-fish">The environmental toll of large fish</h2>



Globally, the preference for larger fish species such as tuna and salmon comes with significant ecological costs.&nbsp;



Many large fish take long migratory routes, which are increasingly disrupted by human activities such as dam construction and habitat fragmentation. These disruptions jeopardize their reproduction and make these species more vulnerable to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overfishing</a>.



In addition to their ecological fragility, larger fish contribute less to sustainable nutrition. Smaller fish, with their shorter lifespans and faster growth cycles, are richer in essential micronutrients like iron and zinc, which are crucial for human health.&nbsp;



According to Heilpern, these nutrients are linked to cell metabolism and growth, underscoring the nutritional superiority of smaller species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-beyond-the-amazon">Lessons beyond the Amazon</h2>



While the study focused on the Amazon River - a region with unparalleled biodiversity, hosting roughly 2,500 fish species - its findings are relevant on a global scale.&nbsp;



The challenges faced by larger fish species in the Amazon mirror those encountered by marine species worldwide. Human activities and climate change continue to strain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-travel-far-and-wide-endangering-aquatic-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquatic ecosystems</a>, making it increasingly important to prioritize sustainable food sources.



“Though humans tend to prize larger fish species, for cultural reasons and easier preparation, globally, larger fish have higher mercury levels and are more vulnerable to human pressures,” Heilpern noted.&nbsp;



By shifting focus to smaller species, communities can reduce ecological pressures while improving public health outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-small-fish-species">Advantages of small fish species</h2>



The researchers advocate for a shift in public health messaging to emphasize the benefits of consuming smaller fish. Such messaging should integrate the nutritional, environmental, and economic advantages of smaller fish species, promoting a more holistic approach to sustainable diets.



“Human food systems are a huge driver of biodiversity loss in the environment. At the same time, biodiversity in our food systems sustains the nourishment that humanity depends upon,” Heilpern explained.



This interconnectedness between food systems and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> calls for solutions that benefit both human health and ecological systems.&nbsp;



By educating consumers on the facts, policymakers can support healthier, more sustainable food choices while alleviating pressure on vulnerable species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sustainable-path-forward">A sustainable path forward</h2>



As global fish populations face mounting challenges from overfishing, pollution, and climate change, the insights from this study offer a clear path toward sustainability.&nbsp;



Smaller fish species, with their nutritional richness and resilience, represent a practical solution for meeting the growing demand for food without exacerbating environmental damage.&nbsp;



By embracing this shift in focus, humanity can work toward a more balanced relationship with aquatic ecosystems, ensuring both biodiversity and public health are preserved for future generations.



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Small fish species are the 'big catch' of the future

A recent study led by researchers at Cornell University has...

Dog ownership is often celebrated for the happiness and companionship it brings, but it also comes with significant responsibilities.



A recent study by researchers at the Department of Ethology at the <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a> (ELTE) offers a detailed look at the benefits and challenges experienced by dog owners. 



The findings emphasize that while having a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> can be a source of immense joy, it also involves substantial commitments that potential owners should consider carefully.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mixed-emotions-of-dog-ownership">The mixed emotions of dog ownership</h2>



The study gathered responses from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-owners-ages-and-beliefs-influence-their-pet-food-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog owners</a> who rated 33 neutral statements about living with dogs on a scale from -3 (big disadvantage) to +3 (big advantage).&nbsp;



Owners were also invited to share in their own words what they considered the biggest benefit and the biggest cost of owning a dog. This approach helped capture a broad spectrum of experiences, revealing that dog ownership is neither purely positive nor entirely burdensome.



Owners rated the idea that “dogs brighten people’s lives” the highest, with an average score of 2.78, indicating a strong belief that dogs enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-the-critical-role-of-nature-in-human-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human well-being</a>. In contrast, the fact that dogs have relatively short lifespans was rated the most negatively, at -1.67 on average.&nbsp;



Overall, positive aspects were rated much higher (average of 2.06) compared to negative ones (-0.66), showing that most owners find more joy than hardship in their relationships with their dogs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-components-of-the-dog-ownership-experience">Key components of the dog ownership experience</h2>



The researchers identified three key themes that emerged from the data:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-physical-and-social-benefits">Emotional, physical, and social benefits</h3>



Many owners expressed that dogs bring substantial emotional support, motivate them to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/family-dogs-boost-physical-activity-levels-among-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise</a>, and provide valuable companionship. A significant number of respondents mentioned that the deepest benefit of dog ownership was the meaningful relationship they developed with their pet.&nbsp;



Dogs were often described as honest, devoted and supportive social partners, exhibiting unconditional and selfless love to their human family.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-challenges-and-negative-emotions">Practical challenges and negative emotions</h3>



While the joys of dog companionship were evident, owners also noted various challenges. These included the stress of managing a pet’s behavioral issues, coping with medical problems, and handling unexpected expenses.&nbsp;



Though such negative aspects were mentioned less frequently than positive ones, they still affected some owners, potentially leading to chronic stress or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-fruit-can-protect-you-from-late-life-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a> over time.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-commitment-and-responsibility">Long-term commitment and responsibility</h3>



The third component centered on the long-term responsibilities of caring for a dog. This encompasses daily tasks like feeding, training, and veterinary care, as well as the impact of a dog on an owner’s lifestyle and daily routines.&nbsp;



Opinions on these responsibilities varied: some saw them as a fulfilling part of the experience, while others viewed them as burdensome.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewards-and-challenges-of-dog-ownership-nbsp">Rewards and challenges of dog ownership&nbsp;</h2>



Over sixty percent of dog owners pointed out that the most significant benefit of having a pet dog was the deep, meaningful bond they share with their animal. They often described their dogs as loyal companions who provide unwavering love and support.&nbsp;



Additionally, about 31% of respondents highlighted that owning a dog encouraged a healthier lifestyle, promoting regular exercise and outdoor activities, while bringing stability to their daily routines.&nbsp;



Another 15% appreciated the unique bond formed with a member of another species, admiring the intrinsic qualities of dogs.



On the other hand, nearly all participants (95%) cited financial costs as the primary challenge of dog ownership. Expenses related to veterinary care, food, grooming, and other needs can be substantial and often represent the most significant burden.&nbsp;



Emotional and practical difficulties were less frequently mentioned, but they can also affect owners who struggle with particular issues, though some may hesitate to discuss such struggles openly due to fear of judgment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-balanced-view-for-prospective-owners">A balanced view for prospective owners</h2>



The study’s results paint a complex picture of dog ownership. While the positive aspects - such as companionship, emotional support, and an active lifestyle - are significant, the responsibilities and costs involved cannot be ignored.&nbsp;



Lead researcher Laura Gillet pointed out that the commitment and responsibilities can be seen as beneficial by some and burdensome by others.



This comprehensive insight into the dog ownership experience underscores the importance of making conscious adoption choices.&nbsp;



Prospective dog owners are encouraged to consider both the rewards and the responsibilities, to ensure that they can provide a stable, nurturing environment for their future pets.&nbsp;



By understanding the full scope of what dog ownership entails, people can set realistic expectations and better prepare for a relationship that is as fulfilling as it is challenging.



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Rewards of dog ownership outweigh the challenges

Dog ownership is often celebrated for the happiness and companionship...

Miocene sediments in parts of New Zealand have always hinted at a lively past. Now, new finds in the Hindon Maar Complex suggest that ancient insects may have been more varied than once imagined. 



Among these specimens, researchers identified a new genus of whitefly, along with the first known psyllid wing fossil from this part of the world. 



They studied puparia on old leaf fragments and noted fascinating features, including distinct body segments and specialized shapes around the insect’s feeding and breathing areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-whitefly-fossils">Ancient whitefly fossils</h2>



These discoveries broaden what is known about insect life in the region. Middle Miocene rocks, roughly 14.6 million years old, yielded delicate traces of creatures that once moved among ancient plants.&nbsp;



“These represent the first fossil records of these sternorrhynchan families (Hemiptera) from New Zealand,” said Dr. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jowita-Drohojowska" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">J. Drohojowska</a> from the Geology Department, <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Otago</a>. 



Dr. Drohojowska and the team found the samples in sedimentary layers that had been created by volcanic explosions that shaped small maar lakes in Otago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-the-new-whitefly">Naming the new whitefly</h2>



The new species is called <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Miotetraleurodes-novaezelandiae-gen-et-sp-nov-from-the-Hindon-Maar-Complex-a_fig2_385683923" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miotetraleurodes novaezelandiae</a>. Its puparia, or final juvenile forms, were still attached to ancient leaves when excavated. 



This insect measured about 1.5 millimeters in length, had a sturdy outer covering, and sported clear impressions of each body segment. 



Such definition of distinct segments is not as common in modern whiteflies, which usually show smoother boundaries. 



The unique structure may help experts compare Miocene whiteflies with contemporary relatives and trace changes in the group’s morphology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-psyllid-history">Studying psyllid history</h2>



The second discovery involves a psyllid wing. Researchers say it is about 3.6 millimeters long and has vein patterns that match members of the family Psyllidae. 



In many modern psyllids, wings look fragile and glassy, often with unique breaks or curves near the edges. 



This fossil wing shares some structural details with species found in Europe today. The team could only classify it down to the family level because the rest of the insect was missing. 



Still, it represents the first known psyllid from New Zealand’s fossil record, which is a remarkable addition to the nation’s entomological timeline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roots-of-new-zealand-s-insect-fauna">Roots of New Zealand’s insect fauna</h2>



Before these discoveries, local fossils offered limited evidence about how the country’s insect families established themselves over time. In modern New Zealand, sternorrhynchans include small aphids, scale insects, whiteflies, and psyllids.&nbsp;



Studies show some groups have only a handful of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-native-species-are-spreading-at-an-exponential-rate/">native species</a>, whereas others, like certain scale insects, have branched into numerous forms.&nbsp;



It is widely believed that a big part of New Zealand’s fauna drifted along with landmasses or arrived via oceanic or airborne dispersal. However, actual fossil snapshots help fill gaps and suggest that some insect lineages might have been on the islands for longer than was previously assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-insect-plant-relationships">Possible insect-plant relationships</h2>



Fossil leaves uncovered at the Hindon Maar Complex are packed with details about plant-insect interactions. 



Many of the whitefly puparia were attached to their host leaves in a life position, leaving behind a record that reflects the insects’ feeding style. 



Plant hosts for these ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extremely-rare-fossils-reveal-how-whiteflies-live-on-leaves/">whiteflies</a> remain unidentified, but the presence of multiple puparia on single leaves points to group feeding in certain spots. 



Such clues open new doors for comparing host choices in early Miocene insects with those of living species in the same family.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whitefly-species-outside-new-zealand">Whitefly species outside New Zealand</h2>



Researchers in other parts of the world have explored whitefly and psyllid fossils in places like the Eocene deposits on the Isle of Wight, as well as the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep05660" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miocene layers in Europe</a>. 



Comparisons across continents could indicate whether these insects traveled widely or stuck to regional plant communities. 



In modern settings, whiteflies often cause economic troubles by weakening crop plants, while psyllids transmit diseases in orchards. 



By analyzing ancient relatives, scientists may be able to see whether similar traits (like feeding preferences) were present millions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributions-from-the-research-team">Contributions from the research team</h2>



The fossils of Miotetraleurodes novaezelandiae are housed in the Geology Museum at the University of Otago. 



The lead investigators used scanning electron microscopy and other techniques to examine the puparia and the single psyllid wing. 



Each fossil was kept safe in carbonaceous mudstone. This find boosts the number of insect groups described from the Hindon Maar Complex, which already included dragonflies, beetles, and more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



There is still much to learn from these rocks. Fossil-rich maar sediments hold fish, plant, and insect remains that reveal how New Zealand’s climate and habitats have changed. 



Some experts think these small lakes, formed by explosive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/">volcanic events</a>, might hide still more families of insects. 



The interplay between ancient vegetation and invertebrates presents countless angles for new research. As more specimens emerge, they may transform ideas about which lineages survived regional climate shifts and how modern species took shape over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-modern-biodiversity">Implications for modern biodiversity</h2>



Modern-day New Zealand is known for having unique species that are adapted to island life, from flightless birds to specialized insects. 



Each fossil find, especially one that shows direct plant-insect links, gives specialists another line of data to interpret present-day diversity.



The story of how animals reached and thrived in an isolated archipelago is central to island biogeography. Insects like whiteflies and psyllids, which depend on particular plant hosts, can supply insights about ecosystem resilience.



The study was published in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385683923_First_Miocene_whiteflies_and_psyllids_Hemiptera_Sternorrhyncha_Aleyrodoidea_and_Psylloidea_from_Aotearoa_New_Zealand" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments</a>.



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15-million-year-old insects stun scientists with their unusual traits

Miocene sediments in parts of New Zealand have always hinted...

Medieval Britain was a time of knights, castles, and - as new research suggests - birds of prey feasting on human leftovers.



Far from the image of noble birds of prey hunting live targets, these ancient avian species had a taste for scraps - a far more direct connection to human settlements than previously believed.



This newfound perspective challenges the romanticized view of medieval wildlife, revealing a complex relationship between humans and nature. 



It also raises intriguing questions about how urban environments may have influenced bird behavior over centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strong-ties-to-human-communities">Strong ties to human communities</h2>



Historical evidence shows that birds of prey like red kites, buzzards, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migrating-eagles-have-been-rerouted-by-the-war-in-ukraine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eagles</a> found near urban centers such as Oxford, Winchester, and London were dining primarily on leftovers rather than hunting small animals. 



This surprising link between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-raptors-adapt-well-to-growing-cities-but-others-are-struggling/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">raptors</a> and humans has been meticulously discovered by researchers delving into the dietary details of these birds.



"Historical records show medieval red kites stole food from markets and snatched morsels from people's hands," said Juliette Waterman, a leading researcher at the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/world/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_campaign=hl_ug25&amp;utm_medium=ppc&amp;utm_content=brand&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQiAhbi8BhDIARIsAJLOluea_deOIA9JNb89BTqyzajxTjuxig0neT_9L5Z3mpN9FLp0Pq4q6c8aAn__EALw_wcB" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>.



"Some kites showed evidence of eating entirely human-sourced food - a diet very different from modern birds, which mainly hunt rabbits and small mammals."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-hunting-to-scavenging">From hunting to scavenging</h2>



The absence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-domestic-rabbits-thrive-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rabbits</a> in Britain during medieval times might have been the impetus for these birds to alter their diets. 



The research team considered this possibility as it examined the bones of 11 red kites, 18 common buzzards, and three white-tailed eagles unearthed at archaeological sites around Britain.



The conclusion? These ancient birds were likely pushed towards <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/believe-it-or-not-scavengers-are-picky-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scavenging</a> due to the lack of their usual prey. 



The research revealed that these medieval birds bore similar chemical signatures in their bones to the humans living nearby, implying regular visits to rubbish dumps and butchery waste sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timeless-adaptability-of-medieval-birds">Timeless adaptability of medieval birds</h2>



Interestingly, this propensity to feed on human waste wasn't confined to the rural outskirts. 



Red kites from populated towns like Oxford and Winchester showed the strongest signs of consuming human waste, eating more processed food than their rural relatives.



This versatile feeding behavior is still noticeable today in the urban red kites of Reading, who make the most out of food scraps and waste found in local gardens.



This newfound insight into the adaptability and dietary habits of these birds of prey provides a valuable perspective on managing the increasing raptor populations in modern urban areas. 



It also serves as a reminder that our actions and behaviors can greatly influence the wildlife living among us, and highlights the importance of fostering a positive public attitude towards these protected species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-insights-from-medieval-birds">Evolutionary insights from medieval birds</h2>



The findings on medieval birds’ scavenging habits provide valuable insights into their evolutionary flexibility.



The transition from pursuing live prey to relying on human leftovers demonstrates the resourcefulness of these birds, confirming their remarkable capacity to adapt to shifting environmental conditions.



This behavioral flexibility may have contributed to their survival and expansion across Europe during a time of significant human activity. 



Researchers believe that medieval birds, much like their modern counterparts, exhibited a keen awareness of human behavior, using their proximity to settlements to secure reliable food sources. 



Understanding these adaptations helps scientists draw parallels with present-day urban bird populations and their responses to human-driven environmental changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-modern-conservation">Lessons for modern conservation</h2>



The study of medieval birds also offers important lessons for contemporary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-we-save-the-regent-honeyeater-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>. 



As urban areas continue to expand, birds of prey increasingly rely on human-provided food sources, such as waste from households and restaurants. 



While this has allowed some species, like red kites, to thrive in urban settings, it also presents new challenges, including dependence on processed foods and potential health risks from human waste. 



Conservationists can use historical data to develop better strategies for managing bird populations in urban environments, ensuring a balance between human activities and wildlife needs. 



By promoting public awareness and responsible waste management, society can create a more sustainable coexistence with these remarkable scavengers.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440324002152" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Archaeological Science</a>.



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Birds of prey in medieval times survived on human scraps rather than hunting

Medieval Britain was a time of knights, castles, and -...

Ants, with their structured and highly efficient social behavior, have long been a subject of fascination for researchers. These tiny creatures exhibit complex movement patterns that allow them to navigate their environments seamlessly, even when moving in large numbers. 



The ability of ants to avoid traffic congestion and move in an orderly fashion could hold the key to solving one of the biggest challenges in modern cities - urban transportation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-help-solve-traffic-problem">Ants help solve traffic problem</h2>



In an era where traffic congestion, pollution, and inefficiencies plague urban mobility, scientists are looking toward nature for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-microbots-can-replicate-the-extraordinary-abilities-of-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inspiration</a>. 



Two professors from the <a href="https://www.unitn.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Trento</a>, Marco Guerrieri and Nicola Pugno, have turned their attention to ants, studying their movement strategies to understand how they maintain smooth traffic flow. 



The research explores how these insects avoid stop-and-go traffic despite their large numbers and limited space.



"Ants are among the few species that can handle bidirectional traffic flows, much like our roads, yet they move seamlessly without congestion," Guerrieri explained.&nbsp;



This observation raises a crucial question: can we apply the same principles to human transportation?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-ants-traffic-system">Studying the ants’ traffic system</h2>



To answer this question, the researchers analyzed the movement of ants along a 30-centimeter trail - equivalent to 100 times the body length of each ant.



By using video footage and deep learning algorithms, they were able to track each ant's individual movements, and map their trajectories, speeds, flows, and densities. The findings revealed a highly organized system in which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-ants-have-a-unique-way-of-using-earths-magnetic-field-for-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> follow specific rules that optimize traffic efficiency.



One of the most remarkable observations was that ants follow pheromone trails marked by leader ants. They move in tightly packed platoons, maintaining small gaps and avoiding overtaking behaviors. 



"Ants follow pheromone trails marked by a leader ant, and move in platoons with small gaps and no overtaking," noted Guerrieri.



This simple yet effective strategy allows ants to maintain a steady flow without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-work-in-groups-more-successfully-than-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unnecessary disruptions</a>. Unlike humans, who frequently change lanes, overtake other vehicles, and react unpredictably, ants exhibit a cooperative form of movement that minimizes delays and prevents bottlenecks. 



If such a system could be applied to urban traffic, it could drastically improve the efficiency of transportation networks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-inspired-traffic-systems">Ant-inspired traffic systems</h2>



The increasing use of connected and automated Vehicles (CAVs) presents an opportunity to rethink how we manage road networks. Guerrieri suggests that, in the future, traffic systems could be inspired by ant behavior.



"In the future, traffic systems for autonomous vehicles (CAVs) could be inspired by ant behavior. Just like insects communicate through pheromones, Connected and automated vehicles (CAV) on smart roads could use advanced communication technologies to communicate with each other and with the road infrastructure management," he explained.



By integrating advanced communication systems, CAVs could exchange real-time data with one another and with smart road infrastructure. This would allow them to form coordinated platoons - much like ants do - traveling at high speeds with minimal gaps between vehicles.



These platoons could move efficiently across parallel lanes, significantly reducing traffic congestion and increasing road capacity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steady-traffic-flow-and-improved-safety">Steady traffic flow and improved safety </h2>



This approach has several potential benefits. Enhanced traffic efficiency would lead to smoother movement, which would reduce delays and travel time. 



Road safety would improve, as autonomous vehicles moving in organized platoons would lower the chances of collisions caused by sudden lane changes and erratic driving behaviors.



A steady, uninterrupted traffic flow would also lead to lower fuel consumption and emissions, contributing to a more sustainable urban environment.



The concept of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-use-chemical-trails-to-guide-their-friends-to-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant-inspired</a> mobility aligns with broader trends in smart cities and intelligent transportation systems. As urban areas continue to expand, adopting nature-inspired strategies could be key to solving long-standing traffic challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-future-of-seamless-mobility">A future of seamless mobility</h2>



Nature has always been a source of inspiration for human innovation. From bird flight influencing aerodynamics to termite mounds inspiring sustainable architecture, biomimicry has led to significant advances across various fields.



Now, ants - some of the smallest yet most organized creatures on Earth - could hold the key to revolutionizing how we design urban traffic systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-ants">Learning from ants</h2>



The findings from the University of Trento suggest that, by mimicking the way ants move and communicate, we can create a new paradigm for urban transportation.



If implemented successfully, smart roads and CAVs could work together to form a highly efficient, congestion-free network that mirrors the natural movement of ants.



While fully autonomous traffic systems are still in development, the lessons learned from ants could serve as a guiding principle for future transportation policies and infrastructure planning. 



By studying how nature has already perfected traffic management, we can take a step closer to building smarter, safer, and more sustainable cities.



In the not-so-distant future, the same principles that govern the movement of ants may help humans navigate roads more efficiently, turning chaotic traffic jams into seamless flows of motion. Nature has provided the blueprint - now it’s up to us to apply it.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590198225000107?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives</a>.



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Ant-inspired traffic solutions could improve urban mobility

Ants, with their structured and highly efficient social behavior, have...

The remote waters of Palau have always carried a sense of intrigue for explorers. Last year, scientists encountered a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-mollusk-glowing-sea-slug-found-in-the-deep-sea/">marine creature</a> that turned heads and sparked excitement on a vessel known for investigating the mysteries of the ocean.&nbsp;



This strange cephalopod, rarely seen by anyone, appeared during an underwater operation near the German Channel in Palau. 



The crew spotted four individuals of Palau nautilus (Nautilus belauensis) cruising near the seafloor on November 27, 2024, an event that surprised even the most seasoned oceanographers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-lineage-of-the-palau-nautilus">Ancient lineage of the Palau nautilus</h2>



These sightings marked the first time the exploration team aboard E/V Nautilus observed nautiloids in more than a thousand submersible deployments across 15 years of worldwide operations.&nbsp;



Nothing prepared them for the thrill of finally watching this animal glide past gracefully at depths of between 220 and 375 yards (200 and 340 meters). 



The Palau nautilus is a master of the deep, and its subtle movements through the water column fascinate marine biologists.



Dr. Robert Ballard, founder of the Ocean Exploration Trust (OET), named the ship <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/tech/ev-nautilus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E/V Nautilus</a> in homage to the fictional submarine in the book <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/33507.Twenty_Thousand_Leagues_Under_the_Sea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea</a>. 



He once described the vertical movement of actual nautiluses as reminiscent of submarine travel, since they adjust their buoyancy to move up or down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-palau-nautilus-encounter">The Palau nautilus encounter</h2>



During the final expedition of the 2024 Nautilus season, researchers on mission <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/cruise/na169" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NA169</a> - Mapping and Water Column Exploration around the Palauan Islands - encountered a backdrop of rugged seafloor terrain that was home to sixgill sharks and scattered wartime artifacts. 



Yet the main surprise arrived in the form of four elusive Palau nautilus individuals that drifted along at depths most people never see. 



“Being in the control van for our first sighting of this animal was pretty incredible,” said Jacob Ottaviani, video engineer and documentarian on this expedition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-life">Deep-sea life</h2>



Researchers classify the nautilus as the most ancient member of the cephalopod family, a group that also includes octopuses and squid. 



This particular creature is recognized as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/163321/998336" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>).



Among the 11 known chambered nautilus species, the Palau nautilus stands out for its color patterns and the shape of its shell. 



Despite its intriguing appearance, limited knowledge exists about its overall life cycle, migratory habits, and population status.



“In addition to the obvious milestone of seeing a nautilus while onboard the eponymous Nautilus, it was also surreal to encounter an animal whose body plan and behaviors have barely changed since the age of the dinosaurs,” said expedition leader and operations coordinator at OET, Samantha Wishnak.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-research-techniques">Evolving research techniques</h2>



Exploring the canyons, ridges, and slopes around Palau involves more than just sending remote vehicles under the waves. 



This 17-day expedition introduced wave gliders, buoyancy gliders, and autonomous surface vehicles from the <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>. 



Researchers also relied on vertical microstructure turbulence profilers to learn how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-currents-slowing-as-water-temperature-rises/">ocean currents</a> behave along Palau’s steep slopes. 



These strong underwater movements can nurture the region’s diverse marine life by stirring up nutrients. 



Meanwhile, E/V Nautilus carried out advanced mapping of the seafloor, capturing details on the shapes and contours that drive habitat formation and water flow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-hidden-clues">Searching for hidden clues</h2>



As the submersible cameras turned their gaze upslope from the base of the German Channel, the team noted changing sand ripple patterns and unexpected geological features. 



Their video surveys revealed leftover debris from human activities, including old soda bottles and rusted munitions. 



The presence of scattered wartime materials hinted at Palau’s unique history as a strategic location, and emphasized how culture, conflict, and marine science can intersect.



No one expected to spot such a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-deep-sea-hooked-squid-taningia-danae-captured-video/">rare cephalopod</a> near these remnants, especially not after so many years of exploration. The excited chatter captured by onboard microphones told a story of eager anticipation. 



For many on the expedition, it was the highlight of a journey that had already offered a spectrum of underwater surprises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-palau-nautilus-research">Next steps in Palau nautilus research</h2>



Although the Palau nautilus calls dark ocean spaces home, experts hope that fresh data from these sightings will spur further investigations into its daily habits.&nbsp;



Scientists believe these cephalopods undertake vertical journeys toward shallower water after dark and return to deeper regions by morning. Catching them in the act is a game of patience and timing.&nbsp;



Researchers aim to learn more about how nautiluses navigate, reproduce, and respond to environmental shifts that might influence their numbers.



Organizations such as OET and NOAA Ocean Exploration are also creating more comprehensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafloor-relic-uncovers-earths-ancient-mysteries/">seafloor</a> maps to see where these creatures lurk. 



In the future, accurate underwater charts may pinpoint new hotspots for observing nautiluses or protecting them. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-palau-nautilus">Protecting the Palau nautilus</h2>



Conversations about the Palau nautilus and its newly documented presence remind people that our oceans still hold species that have changed very little for countless centuries. More research on this resilient cephalopod is likely on the horizon.&nbsp;



For the explorers who finally encountered this “living fossil,” the moment brought both relief and enthusiasm for the future. 



New technologies, research methods, and international partnerships will guide the next steps, but for now, this sighting underscores why scientific inquiry at sea can be so memorable.



Watch the highlight video <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/video/2024/12/03/first-nautiloids-spotted-ev-nautilus-last-dive-season" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>.



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Research ship finds sea creature, untouched since dinosaur times, after years of searching

The remote waters of Palau have always carried a sense...

When birds incorporate snake skins into their nests, it’s not just for decoration - it’s a calculated strategy to ward off predators.&nbsp;



A recent study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforest-transformation-impacts-reproduction-among-cavity-nesting-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cavity-nesting birds</a> are significantly more likely to use shed snake skins in their nests than birds that build open-cup nests.&nbsp;



This behavior, found exclusively among perching birds (passerines), seems to deter predators like small mammals, giving cavity nesters a better chance of protecting their eggs.



The research, published in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/733208" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Naturalist</a>, combines historical and contemporary data to investigate this unique nesting behavior and explore its benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-birds-use-snake-skins">Why do birds use snake skins?</h2>



Predators of cavity-nesting birds often include small mammals that are also prey for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-brains-have-evolved-to-rapidly-detect-snakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes</a>. By placing shed snake skins in their nests, these birds may exploit the natural fear these predators have of snakes.



“What do snakes eat? They eat a lot of mice and small mammals,” explained lead author Vanya Rohwer, a senior research associate at Cornell University.&nbsp;



“We think that an evolutionary history of harmful interactions between small-bodied predators of birds that are often eaten by snakes should make these predators afraid of snake skin inside of a nest.”



This instinctive fear could cause predators to avoid nests lined with snake skins, effectively reducing the likelihood of predation.&nbsp;



The researchers suggest that this behavior may have evolved as a specific defense mechanism to enhance the survival of eggs and chicks in cavity nests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-behavior-across-species">Tracing the behavior across species</h2>



Although birdwatchers have documented the use of snake skins in nests for centuries, this study is the first to systematically examine the behavior.&nbsp;



Rohwer and his team began by conducting a comprehensive literature review, including data from <a href="https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds of the World</a>, academic papers, and historical nest records housed at the <a href="https://wfvz.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology</a>.



The findings revealed that the use of snake skins is exclusive to passerines, a group of birds that includes nearly half of all known bird species. Within this group, cavity-nesting birds were significantly more likely to include snake skins in their nests than birds that build open-cup nests.



“We were trying to address why birds are investing all this time and effort in finding this bizarre material,” Rohwer said.



To validate these findings, the researchers analyzed historical nest records spanning from the late 1800s to the 1950s. These records, meticulously kept by early birdwatchers, documented nest construction, species, and locations across the United States.&nbsp;



The data aligned with the team’s initial findings: cavity nests were 6.5 times more likely to contain snake skins than open-cup nests.



“That was really, really neat, and that suggested to us that we have these two totally independent lines of data that are telling a very similar story,” Rohwer said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-snake-skin-hypothesis">Testing the snake skin hypothesis</h2>



To determine the benefits of using snake skins, the researchers conducted an experiment at the Monkey Run Natural Area in Ithaca, New York. They set up over 60 nest boxes to simulate cavity nests and 80 inactive American robin nests to represent open-cup nests.&nbsp;



Half of the nests in each category were lined with snake skins collected from a local snake breeder, while the other half were left unlined.



Each nest was stocked with two quail eggs, and the team monitored them for two weeks, checking every three days. Trail cameras captured predator activity around the nests, providing crucial insights into the effectiveness of snake skins as a deterrent.



The results were clear: snake skins significantly reduced predation in cavity nests. Predators, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-play-a-vital-role-in-maintaining-forest-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small mammals</a> like flying squirrels, avoided nest boxes containing snake skins, giving those nests a higher chance of survival during the 14-day period.



“If you were in one of those nest boxes and you had snake skin, you had a much higher chance of surviving that 14-day period,” Rohwer explained. “The benefits of the material are most strongly expressed in cavity nests.”



Interestingly, snake skins did not provide the same level of protection for open-cup nests, which were visited by a wider range of predators, including birds.&nbsp;



This suggests that the enclosed structure of cavity nests enhances the protective effect of snake skins by limiting predator access and amplifying the deterrent signal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-additional-benefits-of-snake-skins-nbsp">Exploring additional benefits of snake skins&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers also considered other possible benefits of using snake skins, such as reducing nest parasites, altering microbial communities in the nest, or signaling parental quality. However, the results primarily supported the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inaudible-screams-amphibians-use-ultrasound-to-deter-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predation deterrence</a> hypothesis, particularly for cavity nests.



The findings highlight the adaptability of birds in using their environment to protect their offspring. By selecting and incorporating such an unusual material, cavity-nesting birds demonstrate a sophisticated survival strategy that likely evolved to address specific ecological challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shedding-light-on-evolutionary-strategies">Shedding light on evolutionary strategies</h2>



This study highlights the ingenuity of birds in adapting to their environments. The use of snake skins by cavity-nesting passerines represents a clever defense mechanism, reducing the risk of predation and increasing the likelihood of reproductive success.



While the behavior is most beneficial for cavity nests, it also highlights the complex interplay between predator-prey dynamics and nesting strategies. As Rohwer notes, this behavior reflects the resourcefulness of birds and their ability to exploit predator instincts to their advantage.



The research raises fascinating questions about the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uncovering-the-secrets-of-wild-turkey-nesting-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nesting behaviors</a> in birds. The use of snake skins is not just a random quirk but a deliberate and effective survival tactic. The fact that cavity-nesting passerines are more likely to engage in this behavior suggests a deep evolutionary link between nest type and predator defense strategies.



By combining historical data with modern experiments, this study offers new insights into how birds adapt their nesting practices to enhance the safety of their young. 



The research also highlights the importance of studying the intricate relationships between animals and their environments, reminding us of the innovative strategies that have evolved over millions of years.



Whether it’s the choice of nesting material or the structure of the nest itself, birds continue to surprise and inspire with their ingenuity in the face of life’s challenges.



Image Credit: Barbara Taylor/Macaulay Library



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Some birds use snake skins in their nests to deter predators

When birds incorporate snake skins into their nests, it’s not...

The infamous Sydney funnel-web spider, long considered a single species with a bite more dangerous than any other spider, has now been reclassified into three separate species.&nbsp;



An international team of scientists has revealed that the funnel-web spiders in the Sydney region include the “classic” Sydney funnel-web (Atrax robustus), the Southern Sydney funnel-web (Atrax montanus), and the newly discovered Newcastle funnel-web (Atrax christenseni), affectionately nicknamed “Big Boy.”



The research was conducted by experts from the <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/en/institutes/leibniz-institutes-all-lists/leibniz-institute-for-the-analysis-of-biodiversity-change" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz Institute for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change</a> (LIB) in Germany, the Australian Museum (AM) in Sydney, and <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> in Adelaide. 



By combining anatomical studies with advanced DNA analysis, the team uncovered hidden diversity within this iconic spider group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-diversity-of-funnel-web-spiders-nbsp">Hidden diversity of funnel-web spiders&nbsp;</h2>



The study marks a major shift in understanding the Sydney funnel-web <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-turn-to-cannibalism-when-food-sources-are-limited/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spider</a>, with each newly identified species occupying distinct regions in New South Wales.



“Our research uncovered hidden diversity among funnel-web spiders,” explained lead researcher Dr. Stephanie Loria from LIB.&nbsp;



“The Newcastle funnel-web, Atrax christenseni - ‘Big Boy’ - is a totally new species. The ‘true’ Sydney funnel-web, Atrax robustus, centers on the North Shore of Sydney and the Central Coast, while the Southern Sydney funnel-web, Atrax montanus, is a resurrected species name from 1914.”



The researchers examined fine morphological traits and genetic data to differentiate the species. Dr. Helen Smith, an arachnologist at the Australian Museum and co-author of the study, noted that variations within the Sydney funnel-web spider had been observed before, but only now could these differences be conclusively analyzed.



“When our international team of researchers ‘reopened the case’ on the Sydney funnel-web, we looked at fine morphological details and gene sequences across the region and found the species split into three distinct groups,” Smith said.



The original Sydney funnel-web (Atrax robustus) is now confirmed to inhabit Sydney’s northern suburbs and the Central Coast, while Atrax montanus resides in the Blue Mountains to the south and west of Sydney.&nbsp;



The Newcastle funnel-web (Atrax christenseni) is restricted to the Newcastle area, approximately 150 kilometers north of Sydney.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery-of-big-boy">The discovery of “Big Boy”</h2>



The identification of Atrax christenseni was inspired by reports of unusually large male funnel-web spiders brought to the <a href="https://www.reptilepark.com.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Reptile Park</a> as part of its Venom Program. These specimens, collected by spider enthusiast Kane Christensen, sparked the team’s investigation into their distinct traits.



“Kane has been instrumental in the identification of this new species, collecting specimens so that we could do further analysis as well as shooting terrific photos of our ‘Big Boy,’” Smith said.



In recognition of Christensen’s contributions, the researchers named the species Atrax christenseni in his honor. Christensen expressed his gratitude for the acknowledgment:



“There is no greater compliment than to have another scientist name a funnel-web species after me. I am deeply honored and accept it with great pleasure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-antivenom-production">Implications for antivenom production</h2>



The findings have practical significance, particularly for the production of funnel-web <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-antivenom-to-heal-all-snakebites-is-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antivenom</a>. Since the 1980s, venom from Sydney funnel-web spiders has been used to create an effective antivenom that has prevented any fatalities since its introduction.



“The antivenom for Sydney funnel-web spiders might be optimized by considering biological differentiation at the species level,” said Danilo Harms, co-lead author of the study and researcher at LIB.



While the current antivenom remains effective against all three species, understanding venom differences could lead to improvements in treatment and support further biochemical studies of spider venoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-importance-of-spiders-nbsp">Ecological importance of spiders&nbsp;</h2>



Spiders play a critical role in global ecosystems and have adapted to diverse environments over more than 300 million years of evolution.



“Spiders are older than the dinosaurs. In more than 300 million years of existence, they’ve mastered nearly every environment on Earth and play a vital role across global ecosystems,” said Kris Helgen, chief scientist and director of the <a href="https://australian.museum/get-involved/amri/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Museum Research Institute</a> (AMRI).



The Australian Museum, which houses one of the world’s largest spider collections, including thousands of funnel-web specimens, played a vital role in this research. By combining historical collections with cutting-edge genetic analysis, the study highlights the enduring value of museum specimens in advancing scientific understanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-forward-in-biodiversity-research">A step forward in biodiversity research</h2>



The reclassification of the Sydney funnel-web spider into three distinct species showcases the complexity of Australia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> and the importance of revisiting assumptions with modern tools. 



The discovery also underscores the significance of international collaboration and historical collections in revealing hidden aspects of nature.



Dr. Loria noted that none of this would have been possible without the collaboration between institutions and the use of both historical and modern techniques.



“This new research, which relies on these collections, showcases their scientific importance and the insights that come from studying museum specimens in a thoroughly modern way,” Helgen added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-for-funnel-web-spiders-nbsp">A new chapter for funnel-web spiders&nbsp;</h2>



With this new understanding of the Sydney funnel-web spider’s diversity, researchers and conservationists have an improved perspective on these fascinating arachnids.&nbsp;



The discovery of Atrax christenseni, in particular, highlights the ongoing potential for uncovering new species and learning more about Australia’s unique wildlife.



As Christensen remarked, this research not only sheds light on the funnel-web’s incredible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazing-adaptation-early-humans-thrived-in-extreme-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptations</a> but also celebrates the collaboration between scientists, enthusiasts, and institutions that made it possible. 



By continuing to explore and study nature’s complexity, we deepen our understanding of the natural world and its many marvels.



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Australia's deadliest spider is actually three different species

The infamous Sydney funnel-web spider, long considered a single species...

Phillip Island’s little penguins - famous for their nightly waddle from the ocean to their burrows - have love lives that are far more complex than they appear. 



While penguins are often thought to mate for life, new research from Monash University and Phillip Island Nature Parks reveals a different reality.



The researchers found that little penguins often divorce and find new mates if they are not satisfied with their reproductive success. However, this decision comes with risks, as higher divorce rates can lead to lower breeding success in the following season.



This remarkable study, published in the journal Ecology and Evolution, sheds new light on the intricate social behaviors of these beloved seabirds.



Over more than a decade, the researchers tracked hundreds of penguin pairs to better understand what drives their mating decisions and how those choices impact the overall health of the colony.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-loss-and-breeding">Love, loss, and breeding</h2>



For 13 breeding seasons, the scientists followed nearly 1,000 penguin pairs on Phillip Island, recording their mating patterns, breakups, and the success of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-are-struggling-to-survive-as-sea-ice-vanishes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">offspring</a>.



The team documented 250 divorces during the study period and found that the colony's reproductive success declined in years when divorce rates were high.



Surprisingly, these breakups had a greater impact on breeding success than environmental factors such as food availability or habitat conditions. While environmental pressures certainly influence penguin survival, the study suggests that social dynamics play an equally - if not more - important role in shaping the colony’s future.



Professor Richard Reina, who has dedicated 20 years to studying Phillip Island’s penguins, explains that their relationships are more fluid than people often assume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bad-breeding-season-for-penguins">Bad breeding season for penguins</h2>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"In good times, they largely stick with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enhanced-monitoring-of-emperor-penguins-can-help-us-save-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">partners</a>, although there's often a bit of hanky-panky happening on the side," Professor Reina said. "However, after a poor reproductive season, they may try to find a new partner for the next season to increase their breeding success."
</blockquote>



This suggests that little penguins are strategic in their partnerships, evaluating past breeding success when deciding whether to stay or leave a mate. 



If a pair struggles to raise chicks, one or both partners may seek a more promising partner in the hopes of producing more offspring. However, this gamble does not always pay off. 



The researchers found that penguins who switched mates often had lower breeding success in their next attempt, indicating that the process of re-pairing might come at a cost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-penguin-divorce-means-for-conservation">What penguin divorce means for conservation</h2>



Phillip Island is home to the world's largest colony of little penguins, with around 37,000 individuals calling the island home. 



The world-famous Penguin Parade draws thousands of visitors each year, eager to watch these charming birds return from the ocean at dusk. However, ensuring the long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-artificial-nests-help-save-african-penguins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival of the colony</a> requires a deeper understanding of their behaviors and breeding patterns.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"Our findings on lower divorce rates among little penguins at Phillip Island under favorable environmental conditions highlight the importance of considering social dynamics alongside environmental factors when designing strategies to protect vulnerable seabird species," noted Professor Andre Chiaradia, a marine scientist at <a href="https://www.penguins.org.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phillip Island Nature Parks</a>.
</blockquote>



This means that while environmental changes such as food shortages or climate shifts do affect penguins, the stability of their relationships also plays a critical role in their success as a species. 



By studying social behaviors like divorce rates and breeding seasons, researchers can gain valuable insight into the overall health of the penguin colony and predict potential challenges in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaboration-in-penguin-science">Collaboration in penguin science</h2>



This research is the latest milestone in a decades-long partnership between <a href="https://www.monash.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monash University</a> and Phillip Island Nature Parks. It also provided an exciting opportunity for young scientists to gain real-world experience in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-will-not-survive-the-current-rate-of-sea-ice-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife research</a>.



Matt Simpson contributed to the study as part of his Honours project while completing a Bachelor of Science at Monash University.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"I'm proud to have been able to make a significant contribution to the conservation of these fascinating birds by helping find new ways of identifying patterns that indicate the health of these bird populations," Simpson said. 



"This has been a long time in the making and a lot of work went into it. It was also a fantastic opportunity to gain real-world experience in the field while completing my studies."
</blockquote>



With ongoing research and conservation efforts, scientists hope to use these findings to better protect Phillip Island’s little penguins. Understanding their social structures and breeding strategies can provide crucial insights into how to manage and safeguard this beloved colony.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes-in-mating-behavior">Monitoring changes in mating behavior </h2>



While little penguins may not always find lifelong love, their social behaviors are a key factor in their survival. As researchers continue to study these birds, they may uncover even more surprising aspects of penguin relationships that could influence conservation strategies worldwide.



The findings from this study challenge long-held assumptions about penguin monogamy and highlight the importance of social bonds and breeding season in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-penguins-have-lost-97-percent-of-their-population/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife populations</a>. 



By monitoring changes in mating behaviors over time, scientists can track how the species adapts to environmental challenges and human impacts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.70787" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Little penguins divorce their partners after bad breeding seasons

Phillip Island’s little penguins - famous for their nightly waddle...

A deadly bird flu outbreak has devastated U.S. poultry farms, leading to the loss of over 20 million egg-laying chickens in the last quarter alone. This marks the most severe blow to America’s egg supply since the outbreak began in 2022. 



The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports that the staggering toll includes not only birds that succumbed to the virus but also those culled to prevent further spread. The consequences have been dire, leading to record-high egg prices across all production systems, including conventional, cage-free, and certified organic.



The federal government has allocated $1.25 billion to compensate farmers for their losses, aiming to encourage prompt reporting of infections and curb the virus’s expansion. 



This financial support highlights the scale of the crisis, as poultry farmers struggle to maintain operations in the face of widespread culling and biosecurity challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-is-severe-in-the-u-s">Bird flu is severe in the U.S.</h2>



Bird flu <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-virus-preparing-for-tomorrow-despite-minimal-risk-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outbreaks</a> tend to peak during the winter months as wild birds migrate south, bringing the virus with them. 



Cooler temperatures allow the virus to survive longer in the environment, increasing the likelihood of transmission among poultry flocks. However, this season has seen an alarming development: the virus has jumped beyond poultry and into dairy herds.



Hundreds of infected dairy herds have been identified, with contaminated raw milk acting as a vehicle for transmission. 



The virus spreads through contact with farmers’ clothing, shared equipment, and infected animals moving between farms. The rapid expansion into dairy livestock has raised new concerns about the virus’s adaptability and potential risks to food safety.



California has been particularly hard-hit, prompting the state to declare a state of emergency. The crisis has affected both small and large-scale poultry farms, leading to widespread economic strain and disruptions in the supply chain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-bird-flu-dangerous-to-humans">Is bird flu dangerous to humans?</h2>



While bird flu remains primarily an animal health crisis, human infections have occurred. 



The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDC</a>) has reported 66 human cases of bird flu in the U.S. since the virus emerged. Most of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/efforts-to-control-bird-flu-are-not-working-are-humans-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cases</a> have been mild, affecting farm workers with direct exposure to infected poultry or dairy animals.



However, a tragic recent development has heightened concerns. A fatal case was reported in Louisiana, linked to the D1.1 strain of the virus that has been spreading in wild birds. This marks a rare but serious escalation, prompting renewed attention to the virus’s potential human health impacts.



Despite this, researchers believe the strain responsible for many human infections has mutated to be less severe in people compared to other circulating strains. While this offers some reassurance, experts continue to monitor the situation closely, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-mutations-found-in-first-severe-u-s-human-case/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> can evolve rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debate-over-a-bird-flu-vaccine">Debate over a bird flu vaccine</h2>



In response to the escalating outbreak, the <a href="https://www.usda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USDA</a> has announced plans to stockpile a new poultry vaccine targeting the D1.1 strain. However, officials remain cautious about widespread vaccination. 



There are concerns that vaccinating poultry could mask symptoms, making it harder to detect outbreaks. Additionally, some countries may refuse to import vaccinated poultry, fearing the virus could still be present in asymptomatic birds.



The poultry industry remains divided on the issue. Some farmers support vaccination as a means of controlling the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-outbreak-in-domestic-cats-raises-new-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outbreak</a>, while others worry about the economic impact of potential trade restrictions. 



For now, biosecurity measures, early detection, and culling remain the primary tools for controlling the virus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-household-pets">Threats to household pets</h2>



The bird flu virus is no longer just a threat to chickens and cows - it has already infected household pets. In two separate incidents, raw pet food made from infected animals was linked to the deaths of cats in California and Oregon.



This highlights how the virus can spread through contaminated food products, raising concerns about broader risks to domestic animals.



“All recent detections of H5N1 [bird flu] in cats had these things in common: the infected cats ate wild birds, unpasteurized milk, raw poultry, and/or raw poultry pet food,” noted an FDA spokesperson.



This development raises alarms about food safety and the importance of avoiding raw, unpasteurized products that could carry the virus. Experts warn pet owners to be vigilant and avoid feeding their animals raw poultry or unpasteurized dairy products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-an-evolving-crisis">Managing an evolving crisis</h2>



The bird flu <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avian-flu-is-now-spreading-from-mammal-to-mammal-alarming-health-officials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outbreak</a> continues to evolve, with new cases emerging in poultry, livestock, and even humans. 



The economic impact is already being felt, with rising egg prices, farmer losses, and disruptions in poultry production. The federal response, including financial compensation and vaccine stockpiling, reflects the seriousness of the crisis.



However, uncertainty remains. Will the virus continue to spread among dairy herds? Could human infections increase? Will poultry vaccination become a viable solution, or will trade concerns prevent widespread adoption?



For now, experts emphasize the need for strict biosecurity measures, rapid detection, and ongoing research into the virus’s evolution. Consumers can also take precautions by purchasing pasteurized dairy products, avoiding raw pet food, and staying informed about the latest developments.



As the situation unfolds, one thing is clear: bird flu is no longer just a poultry problem. It’s a growing public health and economic challenge that requires continued vigilance and action.



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Bird flu outbreak has killed 20 million chickens in the U.S.

A deadly bird flu outbreak has devastated U.S. poultry farms,...

In an extraordinary blend of history, science, and detective work, paleontologists have identified a new species of predatory dinosaur in lost photos.



Named&nbsp;Tameryraptor markgrafi, this massive theropod roamed the Earth approximately 95 million years ago, during the mid-Cretaceous period.



What makes this discovery particularly fascinating is that the original fossil was thought to be lost forever. It was excavated in Egypt’s Bahariya Oasis in 1914 and later stored in Munich. However, it was destroyed in World War II during an air raid.



The recent identification of this new species is the result of an innovative analysis of long-forgotten photographs taken before the fossil’s destruction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-of-the-largest-land-carnivores-in-history">One of the largest land carnivores in history</h2>



The story of&nbsp;Tameryraptor&nbsp;begins in the early 20th century with paleontologist Ernst Stromer von Reichenbach, a Munich-based scientist with a deep interest in North African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a>. 



During an expedition in 1914, Stromer’s team unearthed the remains of a giant carnivorous dinosaur from the Bahariya Oasis in Egypt. The fossil was shipped to Germany and placed in the Bavarian State Collection for Paleontology and Geology.



At the time, Stromer classified the specimen as&nbsp;Carcharodontosaurus, a genus of large theropods known for their shark-like teeth. He described it as one of the largest land carnivores in Earth's history, comparable in size to&nbsp;Tyrannosaurus rex, which would evolve several million years later in North America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lost-dinosaur-fossil">Lost dinosaur fossil</h2>



The fossil remained in Munich for decades until a devastating event altered its fate forever. On the night of July 21, 1944, an Allied bombing raid targeted the city, striking the Old Academy building where the Bavarian State Collection was housed. 



A massive fire engulfed the facility, and the entire collection (including the Egyptian dinosaur fossils) was lost in the blaze. Only Stromer’s notes, a few illustrations, and some black-and-white photographs of the specimens survived.



With the physical evidence gone, Carcharodontosaurus faded into obscurity - its existence known only through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">historical records</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resurrecting-a-dinosaur-from-the-archives">Resurrecting a dinosaur from the archives</h2>



More than 80 years later, paleontologists have rewritten this chapter of history. Maximilian Kellermann, a master’s student at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (<a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LMU</a>), made a remarkable discovery while researching archival material.



He unearthed previously unknown photographs of the original <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> taken before its destruction in 1944. These images, preserved in university archives, provided an unexpected window into the past.



“What we saw in the historical images surprised us all. The Egyptian dinosaur fossil depicted there differs significantly from more recent Carcharodontosaurus finds in Morocco. Stromer's original classification was thus incorrect," said Kellermann. 



"We identified a completely different, previously unknown predatory dinosaur species here and named it Tameryraptor markgrafi."



Kellermann collaborated with renowned dinosaur specialist Professor Oliver Rauhut from the SNSB-<a href="https://bspg.snsb.de/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BSPG</a> and Dr. Elena Cuesta from LMU.



The analysis revealed that the fossil possessed unique anatomical features that set it apart from&nbsp;Carcharodontosaurus. Among its distinguishing traits were symmetrical teeth and a prominent nasal horn, both of which indicated it was a new dinosaur species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-a-forgotten-fossil-hunter">Honoring a forgotten fossil hunter</h2>



The new species was given the name&nbsp;Tameryraptor markgrafi. The first part of the name,&nbsp;Tameryraptor, references the ancient Egyptian term "Tamery," which means "the promised land." 



This nod to Egypt’s historical significance highlights the dinosaur’s origins. The second part,&nbsp;markgrafi, honors Richard Markgraf, the fossil collector who originally excavated the specimen more than a century ago.



Despite its destruction, Tameryraptor has finally been recognized, bringing Markgraf’s discovery back into the scientific spotlight. The story also highlights the importance of Markgraf’s contributions, which were overshadowed by war and time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-north-africa-s-prehistoric-past">North Africa’s prehistoric past</h2>



The identification of&nbsp;Tameryraptor markgrafi&nbsp;challenges previous assumptions about North Africa’s Cretaceous dinosaur diversity. 



For many years, paleontologists believed that&nbsp;Carcharodontosaurus&nbsp;dominated the region’s predatory ecosystem. However, the discovery of&nbsp;Tameryraptor&nbsp;suggests a more complex picture, with multiple large carnivorous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra-new-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered-in-spain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> coexisting.



"Presumably, the dinosaur fauna of North Africa was much more diverse than we previously thought. This work shows that it can be worthwhile for paleontologists to dig not only in the ground, but also in old archives," said Rauhut.



Interestingly, Tameryraptor appears to share evolutionary links with not only Carcharodontosaurus but also with Metriacanthosaurs, a group of predatory dinosaurs from Asia. This connection raises intriguing questions about dinosaur dispersal and migration patterns between continents during the Cretaceous period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-dinosaur-fossils-are-needed">More dinosaur fossils are needed</h2>



While the rediscovery of the lost dinosaur from archival photographs is an incredible achievement, the researchers acknowledge that much remains unknown. Without physical fossils to study, some aspects of the dinosaur’s anatomy and classification remain uncertain.



"A more comprehensive assessment of the Cretaceous predatory dinosaur fauna from the Bahariya Oasis would require the recovery of more fossils from the site," noted Rauhut.



The Bahariya Oasis, once a hotbed of dinosaur discoveries, has been largely unexplored in modern times. Future expeditions to the region could yield new fossils that provide further insights into the prehistoric ecosystem. 



Paleontologists hope that renewed interest in the area will lead to fresh discoveries that can complement the findings from Stromer’s lost collection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-lost-dinosaur-finds-its-place-in-history">A lost dinosaur finds its place in history</h2>



The rediscovery of Tameryraptor markgrafi is a testament to the power of historical records and modern scientific investigation. 



Despite being lost for eight decades, this dinosaur has been brought back to life through archival research, proving that fossils are not the only path to breakthrough discoveries in paleontology.



This story also serves as a reminder of the devastating impact of war on scientific heritage. Countless fossils, artifacts, and historical specimens were destroyed during World War II, and many of them were irreplaceable.



However, Tameryraptor demonstrates that knowledge can sometimes be recovered, even when the physical evidence is gone.



As researchers continue to explore both ancient archives and new excavation sites, who knows what other forgotten fossils might one day be rediscovered? 



Perhaps more lost dinosaurs from Stromer’s collection are waiting to be identified, hidden in dusty photographs and forgotten notebooks, ready to step back into the pages of prehistory.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0311096" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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New predatory dinosaur species identified in lost photos

In an extraordinary blend of history, science, and detective work,...

Hummingbirds may be among the smallest birds in the world, but they endure some of the most grueling migrations. Some species travel more than 9,000 km (5,590 miles) annually, relying almost entirely on nectar from wildflowers to fuel their journeys. 



This nectar is quickly converted into fat, which serves as their primary energy reserve. However, climate change and habitat loss are making the distribution of wildflowers along the birds' migratory routes increasingly unpredictable.



To cope with these challenges, hummingbirds rely on a remarkable physiological adaptation called torpor, a temporary hibernation-like state that allows them to conserve energy. 



Understanding how and when hummingbirds use torpor is crucial for conservation efforts, especially as environmental changes continue to threaten their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hummingbird-migration-and-food-availability">Hummingbird migration and food availability </h2>



A recent study led by Shayne R. Halter, a Ph.D. candidate at The University of New Mexico (<a href="https://www.unm.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNM</a>), provides new insights into how hummingbirds regulate their energy reserves during migration.



The research was conducted in collaboration with UNM Professor Blair Wolf and <a href="https://www.uwyo.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wyoming</a> Professor Emeritus Carlos Martinez del Rio.



Halter’s research focused on Rufous (Selasphorus rufus) and Calliope (Selasphorus calliope) hummingbirds migrating through New Mexico in the fall. 



The goal was to determine the role of fat reserves in regulating torpor usage and how these tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbird-wings-the-future-of-robotic-flight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> adjust their metabolism in response to uncertain food availability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conserving-energy-to-survive">Conserving energy to survive</h2>



Torpor is a survival mechanism that allows hummingbirds to dramatically lower their metabolic rate and body temperature for several hours, typically overnight. Unlike hibernation, which lasts for days or months, torpor is temporary and allows the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbird-bills-are-an-evolutionary-wonder/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> to conserve energy when food sources are scarce.



"During torpor, hummingbirds are unaware of their surroundings, making them more vulnerable to predation and other risks. For this reason, torpor should only be used when needed," Shayne Halter explains.



Hummingbirds enter torpor when their body fat reserves are too low to sustain their high-energy needs through the night. Without it, they risk starving before sunrise, when they can begin feeding again. 



Halter’s research identified a critical fat threshold that determines when a hummingbird will enter torpor. His findings show that hummingbirds initiate torpor when their fat levels drop below 500 milligrams at night and ensure they wake up with at least 180 milligrams of fat in the morning to sustain them until they find food. 



If a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> has enough fat, it will avoid torpor, since staying alert reduces the risk of predation. If food is scarce and fat reserves are low, the bird will enter torpor and adjust its duration to preserve a minimal morning fat reserve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-habitat-loss">Climate change and habitat loss</h2>



Hummingbirds are facing increasing challenges due to climate change and habitat destruction. The southwestern United States, a critical migratory corridor, is experiencing rising temperatures, prolonged droughts, and unpredictable nectar availability.



Land-use changes, such as urban development and the spread of invasive, non-nectar-producing plants, are further reducing food sources along their migration routes.



"Annual migrations are demanding events for hummingbirds and are often accompanied by high mortality rates. The arid southwest is becoming warmer and drier, and these conditions are already affecting the timing and distribution of nectar sources," noted Halter.



These environmental shifts may force hummingbirds to rely more on torpor, potentially altering their migration success rates and survival. If nectar becomes too scarce, more birds may struggle to maintain the fat reserves they need to sustain their journeys. 



As their environment becomes increasingly unpredictable, their ability to adapt will be tested like never before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-the-health-of-hummingbirds">Monitoring the health of hummingbirds</h2>



Halter’s study not only advances our understanding of hummingbird physiology but also provides a predictive model for conservation efforts. 



By analyzing torpor frequencies, durations, and fat reserves, scientists can assess the ecological health of hummingbird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hummingbirds-deal-with-their-need-for-flight-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> and monitor how they are adapting to environmental changes.



A better understanding of how hummingbirds regulate energy during migration can help guide conservation strategies.



Protecting and restoring native wildflower habitats along migratory routes will be crucial for ensuring that hummingbirds have consistent food sources. Identifying key stopover sites where hummingbirds refuel and ensuring these locations remain rich in nectar-producing plants could further support their survival.



Researchers can also use Halter’s predictive model to determine how climate change might affect hummingbird migration patterns and energy balance in the future.



By providing critical data on how much energy hummingbirds need to survive and how they adapt to changing conditions, this research offers valuable insights for conservationists working to protect these tiny but resilient birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-migrating-hummingbirds">Future of migrating hummingbirds</h2>



Hummingbirds are an incredible example of nature’s adaptability. Despite their small size, they undertake some of the most demanding migrations in the animal kingdom. Hummingbirds ability to strategically use torpor to survive periods of low food availability is a testament to their resilience.



However, as climate change and habitat loss continue to threaten their food supply, these birds may be forced to adapt in ways that could impact their long-term survival. 



By understanding their energy needs and the role of torpor in their survival, we can take meaningful steps to protect these remarkable birds for generations to come. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2489" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Hummingbirds have an incredible strategy to survive food shortages

Hummingbirds may be among the smallest birds in the world,...

Florida’s wetlands are home to two striking and often confused waterbirds - the&nbsp;anhinga&nbsp;and the&nbsp;double-crested cormorant. Both are expert divers that rely on their feet to propel themselves underwater. They are commonly seen perched on branches or docks with their wings spread wide to dry.



However, despite their similar appearances and behaviors, new research from the&nbsp;University of Miami&nbsp;reveals that these birds are quite different in their&nbsp;physiology, hunting techniques, and metabolism.



A research team led by&nbsp;Jeff White, a recent&nbsp;biology doctoral graduate, spent months studying these species to understand their unique adaptations.



The findings, which build on earlier work by ornithologist&nbsp;Oscar "Bud" Owre, offer fresh insights into these fascinating birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-anhingas-and-cormorants-hunt">How anhingas and cormorants hunt</h2>



To the casual observer, anhingas and cormorants might seem interchangeable. 



Both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-and-evolution-shape-the-unique-sounds-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> dive beneath the water’s surface in search of fish and then emerge to dry their fully soaked feathers in the sun. However, their approaches to foraging and movement in the water set them apart.



Cormorants&nbsp;are&nbsp;aggressive hunters. They&nbsp;chase&nbsp;their prey with&nbsp;strong, rapid movements, often diving deep and pursuing larger fish. Their ability to consume more oxygen allows them to sustain this high-energy hunting style. 



"Cormorants have a really large muscle in their leg and are able to really prioritize storage of oxygen in their leg muscles," explained White, who is affiliated to the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami</a>. This muscle adaptation gives them an edge in deep-water environments, including&nbsp;coastaland&nbsp;oceanic waters.



In contrast, anhingas are stealthy ambush <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-wings-have-a-surprising-effect-on-island-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>. Rather than chasing fish, they wait patiently in shallow water, camouflaged among vegetation, until their prey swims close enough for a lightning-fast strike.



This sit-and-wait strategy is common among ambush predators like herons and alligators, but it is unusual among diving birds. By minimizing movement, anhingas conserve energy and use less oxygen than cormorants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-they-stay-underwater">How do they stay underwater? </h2>



Both species dive for about&nbsp;two minutes at a time, but their bodies handle oxygen storage differently. Unlike ducks and other diving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-100-bird-species-have-been-lost-for-over-a-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, anhingas and cormorants&nbsp;fully wet their feathers. 



This reduces buoyancy and allows them to stay underwater more easily. However, their methods of&nbsp;oxygen management&nbsp;vary.



"They both must hold their breath to dive, so we observed how each of these species convert their oxygen stores into energy in the swimming and flying muscles," noted McCracken, a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-use-of-anhingas-and-cormorants">Oxygen use of anhingas and cormorants</h2>



Cormorants store&nbsp;most of their oxygen in their leg muscles, which power their&nbsp;aggressive swimming style. These&nbsp;large, oxygen-rich muscles&nbsp;allow them to&nbsp;generate bursts of speed&nbsp;and maneuver swiftly to catch prey. This trait aligns them more with deep-diving seabirds like penguins.



Anhingas, on the other hand, rely on neutral buoyancy, meaning they neither sink nor float. This allows them to remain motionless under the water without needing to swim to stay in place.



"They are the only aquatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/terror-bird-phorusrhacid-discovery-was-largest-meat-eating-bird-of-its-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> I know of that can sit underwater without having to swim to stay in place," said White. This&nbsp;passive diving adaptation&nbsp;is&nbsp;unique among aquatic birds&nbsp;and helps anhingas hunt with minimal energy expenditure.



Additionally, anhingas have a&nbsp;low metabolism, which means they require&nbsp;less oxygen to generate energy. While cormorants prioritize storing oxygen in their muscles, anhingas make efficient use of the oxygen in their blood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flight-differences-soaring-vs-powerful-wingbeats">Flight differences: Soaring vs. powerful wingbeats</h2>



Beyond their diving behaviors, the two species differ in&nbsp;flight mechanics. 



Cormorants are&nbsp;strong fliers. Their powerful wing muscles allow them to&nbsp;fly quickly and with sustained flapping, making them more agile in the air. This strength is necessary since they often travel between freshwater and saltwater environments in search of food.



Anhingas, by contrast, are less suited for continuous flapping. Instead, they&nbsp;soar and glide, using&nbsp;thermals&nbsp;(rising air currents) to stay in the air with minimal effort. This flight style is similar to&nbsp;hawks and vultures, rather than the rapid, flapping flight of cormorants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-research">Significance of the research</h2>



While this study sheds light on anhingas and cormorants, its implications&nbsp;reach far beyond ornithology. Understanding how these birds&nbsp;manage oxygen&nbsp;could offer insights into&nbsp;human physiology, exercise science, cardiovascular health, and metabolism.



"There might be benefits to understanding how other species can generate energy without oxygen," White noted. Some medical conditions and athletic performance studies could benefit from&nbsp;learning how these birds use oxygen efficiently.



Additionally, this research helps scientists&nbsp;better understand metabolism. Different species process nutrients and oxygen in distinct ways, and the anhinga’s ability to function&nbsp;with minimal oxygen use&nbsp;is a&nbsp;fascinating case study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-anhingas-and-cormorants">Future research on anhingas and cormorants</h2>



Despite this latest research, anhingas remain one of the least studied aquatic birds. Jeff White hopes to continue his work to uncover more about their unique adaptations. He realized that scientists know surprisingly little about these birds, especially compared to other diving species.



Future studies could explore how anhingas achieve&nbsp;neutral buoyancy, allowing them to stay underwater without sinking or floating. Researchers also want to examine their&nbsp;metabolic rates&nbsp;to understand how they survive on lower oxygen levels compared to other diving birds. 



Additionally, studying their&nbsp;evolutionary adaptations&nbsp;could reveal how they developed their distinct physiological traits over time.



Anhingas’ unique energy conservation and oxygen use strategies could also help scientists learn more about metabolism in other animals, including humans. Further research will help unravel the mysteries of this remarkable waterbird.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-florida-s-waterbirds">New perspective on Florida’s waterbirds</h2>



For those who frequent Florida’s lakes, swamps, and coastal waters, the anhinga and the double-crested cormorant are&nbsp;familiar sights. Yet, beneath their seemingly similar exteriors, these birds have evolved&nbsp;very different strategies for survival.



Cormorants are the&nbsp;powerful, fast-moving predators, excelling in deep-water hunting and flight. Anhingas are&nbsp;masters of stealth and efficiency, conserving energy and using their&nbsp;neutral buoyancy&nbsp;to ambush prey.



Next time you see one of these birds perched with wings outstretched, take a closer look. The&nbsp;mystery of their adaptations&nbsp;is still unfolding, and there’s much more to learn about these remarkable waterbirds.



The study is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00360-024-01593-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Comparative Physiology B</a>. 



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Florida’s waterbirds: Expert divers with bold hunting techniques

Florida’s wetlands are home to two striking and often confused...

Big,Cuttlefish,Hanging,In,The,Blue,Water,Close,Up,Photo

Cuttlefish, small marine animals that are masters of disguise, have left researchers wide-eyed by demonstrating high levels of self-control and an innate ability to wait, think, and make smart decisions. 



These highly-intelligent relatives of octopuses and squids have shown they’re capable of pausing for better rewards at a later point in time. 



It’s the same idea behind a popular test originally given to kids to see if they could wait for a bigger treat. Instead of marshmallows, though, these sea critters wait for shrimp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ability-of-cuttlefish-to-wait">Ability of cuttlefish to wait</h2>



The findings come from a <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> where scientists adapted <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/marshmallow-test-revisited" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the famous marshmallow test</a> to measure whether cuttlefish would pass on a snack if it meant enjoying tastier food later.



After it was confirmed they could hold out for something better, the team took things a step further. They checked if the same animals that showed self-control would also do well on a learning task. They did.&nbsp;



This is according to behavioral ecologist Alexandra Schnell from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> in the UK, whose team first confirmed that cuttlefish could hold back their impulses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peeking-inside-clever-minds">Peeking inside clever minds</h2>



Cuttlefish belong to a group of animals known for surprising feats. Certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> have been filmed using coconut shells as portable hideouts.



Some squids communicate with patterns on their bodies. But these findings raised a question for Dr. Schnell’s team: do cuttlefish also show <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-camouflage-is-much-more-complex-and-mind-boggling-than-initially-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">problem-solving skills</a> that appear in large-brained animals like crows and chimpanzees? 



One <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiment</a> put that question to the test by letting the cuttlefish choose between a snack they could get right away or an even better snack if they waited. As soon as they picked the immediate option, the better meal disappeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cuttlefish-waiting-matters">Why cuttlefish waiting matters </h2>



When kids take part in a marshmallow test, they might look around nervously or cover their eyes so they don’t eat the treat too soon. In dogs, a similar ability to delay reward has been <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep42459" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studied</a> using treat tests.



While most of our beloved pets struggle to resist, some can wait longer than others. This skill often suggests a capacity for planning ahead. 



Cuttlefish, though, have never been known to rely on food storing or shared group behavior that might explain why they’d stand to benefit from waiting. So, a patient cuttlefish is a bit of a head-scratcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-food-to-camouflage">From food to camouflage</h2>



The study was carried out in collaboration with senior scientist <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/research/faculty-and-whitman-scientists/Roger%20Hanlon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roger Hanlon</a> at the Marine Biological Laboratory (<a href="https://www.mbl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBL</a>). One theory for this behavior points to the cuttlefish’s defensive strategies. 



They spend a lot of time blending in with their surroundings to avoid being eaten. That means they can’t just dart around all day in search of nibbles. 



In many cases, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-form-false-memories-events-similar-human-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability to hold out</a> might help cuttlefish wait for better prey, rather than risk revealing themselves for something mediocre. 



“Cuttlefish in the present study were all able to wait for the better reward and tolerated delays for up to 50-130 seconds, which is comparable to what we see in large-brained vertebrates such as chimpanzees, crows, and parrots,” said Dr. Schnell. 



A team of six cuttlefish proved they could hang back for up to about 130 seconds, which is roughly two minutes.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuttlefish-wait-and-adapt-quickly">Cuttlefish wait and adapt quickly</h2>



Cuttlefish aren’t known to be social, nor do they spend time carrying objects to build complex traps. But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-cuttlefish-instantly-change-their-skin-color-based-on-what-they-see-and-feel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">they do learn quickly</a>.



To measure that, the team placed two distinct shapes in the tank. One symbol signaled a reward if they touched it. 



Later, the scientists switched the meaning. The cuttlefish had to figure out that the “correct” shape now meant something else entirely. 



This is called a reversal-learning task, and it often trips up animals that rely on routine. Oddly enough, the cuttlefish that were better at waiting for a shrimp snack also learned this shape-swapping game in fewer tries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memories-that-stay-sharp">Memories that stay sharp</h2>



Longer <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0038125" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> on cuttlefish hint they may also have a good handle on remembering past events. 



Researchers have tested whether these animals recall what they ate, when they ate it, and where they found it. Their memory holds up, even when they’re older. 



Other <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01547-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show they might sometimes form mistaken memories. That means the way they store events in their minds could be as twisty as it is in humans. 



Cuttlefish may even exhibit different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-three-fish-make-a-school-study-offers-surprising-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responses</a> to misleading cues, suggesting a process much like our own memory reconstruction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-intelligence">Understanding intelligence</h2>



Biologists studying big brains in animals often look at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-care-more-about-unmet-expectations-than-fairness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corvids</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parrots-have-a-unique-voice-print-similar-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrots</a>, because these groups seem to come up with creative solutions to daily challenges. 



The cuttlefish’s ability to hold back in a waiting game is a strong clue that self-control doesn’t always depend on working in teams or building fancy tools. It could arise from a creature’s environment. 



In this case, it might have grown out of the cuttlefish’s camouflage routine and the need to pick high-quality prey without exposing itself to danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Cuttlefish might not make complicated gadgets or team up to hunt in packs, yet they handle some tasks as well as animals famous for smarts.&nbsp;



That raises a puzzle about how intelligence evolves in separate branches of the animal kingdom. 



Scientists have speculated that these brainy feats can pop up when a species needs to adapt in special ways, whether to outwit predators or to find hidden meals.



The team's research was published in <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/lookup/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Cuttlefish show levels of self-control and reasoning that rivals that of primates

Cuttlefish, small marine animals that are masters of disguise, have...

Freshwater ecosystems cover less than 1% of Earth's surface, yet they support 10% of all known species. 



A recent study published in the journal Nature warns that nearly a quarter of freshwater species face extinction. Thousands of fish, crab, and dragonfly species could disappear in the coming decades unless urgent conservation efforts take place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-extinction-threat">The extinction threat</h2>



A comprehensive assessment of almost 24,000 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/freshwater-crisis-one-in-four-species-faces-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a> species found that 24% are at risk. Among them, nearly 1,000 species are critically endangered, and 200 may already be extinct. 



However, these numbers might only scratch the surface. Scientists lack data on many species, making it difficult to assess their full extinction risk.



"Lack of data on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater biodiversity</a> can no longer be used as an excuse for inaction," said Catherine Sayer, the study’s lead author. She highlights how freshwater habitats support human life by providing drinking water, livelihoods, flood control, and climate change mitigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-loss-of-freshwater-species">Habitat loss of freshwater species</h2>



Freshwater environments are among the most threatened on Earth. As global demand for food, water, and resources rises, these ecosystems face increasing pressure. 



Wetlands, including bogs, mangroves, and salt marshes, have suffered immense losses. Since 1700, an area the size of India - 3.4 million square kilometers - has been destroyed.



The loss of wetlands does not only affect wildlife. These ecosystems play a crucial role in climate regulation, water filtration, and flood control. 



Other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-cycles-through-plants-with-unexpected-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a> sources, such as rivers, suffer from excessive water extraction and dam construction. Some, like the Colorado River, no longer reach the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-threats-to-freshwater-species">Additional threats to freshwater species</h2>



Pollution further endangers freshwater species. Industrial waste, plastic debris, and agricultural runoff contaminate rivers and lakes. Many pesticides used to kill pests also harm aquatic creatures, especially during vulnerable life stages.



Despite these growing threats, freshwater species remain understudied. Dr. Topiltzin Contreras MacBeath, a co-author of the study, calls for increased investment in monitoring freshwater biodiversity to guide conservation efforts.



"It is essential that freshwater species data are actively included in conservation strategies and water use management to support healthy freshwater ecosystems," noted Dr. MacBeath.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-freshwater-species-are-most-at-risk">Which freshwater species are most at risk?</h2>



The study was focused on four groups that are deeply connected to freshwater ecosystems: decapods, odonates, mollusks, and fish.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decapods-crabs-lobsters-and-shrimp">Decapods: Crabs, lobsters, and shrimp</h3>



Decapods include crustaceans like crabs, crayfish, and shrimp. About 30% of freshwater decapods face extinction, primarily due to pollution. 



Pesticides used in farming contaminate waterways, harming crustaceans, especially when they molt.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-odonates-dragonflies-and-damselflies">Odonates: Dragonflies and damselflies</h3>



Dragonflies and damselflies spend much of their lives as aquatic nymphs before becoming airborne predators. Habitat destruction threatens over half of these species. 



Wetlands converted to farmland and deforestation have significantly reduced their numbers.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mollusks-snails-mussels-and-oysters">Mollusks: Snails, mussels, and oysters</h3>



Mollusks, including freshwater snails and mussels, were not included in the study due to limited data. 



However, previous research suggests that about one-third of mollusk species are endangered. This omission likely means the true percentage of at-risk freshwater species is even higher.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-freshwater-fish">Freshwater fish</h3>



Fish populations suffer from habitat destruction, overfishing, and pollution. Dams fragment river systems, reducing breeding grounds and food availability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-freshwater-species-from-extinction">Saving freshwater species from extinction</h2>



Freshwater ecosystems - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-amount-of-water-do-earths-rivers-hold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>, lakes, wetlands, and streams - exist across multiple countries and continents. Since water flows freely across borders, conservation efforts in one place may not be effective unless neighboring regions also take action.



For example, if one country pollutes a river, the impact is felt downstream in other countries. This makes protecting freshwater species a global challenge, requiring cooperation between governments, conservation groups, and local communities.



To stop freshwater species extinctions, we need a united effort. Countries must work together to manage water use responsibly, ensuring that rivers and lakes do not dry up due to overuse.



Governments should enforce stricter laws to prevent industries from polluting water sources. Investing in conservation programs and restoring damaged ecosystems can also help protect species from disappearing.



Preserving freshwater ecosystems goes beyond safeguarding wildlife. These habitats are essential for providing clean drinking water, sustaining agriculture, and mitigating natural disasters like floods. 



They also support the livelihoods of millions, offering food and employment through activities like fishing and farming.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08375-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Thousands of freshwater species are threatened with extinction

Freshwater ecosystems cover less than 1% of Earth's surface, yet...

The vaquita (Phocoena sinus) is the world’s rarest marine mammal, with fewer than 10 surviving in the wild. It faces grave challenges, from illegal fishing nets to black-market demand for totoaba swim bladders. 



Experts worry that this unique creature could disappear before most people even learn it exists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vaquitas-a-species-in-peril">Vaquitas: A species in peril</h2>



<a href="https://seashepherd.org/2024/06/11/2024-vaquita-survey/#">Populations</a> of this small porpoise have plummeted at an astonishing rate since the late 1990s.



Vaquitas inhabit the northern Gulf of California, and are restricted to an area of roughly 1,500 square miles (3,900 square kilometers). This small region, combined with the pressures of organized poaching activity, has given vaquitas little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lemurs-millions-of-years-of-diversity-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">room for recovery</a>. 



Jamie Knaub from Florida Atlantic University (<a href="https://www.fau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>) and her colleagues believe that drastic measures are necessary to preserve any record of these animals for generations to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rescuing-a-rare-vaquita-skeleton">Rescuing a rare vaquita skeleton</h2>



A complete <a href="https://fox5sandiego.com/news/local-news/photos-san-diego-researchers-scan-rare-skeleton-of-worlds-smallest-endangered-porpoise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaquita skeleton</a> in the United States is hard to find. Such a specimen recently appeared at SeaWorld San Diego, with ties to the San Diego Natural History Museum.&nbsp;



“We are delighted to collaborate with likeminded organizations to make our collections as useful and accessible as possible,” said Phil Unitt, curator of birds and mammals at the San Diego Natural History Museum.&nbsp;



“A complete skeleton of a vaquita is an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/public-concern-over-species-extinctions-fades-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extremely rare specimen</a>, so we’re thrilled to learn its replica will be available to the public.”



<a href="https://www.fau.edu/newsdesk/articles/fau-high-school-opens-one-of-a-kind-owls-imaging-lab.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU’s High School Owls Imaging Lab</a> carried out micro-CT scans on the skeleton. Knaub transported it back to Florida as precious carry-on luggage.&nbsp;



She spent 165 hours conducting high-resolution scans, gathering nearly three terabytes of data. When finished, Knaub carefully returned the vaquita remains to SeaWorld.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-hopes-for-the-tiniest-porpoise">High hopes for the tiniest porpoise</h2>



Researchers are eager to share 3D scans of this delicate skeleton on the <a href="https://www.morphosource.org/docs/about" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MorphoSource</a> online repository. The goal is to let educators and researchers worldwide access and learn from the files.&nbsp;



With vaquitas vanishing at a high rate, preserving their anatomy through digital replicas could be the only way to keep them on the radar.&nbsp;



“At the rate that vaquita’s are disappearing, it’s extremely important to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-we-failing-the-worlds-most-threatened-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preserve</a> as much about this species as we can. They are very elusive and not many physical specimens from this species exist,” said Knaub.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-and-replication-efforts">Education and replication efforts</h2>



The experts hope that these skeleton scans, once turned into models, can be placed in museums or classrooms. Brittany Aja Dolan from SeaWorld San Diego, who pushed this plan forward, wants everyone to see the small porpoise up close.&nbsp;



“We hope that by creating replicas, which will be available worldwide, and hopefully on display at SeaWorld San Diego in the near future, everyone will have the opportunity to learn about the world’s most endangered marine mammal and what we can all do to help,” explained Dolan.



Some genetic <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm1742" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> suggests the surviving vaquitas retain enough diversity to bounce back if threats cease. However, rapid action is crucial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-vaquita-data-for-future-research">Preserving vaquita data for future research</h2>



FAU’s advanced imaging technology captured the skeleton’s intricate details. 



The lab’s <a href="https://www.microphotonics.com/what-is-micro-ct-an-introduction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">micro-CT machine</a> is known for its ability to scan minute structures within skeletal fragments. Knaub, along with her mentors, previously used similar equipment to study thresher shark vertebrae, a study that is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.231473" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.&nbsp;



The same techniques have now preserved the precise shape of each vaquita bone, thus mapping out a piece of history that might soon be gone if illegal nets continue to harm the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-laboratory-environment">A unique laboratory environment</h2>



FAU’s Owls Imaging Lab attracts student researchers from across various disciplines. This facility contains tools like scanning electron microscopes and microtomes, and offers early exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-is-tracking-endangered-animal-habitats-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high-level projects</a>.&nbsp;



“The primary aim of our open-access research hub is to create a dynamic environment that promotes meaningful collaborations between our students and university mentors," said Tricia Meredith, director of research for FAU’s on-site lab schools.



"By providing opportunities for hands-on teaching, innovative demonstrations, experimentation, and robust data collection, the hub seeks to enhance the educational experience and advance research excellence.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-brink">Looking beyond the brink</h2>



Those involved in the vaquita project see it as a chance to save the species in some form, even if the real animals fade away. There is also motivation to rescue any remaining individuals in the Gulf of California.&nbsp;



Organizations like FAU, SeaWorld San Diego, and the San Diego Natural History Museum keep shining a light on this small porpoise, stressing that the vaquita’s future rests on determined human intervention.&nbsp;



Until effective solutions disrupt the illegal fishing trade, digital scans and educational displays might be the closest many of us will ever come to encountering the vaquita in real life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://phys.org/journals/royal-society-open-science/">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Vaquitas may disappear before most people know they exist

The vaquita (Phocoena sinus) is the world’s rarest marine mammal,...

Woodrats are small desert rodents that have baffled scientists for years with their peculiar ability to eat the toxic creosote bush. Creosote leaves are laden with resin that would make most animals sick, but these tenacious creatures feast on it day after day.&nbsp;



For decades, researchers wondered whether woodrats adapted by evolving highly specialized enzymes or if they simply produce an enormous amount of more general detoxification enzymes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrats-eat-toxic-plants-without-harm">Woodrats eat toxic plants without harm</h2>



Scientists investigating this question observed that woodrats can live in areas where creosote has taken over.



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-rats-using-ultrasonic-sounds-to-enhance-their-sense-of-smell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> avoid the spindly green shrub because it’s coated with a chemical mix that can disrupt crucial processes in their bodies. Yet, these rodents thrive. 



In a recent study, researchers discovered a twist in the woodrat enzyme story: it isn’t about better tools, but more of them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrat-survival-through-gene-duplication">Woodrat survival through gene duplication</h2>



This discovery was led by postdoctoral researcher Dylan Klure, along with a team of colleagues at the University of Utah. The experts zeroed in on how two woodrat species independently evolved to handle large doses of resin that would debilitate other mammals.&nbsp;



After comparing both creosote-tolerant and creosote-sensitive woodrats, the results pointed toward a surge in gene copies rather than improved enzyme function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-quick-jump-in-evolutionary-terms">A quick jump in evolutionary terms</h2>



Creosote may have entered the southwestern desert around the end of the last ice age, about 15,000 years ago.&nbsp;



“These woodrats have only been exposed to creosote bush for about 15,000 years, and in an evolutionary timescale, that’s very little time,” said Klure, postdoctoral researcher at the University of Utah and lead author of the study.&nbsp;



This short window hasn’t stopped woodrats from crafting a workable solution. When food is scarce, animals can either adapt to what’s available or starve. 



Woodrats apparently adapted by copying existing detoxification genes and pumping out the related enzymes at high levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrats-churning-out-enzymes">Woodrats churning out enzymes</h2>



According to the researchers, these detox genes are part of the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35599377/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glucuronidation pathway.</a> In humans, this <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7660525/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathway</a> helps metabolize a notable chunk of prescription drugs.&nbsp;



By mapping which genes were active in woodrats’ livers, the scientists found an abundance of duplicates that churn out enzymes strong enough to process resin toxins. 



The presence of multiple copies means a single woodrat can manufacture waves of enzyme molecules to quickly flush harmful compounds out of its system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-alternative-to-specialized-enzymes">An alternative to specialized enzymes</h2>



“Rather than new tools specially designed for metabolizing this toxin, evolution made use of existing machinery - just by making more of it,” said senior author Denise Dearing, professor of biology at the University of Utah.&nbsp;



This stands in contrast to earlier findings in other species where smaller numbers of finely tuned enzymes handle toxins. In the woodrats’ case, the key isn’t building a fancy detox gadget - it’s mass-producing what they already have.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-woodrats-shift-to-toxic-plants">Why did woodrats shift to toxic plants?</h2>



Historically, woodrats dined on more abundant plants like juniper. However, climatic shifts dried up many parts of the Southwest, giving the <a href="https://btarboretum.org/creosote/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creosote bush</a> room to spread. This forced the local animals to either move or adapt.&nbsp;



Some rodent populations picked the new leaves, survived, and reproduced - thus passing along their genetic advantage to the next generation.



Over time, these gene duplications reached surprisingly high levels in regions where creosote has been around the longest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrat-nests-reveal-their-changing-diet">Woodrat nests reveal their changing diet</h2>



Paleontologists studying ancient woodrat nests found <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7081288/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> that their diet mirrored changes in plant communities. Woodrats left behind “middens,” or nest sites stacked with plant fragments, seeds, and twigs.&nbsp;



By comparing fossils from different time periods, the experts traced the shift from juniper to creosote. 



The rodents’ DNA adapted alongside this changing meal plan, illustrating how an environmental upheaval can nudge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modern-day-plague-rodents-fleas-and-their-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> down a new dietary path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enzyme-gene-duplication-in-woodrats">Enzyme gene duplication in woodrats</h2>



The genetic shift happened separately in two species of woodrats that faced similar conditions. This kind of parallel evolution suggests a powerful nudge from nature.&nbsp;



“When creosote invades, it just takes over. It’s kind of an adapt-or-die situation,” said Klure. For woodrats, duplication of existing genes was apparently an easier workaround than redesigning detoxification enzymes from scratch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-humans">Implications for humans</h2>



Scientists see a parallel between woodrats’ enzyme explosion and differences in detoxifying chemicals among humans.



People vary in the number of detoxification genes they carry, partly due to ancestral diets rich in tough-to-digest plant toxins.&nbsp;



This might explain why individuals respond differently to medications or certain foods. Studying woodrats in controlled experiments could shine more light on these variations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-expansions-tell-a-bigger-story">Gene expansions tell a bigger story</h2>



At first glance, the woodrats’ solution seems simple: copy genes until you can safely eat a toxic shrub. Yet, this adaptation demonstrates that quantity sometimes trumps refinement in the race to survive.&nbsp;



Frequent duplications of existing detox genes allowed these rodents to remain in dry habitats overrun by a bush most mammals avoid. Such repeated expansions may be a more common strategy across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-rodent-borne-diseases-spill-over-into-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a> than previously thought.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp7978" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Woodrats duplicated their genes to survive eating poisonous plants

Woodrats are small desert rodents that have baffled scientists for...

When the rain pours after a long, harsh drought, there is often a sudden influx of mosquitoes buzzing around and seemingly appearing out of nowhere. 



Despite grueling dry spells that last for weeks, mosquitoes manage to survive and bounce back quickly once the rain arrives. But how do these tiny creatures manage to make such a rapid comeback?



In a recent study, scientists at the<a href="https://www.uc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> University of Cincinnati</a> have unraveled some fascinating answers to this puzzling phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquitoes-bite-for-recovery">Mosquitoes bite for recovery</h2>



Mosquitoes are hardy insects - some of which are infamous for spreading diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-leaders-call-for-urgent-action-on-malaria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">malaria</a> to humans.



While you might imagine that the mosquito population would dwindle during a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-borne-diseases-are-a-growing-threat-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> as water sources dry up, the reality is quite the opposite. 



Mosquitoes have a unique survival strategy that entails quenching their thirst with blood. They <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-biting-season-extended-by-light-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bite more</a> frequently to keep up their hydration levels.



"We're finding that mosquitoes bite people more than we imagined, unfortunately," said Christopher Holmes, the study's lead author.



Climate change only adds to the challenge, as milder winters are advantageous to mosquito populations, noted Holmes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hungry-for-more-the-mosquito-s-lifeline">Hungry for more: The mosquito’s lifeline</h2>



Typically, female mosquitoes feed on a blood meal to produce eggs. Within four days of a blood feast, they lay their eggs and seek another blood target to repeat the cycle. However, when faced with a drought, they tweak this cycle.



Instead of waiting to lay their eggs after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitos-use-unbreakable-system-to-track-human-blood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood</a> meal, drought-prompted mosquitoes feed more frequently to stay hydrated. This, in turn, increases the likelihood of spreading diseases like dengue, Zika, or malaria. It is a fascinating yet worrisome survival technique.



According to the researchers, people have assumed drought reduces mosquito populations and the spread of diseases. However, their study finds otherwise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-of-the-fittest">Survival of the fittest</h2>



To investigate how mosquitoes survive during droughts, the team studied genetically-altered individuals in which certain senses, such as the detection of carbon dioxide, were impaired. Mosquitoes use the presence of carbon dioxide to detect their prey.



The researchers made an interesting observation. If mosquitoes couldn't sense carbon dioxide, they couldn't locate a host to bite and consequently succumbed to the dry spell.



Furthermore, UC doctoral student Souvik Chakraborty pointed out a remarkable survival trait in mosquito eggs.



"The Aedes aegypti mosquito is resistant to drying out. Its eggs can survive, sometimes for as long as a year," said Chakraborty, adding that the mosquito eggs hatch instantly when touched by rainwater.



The researchers also found that some mosquito species can tolerate cold temperatures. They engorge themselves on nectar before winter, store huge lipid deposits, and lay eggs as soon as it gets warm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-survivors-with-a-deadly-bite">Ancient survivors with a deadly bite</h2>



The oldest known mosquitoes date back to the early Cretaceous period, about 125 million years ago.



Over this impressively long period, the mosquito's survival mechanisms have evolved to ensure its continued existence in the food chain - where it is food for a range of creatures including fish, birds and bats.



However, their survival comes at a cost to humans. Each year, diseases spread by mosquitoes claim more than 700,000 lives.



According to Benoit, understanding the biology of mosquitoes is crucial in comprehending their survival and reproduction mechanics.



As we progress in understanding the resilience of these insects, we move closer to taming the significant health challenges they present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-the-mosquito-threat">Mitigating the mosquito threat</h2>



The University of Cincinnati research emphasizes the need to act on mosquito-borne diseases in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing climate</a>.



As mosquitoes adapt to harsher conditions and expand their territories due to milder winters, public health strategies must evolve in tandem. 



New methods of mosquito control, such as eco-friendly repellents or genetic interventions, could reduce their population and disease transmission rates. 



Moreover, advanced surveillance systems that predict mosquito outbreaks based on climate patterns can empower communities to take preventive measures before the diseases spread. 



With continued research, scientists hope to come up with innovative solutions to protect human health while gaining a better understanding of how these durable insects remain so resilient.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00019-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Mosquitoes bite more often during droughts to stay hydrated

When the rain pours after a long, harsh drought, there...

Alaska's northern pike, long thought to be confined to freshwater, are now crossing saltwater to invade new areas in Southcentral Alaska. 



Scientists previously believed that marine barriers, like the Cook Inlet, prevented their spread. However, new research shows that pike are using estuaries to move between watersheds.



This discovery is significant because it means northern pike can reinvade lakes and rivers where they were previously removed. It also challenges long-held beliefs about how these invasive fish spread, forcing scientists to rethink their strategies for controlling their expansion. 



The finding highlights the urgent need for new measures to protect native fish species, like salmon, from the growing threat of northern pike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-pike-are-traveling">Northern pike are traveling</h2>



Researchers from the University of Alaska Fairbanks (<a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UAF</a>) and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (<a href="https://www.adfg.alaska.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ADFG</a>) made this finding by analyzing otoliths - tiny ear stones from pike.



These structures record the chemical composition of the water where a fish has lived, offering a timeline of its movements.



“Strontium varies according to geology and location,” said Matthew Wooller, a UAF fisheries professor and the study’s lead author. “If pike are moving between watersheds, you can pick it up by analyzing strontium in the otoliths.”



By comparing otolith samples collected since 2019, the team found three pike with chemical signatures matching upper Cook Inlet. These fish were caught in freshwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-there-enough-prey-for-beluga-whales-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> connected to the inlet, including Campbell Lake, Westchester Lagoon, and Vogel Lake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formidable-invasive-species">Formidable invasive species</h2>



Northern pike naturally belong in Interior and Western Alaska, where they have lived for thousands of years. However, in the 1950s, people illegally introduced them to the Susitna River basin in Southcentral Alaska. 



Since then, these highly efficient predators have spread rapidly, establishing themselves in more than 150 lakes and rivers. Their presence has had a major impact on native fish populations, particularly salmon, which they hunt and eat.



For a long time, scientists believed that northern pike could only spread through connected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater systems</a> or by human introduction. 



Many thought Cook Inlet - a large body of saltwater separating different watersheds - would act as a natural barrier, preventing the fish from moving between river systems.



However, the latest study has proven otherwise, showing that pike are capable of traveling through estuaries, where freshwater and saltwater mix, to invade new areas. This challenges previous assumptions and makes controlling their spread even more difficult.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-pike-use-estuaries-to-spread">Northern pike use estuaries to spread</h2>



This new information raises concerns that waterways previously cleared of pike could be reinvaded through ocean-connected routes.



“The newfound realization that the fish are moving through estuaries is just one more reason that northern pike are a poster child of what makes a formidable invasive species,” said Peter Westley, a UAF fisheries associate professor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-management">Implications for management</h2>



Although the discovery is concerning, it provides scientists and resource managers with a clearer understanding of how northern pike spread. 



With this knowledge, they can develop more targeted strategies to monitor high-risk areas, block migration pathways, and prevent re-invasion. 



This focused approach will help protect native fish species and limit the long-term impact of this invasive predator on Alaska’s freshwater ecosystems.



“Confirming northern pike can use this pathway gave us the information we needed to now focus on preventing this spread and protecting valuable habitats,” said Parker Bradley, an ADFG invasive species biologist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Kristine Dunker, who coordinates ADFG’s invasive pike management program, emphasized the importance of directing resources to high-risk areas.



“This discovery has been a step forward, both scientifically with our understanding of northern pike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-seas-lakes-are-losing-their-ability-to-support-most-types-of-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecology</a> in North America and also for our invasive northern pike management here at home,” Dunker said.



The fact that pike can use estuaries to travel between watersheds means they are far more adaptable than scientists previously believed. 



This creates new challenges for resource managers, who must now account for saltwater pathways in their efforts to contain and remove pike from vulnerable freshwater systems. 



If left unchecked, these invasive fish could continue to spread and threaten <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harbor-porpoises-are-severely-threatened-by-fishing-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native species</a>, like salmon, making effective management strategies more urgent than ever.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0315320" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Northern pike are sneaking through the ocean to invade new lakes

Alaska's northern pike, long thought to be confined to freshwater,...

A study led by Tel Aviv University has revealed alarming insights into how microplastic particles are transformed within marine ecosystems, posing new challenges to the health of the ocean’s food web.&nbsp;



The research highlights how filter-feeding marine organisms alter the behavior and composition of microplastics, creating unforeseen risks for marine environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-microplastic-pollution">Investigating microplastic pollution</h2>



While previous research has documented the dangers of marine animals ingesting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-steadily-increasing-in-freshwater-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>, this study goes a step further, exploring how these particles change after passing through the digestive systems of filter feeders.&nbsp;



Conducted by PhD student Eden Harel, Professor Noa Shenkar, and Professor Ines Zucker from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>, the study focused on ascidians - marine animals that efficiently filter tiny particles from water.&nbsp;



The findings reveal how the interaction between filter feeders and microplastics contributes to the spread and transformation of these particles.



“We aimed to examine whether and how plastic changes after passing through the digestive system of a marine organism and how this process affects the presence of plastic and its availability to other organisms,” Shenkar explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-filter-feeders-transform-microplastics">How filter feeders transform microplastics</h2>



Using a controlled laboratory experiment, the researchers simulated seawater environments containing ascidians and introduced two types of microplastic particles.



These particles included polystyrene (PS), a common conventional plastic, and polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable bioplastic marketed as environmentally friendly. The team monitored the filtration, digestion, and excretion processes over 48 hours.



The results showed stark differences between the two types of plastic. Ascidians removed 90% of polystyrene particles from the water within two hours, but these particles were reintroduced to the water after 48 hours following digestion.



Polylactic acid particles, on the other hand, decreased significantly in concentration and remained at low levels. Larger PLA particles appeared to break down during digestion - likely returning to the water as smaller, undetectable nanoparticles.



These findings reveal that while some microplastics persist in their original form, others may fragment into smaller particles, potentially amplifying their environmental impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-disguised-as-organic-matter">Plastic disguised as organic matter</h2>



To understand the changes microplastics undergo during digestion, the team used Raman spectroscopy to analyze particles excreted by the ascidians.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed a surprising transformation: the plastic particles were no longer identifiable as plastics. Instead, they appeared to be organic matter due to a fecal coating acquired in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-humans-have-shockingly-different-digestive-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digestive system</a>.



“Our findings revealed that microplastic particles are excreted from the ascidian’s digestive system coated with a fecal layer, and it is likely that the marine environment also identifies these particles as this organic material,” Harel said.



This transformation increases the likelihood of these particles being ingested by other marine animals that feed on feces, further embedding microplastics into the food web.&nbsp;



The fecal coating also facilitates bacterial colonization and the adhesion of pollutants like heavy metals and residual organic compounds, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-could-cause-a-health-crisis-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotics</a>, making these particles even more hazardous.



According to Zucker, plastic particles undergo many transformations in the environment, from weathering to digestive processes, turning them into carriers of pollutants and diseases within the food web.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-microplastics-on-feces">Impacts of microplastics on feces</h2>



In addition to examining how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-jawless-fish-rhinopteraspis-dunensis-filter-feeders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">filter feeders</a> transform microplastics, the study explored how these particles affect the physical properties of feces - a vital nutrient source for many marine organisms. Feces containing microplastics displayed significant changes in behavior.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-sinking">Rapid sinking</h3>



Unlike normal feces, which sink slowly and provide sustenance to organisms along their descent, feces containing microplastics sank rapidly to the seafloor. This deprives marine organisms in the water column of a crucial food source.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-localized-accumulation">Localized accumulation</h3>



The faster sinking caused feces and microplastics to accumulate on the seafloor near the filter feeders, instead of dispersing evenly. 



This buildup can lead to increased carbon and nitrogen levels, fostering algal blooms that disrupt marine ecosystems.



“This accumulation can increase carbon and nitrogen levels on the seafloor and trigger algal blooms, representing another critical impact of microplastics on the balance of the marine food web,” Harel explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-microplastic-pollution-nbsp">Complexity of microplastic pollution&nbsp;</h2>



The study highlights the complexity of microplastic pollution, showing that the problem goes far beyond the particles themselves. 



Their transformation through biological processes and environmental exposure creates unexpected and far-reaching consequences.



“The most alarming conclusion is that the microplastic problem is far more complex than initially thought,” said the researchers.&nbsp;



“Plastic pollution in the marine environment has many unexpected dimensions, and its complexities continue to grow. Sometimes, neither we nor the environment can even recognize it as plastic.”



The findings emphasize the urgent need for better technologies and strategies to mitigate the spread and impact of microplastics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-microplastics-crisis">Addressing the microplastics crisis</h2>



As microplastic pollution continues to infiltrate marine ecosystems in unpredictable ways, this study reveals just how urgent the issue has become. 



With microplastics transforming into carriers of pollutants, altering the balance of marine food webs, and contributing to environmental degradation, addressing this crisis is essential.



“As time goes on, plastic continues to harm more and more marine ecosystems,” the researchers concluded. “It is our duty to develop new technologies to mitigate this dangerous phenomenon.”



This research provides a crucial step toward understanding the hidden dimensions of microplastic pollution and calls for global action to protect marine life and the delicate ecosystems that sustain it.



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These creatures eat, excrete, and transform microplastics into a much bigger threat

A study led by Tel Aviv University has revealed alarming...

Who knew that bathroom habits could reveal something profound about primate behavior? A recent study published in the journal Current Biology&nbsp;has uncovered an intriguing social phenomenon among chimpanzees - one that links social dynamics to urination.



The study has revealed a peculiar behavior among chimpanzees that researchers are now calling “contagious urination.”



The study, which was focused on 20 captive chimpanzees at the Kumamoto Sanctuary in Japan, revealed that when one chimp pees, others nearby are more likely to do the same.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contagious-urination-in-chimpanzees">Contagious urination in chimpanzees</h2>



“In humans, urinating together can be seen as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-feel-the-pressure-to-perform-with-an-audience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> phenomenon,” noted Ena Onishi of <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a>.



“An Italian proverb states, ‘Whoever doesn’t pee in company is either a thief or a spy’ (Chi non piscia in compagnia o è un ladro o è una spia), while in Japanese, the act of urinating with others is referred to as ‘Tsureshon’ (連れション)," she remarked.



“This behavior is represented in art across centuries and cultures and continues to appear in modern social contexts. Our research suggests that this phenomenon may have deep evolutionary roots. We found that chimpanzees, our closest relatives, tend to urinate in response to the urination of nearby individuals,” added Onishi.



This unexpected discovery highlights the social nature of what is usually considered a purely physiological behavior. 



The researchers became curious about the possibility of synchronized urination after noticing that the chimpanzees often relieved themselves at the same time. They wondered whether this could be comparable to contagious yawning, a well-documented phenomenon in both humans and animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synchronized-urination-in-chimpanzees">Synchronized urination in chimpanzees</h2>



To test their theory, researchers meticulously observed the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-pass-tool-use-skills-across-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> for over 600 hours, documenting 1,328 urination events. 



Their analysis confirmed that urination was significantly more synchronized than would be expected by chance. The likelihood of a chimpanzee urinating increased if they were in close physical proximity to another chimp who had just started peeing.



One of the most surprising findings was the role of social hierarchy in this behavior. Lower-ranking individuals were more likely to urinate after others, suggesting that peeing patterns are influenced by dominance structures within the group.



“We were surprised to discover that the contagion pattern was influenced by social rank,” Onishi explained.



“Since there were no prior studies on contagious urination in any species, we drew parallels to contagious yawning, another semi-voluntary physiological behavior. Based on this, we initially expected that any social influences might resemble those seen in yawning - such as stronger contagion between socially close pairs.



“However, our results showed no evidence of effects related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-cultures-are-more-complex-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> closeness. Instead, we observed a clear influence of social rank, with lower-ranking individuals being more likely to follow the urination of others.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-happen">Why does this happen?</h2>



The underlying reasons for contagious urination remain unclear, but researchers believe it could serve important social functions.



“This was an unexpected and fascinating result, as it opens up multiple possibilities for interpretation,” commented Shinya Yamamoto of Kyoto University.



“For instance, it could reflect hidden leadership in synchronizing group activities, the reinforcement of social bonds, or attention bias among lower-ranking individuals. These findings raise intriguing questions about the social functions of this behavior.”



If urination serves a social purpose in chimpanzees, it could play a role in maintaining group cohesion, facilitating coordination, or reinforcing social bonds - similar to how synchronized behaviors like grooming or yawning contribute to social structure in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-and-bees-are-capable-of-complex-social-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-other-animals-do-this">Do other animals do this?</h2>



This discovery opens the door for further research into contagious urination in species other than chimpanzees. Could similar patterns be found in other primates or even non-primate animals? 



Understanding the social dynamics behind this behavior could shed new light on the evolution of group coordination and hierarchy in social animals.



For now, the study highlights that even the most mundane aspects of life - like peeing - can have surprising social significance. As research continues, we may find that synchronized bathroom breaks are not just a human quirk but a deeply rooted evolutionary behavior.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01594-X?" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Urination, like sneezing, is 'contagious' in primates, including humans

Who knew that bathroom habits could reveal something profound about...

species in Santiidae