A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

We all know the human body takes some hits as we age - that's nothing new. But here's the kicker: the process isn’t as slow and steady as most of us thought.



A comprehensive study reveals some eye-opening insights about aging, focusing on exactly "when" things start to shift and how our bodies begin to break down, both inside and out. 



Aging isn't just about wrinkles and gray hairs - there’s a whole internal, built-in timeline, surprisingly similar for all humans, that we’re only beginning to understand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-human-body-start-to-age">When the human body start to age</h2>



The man at the helm of the study is Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at <a href="https://med.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford School of Medicine</a>. His team's research provides some fascinating insights into the specifics of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-tea-delays-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological aging process</a>.



Snyder and his team explored data from individuals ranging from 25 to 75 years old. 



Their research focused on the different molecules playing significant roles in aging, including those constituting our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-microbiome-trillions-of-bacteria-unique-like-your-fingerprint/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiomes</a> - the microcosm of bacteria, viruses, and fungi that exist within us.



Interestingly, they discovered that 81% of these molecules don’t follow a predictable, chronological pattern as one might expect. Instead, our bodies experience two periods of rapid change as we age. 



Sharp molecular and microbial shifts occur precisely at ages 44 and 60, a finding that may alter our understanding of how our bodies age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-microbiome-the-basics">Understanding the microbiome - the basics</h2>



Your microbiome is basically the bustling community of trillions of microbes - like bacteria, fungi, and viruses - that live in and on your body. 



Most of them live in your gut, especially in your large intestine, and they’re not just there for lack of anywhere better to be. 



They help you digest food, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-meat-less-protein-lacks-certain-nutrients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">absorb nutrients</a>, and even produce vitamins like B12 and K. Think of them as your behind-the-scenes health squad, working 24/7 to keep things running smoothly.



The microbiome also plays a huge role in your immune system, mood, and even how your brain functions. 



When the balance of good and bad microbes gets thrown off - like from antibiotics, stress, or a poor diet - it can mess with everything from your energy levels to how well you sleep. 



That’s why you hear so much buzz about probiotics, fermented foods, and fiber. They’re like fuel for your inner ecosystem, helping your microbiome thrive and keeping you feeling your best.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-correlation-between-aging-and-diseases">Correlation between aging and diseases</h2>



The molecules related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, a leading cause of death worldwide, showed substantial changes at both of these age intervals.



Furthermore, molecules connected to our immune function - our body’s vital defense mechanism against disease - changed significantly in individuals entering their early 60s.



The researchers were driven to investigate these trends after noticing a sharp rise in the risk of developing age-related conditions like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-why-some-brains-resist-alzheimers-disease-symptoms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's disease</a> and cardiovascular disease during mid-life, rather than a steady increase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-age-and-the-human-body">Studying age and the human body</h2>



The study's findings are based on data obtained from 108 participants, aiming to unlock the mysteries of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intermittent-fasting-could-be-the-key-to-better-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology of aging</a>. 



Over several years, participants' biological samples were analyzed every few months, allowing the scientists to track an astonishing 135,000 age-related changes in different molecules.



The team discovered thousands of molecules and microbes that undergo shifts, either increasing or decreasing in their abundance. 



A whopping 81 percent of the molecules studied experienced dramatic changes at specific ages. Notably, these transformations were most prevalent when participants were in their mid-40s and early 60s.



Dr. Xiaotao Shen, who was part of the Stanford Medicine team, pointed out significant changes in the number of molecules related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetics-behind-different-levels-alcohol-consumption-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol</a>, caffeine, and lipid metabolism; cardiovascular disease; and skin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecule-in-coffee-trigonelline-keeps-muscles-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle health</a> in individuals in their 40s.



For those in their 60s, changes were observed in carbohydrate and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-coffee-good-for-you-it-may-depend-on-your-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caffeine metabolism</a>, immune regulation, kidney function, cardiovascular disease, and skin and muscle health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-lifestyle-a-factor">Is lifestyle a factor?</h2>



Could our lifestyles be contributing to these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/losing-loved-ones-can-speed-up-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age-related changes</a>? Snyder suggests it’s a possibility worth considering. 



For instance, alcohol metabolism may falter due to the increased alcohol consumption that often occurs in people's mid-40s, a decade frequently marked by significant life stressors such as career changes, family obligations, or personal challenges. 



This shift in behavior can lead to a cascade of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/muscles-defy-aging-with-remarkable-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physiological changes</a>. 



The scientists plan to delve deeper into the various triggers for these periods of rapid change, exploring how factors like diet, exercise, and stress management interplay with aging.



Understanding these connections could pave the way for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harvard-scientists-fountain-of-youth-pill-sparks-controversy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthier aging strategies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-genetics-in-aging">Role of genetics in aging</h2>



Alongside our environment and lifestyle choices, our genes significantly impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-certain-odors-pheromones-speeds-up-aging-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how we age</a>. Everyone has a unique genetic blueprint that can make them more susceptible to certain health issues as they get older.



For example, some gene variations can affect how well our bodies break down substances, handle stress, and even heal from injuries. 



By understanding these genetic markers, we can gain valuable insights into why some people face age-related health problems sooner than others. 



This knowledge opens the door to personalized medicine, allowing us to create tailored interventions that could boost prevention efforts and enhance our quality of life as we age.



Given these findings, paying special attention to our health in our 40s and 60s becomes even more critical. 



Simple measures like increasing physical activity to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption, could go a long way in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monthly-aging-treatment-helps-you-live-long-die-healthy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">delaying the 'break down' process</a>.



"I’m a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we’re still healthy," Snyder aptly concludes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Human bodies begin breaking down at two very precise ages

We all know the human body takes some hits as...

This year’s winter buildup of Arctic sea ice is the weakest ever recorded, according to a team of scientists. 



On March 23, the ice peaked at about 5.53 million square miles (14.33 million square kilometers) - roughly 30,000 square miles less than the previous record low in 2017. In other words, a region the size of California is missing.



The alarming number marks the fifth time since 2015 that the winter sea ice maximum has been at or near all-time lows.&nbsp;



Data scientist Walt Meier from the <a href="https://nsidc.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Snow and Ice Data Center</a> emphasized how close Arctic conditions hover around freezing.



“Warming temperatures are what's causing the ice to decline,” said Meier. “Sea ice in particular is very sensitive... 31 degrees is ice skating and 33 degrees it's swimming.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-wake-up-call">A global wake-up call</h2>



Jennifer Francis, a scientist with the <a href="https://www.woodwellclimate.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woodwell Climate Research Center</a>, called the record low yet another ringing alarm bell. She sees <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-arctic-ice-changing-global-climate-warm-arctic-cold-eurasia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic sea ice</a> as a kind of early warning system, sensitive to changes that may not yet be evident elsewhere.&nbsp;



And it doesn’t just matter for polar bears or seals: the region’s warming is believed to be reshaping weather patterns worldwide by altering the jet stream. That, in turn, can bring more erratic or prolonged storms, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rain-and-snow-are-difficult-to-forecast-at-near-freezing-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rain</a>, and cold snaps to lower latitudes.



Scientists point out that the Arctic is warming around four times faster than the global average. This outsized heat gain in the far north diminishes the temperature difference that drives the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-accelerate-jet-stream-winds-and-airplane-turbulence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jet stream</a>, letting it meander and linger, sometimes with extreme consequences for regions well outside the Arctic Circle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-winter-ice-holds-unique-importance">Winter ice holds unique importance</h2>



The continuing reduction in winter ice raises concerns for marine mammals, including polar bears, seals, and certain fish, that depend on the cold season’s stable ice.&nbsp;



Meier noted that even though summer melting tends to get more attention, the seasonal maximum is also critical because it sets the stage for how the ice will fare in the hotter months. Thinner or more fragmented winter ice can melt away more rapidly when summer arrives.



As Julienne Stroeve, an ice scientist at the <a href="https://umanitoba.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manitoba</a>, put it, it’s not only that there’s less ice, but the ice that remains is thinner and more vulnerable. She cautioned, however, that a record-low winter doesn’t always portend a record-low summer.&nbsp;



Nevertheless, this historically weak buildup does place Arctic sea ice in a precarious position.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-declining-winter-ice">Decades of declining winter ice</h2>



The contrast with earlier observations is striking. In 1979 - the first year of satellite records - the winter peak measured around 6.42 million square miles. This means the Arctic has lost an area larger than Pakistan - some 900,000 square miles - over four decades of monitoring.



The center also points out that severe warming events in the past eight years have somewhat muted the 40-year cooling trend overall. But the repeated record lows for winter ice highlight the accelerating nature of Arctic change.&nbsp;



The region’s warming winter atmosphere does influence large-scale weather patterns, Stroeve said, pointing to how a warm polar region can shift the patterns that steer storms and cold snaps far below the Arctic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-on-wildlife-and-beyond">Effects on wildlife and beyond</h2>



Less winter sea ice spells bad news for iconic Arctic animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-polar-bear-day-keeping-moms-and-cubs-safe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polar bears</a> rely on thick ice to hunt seals; thin or absent ice forces them onto land with fewer hunting opportunities, leaving them weaker.&nbsp;



Seals need stable ice for breeding. Fish populations can also shift as ice recedes, sometimes altering Indigenous hunting traditions and local fisheries. Thus, the winter sea ice is crucial not just for summer ice survival but for whole ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-impacts-of-arctic-sea-ice-nbsp">Broader impacts of Arctic sea ice&nbsp;</h2>



The meltdown extends beyond the Arctic. Antarctica recently flirted with a record low in its own annual sea ice minimum - this while the Arctic hits an unprecedented winter low. As a result, Meier notes that global sea ice coverage in February dropped to a record minimum, signifying a broader, planet-wide shift.



Scientists and policymakers worldwide watch the poles because the polar regions have a profound influence on global oceans and atmospheric patterns.&nbsp;



Melting Arctic sea ice can accelerate additional warming through what is known as the albedo effect: as bright, reflective ice disappears, more sunlight gets absorbed by darker open water, fueling further temperature increases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warning-signs-of-changes-ahead">Warning signs of changes ahead</h2>



What happens in the Arctic might prove a harbinger of deeper shifts affecting global coastlines, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather extremes</a>, and ecological systems.&nbsp;



Amid these warning signs, researchers continue refining models to anticipate how the Arctic will evolve in the coming decades, hoping to give communities from Alaska to Europe a clearer sense of the changes ahead.&nbsp;



For now, the winter sea ice record serves as one more urgent reminder that a warming world is leaving fewer and fewer safe harbors for the frozen North.



Image Credit: AP Photo/Evgeniy Maloletka



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Arctic sea ice hits record winter low, raising global alarm

This year’s winter buildup of Arctic sea ice is the...

A team of astronomers has unveiled the most detailed images yet of the universe’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-planets-formed-in-the-harsh-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infancy</a>, capturing light that traveled for more than 13 billion years before reaching Earth.&nbsp;



These observations, made from a telescope high in the Chilean Andes, provide an unprecedented glimpse of the cosmos when it was just 380,000 years old - equivalent to baby pictures of a universe that has since grown into its middle age.



“We are seeing the first steps towards making the earliest stars and galaxies,” said Suzanne Staggs, director of the <a href="https://act.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atacama Cosmology Telescope</a> (ACT) and a professor of physics at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a>.&nbsp;



“And we’re not just seeing light and dark, we’re seeing the polarization of light in high resolution. That is a defining factor distinguishing ACT from Planck and other, earlier telescopes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-the-universe-with-greater-clarity">Viewing the universe with greater clarity</h2>



The newly released images capture the cosmic microwave background (CMB), the faint radiation left over from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>. 



While the Planck space telescope previously mapped this radiation more than a decade ago, ACT's observations provide significantly greater clarity.



“ACT has five times the resolution of Planck, and greater sensitivity,” said Sigurd Naess, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.uio.no/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oslo</a> and lead author of one of the papers detailing the findings. “This means the faint polarization signal is now directly visible.”



Polarization patterns in the CMB provide insight into the motion of hydrogen and helium gases in the early universe.&nbsp;



“Before, we got to see where things were, and now we also see how they're moving,” Staggs explained. “Like using tides to infer the presence of the moon, the movement tracked by the light’s polarization tells us how strong the pull of gravity was in different parts of space.”



The results reinforce the standard model of cosmology, while eliminating many competing alternatives.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-back-at-the-baby-universe">Looking back at the baby universe</h2>



For the first few hundred thousand years after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, the universe was filled with a dense, hot plasma that prevented light from traveling freely. 



Only after the universe cooled enough for atoms to form did photons begin streaming through space, creating the CMB - essentially, the first visible record of the cosmos.



The new images provide an exceptionally detailed view of minute variations in the density and motion of primordial gases. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/cosmic-microwave-background_CMB_illustration_Simons-Foundation_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/cosmic-microwave-background_CMB_illustration_Simons-Foundation_1s.webp" alt="The colored band in this illustration shows the time period in the history of the universe that the new ACT images capture. Credit: Lucy Reading Ikkanda, Simons Foundation" class="wp-image-1963830"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The colored band in this illustration shows the time period in the history of the universe that the new ACT images capture. Credit: Lucy Reading Ikkanda, Simons Foundation</figcaption></figure>



“There are other contemporary telescopes measuring the polarization with low noise, but none of them cover as much of the sky as ACT does,” Naess noted.



The variations seen in the CMB - regions of slightly denser or less dense hydrogen and helium - represent the early “seeds” of structure in the universe. 



Over millions and billions of years, gravity drew these denser regions together, forming the first stars and galaxies.



“By looking back to that time when things were much simpler, we can piece together the story of how our universe evolved to the rich and complex place we find ourselves in today,” said Jo Dunkley, a professor of physics and astrophysical sciences at Princeton University and leader of ACT’s data analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-mass-of-the-universe">Measuring the mass of the universe</h2>



The research also provided a new, precise measurement of the total mass of the observable universe.&nbsp;



“We’ve measured more precisely that the observable universe extends almost 50 billion light years in all directions from us, and contains as much mass as 1,900 ‘zetta-suns,’ or almost two trillion trillion Suns,” said Erminia Calabrese, a professor of astrophysics at Cardiff University and a lead author on one of the papers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composition-of-the-universe">Composition of the universe</h2>



The composition of the universe, as determined by ACT, aligns well with existing cosmological models.&nbsp;



The total mass of the universe is divided into several components. Normal matter, which includes planets, stars, and galaxies, has a mass equivalent to 100 zetta-suns. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dark matter</a>, a mysterious and invisible substance that shapes galaxy formation, accounts for 500 zetta-suns. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-could-explain-the-rapid-expansion-of-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dark energy</a>, the force responsible for the universe’s accelerated expansion, has a mass equivalent to 1,300 zetta-suns. Finally, neutrinos, tiny and nearly massless particles, contribute at most 4 zetta-suns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydrogen-and-helium">Hydrogen and helium</h2>



The findings also confirm that roughly 75% of normal matter in the universe is hydrogen, while the remaining 25% is helium.&nbsp;



“Almost all of the helium in the universe was produced in the first three minutes of cosmic time,” said Thibaut Louis, a researcher at the University Paris-Saclay and one of the study’s lead authors.&nbsp;



The heavier elements, including those that make up human bodies - carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and even trace amounts of gold - formed much later inside stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-age-of-the-universe">Refining the age of the universe</h2>



ACT’s measurements have also refined estimates of the universe’s age and its current rate of expansion. The early universe’s density fluctuations sent sound waves rippling through space, much like waves spreading across a pond.



“A younger universe would have had to expand more quickly to reach its current size, and the images we measure would appear to be reaching us from closer by,” explained Mark Devlin, a professor of astronomy at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a> and ACT’s deputy director.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/cosmic-microwave-background_CMB_high-def_Planck_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/cosmic-microwave-background_CMB_high-def_Planck_1s.webp" alt="Analysing the the cosmic microwave background in high definition has enabled researchers to confirm a simple model of the universe, ruling out many competing alternatives. Credit: ACT Collaboration; ESA/Planck Collaboration" class="wp-image-1963828"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Analyzing the the cosmic microwave background in high definition has enabled researchers to confirm a simple model of the universe, ruling out many competing alternatives. Click to enlarge. Credit: ACT Collaboration; ESA/Planck Collaboration</figcaption></figure>



“The apparent extent of ripples in the images would be larger in that case, in the same way that a ruler held closer to your face appears larger than one held at arm’s length.”



Using this method, the research confirms that the universe is 13.8 billion years old, with an uncertainty of just 0.1 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-hubble-constant-debate">Addressing the Hubble constant debate</h2>



One of the major ongoing questions in cosmology is the discrepancy in measurements of the Hubble constant, which describes the rate at which the universe is expanding today.&nbsp;



Observations from the CMB have consistently suggested an expansion rate of 67 to 68 km/s per Megaparsec, while measurements based on the movement of nearby galaxies suggest a higher value of 73 to 74 km/s/Mpc.



With its new data, the ACT team has determined a Hubble constant consistent with previous CMB-based estimates.&nbsp;



“We took this entirely new measurement of the sky, giving us an independent check of the cosmological model, and our results show that it holds up,” said Adriaan Duivenvoorden, a research fellow at the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics and lead author on one of the papers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extraordinarily-precise-model">Extraordinarily precise model</h2>



The researchers also investigated alternative cosmological models that might explain the discrepancy.&nbsp;



“We wanted to see if we could find a cosmological model that matched our data and also predicted a faster expansion rate,” said Colin Hill, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a>. 



The team explored modifications to dark matter, changes to neutrino behavior, and even a period of early accelerated expansion.



“We have used the CMB as a detector for new particles or fields in the early universe, exploring previously uncharted terrain,” Hill said. “The ACT data show no evidence of such new signals. With our new results, the standard model of cosmology has passed an extraordinarily precise test.”



“It was slightly surprising to us that we didn't find even partial evidence to support the higher value. There were a few areas where we thought we might see evidence for explanations of the tension, and they just weren’t there in the data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-deeper-into-the-baby-universe">Peering deeper into the baby universe </h2>



ACT’s observations required a five-year exposure using advanced detectors designed to measure millimeter-wavelength light.



Though ACT concluded its observations in 2022, scientists are now preparing for the next-generation Simons Observatory, which will be even more powerful and operate from the same location in Chile.&nbsp;



By peering deeper into the universe’s infancy, ACT has provided critical insights into the cosmos' evolution, helping scientists refine our understanding of its past, present, and future.



The research was presented at the <a href="https://www.aps.org/events/2025/joint-meeting" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Physical Society annual conference</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists capture 'baby pictures' of the very early universe

A team of astronomers has unveiled the most detailed images...

For over 165 years, scientists have puzzled over a strange fossil called&nbsp;Prototaxites. Even its appearance was unusual. It stood up to 8 meters tall, and resembled a towering tree with no leaves.



These curious lifeforms appeared during the late Silurian period, around 400 million years ago. Found among early ferns and horsetails, they lacked branches and looked nothing like modern trees.



In 1859, Canadian geologist John William Dawson thought these fossils were decaying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/palm-tree-fossils-found-in-the-arctic-rewrite-earths-climate-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> trunks. He named them "first conifer," a name that stuck even as confusion deepened. 



The mystery has only grown as modern science has applied new tools, yet the answers remained elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-was-prototaxites-a-fungus">Was Prototaxites a fungus?</h2>



For decades, the idea that Prototaxites was a fungus gained support. 



In 2001, paleontologist Francis Hueber proposed it was a giant terrestrial fungus, based on anatomical features like the presence of tubular structures. 



Later, in 2017, researchers identified what they believed were fruiting bodies in the fossil, linking it to Ascomycota, a modern fungal group.



But there was a problem - these supposed reproductive parts had never been shown to connect with the vegetative body. That raised concerns. 



Could these fragments have belonged to an entirely different organism? Without direct evidence, the fungal identity of Prototaxites remained guesswork.



Despite ongoing debate, the fungus theory persisted. That is, until a team led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a> took a closer look. 



They re-examined Prototaxites taiti, a species preserved in Scotland’s Rhynie chert, which is one of the best <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-oasis-provided-refuge-for-plants-during-earths-worst-extinction-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> deposits from the early Devonian period. Their findings call everything we thought we knew into question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-largest-organism-of-the-devonian-landscape">Largest organism of the Devonian landscape</h2>



The team focused on an exceptionally well-preserved fossil labeled NSC.36. This fossil showed a cross-section of P. taiti and revealed medullary spots - dark, circular features - spread throughout its body.



The sample of rock that was used for analysis was roughly cylindrical, 5.6 cm (2.2 inches) wide and nearly 7 cm (2.8 inches) long, but incomplete. This suggests the original organism was much larger, likely a towering figure in its environment.



At the microscopic level, the researchers discovered three distinct types of tubes running lengthwise through the fossil. 



Type 1 tubes were thin, septate, and branched. Type 2 tubes were wider, with smooth double walls and no internal cross-walls. Type 3 tubes were thickest, and featured ring-like thickenings that do not match any known fungal type. These structures appeared interwoven, forming a dense, interconnected network inside the fossil.



Interestingly, these anatomical features resembled some aspects of fungi - but not enough to confirm a match. The third tube type, with its annular thickenings, doesn’t appear in any known fungal group, which raised immediate doubts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-medullary-spots-with-no-equal">Strange medullary spots with no equal</h2>



Using confocal laser scanning microscopy and 3D imaging, the team examined the medullary spots in detail. These regions contained all three tube types and added even finer ones, some just 1 micron in diameter. The branching patterns inside were complex and lacked the clear order seen in today's fungal systems.



In modern fungi, branching follows a hierarchy - generative hyphae give rise to other types in a predictable pattern. But in P. taiti, the branching had no clear direction or sequence. Tubes connected in all directions, forming a chaotic mesh.



“There are no structures analogous to medullary spots in extant fungi,” the researchers noted.



They also rejected the idea that these spots resembled fruiting bodies of ascomycetes. Even though some scientists once thought the spots hinted at spore production, no organic connection exists between these spots and any supposed reproductive structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prototaxites-lacked-fungal-or-plant-traits">Prototaxites lacked fungal or plant traits</h2>



Next, the team analyzed the fossil’s molecular makeup using FTIR spectroscopy. 



They compared P. taiti with fungi, plants, animals, and bacteria from the same deposit. All these fossils had undergone the same fossilization process, which allowed for reliable side-by-side comparison.



The results were striking. The fossil lacked any trace of chitin or chitosan, which are essential compounds found in fungal cell walls. Even perylene - a chemical marker of ascomycete fungi - was absent in P. taiti, though present in the surrounding substratum.



Instead, P. taiti’s cells contained aromatic and phenolic compounds resembling fossilized lignin. Lignin is found in land plants, but this version differed chemically. It was something entirely distinct - resembling lignin, yet not plant-like.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-confirms-its-isolation">Machine learning confirms its isolation</h2>



To test the molecular data further, the team used machine learning models. These models were trained to distinguish organisms based on their molecular fingerprints. 



The results were clear. The models identified P. taiti as something different from fungi, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, bacteria, or plants - with over 90% accuracy.



"We conclude that the morphology and molecular fingerprint of P. taiti is clearly distinct from that of the fungi and other organisms preserved alongside it in the [Devonian deposit], and we suggest that it is best considered a member of a previously undescribed, entirely extinct group of eukaryotes," the authors note.



With no known taxonomic group sharing its combination of anatomy, chemistry, and lifestyle, Prototaxites stands apart. It was a eukaryote - meaning it had complex cells with nuclei - but that’s where the similarities end.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-a-plant-fungus-or-animal">Not a plant, fungus, or animal</h2>



The researchers tested every possible affiliation. Could it be an alga? No, P. taiti lacked the necessary photosynthetic structures and was chemically dissimilar. Could it be an early land plant? Again, the absence of vascular tissues and other plant traits ruled that out.



How about lichen? Not possible without a photobiont. Oomycetes? The molecular composition didn’t match. Even animals were ruled out. Metazoans do not have tube-like structures with cell walls, and P. taiti clearly did.



In the end, the team’s classification table showed the same result for every group: rejected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prototaxites-evolution-s-lost-experiment">Prototaxites: Evolution’s lost experiment</h2>



Prototaxites might be the last known member of its kind. It formed massive vertical structures from underground networks. It likely absorbed nutrients from decaying matter, much like modern saprotrophs. Yet it was not a fungus, not a plant, and not an animal.



"Based on this investigation we are unable to assign Prototaxites to any extant lineage, reinforcing its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">uniqueness</a>," the authors concluded.



And that may be all we ever know. With no modern descendants and no living relatives, Prototaxites exists only as a fossil - part of a long-vanished branch of life. It reminds us that evolution is full of strange ideas, some of which thrived briefly before disappearing forever.



The ancient world was full of life unlike anything we see today. Prototaxites was one of its boldest experiments - and perhaps, one of its most fascinating failures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.03.14.643340v1.full.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a>.



Image Credit: CC BY-SA 4.0



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Giant, mysterious organisms discovered are impossible to categorize

For over 165 years, scientists have puzzled over a strange...

In a breakthrough study, researchers have successfully revived dormant algae that sank to the bottom of the Baltic Sea nearly 7,000 years ago.&nbsp;



The tiny diatom cells, buried in sediment without light or oxygen for millennia, have regained full biological activity, offering scientists a rare opportunity to study life from the distant past in real time.



The study, led by the <a href="https://www.io-warnemuende.de/en_index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde</a> (IOW), forms part of the <a href="https://phytoark.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PHYTOARK</a> project, which aims to understand how the Baltic Sea’s ecology has changed over time and what that means for its future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-time-capsule-at-the-bottom-of-the-sea">A time capsule at the bottom of the sea</h2>



Many organisms, from bacteria to mammals, can enter a dormant state to survive harsh conditions. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>, such as diatoms, dormancy involves forming resistant resting stages that sink and become embedded in underwater sediment. 



These microscopic plants can remain inactive for long periods, preserved in the cold, dark, and oxygen-free conditions of the sea floor.



“Such deposits are like a time capsule containing valuable information about past ecosystems and the inhabiting biological communities, their population development and genetic changes,” said Sarah Bolius, a phytoplankton expert at IOW and lead author of the study.&nbsp;



By recovering sediment cores from the Eastern Gotland Deep, the research team isolated dormant phytoplankton resting stages from layers representing nearly every major climate phase in the Baltic Sea's history.&nbsp;



Using controlled lab conditions with light and nutrients, they successfully “woke up” <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-that-thrives-on-ice-plays-an-unexpected-role-in-glacier-melting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> from nine different layers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revived-algae-are-thriving">Revived algae are thriving</h2>



The star of the study was Skeletonema marinoi, a common diatom in the Baltic Sea that thrives during spring algal blooms. This species was the only one that revived from every layer tested, including one estimated to be 6,871 years old.



What surprised the researchers was not only that these algae survived, but that they were biologically thriving. “They grow, divide and photosynthesize like their modern descendants,” Bolius noted.&nbsp;



Even the ancient samples showed robust growth rates - averaging 0.31 cell divisions per day - and strong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthetic</a> activity, with oxygen production levels comparable to today’s S. marinoi strains.



Genetic testing further revealed that the revived algae formed distinct genetic groups based on the age of the sediment they came from.&nbsp;



This proved not only that the samples had remained isolated from one another, but also that S. marinoi populations in the Baltic Sea had undergone genetic changes over millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resurrection-ecology-in-action">Resurrection ecology in action</h2>



The approach used in this study falls under the field of “resurrection ecology”- a novel method that allows scientists to revive ancient organisms and study how they have changed over time.&nbsp;



Until now, similar successes had only been recorded with a few plant seeds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-invasive-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-mediterranean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crustaceans</a>. The revived S. marinoi strains are among the oldest living organisms ever reactivated from aquatic sediments.



“The fact that we were actually able to successfully reactivate such old algae from dormancy is an important first step in the further development of the 'Resurrection Ecology' tool in the Baltic Sea,” Bolius explained.&nbsp;



“This means that it is now possible to conduct 'time-jump experiments' into various stages of Baltic Sea development in the lab.”



Such experiments could help scientists reconstruct past environmental conditions and track long-term evolutionary responses to changes in salinity, temperature, and oxygen levels.&nbsp;



By linking sediment proxy data - indirect evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-volcanic-past-reveals-the-shocking-reality-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past climates</a> - with living organisms from those same layers, researchers hope to gain a clearer picture of how species adapt to changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revived-algae-and-climate-research">Revived algae and climate research</h2>



At a time when climate change is transforming marine ecosystems, this research offers a rare window into how species may have responded to previous warming and cooling events.&nbsp;



The ability to study ancient cells alive in the lab, rather than relying on fossils or degraded DNA, opens up entirely new avenues for evolutionary biology and paleoecology.



This study shows that it is possible to directly trace genetic changes over many millennia - by analyzing living cells instead of just fossils or DNA traces.&nbsp;



Future work will include exposing the revived algae to various environmental conditions to understand how genetic and physiological traits have helped them survive and evolve.



The remarkable resilience of these tiny diatoms underscores not only the adaptability of life but also the value of sediment cores as archives of biological history.&nbsp;



As Bolius and her colleagues continue to unlock these secrets, their work is poised to shed new light on the intersection of climate, evolution, and the unseen resilience of life beneath the sea.



Image Credit: S. Bolius, IOW



The study is published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ismejo/wrae252" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISME Journal</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Algae revived after 7,000 years beneath the Baltic Sea 

In a breakthrough study, researchers have successfully revived dormant algae...

For decades, tool use was seen as the hallmark of human evolution. Later, researchers began to notice this skill in chimpanzees, crows, and even sea otters. But one group remained conspicuously absent from this conversation - fish.



They were thought to be too simple, too instinct-driven, and too limited in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive ability</a>. That belief no longer holds.



A new study has revealed something remarkable: several wrasse species have been observed using hard surfaces to break open prey. These behaviors don’t just challenge assumptions - they expand the very definition of what it means to be intelligent.



Dr. Juliette Tariel-Adam, the study’s lead author from Macquarie University, has spent years watching these small but clever reef fish. Her team tracked and recorded behaviors that were previously dismissed or unnoticed.



"Tool use is typically associated with humans, but this behavior is proof that fish are far cleverer than they get credit for," said Dr. Tariel-Adam.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-GFBcoAByg
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Tool use by a yellowhead wrasse in South Caicos Island. Credit: Macquarie University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-use-tools-to-smash-prey">Fish use tools to smash prey</h2>



Wrasses are colorful reef fish found in warm oceans across the world. In this study, several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-evolve-rapidly-by-switching-between-simple-and-complex-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> were observed picking up crabs, mollusks, and brittle stars in their mouths and striking them against rocks or coral heads. 



This behavior is known as “anvil use,” a form of tool use that allows the fish to access prey they otherwise couldn’t consume.



The wrasses showed clear intentionality. They didn’t just drop their prey. They positioned it, swung their bodies with force, and adjusted their angles between strikes. They seemed to know what they were doing. This wasn’t random behavior - it was targeted, practiced, and often successful.



The study documented 16 new observations across five species within the New World Halichoeres group. Three of those species had never been seen using tools before. Two others were suspected to use tools, but now video evidence confirms this.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5df1YQI4XxM
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Tool use by a slippery dick fish in South Caicos Island. Credit: Macquarie University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-use-across-oceans">Tool use across oceans</h2>



These discoveries were made possible by a community <a href="https://fishtooluse.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">science initiative</a> called Fish Tool Use. 



Through social media outreach, emails, and public engagement, the research team gathered videos and reports from divers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> enthusiasts. The observations came from Brazil, Colombia, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and beyond.



All five species observed belong to a closely related group in the Labridae family, the second most species-rich group of marine fish. The team believes this behavior may have evolved in a common ancestor and persisted across related species.



Alternatively, anvil use may have emerged multiple times independently - a question that future research may help to answer.



"With these newly discovered tool-using species, it becomes clear that many species of wrasses use tools that we previously didn't know about," said Dr. Tariel-Adam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexibility-of-fish-tool-use">Flexibility of fish tool use</h2>



One surprise in the study was the absence of laterality. In primates and crows, tool use often involves a dominant hand or claw. Wrasses, however, appeared to use both sides of their bodies equally. In video analyses, they struck with either side depending on their position in the water.



This flexibility might offer an advantage. While lateralized tool use can be efficient, it also limits an animal’s options when environment or position changes. Wrasses, on the other hand, can exploit anvils in any orientation, giving them a broader range of usable surfaces.



In addition, wrasses used many different types of anvils. Rocks, coral heads, rubble, even a live conch shell - all served the same purpose. They did not show strict preferences. They adapted to what was around them.



This suggests not only cognitive flexibility but a level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-deep-sea-fish-survive-the-crushing-depths-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental awareness</a> as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-competition-on-the-reef">Food and competition on the reef</h2>



Using tools to break open hard prey is not without its costs. The action requires energy, especially when it involves several powerful strikes. 



Videos show the fish sometimes lose their grip or need to readjust by spitting out and re-securing their prey. Despite this, the behavior is consistently successful.



Sometimes, other fish circle the scene. In 12 of 19 observations, nearby fish either attempted to steal food or got chased away. In one case, a juvenile wrasse stole a brittle star from an adult just after it had broken off a piece. Tool use brings not only food, but attention - and not always the good kind.



Still, the benefits seem to outweigh the risks. Access to shelled prey means more food options and better nutrition. 



For smaller wrasses, who might not have the jaw strength to crack shells without help, this strategy opens a new dietary path. It allows them to eat prey that would otherwise be unavailable to them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-puzzle-of-tool-use">Evolutionary puzzle of tool use</h2>



The study’s results open a new chapter in animal cognition. Fish now join a growing list of tool-using animals that includes primates, parrots, octopuses, wasps, and crabs. But why have only some species developed this behavior?



Tool use is likely influenced by ecological pressures - scarce food, competition, or environmental structure. In the case of wrasses, their diverse habitats, sharp learning skills, and wide range of prey may all play a role. Yet, the exact reasons remain unclear.



Professor Culum Brown, senior author of the study and head of Macquarie University’s Fish Lab, believes this behavior sheds light on the broader story of intelligence in the animal world. 



"They demonstrate flexible and dexterous tool use, expanding our understanding of tool use evolution in the animal kingdom," noted Professor Brown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The researchers want to see more. Most documented tool use events are still opportunistic. Controlled studies - where prey is offered in experimental settings - could bring new insights.



The team hopes to receive more submissions from the public, helping them fill the gaps in geography and species data.



Those interested can contribute through Fish Tool Use, where divers and marine observers are encouraged to share footage or descriptions of wrasse behavior. With more data, scientists can explore whether anvil use is common across the family or limited to just a few clever species.



For now, wrasses have made one thing clear: we’ve underestimated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-vessels-most-industrial-fishing-activity-is-not-publicly-tracked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>. Not only are they smart, but they’re capable of innovation, planning, and creative problem-solving. 



Tool use may no longer be the preserve of a few gifted animals. It may be far more widespread - if we only care to look.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-025-02633-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral Reefs</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some fish use tools to crack open prey

For decades, tool use was seen as the hallmark of...

A new study shows that the forces creating mountain ranges can also drive species diversity, illuminating how Earth’s geological processes shape the evolution of life. 



The work marks a breakthrough in understanding why mountainous areas are hotbeds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-diversity-shaped-by-climate-change-for-21000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species diversity</a> and how tectonic activities may have guided the evolutionary paths of certain groups of organisms over millions of years. The study was co-authored by researchers at <a href="https://www.iu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indiana University</a> (IU).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-mountains-and-new-species">Rising mountains and new species</h2>



Long recognized as biological treasure troves, mountain regions often hold surprising numbers of plant and animal species. Yet, it has been difficult to tease out whether high biodiversity naturally accompanies the rugged terrain or if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a>’ geological formation directly promotes new evolutionary processes.



According to this new study, the mere act of mountains rising can create conditions that give birth to new species. Shifting landscapes open up new habitats and geographically isolate populations, encouraging the emergence of new, distinct species - a process known as allopatric speciation.&nbsp;



Among smaller animals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modern-day-plague-rodents-fleas-and-their-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rodents</a>, the team found a strong correlation between how quickly and how high mountains lift up and the degree of species diversification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-with-virtual-worlds">A closer look with virtual worlds</h2>



The research team, which includes Eyal Marder of the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> (a former IU postdoctoral fellow) and Brian Yanites, an associate professor of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at IU, used advanced computer models to simulate how species might evolve in response to rising terrain over very long timescales.



They based their work on “Adascape,” a specialized model that allows for virtual representations of the Earth’s surface and how it changes. Then, they coupled it with programs that populate these landscapes with model species and track how they adapt and migrate as mountains slowly take shape.&nbsp;



The result was a synthetic view of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> might proceed in response to upheavals that can last tens of millions of years.



One of the more compelling revelations from these simulations is that certain mountainous areas can act like “cradles” of new biodiversity. A species of rodent-like mammals in the model, for instance, split into multiple distinct species as soon as the mountains rose and created different environmental niches.&nbsp;



Over time, some of these new species even migrated into adjacent lowlands, matching patterns paleontologists often see in fossil deposits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-to-the-fossil-record">Connecting to the fossil record</h2>



Past geologic intervals have left behind a record of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> booms that, until now, were not well explained. The authors propose that at least some of these booms may correlate with upticks in tectonic activity.&nbsp;



For example, the researchers suggest that a known spike in fossil diversity about 15 million years ago in the western United States might be linked to local mountain building in the Basin and Range region, which shaped both animal evolution and the formation of sedimentary basins.



“This study gives us new insights into how Earth’s physical processes influence the diversity of life,” Marder said. “It also highlights how ongoing geological changes could continue to impact biodiversity in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-role-of-mountains">The hidden role of mountains</h2>



Previous theories had proposed that mountains simply serve as a stage on which evolution plays out. In contrast, this research indicates that landscapes in flux can actively spark or redirect the evolutionary process.&nbsp;



“We often think of landscapes as passive backdrops for evolution, but this study shows that they are active participants in shaping biodiversity,” Yanites said.



Mountain-building pushes populations up or isolates them in valleys, subjecting organisms to different climates, food sources, and environmental pressures.&nbsp;



Over time, these constraints spawn new species. The link between tectonics and evolution grows even stronger when one considers that mountain ridges can capture moisture and alter local climates, further driving organisms to adapt or relocate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Beyond helping explain the past, these findings may also help conservationists decide how and where to protect species. Mountains remain sensitive to climate change; as conditions shift, those living at high elevations may have nowhere left to migrate.&nbsp;



Understanding which areas are most critical for speciation could focus conservation efforts on safeguarding genetic diversity hotspots.



By revealing how rising mountains foster new species, this study may also guide reevaluation of existing protected zones. If certain ridge systems are particularly crucial for generating biodiversity, setting them aside or expanding current reserves might become a priority.&nbsp;



This knowledge could likewise apply to other dynamic environments - like tectonically active rifts or volcanic zones - which might also harbor outsized roles in biological innovation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-uplift-and-species-evolution">Mountain uplift and species evolution</h2>



Moving forward, the authors aim to extend their computer modeling to different regions and sets of organisms, matching simulated results more closely with fossil records and genetic data. This interdisciplinary approach can refine projections about how topography influences evolution today and in the future.



According to the scientists, it’s not just about where species are now but about how a place changed over time, and how that might have sparked speciation or extinctions. This link between landscapes and life is something we’re just beginning to fully appreciate.



By establishing a clear, data-driven link between tectonic uplift and the evolution of new species, the study offers a novel perspective on Earth’s living tapestry - and on the power of the planet’s deep geological machinery to shape life across the ages.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp7290" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How rising mountains give birth to new species

A new study shows that the forces creating mountain ranges...

Black holes are among the most powerful and mysterious objects in the universe. Their gravitational pull is so strong that even light cannot escape them. 



For decades, astronomers have tried to understand how supermassive black holes formed and grew during the early years of the universe. But the task has remained difficult. Thick clouds of dust and gas often block these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-massive-early-universe-black-hole-stuns-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regions from view</a>.



A breakthrough study has now provided a rare glimpse into one such hidden region. An international team of scientists, including researchers from The Australian National University (<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANU</a>), detected radio signals from hot gas surrounding a supermassive black hole.



This black hole existed 12.9 billion years ago - less than a billion years after the Big Bang. The signals offer the closest look yet at hot molecular gas near a black hole from that ancient time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-black-hole-concealed-by-dust">Massive black hole concealed by dust</h2>



The black hole examined by the team is no small cosmic object. It is more than a billion times the mass of our Sun. Despite its size and energy, the black hole has remained largely hidden - enshrouded in dust that blocks conventional observation.



The team overcame this by using ultra-high-resolution observations from the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (<a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a>), a powerful telescope in Chile. ALMA detects millimeter-wavelength radio signals, which can pierce through dust that normally obscures such targets.



Professor Ken-ichi Tadaki from <a href="https://www.hgu.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokkai-Gakuen University</a> led the international team. The new method allowed the experts to analyze the black hole’s immediate surroundings in unprecedented detail.



The result is a significant step forward in understanding black hole <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a> during the universe’s early stages. The discovery points to the possibility that many more such black holes could remain hidden in similar dusty regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-studying-distant-quasars">Challenges in studying distant quasars</h2>



Supermassive black holes generate tremendous energy as they consume matter. This process creates quasars - some of the brightest objects in the universe. Yet, even their brilliance has limits. The innermost areas around these quasars are incredibly hard to observe.



Dust and gas scatter and absorb light from these regions, preventing direct study. Until now, researchers had few tools to penetrate that thick cosmic fog.



The new approach changes that. The team’s focus on radio waves allowed them to study gas just a few hundred light-years out from the black hole. This level of precision opens a window into how these giants evolve and interact with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-active-black-holes-discovered-where-it-was-believed-they-couldnt-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>.



By examining molecular gas emissions in detail, the scientists revealed the forces that shape the region around the black hole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shock-waves-and-intense-radiation">Shock waves and intense radiation</h2>



The findings also shed light on how energy from the black hole alters nearby gas. Study co-author Dr. Takafumi Tsukui from ANU explained the heating mechanisms they observed.



"We discovered that intense X-ray radiation emitted by the material spiraling around the black hole, along with strong winds and shock waves, heat the gas to energy states far higher than what's typically seen in normal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-radiation-may-actually-be-a-catalyst-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galactic environments</a>, where the main source of energy comes from the ultraviolet radiation from stars," Dr. Tsukui said.



This discovery reveals an environment much more extreme than in typical star-forming galaxies. 



The gas close to the black hole behaves differently, as it is pushed to higher energy levels by the black hole's violent forces. Understanding these changes helps scientists trace the growth of black holes over cosmic time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approach-to-finding-black-holes">New approach to finding black holes</h2>



Black holes like this one may not be rare. Instead, many could simply be undetected because they are concealed by dust from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-supermassive-black-holes-are-hidden-by-gas-and-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early universe</a>. This dust absorbs visible and ultraviolet light, making it hard for traditional telescopes to detect what lies beneath - especially a black hole.



But radio waves, like those detected by ALMA, can travel through these barriers without losing strength.



"The findings help us understand how black holes grow from tiny seeds in the early universe to supermassive black holes, and the challenges posed by dust and gas that can obscure them," said Dr. Tsukui.



This insight changes how astronomers may search for ancient black holes going forward. Instead of relying solely on visible light, they may turn more often to radio emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-revealed-in-molecular-gas">Clues revealed in molecular gas</h2>



ALMA’s sensitivity to millimeter wavelengths makes it especially powerful for this type of work. Unlike other signals, radio waves are less affected by dust. This allows scientists to examine regions long hidden from view.



By using this method, researchers can map the energetic conditions surrounding black holes. They can also track how molecular gas behaves under intense radiation and pressure, which provides clues about how black holes shape the galaxies around them.



The team’s key breakthrough involved targeting emissions from carbon monoxide molecules. These molecules, especially those in higher energy states, reveal the temperature and density of surrounding gas. By studying this gas, scientists can understand the black hole’s effect on its surroundings.



This strategy could now be applied to other distant galaxies. It paves the way for a larger survey of ancient black holes that are hidden by dust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-many-black-holes-are-hidden">How many black holes are hidden?</h2>



The research offers more than just one discovery. It hints at a vast, unseen population of supermassive black holes in the early universe. 



By applying similar techniques across the sky, astronomers can begin to find and study them. Each new observation will bring us closer to understanding how the first galaxies and black holes emerged.



This work not only provides a sharper image of the distant past - it gives us the tools to keep looking further. As radio astronomy advances, so too does our vision of the ancient cosmos. The universe may still hide many secrets, but now we have a way to peer through the dust.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-025-02505-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Monster in the shadows: Giant black hole emerges from cosmic dust

Black holes are among the most powerful and mysterious objects...

A tiny fossil with an unusually well-preserved interior is rewriting what we know about ancient life. Discovered 25 years ago and affectionately named "Sue," the fossil is unlike most others from its time.



Instead of showing off a tough outer shell like other arthropods, this creature gives a rare peek inside - offering a glimpse at muscles, tendons, and guts from the Ordovician period, 444 million years ago.



The fossil, now officially named Keurbos susanae, was found in South Africa's Soom Shale, a rock layer north of Cape Town that was formed after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mass-extinction-event-was-caused-by-ocean-deoxygenation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">massive global extinction event</a>. 



During that time, a freezing climate wiped out about 85% of Earth’s species. Somehow, a few marine creatures survived in this basin, and Sue was among them.



This unusual fossil was recently studied by scientists from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keurbos-susanae-fossil-is-all-guts">Keurbos susanae fossil is all guts</h2>



“Sue is an inside-out, legless, headless wonder,” said Professor Sarah Gabbott from the University of Leicester’s School of Geography, Geology and the Environment. 



“Remarkably, her insides are a mineralized time-capsule: muscles, sinews, tendons and even guts all preserved in unimaginable detail. And yet her durable carapace, legs and head are missing - no douubt lost to decay over 440 million years ago."



Sue stands out because her internal features are fossilized, rather than her external shell. This is rare. 



Most fossilized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-fossil-sheds-light-on-arthropod-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a> - members of a group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-closer-to-unlocking-the-secrets-of-spider-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a>, lobsters, and millipedes - preserve hard body parts like exoskeletons. In Sue’s case, the soft tissues were sealed away by unique conditions on the ancient sea floor.



The lack of oxygen, combined with toxic hydrogen sulfide in the sediments, likely helped create an environment where her soft tissues were not decomposed, but could remain intact.



Scientists believe a strange chemical process was involved in preserving her this way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-a-mystery-in-the-family-tree">Still a mystery in the family tree</h2>



While researchers are confident Sue was a primitive marine arthropod, exactly where she fits into the evolutionary story is still unclear.



“We are now sure she was a primitive marine arthropod but her precise evolutionary relationships remain frustratingly elusive,” Professor Gabbott explained.



Her unique preservation makes it hard to match her with other known species from the time. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="University of Leicester" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Sue-fossil_Keurbos-susanae_Credit-ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="The fossil Keurbos susanae - or Sue - in the rock. Discovered by Professor Sarah Gabbott. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1963799"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The fossil Keurbos susanae - or Sue - in the rock. Discovered by Professor Sarah Gabbott. Click to enlarge. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



Most comparable fossils only show hard outer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-shells-can-help-predict-the-impacts-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shells</a> or limbs, offering little internal detail for comparison. With no modern equivalent and no other specimens like her, Sue remains a puzzle. 



No other fossils with the same level of detail have turned up in over two decades of searching. And the original quarry where Sue was found - a small roadside site - has all but vanished.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personal-tribute-25-years-in-the-making">Personal tribute, 25 years in the making</h2>



“This has been an ultramarathon of a research effort,” said Professor Gabbott. “In a large part, because this fossil is just so beautifully preserved, there's so much anatomy there that needs interpreting."



She spent years studying every layer of the fossil, hoping to one day find another with more complete features like a head or legs. But as time passed, she realized this might be a once-in-a-lifetime find.



“I'd always hoped to find new specimens but it seems after 25 years of searching this fossil is vanishingly rare - so I can hang on no longer,” she said.



And so she named the fossil Keurbos susanae, or Sue, after her mother.



“Especially as, recently, my mom said to me, 'Sarah if you are going to name this fossil after me, you'd better get on and do it before I am in the ground and fossilized myself,'" she shared.



"I tell my mom in jest that I named the fossil Sue after her because she is a well-preserved specimen. But, in truth, I named her Sue because my mom always said I should follow a career that makes me happy - whatever that may be. For me, that is digging rocks, finding fossils and then trying to figure out how they lived, what they tell us about ancient life and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution on Earth</a>."



Sue may not have her head or legs, but her legacy - both scientific and personal - is unforgettable.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/spp2.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

444-million-year-old fossil named 'Sue' has a story to tell

A tiny fossil with an unusually well-preserved interior is rewriting...

In the United States, student math performance has been steadily slipping for decades, consistently ranking in the bottom quarter compared to other developed countries. The COVID-19 pandemic only deepened the crisis.&nbsp;



But a new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://bcfg.wharton.upenn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania's Behavior Change for Good Initiative</a> (BCFG) suggests that small, behaviorally informed nudges directed at teachers could help turn the tide - at least slightly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-science-in-the-classroom">Behavioral science in the classroom</h2>



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2418616122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, explored whether carefully designed email messages could influence teacher behavior in ways that benefit student <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memes-help-students-learn-better-and-boost-engagement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>.&nbsp;



Past research has shown that behavioral nudges can increase student motivation and performance. This time, the researchers turned their attention to the adults in the room.



Angela Duckworth, who led the research, is the Rosa Lee and Egbert Chang Professor at Penn’s School of Arts &amp; Sciences and the Wharton School, and co-director of BCFG.&nbsp;



“Our results showed that simple, low-cost nudges can help teachers support student progress in math,” said Duckworth. “These nudges worked across different school contexts, with effects persisting eight weeks after teachers stopped receiving the nudges.”



The intervention was made possible through a partnership with <a href="https://www.zearn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zearn Math</a>, a nonprofit educational platform used by millions of students and teachers.&nbsp;



“Large-scale studies on teacher-focused interventions have been rare due to the high cost and logistical challenges involved,” said Dena Gromet, executive director of BCFG and co-author of the study. “Thanks to our partnership with Zearn Math, we were able to overcome these challenges.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-megastudy-on-math-progress">A megastudy on math progress</h2>



This was no small experiment. Involving over 140,000 teachers and nearly 3 million elementary school students, the study tested 15 different types of behaviorally informed email interventions against a simple reminder message.&nbsp;



The design followed a “megastudy” format, a relatively new experimental approach that allows multiple interventions to be tested simultaneously against a common control.



“A megastudy is a large-scale experiment in which multiple interventions are tested on the same outcome,” explained co-author Katy Milkman, professor at the Wharton School and co-director of BCFG. “This method allows for direct comparisons of their effectiveness.”



Each intervention was based on principles from behavioral science. One asked teachers to make a concrete plan for using Zearn Math in the upcoming week. 



Another intervention appealed to empathy by reminding teachers of their students’ needs and potential. Others focused on delivering personalized updates about student progress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-modest-but-measurable-impact">A modest but measurable impact</h2>



The researchers found that, on average, behaviorally informed messages led to a 1.89% increase in student math progress during the four-week period in which teachers received the emails. While the effect was small, it was statistically significant - and some messages were more effective than others.



The most successful intervention increased student math progress by 5.06%. This message prompted teachers to log into Zearn weekly to view a personalized progress report for their students.



“Personalized nudges - those that referenced progress updates about a teacher’s own students - were more effective than nonpersonalized ones,” Duckworth noted. This aligns with prior findings in behavioral science that people are more motivated when feedback is directly tied to their own goals or the outcomes of people they care about.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-nudges-solve-big-math-problems">Small nudges solve big math problems</h2>



Despite the promising findings, the researchers caution that these types of email nudges are only one piece of a much larger puzzle.&nbsp;



“These results suggest the need for more intensive support than the light-touch email nudges we tested,” Milkman said. “And they underscore how hard it is to change human behavior.”



Still, the study opens the door to further research into what makes teacher-directed nudges effective - and how they can be improved over time.&nbsp;



Duckworth emphasized the importance of exploring why referencing personalized data seems to work so well. 



“It may be that capitalizing on teachers’ intrinsic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-influences-our-motivation-to-exercise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motivation</a> to help their students is a distinct and potentially cost-effective approach that can complement other interventions, such as offering performance bonuses and other extrinsic incentives,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-more-effective-education-policies">Shaping more effective education policies</h2>



The researchers are already looking ahead. They plan to conduct more randomized experiments to better understand the long-term effects of such interventions and to determine why some nudges are more successful than others.



“The better we understand why something works, the more powerfully we can use it to create positive change,” Duckworth said. “Ultimately, this line of research could help shape smarter, more effective education policies.”



In a system where large-scale transformation often feels daunting, these small, strategic nudges offer a glimpse of how behavioral science can help educators - and their students - make meaningful strides, one math problem at a time.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How simple emails could help fix America's math crisis

In the United States, student math performance has been steadily...

The image of a cold Coca-Cola bottle on a summer day is iconic. But behind that image lies an escalating crisis. By 2030, Coca-Cola’s plastic waste could reach 1.33 billion pounds annually in oceans and waterways. 



That staggering figure comes from a new analysis by <a href="https://oceana.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oceana</a>, a nonprofit focused on marine protection. The weight is enough to fill the stomachs of 18 million whales. 



It’s not just a problem of pollution anymore. It’s a symptom of unchecked growth and a warning sign of deeper environmental neglect.



The report lands at a time when microplastics have become nearly impossible to ignore. These tiny particles now <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-currents-may-soon-clean-up-waste-thanks-to-space-tech/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infiltrate ecosystems</a>, drinking water, and even human organs. Their presence is no longer surprising. 



What shocks scientists now is how quickly they’ve become a global threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-risks-hidden-in-every-sip">Health risks hidden in every sip</h2>



The spread of microplastics brings real health concerns. Researchers increasingly link <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-scientists-are-using-air-to-recycle-plastic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic particles</a> to cancer, infertility, and cardiovascular problems. 



As plastic breaks down in the ocean, it doesn’t disappear - it transforms into particles small enough to enter the human body. The food chain, starting from marine life, now carries traces of our packaging choices.



"<a href="https://www.coca-colacompany.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coca-Cola</a> is by far the largest manufacturer and seller of beverages in the world. Because of that, they really matter when it comes to the impact of all this on the ocean," said Matt Littlejohn, who leads Oceana's campaigns targeting corporate polluters.



That impact, as recent data show, is no longer hypothetical. It’s measurable, predictable, and expanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coca-cola-leads-plastic-pollution-rankings">Coca-Cola leads plastic pollution rankings</h2>



Coca-Cola ranks first among the world’s top plastic polluters. This ranking comes from a 2024 study published in Science Advances. 



Following closely behind are other major players like&nbsp;<a href="https://www.pepsico.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PepsiCo</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nestle.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nestlé</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.danone.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Danone</a>, and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.altria.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Altria</a>.&nbsp;Oceana&nbsp;used Coca-Cola’s own public data, from 2018 to 2023, and combined it with future sales projections. The picture it paints is not optimistic.



If current trends continue, Coca-Cola will exceed 4.13 million metric tonnes of plastic use per year by 2030. That translates to over 9.1 billion pounds of plastic annually. 



Using a peer-reviewed method published in the journal Science, researchers estimate that 1.33 billion of those pounds will end up in aquatic ecosystems. That equals nearly 220 billion half-liter plastic bottles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insufficient-efforts-by-coca-cola">Insufficient efforts by Coca-Cola </h2>



Reusable packaging once appeared to be Coca-Cola’s answer to this crisis. In 2022, the company declared that reusable packaging was "among the most effective ways to reduce waste." 



They even announced a target: 25% of all packaging would be reusable by 2030. But in December 2024, that pledge vanished from their sustainability roadmap.



Instead of reuse, Coca-Cola’s current strategy focuses on recycling and collection. While those efforts sound helpful, environmental experts see them as insufficient. 



Recycling, especially when dealing with thin single-use plastic, often costs more energy than it saves. And worse, it shifts the burden from corporations to consumers.



"Recycling is great, don't get me wrong," said Littlejohn. "But if you're going to use recycled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-treaty-is-a-historic-opportunity-to-stop-a-human-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a> to produce more single-use plastic, that's a problem."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-reuse-still-matters">Why reuse still matters</h2>



The value of reusable packaging lies in its durability. A single glass bottle can be reused up to 50 times. Thicker PET plastic containers allow up to 25 uses before needing replacement. 



Each reuse reduces plastic waste, production emissions, and energy use. Despite this, major brands like Coca-Cola continue to push for recycling as the primary solution.



The company’s quiet withdrawal from its reuse goals weakens global efforts to reduce plastic output. Refillable systems demand infrastructure and planning, but they offer a long-term way out of the plastic loop. 



Recycling, in contrast, often serves as a short-term patch on a broken system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coca-cola-s-plastic-use-and-climate-change">Coca-Cola’s plastic use and climate change</h2>



Plastic is not just a litter issue. It’s a carbon issue. Nearly all plastic is made from fossil fuels. That means every bottle contributes to climate change - from its production to its disposal.



The connection between plastic waste and rising global temperatures grows stronger with each report. Companies that produce single-use plastic on a massive scale add to both crises: environmental and climatic.



Yet Coca-Cola has shown that change is possible. In several countries, they already operate large-scale refillable systems. Brazil, Germany, Nigeria, and even regions in the United States, like southern Texas, have adopted these models.



"They have the largest reusable infrastructure of any beverage company, and they have the ability to grow that and show the way for the rest of the industry," said Littlejohn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-coca-cola-follow-through">Will Coca-Cola follow through?</h2>



Coca-Cola says it's still invested in refillable options. In a statement to AFP, a spokesperson shared: "We have been investing and remain committed to expand our refillable packaging options, and this work will continue as part of our consumer-centric strategy."



The words suggest hope, but critics remain skeptical. Without public targets or timelines, such promises risk becoming just another footnote in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprise-study-some-scientists-call-for-halting-ocean-plastic-cleanup-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growing crisis</a>. 



Real progress demands transparency and follow-through. The oceans are already paying the price of delay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-convenience-vs-commitment">Convenience vs. commitment</h2>



Coca-Cola, with its vast global reach, has the tools to drive real change. The company’s influence over supply chains, consumer habits, and industry trends makes it a key player in solving the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-it-still-possible-to-save-the-ocean-from-plastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic crisis</a>. 



But leadership requires more than statements. It needs bold decisions that value long-term sustainability over short-term gain.



Recycling is not enough. The solution lies in reuse, reduction, and rethinking how beverage packaging works. As the world grapples with rising plastic levels and declining ocean health, Coca-Cola stands at a crossroads. 



What it chooses next could define its legacy - for better or worse.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Coca-Cola is on course to dump 1.3 billion pounds of plastic into our oceans each year

The image of a cold Coca-Cola bottle on a summer...

When NASA’s Perseverance rover touched down on Mars in 2021, its primary mission was to look for signs of ancient microbial life and study the planet’s geology and climate. 



But there was another important goal tucked into its toolkit: helping scientists prepare for future human missions to Mars. 



Part of that effort includes carrying a small collection of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-spacesuits-will-keep-astronauts-clean-on-the-moon-and-beyond/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spacesuit</a> materials to test how well they hold up in the planet’s harsh conditions.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/johnson/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Johnson Space Center</a> are now entering the next stage of this long-term experiment, which involves analyzing how these materials have fared after four years on the Martian surface.



The results could play a key role in designing spacesuits for astronauts who may one day walk on Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-small-sample-with-big-implications">A small sample with big implications</h2>



"This is one of the forward-looking aspects of the rover’s mission - not just thinking about its current science, but also about what comes next," said planetary scientist Marc Fries. "We’re preparing for people to eventually go and explore Mars."



Each of the five materials being tested measures just 20 millimeters square - about the size of a postage stamp. These tiny swatches are mounted on a calibration target used by SHERLOC, an instrument attached to the rover’s robotic arm. 



SHERLOC scans <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian rocks</a> for signs of ancient life, but it also monitors how the suit materials change over time. The samples include a slice of polycarbonate helmet visor, two types of Teflon known for their nonstick and dust-resistant properties, and Vectran, a cut-resistant fiber used in astronaut gloves. 



The fifth material is Ortho-Fabric, which combines three layers: flame-resistant Nomex, breathable Gore-Tex, and tough <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/kevlar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kevlar</a>, which is also used in bulletproof vests. 



All of these materials must be strong enough to protect astronauts while remaining flexible enough for movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-a-harsh-planet">Lessons from a harsh planet</h2>



Mars is a rough place to test any gear. Its temperatures regularly plunge well below freezing. Fine dust clings to surfaces, wearing them down over time. The soil also contains perchlorates - corrosive salts that are hazardous to humans.



Then there’s the radiation. Unlike Earth, which is shielded by a magnetic field and a thick atmosphere, Mars offers little protection from ultraviolet rays. That exposure can take a serious toll on materials, especially over months or years.



"Mars is a really harsh, tough place. Don’t underestimate that - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-radiation-levels-are-measured-for-the-first-time-and-will-help-astronauts-prepare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiation</a>, in particular, is pretty nasty," said SHERLOC science team member Joby Razzell Hollis.



He compared the damage to what happens to plastic lawn chairs left in the sun: they turn yellow and brittle. On Mars, this kind of degradation likely happens even faster because of the more intense UV exposure.



About half of the visible changes in the suit samples happened within the first 200 days after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-finds-best-evidence-yet-life-on-mars-cheyava-falls-rock/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance</a> landed. Vectran was the first to show signs of change.



Experts are also investigating how different parts of a suit might wear down at different rates. For example, an astronaut’s shoulders would face more direct sunlight than their hands and might require stronger materials or extra shielding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-spacesuits-for-mars">Testing spacesuits for Mars</h2>



Researchers are now working on a science paper that lays out the early findings from SHERLOC’s observations. 



Back on Earth, engineers at NASA Johnson plan to run lab tests on similar samples using chambers that mimic Martian conditions, from its carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere to its air pressure and sunlight.



The experts will test how the materials stretch, tear, or break down over time and compare that data to what’s being seen on Mars.



"The fabric materials are designed to be tough but flexible, so they protect astronauts but can bend freely," said Fries.



"We want to know the extent to which the fabrics lose their strength and flexibility over time. As the fabrics weaken, they can fray and tear, allowing a spacesuit to leak both heat and air."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-exploration-of-mars">Future exploration of Mars</h2>



The Perseverance mission is about more than exploration. The rover is also collecting samples of Martian rock and soil, which could one day be returned to Earth through NASA’s Mars Sample Return Program in collaboration with the European Space Agency.



These efforts are part of NASA’s broader Moon to Mars strategy, which includes the Artemis missions to the Moon. 



Data from Perseverance - including what it reveals about spacesuit durability - is shaping the way for humans to explore Mars safely in the coming decades.



By putting spacesuit materials through the ultimate wear-and-tear test on another planet, Perseverance is quietly helping write the instruction manual for the next generation of explorers.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

NASA is testing spacesuit materials for future missions to Mars

When NASA’s Perseverance rover touched down on Mars in 2021,...

Amphibians are in crisis. Climate change, pollution, and habitat loss are stripping their ecosystems. But something even more silent is killing them - disease. From frogs to tadpoles, the losses and disrupted growth are staggering.



Since the 1970s, about 200 amphibian species have vanished. Today, 34% of the 7,296 known species face extinction, according to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>).



One fast-moving culprit is ranavirus. This genus of viruses spreads quickly among fish, reptiles, and amphibians. The virus can devastate species that lack any built-in defense. But a recent study in Frontiers in Amphibian and Reptile Science offers a glimpse of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibian resilience</a>.



“Here we show that in response to ranavirus, wood frog tadpoles change their growth, development, and resource allocation. This may help tadpoles tolerate the energetic demands of infection or escape risky environments to avoid infection entirely,” said Logan Billet, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> and the study’s first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deadly-virus-is-wiping-out-frogs">A deadly virus is wiping out frogs</h2>



Ranavirus has caused 40 to 60% of amphibian die-offs in the US. 



Once infected, larvae become lethargic, stop eating, swim abnormally, and bleed internally. Outbreaks often end in total pond die-offs. And with warming temperatures, these outbreaks may increase.



The researchers decided to focus on one species: the wood frog (Rana sylvatica). This species breeds explosively in temporary snowmelt ponds. The team observed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-lead-the-way-in-developing-new-antibiotics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> from 2021 to 2023 in Connecticut forests. They tracked their survival, growth, and the virus’s impact.



They monitored 47 ponds: 35 remained virus-free, 7 had infections but low death rates, and 5 experienced full-blown die-offs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tadpoles-grow-faster-around-ranavirus">Tadpoles grow faster around ranavirus</h2>



From mid-April to July, scientists collected tadpoles regularly. They euthanized up to 20 from each pond for lab analysis. They tested 1,583 livers for ranavirus and measured the length and developmental stage of 4,299 tadpoles.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-on-water-cricket-frogs-redefine-aquatic-locomotion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amphibians</a> grow flexibly. Size and developmental stage do not always go hand in hand. A tadpole might be small yet advanced in development or vice versa. This plasticity makes their responses interesting to study.



The results showed that tadpoles in ponds later hit by die-offs grew faster during their first month. They also developed quicker - about 0.38 stages ahead of others. But once mortality began, growth collapsed. In the end, they were smaller and less developed than their healthy counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quick-growth-may-help-tadpoles-survive">Quick growth may help tadpoles survive</h2>



Interestingly, tadpoles in infected ponds that avoided full die-offs showed similar trends. They grew faster and reached stages 1.7 Gosner points ahead of those in clean ponds.



The data points to a clear pattern. Tadpoles exposed to ranavirus grow and develop faster - at least in the early days. This may be their way of dodging death by jumping ahead in their life cycle.



Study senior author Dr. David Skelly is a professor at the <a href="https://peabody.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peabody Museum</a> and Billet’s doctoral supervisor.



“Accelerating growth and resource allocation early on may allow tadpoles to improve their physical condition, and thus the strength of their immunity, in anticipation of infection. They might also metamorphose and move onto land earlier, potentially reducing their exposure to ranavirus,” said Dr. Skelly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-survival-strategy">A unique survival strategy</h2>



These early responses may help explain why some outbreaks kill only a portion of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



“These responses are likely to give tadpoles a survival advantage. We hypothesize they are the reason why mortality wasn’t always 100%, but only partial in some outbreaks in our study," said Billet.



“What we don’t yet know is how tadpoles detect ranavirus in their environment, for example through chemical or visual cues, and how effective these responses improve survival or tolerance of infection. Controlled experiments will be important to address these questions."



The study opens a new window into amphibian survival in the face of disease. These creatures, from adult frogs to fragile tadpoles, are adjusting their growth in real time to a rapidly changing world. But their limits remain unknown.



As human-driven changes reshape the planet, the quiet struggles in our forest ponds may soon speak volumes about the future of biodiversity. The story of the wood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-amphibians-survived-earths-deadliest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> and its fight against ranavirus is just one chapter. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/amphibian-and-reptile-science/articles/10.3389/famrs.2025.1529060/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Amphibian and Reptile Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tadpoles speed up their growth to outsmart a deadly virus

Amphibians are in crisis. Climate change, pollution, and habitat loss...

The forests and fields of North America hold secrets that even motion-sensitive cameras can't always reveal. Among those secrets are weasels - small, swift, and almost invisible to modern wildlife monitoring.



These elusive predators have slipped through digital traps for decades, making scientists wonder whether their silence signals absence or simply stealth.



It’s not just curiosity that drives this concern. Weasels, as small mustelids, play vital roles in ecosystems. They control rodent populations and serve as prey for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger animals</a>. 



Understanding where they thrive or vanish can reveal larger patterns of ecological change. But until recently, researchers lacked a clear method to study their population numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-monitoring-weasels">Challenge of monitoring weasels</h2>



Camera traps work well for large mammals. Deer, bears, and even coyotes often stroll past, triggering a flurry of images. But weasels are a different story. 



Their bodies are small and they move fast. They often live in habitats with thick cover, making them almost invisible, even when present.



Roland Kays is a research professor at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> and scientist at the N.C. Museum of Natural Sciences.



“We’re a little worried about the weasels,” said Kays. "We don’t see them very often, but it’s difficult to tell if they’re actually gone or if they’re just so sneaky that we can’t find them."



"We decided that we needed to better understand the best method to detect them. There wasn’t a great consensus on that.”



The lack of consensus led Kays and a group of researchers to try something new. Instead of relying on luck, they decided to identify the best <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bait</a> - and the best method - for attracting weasels to camera traps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-a-massive-survey">Designing a massive survey</h2>



Between January 2022 and April 2023, the scientists launched one of the largest camera-trap bait studies ever done for mustelids.



The team placed 486 cameras across 122 clusters in 14 U.S. states, focusing on areas where weasels were previously recorded or where habitat conditions seemed ideal.



Each site hosted a set of four trail cameras, positioned close enough to give weasels a full choice of lures while minimizing overlap between camera zones.



The researchers tested various bait types. These included red meat, raw chicken, cat food, and scent-based lures like anise oil, salmon oil, and a commercial product called Weasel Super All Call. 



In 2023, they switched fully to meat baits after finding weak results from scent lures alone the year before.



The bait wasn't just thrown on the ground. It was secured in cages to prevent theft by other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. One new method, a cage-within-a-cage system, eventually proved highly successful in stopping bait robbers like raccoons and coyotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-weasels-preferred">What the weasels preferred</h2>



“There is a huge variety of scent lures available, and trappers often make their own from all kinds of ingredients,” noted Kays. “As it turns out, however, just having a chunk of meat works the best.”



Red meat emerged as the top performer. It tripled the chance of weasel detection compared to scent lures alone. 



Short-tailed weasels especially loved red meat, showing up twice as often at those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bait</a> stations than at sites with chicken or cat food. When salmon oil was added to the red meat, results improved even further - especially for short-tailed weasels.



In the southern U.S., long-tailed weasels appeared more frequently at chicken-baited sites. They also arrived faster. On average, it took just 14.5 days for a chicken-baited camera to record a long-tailed weasel, compared to nearly 40 days with red meat.



Cat food, by contrast, was the least effective. It took over 27 days to attract weasels - if it attracted them at all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-least-weasel-may-be-in-trouble">The least weasel may be in trouble</h2>



Of all the weasel species in North America, the least weasel remains the most mysterious. The study detected only four individuals in total - one in 2022 and three in 2023.



Their scarcity raises conservation alarms. Researchers have suggested that the least weasel may be the most endangered of the group, with one study estimating a 54% decline in this species' habitat over the past century.



Even in targeted areas, where previous records or ideal habitats existed, least weasels barely registered. This highlights the need for specialized monitoring tools, such as enclosed camera traps like the Mostela, which have had some success in limited trials.



“Now that we have an understanding of the best ways to lure the weasels, we can be more confident in the findings of our surveys,” Kays said. 



“When we have sites where we don’t detect them, we can be much more assured that they aren’t just in hiding, they’re really just not there at all.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-activity-patterns-and-behavioral-clues">Activity patterns and behavioral clues</h2>



The study also revealed new insights into how different weasel species behave. Short-tailed weasels were active both day and night - an unusual pattern that differs from past observations in Europe and Canada.



In contrast, long-tailed weasels were mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, showing peak activity at dawn and dusk.



These activity patterns have practical implications. If researchers know when weasels are likely to appear, they can time camera placements and checks more effectively. 



It also offers clues about predator-prey dynamics, as prey animals may adjust their own schedules to avoid these hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bait-matters">Why bait matters</h2>



Getting the bait right was only half the battle. The researchers quickly learned that non-target species - especially raccoons and opossums - loved the bait too. Red meat and chicken were often stolen, reducing the time that bait remained in front of cameras.



In southern sites, bait theft was particularly high. This lowered detection rates. When cameras lost their bait early, they became less attractive to passing weasels. 



In contrast, northern sites experienced less bait theft. That could explain why red meat worked so well in the north, where short-tailed weasels live.



The addition of salmon oil helped keep sites attractive even after the meat disappeared. Its strong scent lingered, possibly drawing in curious weasels until the bait was replenished. Cameras baited with salmon oil recorded detections in just 6.5 days, compared to 22 days without the oil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-better-monitoring-system">Building a better monitoring system</h2>



This study provides a crucial step toward standardizing how we monitor small carnivores like weasels. With clear bait preferences identified, wildlife agencies can now deploy cost-effective, reliable surveys over large areas.



The best approach? Use red meat or chicken, depending on the region. Add salmon oil for stronger scent cues. Protect the bait using a cage-within-a-cage system. Place cameras in areas with prior weasel activity or suitable habitat. And check the traps monthly during winter, when meat lasts longer and bear activity is low.



Large-scale, standardized surveys like this can finally reveal what decades of anecdotal data couldn’t - the locations where weasels still thrive, and those where they don’t, and how their numbers change over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-track-weasels">A new way to track weasels</h2>



Despite their size, weasels carry ecological weight. They matter. This study, which was published in <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wsb.1580" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Society Bulletin</a>, helps bring these predators out of the shadows.



The research team included experts from over 20 universities and wildlife agencies, and was led by corresponding author Scott M. Bergeson of <a href="https://www.pfw.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University Fort Wayne</a>. Funding came from the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937, a cornerstone of American conservation.



Thanks to their work, weasels are no longer invisible. We can now track their paths, confirm their presence, and protect what remains - one camera trap at a time.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Weasels are vanishing - or are they just too sneaky to spot?

The forests and fields of North America hold secrets that...

Some fish are not just fast - they’re smart. A team of scientists, including researchers from the University of Edinburgh, has revealed a never-seen-before hunting trick in the Mediterranean Sea. Small fish called blue runners hide behind sandbar sharks to sneak up on prey.



This behavior stands out. Fish often swim near <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sharks-make-sounds-despite-not-having-vocal-cords/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> to avoid threats or shed parasites. But hiding behind a shark to launch a hunt? That’s a first.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-use-sharks-as-cover">Fish use sharks as cover </h2>



Until now, scientists had noticed that fish sometimes trail sharks. This was usually for protection or parasite removal. Some even used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-predator-missing-what-happens-when-great-white-sharks-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> as moving shields to escape larger predators. But the new footage captured around Lampione Island in Italy shows something more calculated.



Over several years, divers and remotely operated vehicles recorded 34 separate cases of blue runners sneaking behind sharks. Each time, a lone blue runner shadowed a sandbar shark for about 30 seconds. Then, without warning, it broke away to dart at smaller fish, especially damselfish.



What changed wasn’t just the fish’s timing - but their approach. Blue runners typically hunt in groups. But these solo hunts seemed far more effective when combined with the shark’s distraction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-cover-boosts-hunting-success">Shark cover boosts hunting success </h2>



The team analyzed hours of underwater footage to understand the success of this hunting trick. The findings were clear. When blue runners used sharks as cover, prey detected them only 10 percent of the time.



In contrast, when they hunted as a group - without shark cover - their targets noticed them over 95 percent of the time.



The difference changed everything. Instead of fleeing or forming tight defensive schools, the damselfish and other prey stayed relaxed. The shark’s presence seemed to lull them into a false sense of security, never realizing another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-shark-species-face-extinction-despite-fishing-bans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> swam in its shadow.



The blue runners also appeared to gain other benefits. Scientists believe that swimming behind the shark may help conserve energy, thanks to reduced water resistance. It may also offer safety, as predators are less likely to attack a fish moving close to a large shark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-gathering-of-sharks">A rare gathering of sharks</h2>



This remarkable behavior occurs in one of the few places in the Mediterranean where sandbar sharks still gather in groups. 



Every summer, they return to the waters around Lampione Island, creating what scientists call an “aggregation.” This kind of natural event is rare in these seas, especially as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-clues-from-old-shark-jaws-reveal-diets-and-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark populations</a> decline due to overfishing and habitat stress.



Because of the consistency and uniqueness of this site, the researchers had the chance to observe complex behaviors that would likely go unnoticed elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-loss-could-affect-hunting-behavior">Shark loss could affect hunting behavior</h2>



“The study highlights how interactions between species can drive alternative hunting tactics in marine ecosystems. Understanding these dynamics enriches our knowledge of marine biodiversity and underscores the importance of conserving high-level predators, like sharks,” said Professor Fabio Badalamenti, of the University of Edinburgh and CNR-IAS Palermo.



“This unique interaction emphasizes the ecological importance of the few remaining shark aggregations, which can influence the structure and function of ecosystems,“ noted Dr. Carlo Cattano, of the Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn.



“Lampione Island is one of only two known aggregation areas for the sandbar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-great-hammerhead-sharks-rarely-leave-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark</a> in the Mediterranean Sea. The ongoing decline in large shark populations due to overfishing could jeopardize associations like these, which could have knock-on effects on other species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-dynamics-of-fragile-ecosystems">Hidden dynamics of fragile ecosystems </h2>



This behavior isn't just a cool trick of nature - it carries serious implications. The blue runners’ strategy depends on the shark’s presence. If sharks vanish, so might these unique hunting methods. As top predators decline, ripple effects may shift entire ecosystems in ways we don’t yet understand.



Understanding these hidden dynamics reveals how fragile marine systems can be. Every player in the food web, no matter how strong or small, shapes the behavior of others. 



Preserving biodiversity, then, isn't just about saving one species - it’s about keeping the game of life in motion, with all its surprises intact.



The study's success resulted from collaboration across institutions. Scientists from the University of Edinburgh, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, the National Biodiversity Future Center, CNR-IAS, and the University of Palermo all played roles.​



Support from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.bluemarinefoundation.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blue Marine Foundation</a>&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic Society</a>&nbsp;enabled long-term observation, which proved key in documenting this behavior over multiple seasons.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sneaky fish use sharks like moving shields while hunting

Some fish are not just fast - they’re smart. A...

For centuries, sharks have stirred fear and fascination. They glide through water with quiet power. Unlike whales or dolphins, they never seem to speak. Scientists assumed that sharks lived in a world of silence - masters of stealth with no sound.



That idea was rooted in biology. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-shark-species-face-extinction-despite-fishing-bans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sharks</a> lack swim bladders, organs that help many fish produce sound. 



They also don’t have vocal cords or specialized structures like drumming muscles. So the conclusion felt safe: sharks don’t make noise.



But nature is full of surprises. A recent discovery made at the University of Auckland's <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/science/about-the-faculty/university-reserves/leigh-marine-laboratory.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leigh Marine Laboratory</a> has rewritten what we know about these ancient predators. 



Sharks might not be voiceless after all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-recorded-shark-sounds">The first recorded shark sounds</h2>



In a study published in Royal Society Open Science, <a href="https://rs.figshare.com/articles/media/Data_1_from_Evidence_of_active_sound_production_by_a_shark/28596448?backTo=%2Fcollections%2FSupplementary_material_from_Evidence_of_active_sound_production_by_a_shark_%2F7720015&amp;file=52990585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientists shared the first known recordings</a> of active sound production by sharks. 



The species involved, the rig shark (Mustelus lenticulatus), is a small, bottom-dwelling shark native to New Zealand.



During routine hearing experiments, ten juvenile rig <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-clues-from-old-shark-jaws-reveal-diets-and-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> produced distinct clicking sounds when handled underwater. These weren’t random splashes or incidental noise. They were consistent, sharp clicks — deliberate and audible.



"Sharks have sensory systems that are more refined than their hearing, like their electroreceptors, their smell, and the way they propel themselves through the water… But I think the original notion that we had that sound isn't important at all is also likely not true," said Carolin Nieder, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clicks-as-stress-or-warning-signals">Clicks as stress or warning signals</h2>



The clicks didn’t happen while the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-great-hammerhead-sharks-rarely-leave-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> swam freely. They didn’t appear during feeding or rest. They only occurred when the sharks were briefly handled. Most clicks happened in the first ten seconds of handling and dropped off after that.



This suggests the sounds may be a reaction to stress. The sharks could be trying to defend themselves or confuse potential predators. Some clicks coincided with physical movements, like swaying or sudden bends. Others came with no visible movement.



The researchers counted an average of nine clicks per shark in a 20-second window. About three-quarters of those clicks were short, single-pulse bursts. The remaining were double-pulse clicks, produced in rapid succession.



“Maybe they weren't afraid for their lives anymore,” Nieder said, noting the decline in clicks over time. This behavior may resemble a natural escape tactic in the wild, used as a quick distraction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-not-vocal-cords">Teeth, not vocal cords</h2>



So how do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> make these sounds without sound-producing organs? The team examined this closely. Using microCT scans and detailed dissections, the researchers studied the cranial structure of the rig shark. The teeth emerged as the most likely mechanism.



Rig sharks have blunt, interlocking teeth arranged like flat plates. These teeth snap together during rapid jaw movements. This snapping action likely creates the broadband clicks observed in the study.



The sounds recorded had an average duration of 48 milliseconds, with frequencies between 2.4 and 18.5 kHz. 



Most clicks peaked around 9.6 kHz, far above the rig’s hearing threshold, which tops at around 800 Hz. Yet, the first burst of each click contained low frequencies that might be audible to the sharks themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-these-shark-sounds-meaningful">Are these shark sounds meaningful?</h2>



The purpose of the clicks remains uncertain. Are they a biological signal - a warning, alarm, or defensive cry? Or are they simply a byproduct of muscle contractions and jaw tension under stress?



The study notes that rigs did not produce sounds during other behaviors, like swimming or feeding. This supports the idea that the clicking is linked to disturbance, not daily communication.



Still, comparisons with other fish species are revealing. Teleost fish, like cod and piranhas, often emit clicks when threatened or approached by predators. These “predator-related” sounds serve no obvious communicative role but may momentarily confuse or startle attackers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similar-sounds-in-other-species">Similar sounds in other species</h2>



This discovery also echoes recent findings in rays. Since 2022, several studies have reported click-like sounds in stingrays and skates when divers approached. 



Species like the mangrove whipray and the blonde ray produce sharp broadband clicks, seemingly in reaction to disturbance.



These clicks share many traits with the rig’s clicks: short duration, high frequency, and apparent links to stress. While the anatomical mechanisms may differ, the pattern is striking.



In rays, the movement of spiracles and fins has been observed during sound production. In rigs, however, no clear body movement could be linked directly to the clicks. This raises the need for better underwater observation - perhaps through close-up video - to pinpoint exactly how the sound is made.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-sharks-click">Not all sharks click</h2>



Interestingly, not all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> show this behavior. The study tested three dusky smoothhounds (Mustelus canis), close relatives of the rig. These sharks, when handled under the same conditions, produced no clicks.



This may point to differences in species behavior, evolutionary paths, or simply varying sensitivity to human presence. The dusky smoothhounds had been in captivity longer, which might explain their lack of response.



The researchers noted that Mustelus as a genus includes many species with similar tooth shapes. It’s possible that other species may also produce clicks under the right circumstances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-rig-sharks-hear-their-own-sounds">Can rig sharks hear their own sounds?</h2>



This question remains unresolved. Rigs are most sensitive to very low frequencies, far below the peak of their clicks. Yet, each click begins with a powerful burst that includes frequencies under 1 kHz. These lower frequencies may fall within the shark’s hearing range.



Whether the clicks carry a message for other sharks is unclear. But it’s possible the clicks aren’t meant for sharks at all. The energy-rich sounds could affect predators with better hearing, like toothed whales or large marine mammals. 



Some fish also produce similar sounds that deter or confuse predators, even if they aren’t always effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-voices-from-the-deep">New voices from the deep</h2>



For years, researchers assumed that sharks lacked the ability - or need - to make sound. This study shifts that narrative. It reveals not only a sound, but a potential signal - a cry, a warning, or perhaps an instinctive snap.



The rig shark now holds the title of the first confirmed sound-producing shark. And its clicks may not be alone for long. As scientists look closer, more species may reveal their hidden voices.



In the quietest corners of the ocean, even sharks might have something to say.



-----



<a href="https://rs.figshare.com/articles/media/Data_1_from_Evidence_of_active_sound_production_by_a_shark/28596448?backTo=%2Fcollections%2FSupplementary_material_from_Evidence_of_active_sound_production_by_a_shark_%2F7720015&amp;file=52990585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click this link to hear the noises made by these sharks during the hunt...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.242212" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sharks recorded making terrifying sounds while hunting - despite not having vocal cords

For centuries, sharks have stirred fear and fascination. They glide...

A newly published study paints a grim picture for amphibians in the Upper Paraguay River Basin, which includes the vast Pantanal wetlands and surrounding areas. The researchers predict that the region may lose almost all suitable habitats for toads, frogs, and tree frogs by 2100. 



The findings emerge from a collaboration between researchers from Brazil and Switzerland, who combined species distribution data with climate modeling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-amphibians-will-lose-their-habitats">Most amphibians will lose their habitats</h2>



The experts cross-referenced locations of amphibian species with two greenhouse gas emissions scenarios (one optimistic, one pessimistic). The team concluded that more than 80% of amphibian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-are-being-pushed-beyond-their-heat-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> in the Upper Paraguay River Basin would lose suitable habitats.



In the optimistic scenario, 99.87% of the basin would experience local extinctions, and in the pessimistic one, this figure rises to 99.99% of the region, according to lead author Matheus Oliveira Neves of the <a href="http://www.ufmt.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Mato Grosso</a> (UFMT).&nbsp;



With these numbers, there is scant room left for doubt: amphibian biodiversity in the Pantanal and nearby zones appears to be on a steep and accelerating decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-current-protection-falls-short">Current protection falls short</h2>



The researchers also found that existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protected-areas-slow-down-biodiversity-loss-but-they-cant-reverse-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protected areas</a> - integral conservation units - cover only 5.85% of the territory, and within those reserves, less than 5% of amphibians’ geographical ranges are effectively safeguarded. 



“Fully protected conservation units are currently doing very little to protect amphibian species in the Pantanal,” said Brazilian researcher Mario Ribeiro Moura, who coordinated the project while at the <a href="https://www.ib.unicamp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Biology of the State University of Campinas</a> (IB-UNICAMP). Moura is now a professor at the <a href="https://www.ufpb.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Paraíba</a> (UFPB).



The international community, alarmed by the accelerating loss of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-light-sustains-biodiversity-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, recently called for 30% of Earth’s surface to be set aside in protected areas by 2030. Moura notes that right now, this coverage stands at just 17%, including both conservation units and indigenous lands.&nbsp;



He and his team argue for the creation of new protection zones and enlargement of existing ones, focusing on regions that modeling indicates will remain relatively hospitable to amphibians as climate change advances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-divergent-climate-futures">Two divergent climate futures</h2>



The research used future climate projections from the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC). In one model, an optimistic scenario keeps emissions at current levels, leading to an estimated 2 °C increase by 2100.&nbsp;



In a more pessimistic model, emissions continue to rise, potentially pushing the temperature up by 4 °C by century’s end.&nbsp;



For the Upper Paraguay River Basin - including parts of Paraguay and Bolivia - the difference between these scenarios translates into a near-total collapse (99.87% or 99.99%, respectively) of viable amphibian habitats.



The team relied on more than 4,000 records for 74 amphibian species native to the basin. These species encompass a wide range of frogs, toads, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-frogs-live-in-trees-but-lay-eggs-on-the-ground/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree frogs</a> that are highly dependent on moisture and aquatic environments - features that climate change, habitat conversion, and other human impacts are making increasingly rare or degraded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-few-viable-refuges-in-the-future">Few viable refuges in the future</h2>



Even in the best-case scenario, the study suggests that the most likely refuges for amphibians occur near Cuiabá in northern Mato Grosso, on the edge of the Cerrado savannah, and in the southeast near Campo Grande in Mato Grosso do Sul state.&nbsp;



Some southwestern areas near the Paraguayan Chaco may remain viable as well. However, these spots represent only a fraction of the Upper Paraguay River Basin.



The researchers also found that among the protected areas currently established, hardly any harbor an amphibian diversity above the baseline.&nbsp;



While a small number of protected zones may actually see unexpected gains in species, the authors caution that the net picture is one of overall loss.&nbsp;



“In summary, only 13.7% of the current protected areas in the Upper Paraguay River Basin have the potential to host more or lose fewer species in at least one future scenario. Most of these areas are indigenous lands,” noted Moura.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-habitats-for-amphibians">Protecting habitats for amphibians </h2>



Moura and colleagues advocate for a combination of new conservation areas, expanded existing reserves, and changes in land use practices that limit the destruction of aquatic ecosystems. They further stress the magnitude of the climate challenge.&nbsp;



“While the Paris Agreement aimed to limit the global temperature increase to 1.5 °C by the end of the century, we already reached that level in 2024,” Moura said.&nbsp;



In his opinion, the global economic model remains deeply entwined with fossil fuel consumption, and without “radical” mitigation steps, both biodiversity and human society face profound risks.



For the amphibians of the Upper Paraguay River Basin - creatures that rely on stable, humid environments - time is running out.&nbsp;



The results indicate that if greenhouse gas emissions continue unabated, nearly all of the watery niches they need could vanish, drastically shrinking populations and possibly setting the stage for mass regional extinctions. 



On the other hand, through determined conservation policy and aggressive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-action-and-biodiversity-striking-the-right-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate action</a>, it may still be possible to give these species a chance to survive and thrive well beyond this century.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14846" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

99% habitat loss: The dire future of amphibians in the Pantanal

A newly published study paints a grim picture for amphibians...

Humans are having a highly detrimental impact on biodiversity worldwide. Not only is the number of species declining, but the composition of species communities is also changing.&nbsp;



These are the findings of a study by the <a href="https://www.eawag.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology</a> (Eawag).



“It is one of the largest syntheses of the human impacts on biodiversity ever conducted worldwide,” said Florian Altermatt, a professor of aquatic ecology at the University of Zurich and head of a research group at Eawag.



Many previous studies have addressed the threat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species loss</a>. Yet most such efforts focused on particular ecosystems, a single human activity, or localized conditions, making it challenging to draw broad conclusions. 



This new study attempts an unprecedented synthesis: it compares nearly 50,000 sites around the world subject to human influence with an equal number of reference sites that remain relatively untouched. 



By covering terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments and targeting everything from microbes and fungi to larger organisms such as fish, birds, and mammals, the researchers provide a uniquely comprehensive snapshot of biodiversity challenges across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-pressures-on-ecosystems">Human pressures on ecosystems</h2>



The project examines the five principal human activities that affect biodiversity: habitat modification, direct exploitation (e.g., hunting or fishing), climate change, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-air-pollution-forms-may-help-us-prevent-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a>, and invasive species.&nbsp;



“We analyzed the effects of the five main human impacts on biodiversity: habitat changes, direct exploitation such as hunting or fishing, climate change, pollution and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a>," said lead author François Keck, a scientist at Eawag.



"Our findings show that all five factors have a strong impact on biodiversity worldwide, in all groups of organisms and in all ecosystems."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-numbers-at-impacted-sites">Species numbers at impacted sites </h2>



One clear outcome is that species numbers at impacted sites were nearly 20% lower than at unaffected ones. 



Vertebrates such as reptiles, amphibians, and mammals stand out for their major declines, likely because they typically have smaller population sizes and can vanish more readily.



However, beyond just the loss of species, the researchers also documented considerable shifts in the types of species that persist under human pressure.&nbsp;



“It’s not just the number of species that is declining,” Keck noted. “Human pressure is also changing the composition of species communities.”&nbsp;



That means even if the overall number of species remains the same at a site, the functions those species perform might be different, leading to potential disruptions in ecosystem services and stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drastic-changes-from-human-pressure">Drastic changes from human pressure</h2>



Environmental pollution and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-face-critical-threats-from-disease-and-habitat-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a> emerged from the study as especially damaging. Habitat modification frequently involves stark, abrupt transformations of a region - for example, clearing forests or converting grasslands to farmland.&nbsp;



Pollution introduces hazardous substances into the ecosystem, including everything from oil spills to agricultural pesticides. These drastic changes can weaken or kill resident organisms.



In contrast, climate change - though likely a major long-term threat - did not stand out as prominently within the timeframe of data analyzed, which Altermatt attributes to potential time lags. “However, it is likely that the full extent of its impact cannot yet be verified today,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-homogenization-or-collapse">Homogenization - or collapse?</h2>



Another important finding concerns the degree of similarity among different species communities (often termed “homogenization”). Large-scale farming tends to homogenize landscapes, making ecological communities more uniform.&nbsp;



But the study also uncovered cases where communities grew more dissimilar from one another, particularly in severely impacted locations.



“The human influence that we find is sometimes so strong that there are even signs that could indicate a complete collapse of the species communities,” Altermatt explained. Such changes might reflect temporary upheavals in biodiversity that could herald further declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



One critical lesson from this study is that measuring biodiversity strictly by counting species may overlook significant community-level changes.&nbsp;



A site could hold the same number of species as before, yet the particular species present could shift in ways detrimental to essential ecosystem services - like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-disappearing-and-its-bad-news-for-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a>, soil stability, or water purification.



The magnitude and universality of the findings “provide clear indications of which human influences are having the greatest impact on biodiversity,” Keck said. “This also shows what goals need to be set if these trends are to be reversed.”



Though every region and ecosystem experiences different pressures, the authors hope the results offer a sort of benchmark. Policymakers, conservationists, and land managers could lean on these large-scale insights as they devise more localized strategies to safeguard biodiversity.&nbsp;



For instance, focusing on preserving or restoring specific habitats, curbing pollution, or carefully managing invasive species might bring tangible benefits more swiftly than previously realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-alter-ecosystems-worldwide">Humans alter ecosystems worldwide</h2>



Ultimately, the study emphasizes that humans are altering the face of ecosystems worldwide - not just through outright loss of species, but also by reshaping the composition of those that remain. 



The authors warn that these changes can reverberate throughout ecosystems, undermining everything from pollinator networks to fisheries. 



As the scientists emphasize, the next step is to use these insights to inform meaningful action on behalf of the countless species that still share our planet.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Human pressure is changing biodiversity faster than we realize

Humans are having a highly detrimental impact on biodiversity worldwide....

Tucked into the highlands of southern Ecuador, a new nature reserve has just been established in Selva Alegre to protect an endangered bird, the Red-faced Parrot.



With fewer than 2,400 individuals left in the wild, these rare parrots now have a dedicated sanctuary where they can thrive.



The newly established Ecuador Ridgely Reserve goes beyond protecting a single species - it contributes to restoring vital ecosystems and enhancing the well-being of nearby communities.



This initiative is the result of efforts by scientists from the <a href="https://abcbirds.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Bird Conservancy</a> (ABC), Fundación de Conservación Jocotoco, and Rainforest Trust.



Together with support from the Conserva Aves initiative, the Ridgely Reserve was established to preserve vital habitat in the Chilla Mountain Range, near the city of Saraguro in the province of Loja.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protection-for-the-red-faced-parrot">Protection for the Red-faced Parrot</h2>



The Red-faced Parrot is one of the rarest parrots in the world. It depends on the unique climate and biodiversity of tropical high-elevation forests to survive.



“The Red-faced Parrot is a very rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neotropical species</a> whose habitat is restricted to montane cloud forests of southern Ecuador and adjacent northern Peru,” said Marcelo F. Tognelli, international project officer at ABC.



“Unfortunately, deforestation and habitat loss have been contributing to its rapid decline. The creation of the Ridgley Reserve in southern Ecuador will help ensure this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-must-cross-borders-to-save-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered species</a> thrives by improving habitat connectivity, while also providing a healthier environment for local communities.”



The reserve spans 518 acres (210 hectares) and is expected to expand to 1,388 acres (500 hectares). It lies along a mix of high Andean and stunted forest terrain, gradually giving way to Páramo grasslands, pine stands, eucalyptus groves, and areas affected by grazing and agriculture.



Though the area has not been extensively surveyed, over 90 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird species</a> have already been recorded. The Red-faced Parrot has been consistently observed there since the mid-1990s, making it the most reliable site for seeing this elusive bird.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-conservation-legacy">A conservation legacy</h2>



The Ridgely Reserve honors the work of Dr. Robert Ridgely, a renowned ornithologist and longtime advocate for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-birds-diving-petrels-return-home-island-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird conservation</a>. His decades of travel and field research in South America helped document countless bird species and inspired conservation projects across the continent.



Through his collaboration with local communities, he also trained local monitors to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-migratory-birds-navigate-with-such-accuracy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a> - laying the foundation for sustainable protection efforts that continue today.



"Bob Ridgely and all the other founders of Jocotoco have created a remarkable legacy by establishing our reserves, founding the Jocotoco Foundation, and expanding our protected areas across Ecuador,” said Martin Schaefer, CEO of Jocotoco. 



“Today, we can see how that legacy has flourished, with the Ridgely Reserve in southern Ecuador serving as a prime example." 



"This new sanctuary in Selva Alegre, home to the world's largest known population of the endangered Red-faced Parrot, shows our commitment to safeguarding Ecuador's incredible biodiversity."



The reserve also represents a personal milestone for Dr. Ridgely’s conservation work. James Deutsch, CEO of Rainforest Trust, noted that Dr. Ridgely has committed his life to conserving Ecuador's biodiversity, and it is so fitting that his name will grace the newest reserve established and managed by the Ecuadorian NGO he founded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconnecting-fragmented-forests">Reconnecting fragmented forests</h2>



In the last 30 years, southern Ecuador has seen extensive deforestation. Forest has been cleared for agriculture and cattle grazing, and these activities now occupy nearly half of Selva Alegre.



This fragmentation has had a severe effect on biodiversity, especially on species such as the Red-faced Parrot that are extremely sensitive to habitat disturbance.



Consequently, the bird was recently uplisted from “Least Concern” to “Endangered” on the IUCN Red List. Habitat loss and fragmentation have rendered its survival more doubtful.



The establishment of the Ridgely Reserve solves these issues at the source by reconnecting forest fragments, rehabilitating degraded land, and providing space for the parrot and other species to heal. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-people-and-nature">Supporting people and nature</h2>



Ecuador, a country roughly the size of Colorado, is home to nearly 1,600 bird species - twice the number found in the United States. This extraordinary biodiversity highlights the urgency of conservation efforts in the region.



The Ridgely Reserve not only protects birds, but also supports human communities. It helps preserve clean water sources, stabilize soils to prevent landslides, and maintain the health of ecosystems that local people depend on for farming and daily life.



Jocotoco, which has led many of these efforts, has become a key player in conservation and nature-based tourism in Ecuador. 



The organization continues to expand its network of protected areas across the country. Jocotoco and the Rainforest Trust have collaborated on 14 conservation projects covering over 63,000 acres, with more in progress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-movement-for-the-red-faced-parrot">A movement for the Red-faced Parrot</h2>



This new reserve is also part of the broader Conserva Aves initiative. Led by ABC, the National Audubon Society, the ultimate goal is to create 100 new subnational protected areas across Latin America and the Caribbean, protecting at least 4.9 million acres in total.



For ABC, creating protected areas has been central to its mission for 30 years. Working with local partners and communities, ABC has helped protect over 1.1 million acres in more than 100 reserves across 15 countries, benefiting thousands of bird species.



As conservation challenges grow more urgent, efforts like these demonstrate what’s possible when organizations and communities work together to protect both nature and people. 



The Ridgely Reserve is more than just a name - it’s a promise to future generations that rare species like the Red-faced Parrot will have a fighting chance.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ecuador’s Red-faced Parrot gets a new home

Tucked into the highlands of southern Ecuador, a new nature...

Animals love to show off with color, especially when it comes to mating. Birds, in particular, often use bright feathers to catch the eye of a potential mate. But lately, scientists have noticed something even cooler - some birds glow using biofluorescence.



This incredible transformation happens when their feathers absorb UV light and shine it back as visible color - usually green or yellowish.



In a recent study, researchers took a close look at all 45 species of birds-of-paradise, those famously flashy birds known for their over-the-top feathers and wild dance moves. 



Turns out, almost all of them glow in some way - 37 species to be exact. Only a few closely related ones didn’t.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biofluorescence-and-birds-of-paradise">Biofluorescence and birds-of-paradise</h2>



Male birds-of-paradise show off their glow in all the right places: their beaks, the insides of their mouths, and feathers on their heads, necks, bellies, and those fancy plumes. 



Female birds glow too, but mainly on the chest and belly.



Most of the glowing colors fall into that green to yellow-green range, shining brightest around 520–560 nanometers on the light spectrum. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_plummage_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_plummage_1s.webp" alt="Some Birds-of-paradise, like this one, use biofluorescence and glow in wavelengths that humans can't see." class="wp-image-1963524"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some Birds-of-paradise, like this one, use biofluorescence and glow in wavelengths that humans can't see. Click to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



All signs point to one thing: male birds-of-paradise probably use this glowing trick to turn up the wow factor during mating displays and social interactions.



The research was conducted by scientists at the American Museum of Natural History (<a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMNH</a>) and the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adding-a-glow-to-mating-rituals">Adding a glow to mating rituals</h2>



Birds-of-paradise inhabit regions in eastern Australia, Indonesia, and New Guinea. For generations, they have intrigued scientists with elaborate feather displays and acrobatic dances that males use to court females.&nbsp;



Bioluminescence is a phenomenon in which an organism absorbs light at one wavelength, then emits it at another



The new evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-glow-in-the-dark-fluorescence-found-to-be-very-common-in-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofluorescence</a> suggests that these dazzling birds might have yet another visual trick: a layer of fluorescent signals invisible to humans without specialized instruments.



Rene Martin is the study’s lead author and an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a>.&nbsp;



“The unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-shark-mating-behaviors-observed-for-the-first-time-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating rituals</a> and displays of birds-of-paradise have fascinated scientists and spurred a myriad of studies focused on trait evolution and sexual selection,” said Martin. 



“It seems fitting that these flashy birds are likely signaling to each other in additional, flashy ways.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-fluorescence-in-birds-of-paradise">Detecting fluorescence in birds-of-paradise </h2>



The research draws on specimens collected since the 1800s, held in the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Museum of Natural History</a>’s extensive ornithology collection.&nbsp;



A decade ago, Museum Curator John Sparks - an ichthyologist by training - noticed that certain bird species, including some birds-of-paradise, glowed green-yellow when exposed to specific wavelengths of light. This led him and colleagues to begin a deeper exploration of avian biofluorescence.



“Despite there being over 10,000 described avian species, with numerous studies that have documented their bright plumage, elaborate mating displays, and excellent vision, surprisingly very few have investigated the presence of biofluorescence,” Sparks said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_credit-Rene-Martin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_credit-Rene-Martin_1s.webp" alt="Biofluorescence is seen on an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Credit: Rene Martin" class="wp-image-1963519"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Biofluorescence is seen on an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Click to enlarge. Credit: Rene Martin</figcaption></figure>



Martin, who conducted this work while a postdoctoral researcher at the Museum, and Emily Carr, a PhD candidate in the Museum’s <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/richard-gilder-graduate-school" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Richard Gilder Graduate School</a>, took Sparks’ initial findings and broadened the analysis. 



Using ultraviolet (UV) light, the team discovered that the birds not only glow under blue wavelengths but also fluoresce strongly under UV exposure. 



This effect was mainly observed on male plumage patches crucial to courtship, such as the head, belly, and neck, as well as mouth and bill linings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biofluorescence-is-most-pronounced-in-males">Biofluorescence is most pronounced in males</h2>



The researchers found that this fluorescence is especially vibrant in males, often concentrated in areas highlighted during mating rituals.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, females also exhibit it, though to a lesser degree - primarily on their chests and bellies. The study suggests that the equatorial environments in which these birds live offer abundant and varied light conditions, possibly enhancing the visibility and function of biofluorescence.



“These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/">birds</a> live near the equator, where there is an abundance of bright solar light year-round, and they live in forests where the complexity of light is significantly affected by differences in the canopy and where biofluorescent signals may be enhanced,” Carr said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bird-fluorescence-matters">Why bird fluorescence matters</h2>



Recent studies in closely related species indicate that birds-of-paradise have eye pigments aligned with the fluorescence peaks measured in this study - meaning they can likely perceive these glowing patches.&nbsp;



In a species group already known for visually striking performances, these fluorescent signals may offer an even finer scale of detail for courtship and territorial displays.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_plummage_credit-Rene-Martin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_plummage_credit-Rene-Martin_1s.webp" alt="Biofluorescence is seen on the plumage of an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Credit: Rene Martin" class="wp-image-1963522"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Biofluorescence is seen on the plumage of an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Click to enlarge. Credit: Rene Martin</figcaption></figure>



When a male bird-of-paradise performs an intricate dance, the green-yellow glow from certain feathers might act like a hidden spotlight, contrasting sharply against the bird’s darker plumage. This could help catch a female’s attention or signal social status among competitors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



Although birds-of-paradise are among the best-studied avian groups for behavior and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-tropical-birds-are-so-strikingly-colorful-and-iridescent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coloration</a>, the discovery of broad-scale fluorescence suggests that birds may have more complex signaling systems than previously realized.&nbsp;



The presence of fluorescent patches in so many species raises the possibility that other bird lineages, especially those with striking plumage or elaborate displays, could also exhibit biofluorescence.



Moving forward, the researchers plan to investigate how environmental factors - like canopy cover, seasonal light availability, and even habitat degradation - might affect these glowing displays.&nbsp;



Understanding how birds-of-paradise perceive biofluorescence could also inform broader questions about the evolution of sexual selection and signaling in avian species.



Ultimately, this study reshapes scientists’ understanding of the “secret language of light” that these flamboyant birds use to communicate.&nbsp;



With improved imaging technologies and heightened awareness of avian fluorescence, researchers may soon discover that a hidden glow permeates many corners of the bird world, especially in those known for their spectacular visual allure.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.241905" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some birds use biofluorescence to attract mates, glowing in colors that humans can't see

Animals love to show off with color, especially when it...

Marine ecosystems in the deep ocean show little sign of recovery even decades after experimental mining, according to new research that raises major concerns about the long-term impact of future seabed mining operations.



Published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08921-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, the study examined a deep-sea mining test site in the North Pacific that was first disturbed in 1979. Forty-four years later, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in that area remains lower than in nearby untouched regions.&nbsp;



The research team, which returned to the site in 2023 and 2024, worked in the Clarion–Clipperton Zone (CCZ), a vast abyssal plain about halfway between Hawaii and Mexico.&nbsp;



Situated 5,000 meters below the ocean surface, this deep seabed region holds rich reserves of polymetallic nodules - potato-sized mineral lumps containing metals like cobalt, nickel, and manganese, all crucial for clean energy technologies.



The study was led by scientists at the <a href="https://noc.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanography Center</a> in Southampton and involved a consortium of British institutions, including the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>, the <a href="https://www.bgs.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Geological Survey</a>, <a href="https://www.hw.ac.uk/">Heriot-Watt University</a>, and several universities.&nbsp;



Together, the experts form <a href="https://smartexccz.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMARTEX</a> (Seabed Mining and Resilience to Experimental Impact), a project funded by the UK’s Natural Environment Research Council.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-recovery-from-deep-sea-mining-nbsp">Long recovery from deep-sea mining&nbsp;</h2>



The original mining test involved a mechanical seabed rake that stripped nodules from a 14-meter-wide path. Despite the small scale and brief duration of the experiment, the site still bears visible scars.&nbsp;



Areas stripped of nodules and track marks from the mining machine are clearly evident. The surrounding biological communities have yet to fully rebound.



“To tackle the crucial question of recovery from deep-sea mining, we need first to look to the past and use old mining tests to help understand long-term impacts,” said Professor Daniel Jones, the study’s lead author. 



“Forty four years later, the mining tracks themselves look very similar to when they were first made, with an 8-meter-wide strip of seabed cleared of nodules and two large furrows in the seafloor where the machine passed.”&nbsp;



“The numbers of many animals were reduced within the tracks but we did see some of the first signs of biological recovery.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-that-clings-to-nodules">Life that clings to nodules</h2>



The Clarion–Clipperton Zone covers over six million square kilometres - 25 times the size of the UK - and holds an estimated 21 billion tons of nodules. These nodules are essential to the deep-sea ecosystem, offering a rare hard surface for life to cling to in an otherwise sediment-heavy environment.&nbsp;



“These nodules are potato-sized mineral deposits that have built up in layers over thousands of years. Mining companies want to mine these for critical metals like cobalt and nickel,” said Mark Hartl, a marine ecotoxicologist from Heriot-Watt University and co-author of the study.



“But there are so many unanswered questions. For example, we know the nodules produce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-known-galaxy-contains-surprising-oxygen-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a>. If they’re removed, will that reduce the amount of oxygen in the deep sea and affect the organisms that live there?”



“What is the effect of animal exposure to metal-containing sediment plumes churned up during the mining process? These are some of the questions we’re trying to answer.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-impacts-of-deep-sea-mining-nbsp">Biological impacts of deep-sea mining&nbsp;</h2>



Hartl’s work focused on the biological effects of sediment exposure. He developed new methods to evaluate whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-forms-dust-clouds-that-devastate-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mining</a> damages DNA in deep-sea fish. 



“This has never been done before,” said Hartl. “So we had no baseline data to compare any effects of mining against. We are currently optimising tests for other signs of stress applicable to the deep sea.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recovery-may-be-measured-in-centuries">Recovery may be measured in centuries</h2>



The deep sea’s slow pace of life is one reason recovery is so limited. Many organisms grow slowly, reproduce infrequently, or are adapted to highly specific habitats.&nbsp;



“General ecological theory will predict that following disturbance, any ecosystem will go through a series of successional stages of recolonization and growth," said Adrian Glover of the Natural History Museum.



"However, until this study, we had no idea of the timescales of this critical process in the deep-sea mining regions, or how different parts of the community respond in different ways.” 



“Our results don’t provide an answer to whether deep-sea mining is societally acceptable, but they do provide the data needed to make better informed policy decisions such as the creation and refinement of protected regions and how we would monitor future impacts,” Glover added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-question-of-future-trade-offs">A question of future trade-offs</h2>



The <a href="https://www.isa.org.jm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Seabed Authority</a> (ISA), the organization responsible for managing mineral-related activity in international waters, currently maintains a moratorium on commercial deep-sea mining. It is still developing a legal and environmental framework to guide future exploitation, and the SMARTEX research may influence how those guidelines take shape.



In their paper, the scientists note that mining operations are expected to cause “immediate impacts” to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafloor-relic-uncovers-earths-ancient-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seafloor</a> habitats. Collector vehicles will remove nodules, compact sediments, and stir up sediment plumes that may travel beyond mining sites. These plumes, they argue, could have “significant impacts on ecosystems” well outside the directly affected zones.



While proponents of deep-sea mining argue that it could provide critical materials for a net-zero future, the study underscores that such gains may come at a long-term ecological cost. The scars of the past, still visible and measurable after 44 years, may well be a preview of the risks ahead.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Deep-sea mining impacts marine life for decades

Marine ecosystems in the deep ocean show little sign of...

Humans are pushing many of North America’s pollinators dangerously close to extinction, according to a newly released study.&nbsp;



Led by NatureServe, the study examined nearly 1,600 species - bees, beetles, butterflies, moths, flower flies, bats, and hummingbirds - and concluded that over 22% of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> are at high risk of disappearing.&nbsp;



Since we rely on them for everything from fruit orchards to backyard gardens, the findings raise urgent alarms about the future of our food systems, ecosystems, and well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dire-assessment-of-pollinator-decline">Dire assessment of pollinator decline </h2>



This large-scale analysis, one of the first to combine so many types of pollinators, revealed that some groups are in more trouble than others. Native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-spring-flowers-can-save-bees-and-boost-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> emerged as a major concern, with 34.7% at risk - leafcutter and digger bees were singled out as especially imperiled.&nbsp;



Bats fared no better; all three pollinating bat species in the study also face troubling declines, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a> escaped with an overall lower threat level.&nbsp;



According to the authors, the American Southwest is a “hotspot” of risk: it boasts a high diversity of pollinators but also suffers significant climate-related and human-driven stressors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-security-is-at-stake">Food security is at stake</h2>



Pollinators are not just pretty insects or interesting mammals. They are the linchpins in a massive network of life, responsible for fertilizing crops and wild plants alike.&nbsp;



Pollinator species contribute over $15 billion a year to the agricultural economy of North America. Their disappearance would undermine the reproduction of key plants, disrupt wildlife <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-awakening-arctic-food-webs-are-transforming-from-green-to-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food webs</a>, and cut into human livelihoods, from small-scale farms to major commercial operations.&nbsp;



The authors hope this work draws attention to a bigger picture: losing pollinators doesn’t just mean fewer bees in a meadow. It means fewer seeds, fruits, and flowers - a ripple effect for everything that depends on those resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-impact-on-pollinator-decline">Human impact on pollinator decline</h2>



The findings place most of the blame on agriculture, habitat loss, urban expansion, and climate change, though the specific mix of threats varies.&nbsp;



For example, the southwestern United States sees both intense urbanization and searing heat, while many farmland-heavy regions must contend with heavy pesticide use. 



In Florida, for instance, the rapid development of pine rockland habitats has raised concerns that certain butterflies - with limited historical ranges - could vanish.&nbsp;



The same goes for southwestern desert ecosystems where specialized pollinators are increasingly squeezed between farmland and sprawl.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-are-struggling-to-hold-on">Species are struggling to hold on</h2>



Dr. Jaret Daniels, a co-author of the study and curator of Lepidoptera at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, has witnessed some of these pressures firsthand. 



He noted that Florida harbors remarkable butterfly diversity, yet the state’s intense population growth and land conversion are leaving specialized species with fewer places to go. 



According to Daniels, we’re seeing species that already occupied tiny pockets of habitat now struggling to hold on because of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> - just one among the many threats identified by the study



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversing-pollinator-decline-nbsp">Reversing pollinator decline&nbsp;</h2>



While the data paint a grim picture, the study also highlights actions people can take. Policymakers could integrate at-risk pollinators into wildlife action plans, unlocking more funds and legal safeguards.&nbsp;



Land managers might set aside or restore key habitats like grasslands and shrublands, which support many fragile pollinator communities.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, homeowners can adopt pollinator-friendly landscaping, from replacing turf with native plants to reducing pesticide use. Little steps, such as planting a few pots of native flowers, truly make a difference, noted Daniels.&nbsp;



Working farmland, too, can make space for pollinators. Daniels describes how Florida’s Department of Transportation plants milkweed along roadsides: pollinators that feed there can then travel to nearby farms, helping pollinate crops like blueberries and squash.&nbsp;



Over time, well-managed roadsides and farm edges become vital corridors for creatures that can roam far beyond a single flower bed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-perspective">A broader perspective</h2>



One might ask, why not rely solely on the western honey bee? Daniels warns that placing all our bets on just one species poses risks, especially with pests, diseases, and climate extremes on the rise.&nbsp;



He compares it to a retirement plan: if you invest in only one stock, trouble with that stock could be disastrous. A diverse set of pollinators spreads out the risk and ensures pollination services remain stable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swift-action-is-needed">Swift action is needed</h2>



While these newly identified threats are serious, Daniels remains cautiously optimistic, noting that pollinators are resilient if given the right support. The study’s authors likewise call for swift action, pointing to targeted, everyday solutions that individuals, farmers, and governments can pursue.&nbsp;



By fostering habitat patches, easing up on pesticides, and recognizing the value of each native pollinator’s unique role, it may be possible to stem the tide of species declines before it is too late.



Above all, the message is clear: pollinators are in trouble, but there are proven measures we can take to help slow their decline.&nbsp;



With nearly one in five pollinators imperiled, the time for more decisive conservation steps has arrived. After all, the fate of many of our favorite foods and the health of countless ecosystems depend on safeguarding these busy creatures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418742122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Pollinator decline is a direct threat to food security 

Humans are pushing many of North America’s pollinators dangerously close...

Scientists and marine experts across the globe are on alert after discovering an invasive pufferfish in the northern Adriatic.



A recreational angler recently caught a male <a href="https://www.fishbase.se/summary/4761" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silver-cheeked toadfish</a> (Lagocephalus sceleratus) measuring 20.6 inches and weighing 2.9 pounds. The fish was captured on May 13, 2024 at a depth of about 64.6 feet.



This unexpected catch marks the fourth confirmed record of this invasive fish in the Adriatic, sparking discussions about its impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-places-are-prime-targets-for-invasive-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, coastal tourism, and public safety.



The discovery is detailed in a report by researchers from the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries and <a href="https://www.unipu.hr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juraj Dobrila University of Pula</a>, including lead author Dr. Neven Iveša.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-pufferfish-reaches-the-adriatic">Invasive pufferfish reaches the Adriatic</h2>



The silver-cheeked toadfish fish is native to the Indo-Pacific and is known to be highly adaptable. Experts have identified it as a <a href="http://www.seaslugforum.net/find/lessep" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lessepsian migrant</a>, which means it traveled into the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal.



The strong bite of this invasive pufferfish can crack open hard-shelled prey, and in some cases, it has caused partial amputations of fingers. The fish’s flesh and organs carry <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ershdb/emergencyresponsecard_29750019.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tetrodotoxin</a>, a substance that can be lethal when consumed.



Some Mediterranean communities have seen this species making up a growing portion of small-scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-lionfish-global-domination-mediterranean-sea-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> hauls. Its muscular jaws can damage nets and lines, creating headaches for fishers who rely on consistent catches.



The researchers suggest controlling it through targeted removal and updated fishing practices. They noted that gear modifications might help reduce harm to native wildlife and protect the livelihoods of coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-pufferfish-disrupts-local-species">Invasive pufferfish disrupts local species</h2>



The silver-cheeked toadfish has a reputation for munching on a wide range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a>. Its diet can include bivalves, gastropods, and sea urchins.



The worry is that these feeding habits might change local food webs and interrupt natural balances. Warmer waters and certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0278434314001034" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">currents in the Adriatic</a> also appear to be improving the odds for these newcomers, raising concerns that they could spread even further.



“The presence of Lagocephalus sceleratus in the northern Adriatic is a clear warning sign of the species’ expanding range and potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-invasive-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-mediterranean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological</a> and economic consequences," said Dr. Iveša.



"Proactive monitoring and management strategies are important to mitigating its impact on local marine biodiversity, fisheries, and public safety."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulations-and-recommendations">Regulations and recommendations</h2>



Because tourism thrives on pristine coastal attractions, communities worry that sightings or injuries related to this fish might tarnish local beach culture. Even a handful of unfortunate encounters could leave a bad impression on visitors.



<a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32014R1143" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Union policies</a> address invasive species but tend to focus on freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. Croatia lacks specific marine rules that target wild species like the silver-cheeked toadfish.



The researchers highlight the need for stricter enforcement of sales bans to keep this toxic fish from entering food markets.



They also advocate for training medical personnel, fishers, and tourism operators so they can handle any interactions or injuries efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-public-awareness">Importance of public awareness</h2>



Locals in Croatian coastal towns have been asked to inform authorities if they catch or spot any silver-cheeked toadfish. The collaboration helps with early detection and better management of invasive species.



Fishing communities, diving schools, and coastal hotels play a role in gathering sightings. Citizen contributions have proven vital in tracking new arrivals and keeping tabs on any incidents.



Prompt action can head off more trouble. Strategies like reporting catches, improving public awareness, and enlisting citizen science groups all help slow the spread of this unwelcome visitor.



Authorities also recommend adjusting fishing seasons to match the invasive pufferfish’s breeding period. This step may minimize its spread and ensure the safety of recreational boaters and swimmers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-fish-threatens-ecosystem-balance">Invasive fish threatens ecosystem balance</h2>



Research teams are currently exploring the fish’s feeding habits and movements in newly invaded waters. Their ongoing work may lead to tools that help communities stay several steps ahead of shifting populations.



Croatia’s coastline faces unique pressures, yet it also holds a strong sense of community engagement. By blending local knowledge with scientific expertise, there is hope that this invasive pufferfish’s spread can be limited.



Stakeholders suggest that simple measures, like wearing sturdy gloves to remove a line-hooked puffer, can prevent injuries. They also advise posting warning signs at busy marinas if more fish appear.



The northern Adriatic’s encounter with the silver-cheeked toadfish signals a broader challenge shared by many Mediterranean regions. 



This fish’s arrival highlights the importance of cooperation among researchers, local authorities, and the public to keep beaches safe and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-deep-sea-fish-survive-the-crushing-depths-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> healthy.



The study is published in <a href="https://aiep.pensoft.net/article/146945/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Invasive pufferfish caught in the Adriatic raises safety concerns

Scientists and marine experts across the globe are on alert...

Great white sharks are top predators in ocean ecosystems and are known for their raw power and hunting prowess. They often launch themselves out of the water in pursuit of prey.



But in South Africa’s False Bay, these apex predators have all but vanished - and scientists are sounding the alarm about what that means for the rest of the ecosystem.



A new study from the <a href="https://www.earth.miami.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami Rosenstiel School</a> of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science reveals what happens when a top predator is suddenly removed from the food chain. 



After more than two decades of research in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_Bay" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">False Bay</a>, the team found significant shifts in the marine food web that are consistent with long-held ecological theories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-great-white-sharks-the-basics">Understanding great white sharks - the basics</h2>



To state the obvious, great white sharks are the rock stars of the ocean - massive, powerful, and a little bit mysterious. They can grow over 20 feet long and weigh a couple tons, cruising through the water like it’s nothing. 



These sharks hang out in coastal waters all over the world, but they especially love cooler regions like the coasts of California, South Africa, and Australia. 



With those rows of razor-sharp teeth and an uncanny ability to sense the tiniest movements, they’re built to hunt. 



Seals, sea lions, and fish are usually on the menu, and when they strike, it’s fast and fierce - like a torpedo with teeth.



Despite their scary rep, great whites aren’t the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-shark-species-face-extinction-despite-fishing-bans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mindless man-eaters</a> movies make them out to be. They’re actually pretty curious creatures. 



Sometimes, they’ll take a “test bite” out of something unfamiliar just to figure out what it is - which, unfortunately, can include surfboards. 



In order to save them from the brink of extinction, scientists have been tagging and tracking them to learn more about their behavior, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration patterns</a>, and even social lives. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disappearance-of-great-white-sharks">Disappearance of great white sharks</h2>



False Bay was once home to large numbers of great white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias), but sightings have plummeted in recent years, indicating that the population may have crashed.



The study points to two major reasons for this decline: the long-term impact of capture in protective nets near swimming areas, and more recent predation by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-in-the-food-web">Ripple effects in the food web</h2>



The absence of white sharks is reshaping the ecosystem. Without these predators, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cape-fur-seals-are-particularly-vulnerable-to-entanglement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cape fur seal</a> (Arctocephalus pusillus) populations have increased. 



So have the numbers of sevengill sharks (Notorynchus cepedianus), which are now more dominant in the area.



These changes, however, have consequences. The seals are depleting the local fish populations they feed on. Meanwhile, the sevengill sharks are preying on smaller shark species, and reducing their numbers.



These shifts demonstrate how the removal of a single species at the top of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-food-chains-threatened-by-ocean-acidification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food chain</a> can have wide-reaching effects across multiple levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-documenting-the-ecosystem-changes">Documenting the ecosystem changes</h2>



The researchers used a combination of methods to document these changes. They conducted long-term boat-based surveys, gathered citizen science reports of Cape fur seals, and analyzed data from Baited Remote Underwater Video Surveys (<a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/inport/item/25248" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BRUVS</a>).



“The loss of this iconic apex predator has led to an increase in sightings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-happens-to-antarctic-seals-when-sea-ice-vanishes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cape fur seals</a> and sevengill sharks, which in turn has coincided with a decline in the species that they rely on for food,” said Dr. Neil Hammerschlag, the study’s lead author.



“These changes align with long established ecological theories that predict the removal of a top predator leads to cascading effects on the marine food web."



Video footage was a key source of information. It helped researchers see not just which species were present, but how they behaved.



“The use of underwater video surveys conducted more than a decade apart provided us with a snapshot of the food web both before and after the disappearance of white sharks from False Bay,” said Yakira Herskowitz, a co-author of the study. 



“The number of individuals of a given species recorded on the videos not only informs us about their numerical abundance, but also their behavior, as species under increased predation risk often become more elusive and are thus less likely to be detected on our cameras.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-matter-more-than-you-think">Sharks matter more than you think</h2>



These findings offer clear evidence that losing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-white-sharks-separated-into-three-distinct-groups-that-dont-intermingle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">top predator</a> affects far more than just one species. It sends a shockwave through the entire ecosystem.



“Without these apex predators to regulate populations, we are seeing measurable changes that could have long-term effects on ocean health,” said Hammerschlag.



As ocean systems continue to face threats from climate change, pollution, and overfishing, the study makes one thing clear: protecting sharks isn’t just about saving one species - it’s about preserving balance in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a>.



With so much of the world relying on healthy oceans for food, recreation, and natural services, the role of large sharks is too important to ignore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warning-for-other-ecosystems">A warning for other ecosystems</h2>



False Bay may be the focus of this study, but it's far from the only place where shark populations are under pressure. 



Similar patterns of disruption could be unfolding in other coastal ecosystems around the world where large predators are disappearing.



This study serves as a warning: the health of marine environments depends on keeping their food webs intact. 



Efforts to protect sharks - through conservation policies, public awareness, and improved fishing practices - are vital not just for the species themselves, but for the oceans they help keep in balance.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1530362/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What happens when great white sharks disappear? Hint - it's not good

Great white sharks are top predators in ocean ecosystems and...

About 252 million years ago, Earth witnessed the worst biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-the-mass-extinction-that-reshaped-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disaster</a> ever recorded. Known as the end-Permian mass extinction, it erased over 80% of marine life. 



Scientists refer to it as the “Great Dying.” Yet what came next has its own strange legacy - a time when marine life everywhere looked the same.



This era, called the “Great Dulling,” spanned millions of years. From the tropics to polar regions, ocean life became oddly uniform. 



Species that once stayed in tight local zones suddenly appeared everywhere. Scientists have puzzled over this mystery for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-life-changed-after-mass-extinction">Marine life changed after mass extinction</h2>



Stanford researchers now offer a compelling explanation. The team used fossil records and environmental data to track how marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/at-least-two-of-earths-mass-extinctions-caused-by-massive-supernova-explosions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> reacted after the Great Dying. 



The research was focused on groups like clams, oysters, and snails - organisms that not only survived but spread globally.



Published in the journal Science Advances, the study introduces a climate model that tracks oxygen and temperature changes. It helps explain why some creatures expanded rapidly while others died out. 



The findings suggest that global environmental shifts shaped who survived - and where they lived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-mass-extinctions-in-a-new-way">Studying mass extinctions in a new way</h2>



Study senior study author Jonathan Payne is the Dorrell William Kirby Professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences in the <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>.



“For us in the paleobiology field, this model is the equivalent to climate scientists getting computerized climate models to make quantitative predictions of how the world should change based on some simple mathematical representations,” said Professor Payne.



“We are now able to study big biogeographic changes of mass extinctions in a new way and get a better sense of why some animal groups made it through while others perished.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shockingly-uniform-marine-communities">Shockingly uniform marine communities </h2>



To reconstruct ancient oceans, scientists use fossils and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-forests-rose-again-after-the-planets-most-extreme-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical traces</a>. 



These markers reveal environmental shifts like temperature, acidity, and oxygen levels. Around the end of the Permian period, massive volcanic activity in modern Siberia set off global warming and ocean acidification.



These changes alone can’t explain why surviving species suddenly spread across every ocean. That mystery belongs to the Triassic period, when marine life grew boringly similar everywhere.



“If someone asked you today where you’d find kangaroos, you’d say Australia,” said Jood Al Aswad, the study’s lead author and a PhD candidate. 



“But now imagine some major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/public-concern-over-species-extinctions-fades-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disaster</a> happened, like a giant volcano erupted, and afterward you’re finding kangaroos in great numbers all over the globe – they’re all the way out in Antarctica, they’re hopping by the pyramids in Egypt, and they’re even in Stanford, California.”



Before the extinction, marine communities were highly diverse. Afterward, they became shockingly uniform. The team found that species variety across different parts of the world dropped by over half.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-homogenization-on-a-global-scale">Homogenization on a global scale</h2>



For nearly 200 years, scientists have debated what caused this sudden sameness. 



One idea is "ecological release" - when surviving species thrive because predators and competitors vanish. Another idea suggests that climate change made Earth more habitable to certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-oasis-provided-refuge-for-plants-during-earths-worst-extinction-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a> everywhere. The Stanford team tested both ideas. 



The researchers used geochemical data to model ancient ocean temperatures and oxygen levels. Then, they added physiological data from living marine animals - relatives of those ancient survivors - to simulate how creatures might have spread after the mass extinction.



The model showed that environmental conditions alone - higher temperatures and lower oxygen - were enough to predict where species could live. There was no need to consider missing predators or rivals.



“Our study has provided a simple environmental explanation, rather than an ecological one, for why certain survivors of the end-Permian extinction prospered and why homogenization happened on a global scale,” said Professor Payne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-today-s-crisis-echoes-past-mass-extinction">Today’s crisis echoes past mass extinction</h2>



The model doesn’t just shed light on ancient history. It also helps scientists understand modern threats. Human activity is now causing another mass extinction. The model could offer insights into what life on Earth might look like in the future.



“The current biodiversity crisis is anticipated to herald changes in ecosystem composition that surpass even those seen in the earliest Triassic, which has been the greatest homogenization event to date,” the study authors wrote.



The research team now plans to apply this model to other mass extinction events, including the one that wiped out non-avian dinosaurs.



“Our model offers a great way of studying how animals respond to extreme changes in the environment,” said Al Aswad.



“With anthropogenically spurred climate change, there has been some warning that if we continue, then in the future we’re going to see taxonomic homogenization of organisms in modern oceans as well.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr4199" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Marine life became strangely uniform after Earth’s worst mass extinction

About 252 million years ago, Earth witnessed the worst biological...

In the vast savannas of Africa, elephant herds roam with a quiet grace that often hides the complexity behind their movements. From a distance, it may look like these giants simply wander in search of food and water. But new research reveals a different story - one of calculation, strategy, and energy balance.



African elephants, it turns out, don’t just walk aimlessly. They think before they move.



A recent study published in the Journal of Animal Ecology shows that elephants are highly efficient in how they meet their immense daily energy needs. The research brings together over two decades of data from 157 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> in Northern Kenya.



With advanced tracking and modeling tools, scientists have uncovered how elephants choose their paths based on terrain, food availability, and energy cost. The insights have far-reaching implications for conservation, especially in the face of habitat loss and climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-save-energy-to-survive">Elephants save energy to survive</h2>



Being an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-elephants-teeth-can-help-us-track-animal-movements/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> comes with some heavy burdens - literally. These massive herbivores, often weighing several tons, need to consume huge amounts of low-calorie vegetation every single day.



Their enormous size gives them strength, but it also demands constant refueling. Unlike predators that hunt calorie-dense prey, elephants must spend most of their day eating just to keep up.



But eating isn’t the only task that burns energy. Finding food in harsh, fragmented landscapes means walking long distances. Each step taken across uneven ground, up steep hills, or through dry plains carries a cost. 



For elephants, movement isn’t just a means of travel - it’s a calculation. The right decision can save hours of energy; the wrong one can drain their reserves.



That’s why understanding how elephants navigate their environment matters. Knowing the logic behind their paths helps scientists protect their habitats better and ensure that conservation strategies match their real-world needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-elephants-for-22-years">Tracking elephants for 22 years</h2>



To uncover the patterns behind <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinct-elephant-fossils-reveal-early-evidence-of-animal-butchery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> movement, researchers from the University of Oxford, the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>), and Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena worked with Save the Elephants, a UK-registered charity based in Kenya. 



Over 22 years - from 1998 to 2020 - they collected GPS data from 157 elephants moving across Northern Kenya.



This dataset provided a rare and rich look at how elephants respond to their environment. The patterns were clear. Most elephants consistently avoided areas that would require too much effort to cross. 



Rough terrain and steep slopes saw far fewer elephant visits. Instead, elephants selected flatter, smoother paths - even if those routes were longer. Energy saved, not distance shortened, seemed to be the deciding factor.



The study showed that 94% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-movement-is-influenced-by-habitat-suitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> avoided high-cost terrain. These weren't random decisions. Elephants appeared to actively weigh their options and pick the path that required the least energy, a strategy that may be essential for survival in unpredictable landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-water-choices">Food and water choices</h2>



Terrain wasn’t the only factor in elephant decision-making. Vegetation quality also played a big role. Around 93% of elephants showed a preference for areas rich in plant productivity. 



These areas offered more reward for less walking - ideal for large herbivores who need to eat for hours each day. The link between green areas and elephant movement was strong and consistent across seasons.



Water, too, influenced their choices, but not in the way one might expect. Some elephants stayed close to rivers or waterholes. Others traveled far and wide. The researchers found that while water access is important, elephants make complex individual choices about how much they prioritize it.



This adds another layer of complexity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-elephant-conflict-will-escalate-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> behavior and shows that conservation plans need to leave room for variation among individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-and-strategy-of-elephants">Speed and strategy of elephants</h2>



The study also uncovered a surprising detail: elephants are even more selective about terrain when moving at higher speeds. When walking slowly, 74% of elephants avoided difficult landscapes. 



But when moving at intermediate or fast speeds, those numbers climbed to 87% and 93% respectively. That means the faster they go, the more carefully they choose their route.



This strategy mirrors what scientists have seen in other species. Just like birds that ride thermal uplifts to glide with less effort, elephants appear to make conscious choices to preserve energy. These choices are not just about immediate survival. 



They shape long-term success, reproduction, and herd stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-tools-to-understand-old-trails">New tools to understand old trails</h2>



To analyze the movement data, the researchers used a modeling method called ENERSCAPE. This system estimates how much energy it takes for an elephant to move across various types of terrain, based on the animal's body mass and the slope of the land.



When combined with satellite data on vegetation and water, the tool creates a detailed picture of the “energy landscape” each elephant navigates.



They also used step-selection functions, a statistical method that compares the places elephants actually visited with nearby places they could have visited but didn’t. By examining these choices, the researchers identified which environmental factors shaped elephant routes most.



This approach revealed more than just preference - it showed decision-making. Elephants don’t walk randomly. They make careful, context-aware choices that reflect an understanding of effort, reward, and terrain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-elephant-energy-logic">Following elephant energy logic</h2>



These findings aren’t just academic. They could change how conservation areas and migration corridors are planned. 



Many protected zones are created based on where elephants are seen most often. But this new research suggests that energy cost must be a key factor in design. A path that looks good on paper may be too steep or rugged for real elephant use.



Planning must also consider individual differences. Some elephants prefer staying near water. Others roam far. A rigid conservation plan that doesn’t account for these preferences may fall short. Flexibility and energy-efficiency need to be built into every project aimed at protecting these animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-disturbance-and-change">Climate, disturbance, and change</h2>



The environment is changing fast. As temperatures rise and rainfall patterns shift, food and water availability will also change. 



That could force elephants to alter their routes, raising the risk of human-elephant conflict. The study's authors believe their work can help predict how elephants might respond to these changes - and guide conservation efforts accordingly.



Future work will improve the ENERSCAPE model by adding seasonal data, human activity maps, and climate projections. These enhancements will give a fuller picture of how elephant behavior adapts to a world in flux.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-save-energy-whenever-possible">Elephants save energy whenever possible</h2>



“While more detailed research is needed to fully understand how an elephant uses its habitat, this study identifies a central decision-making factor for travelling elephants: save energy whenever possible,” noted co-author Professor Fritz Vollrath from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



“These new results have important implications for assessing and planning conservation and restoration measures, such as dispersal corridors, by explicitly accounting for the energy costs of moving,” added lead researcher Dr. Emilio Berti from the&nbsp;German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research&nbsp;and&nbsp;Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena.



Elephants, long admired for their memory and strength, now reveal another layer of intelligence - how they move with intention. In learning to think like elephants, we may find better ways to protect them.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652656" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Elephants choose their paths carefully to conserve energy

In the vast savannas of Africa, elephant herds roam with...

In a quiet home office in Durham, North Carolina, neuroscientist Richard Mooney pores over vivid brain scans of zebra finches. 



Each image captures moments in the life of a young bird learning to sing - dots of neural activity scattered across the brain like a pointillist painting, or bright squiggles marking chemical changes during a solo performance.



To Mooney, a professor at <a href="https://duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> who has spent four decades studying how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/">birds</a> learn to sing, these imperfect chirps and squeaks are the earliest signs of something much bigger. “Their songs don’t sound like much at first,” he said.



But, like a child learning to talk or a pianist learning scales, zebra finches must put in hours of practice - up to 10,000 renditions a day for an entire month - before they can produce their complex, courtship-ready melodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-reveal-secrets-of-learning">Songbirds reveal secrets of learning</h2>



Now, thanks to new research by Mooney and Duke neurobiology professor John Pearson, scientists are beginning to understand what fuels this relentless drive to improve - and what it reveals about the learning process in general.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08694-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, offer new insight into how learning occurs without external rewards, and could deepen understanding of motor learning and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chemicals-linked-to-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurological disorders</a> in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-learning-process">Tracking the learning process</h2>



In their experiments, the researchers placed male juvenile zebra finches - who are the only singers among their species - in soundproof chambers where they could practice at will. 



These birds learn their courtship songs early in life by first listening to their fathers and memorizing the melodies. 



Then, like human toddlers learning speech, they begin to babble, gradually shaping their squeaks into structured songs that match their mental template.



To monitor their progress, Pearson’s team developed a machine learning model capable of analyzing and scoring thousands of song renditions in real time. This allowed the researchers to track how each bird’s performance changed from moment to moment.



“Some tries were a little better, and some were a little worse,” Pearson said. “Generally the longer the birds worked at it, the better they got.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-learning-for-the-joy-of-it">Songbirds learning for the joy of it</h2>



As the birds honed their songs, the team also monitored chemical signals in the basal ganglia, a brain region involved in learning new motor skills. 



Using fluorescent sensors engineered to light up in the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-helps-us-learn-from-positive-and-negative-experiences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine</a> - a key chemical messenger for reward and motivation - the researchers tracked its activity in real time.



What they discovered was surprising: each time a bird practiced, dopamine levels began to rise, regardless of how well the song was performed.&nbsp;



Whether the bird hit the right notes or not, simply making the effort triggered activity in the brain’s reward system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-brain-wired-to-learn">A brain wired to learn</h2>



The dopamine signal increased even more when a bird sang better than expected for its developmental stage, and dipped slightly when performance regressed.&nbsp;



These shifts suggest that the birds’ brains were reinforcing improvement and gently correcting missteps - all without any external feedback.



“Nobody’s telling the bird if he’s an honor student or going to be sent to detention,” Mooney said. “The birds were alone during their practice sessions, singing away in a soundproof room.”



Instead, the study shows that dopamine acts as an internal guide - a kind of neurological compass - helping the birds adjust and improve over time. This system of intrinsic motivation may explain how learning continues even in the absence of rewards or punishments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dopamine-provides-a-motivational-boost">Dopamine provides a motivational boost</h2>



The researchers also identified another player in the process: acetylcholine, a neurochemical known to influence attention and learning.&nbsp;



Qi, the study’s first author, demonstrated that acetylcholine could stimulate dopamine release when the birds sang, providing an extra motivational boost.



When the team blocked dopamine or acetylcholine in the basal ganglia, the results were dramatic.



“Learning basically comes to a halt,” Mooney explained. “The bird still sings a lot, but he doesn't seem to be able to learn from it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-learning">Implications for human learning</h2>



While the experiments were conducted in zebra finches, the implications go far beyond avian neuroscience. The basal ganglia, dopamine, and acetylcholine systems involved in the birds' learning are shared across vertebrates - including humans.



“These findings translate across species,” Pearson said. “Essentially every animal with a backbone shares these brain systems.”



Understanding how these internal motivation systems function may shed light on how humans acquire complex skills like speaking, playing an instrument, or juggling. 



In this sense, Mooney said, “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birdsong</a> learning is very similar to what children do when they spontaneously acquire these remarkable skills.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-as-a-model-for-learning">Songbirds as a model for learning</h2>



The research could also help explain what happens when those systems break down. Dopamine dysfunction in the basal ganglia is associated with neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. 



By studying learning in songbirds, researchers can explore the underlying principles in a simpler system.



“It’s really important that we understand these regions, and the bird is a means of getting at those principles,” Pearson noted.



For Mooney, the significance is both scientific and deeply human.



“Of all the scientific frontiers that remain, the brain is probably the most poorly understood. And it’s fundamental to being human,” he concluded.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dopamine fuels learning in young songbirds

In a quiet home office in Durham, North Carolina, neuroscientist...

The story of early human migration into South America has stirred debate. Researchers have long argued about when these first travelers arrived, how they adapted, and which paths they followed. 



Evidence has surfaced in many forms, from stone tools and butchered bone fragments to entire campfire sites once littered with animal remains. 



Although these clues have fueled lively conversations, scholars have faced frustrations when old assumptions were challenged and new findings seemed sparse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-in-the-pampas">Humans in the Pampas</h2>



The Pampas, known for its expansive plains and iconic landscapes, saw much of its early buzz dwindle in the mid-1900s. Yet the puzzle of who first roamed there has never truly gone away.



Now, according to research by Mariano Del Papa of <a href="https://unlp.edu.ar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National University of La Plata</a>, Argentina and colleagues, modern technology and updated theories are breathing fresh life into these investigations. 



Refined carbon dating, advances in ancient DNA methods, and broader approaches to human-environment interactions have sparked new interest in how and when humans walked across these southern lands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-bones-and-cut-marks">Animal bones and cut marks</h2>



Scientists have long wondered if humans and extinct giant animals, sometimes called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">megafauna</a>, overlapped in time or even shared close encounters. The debate has centered on physical associations and behavioral associations.



The former refers to animal bones and tools found in direct contact, while the latter involves traces of human activity on the bones themselves. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-europeans-practiced-cannibalism-eating-both-enemies-and-loved-ones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cut marks</a> are among the strongest signs of human interaction, yet they require careful analysis to rule out accidental scratches, weathering, or other natural wear.



In the Pampas, confident identification of these marks has been sporadic, with just a handful of sites showing possible evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> and large mammals coexisting. 



Many previous finds lacked direct proof of who caused the damage or how these animals ended up with unusual grooves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reconquista-river-discovery">The Reconquista River discovery</h2>



One significant lead emerged along the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquista_River" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reconquista River</a> in northern Buenos Aires, where researchers uncovered the fossilized remains of an extinct armored animal called Neosclerocalyptus, which resembled giant armadillos.



Scientists inspected the shell and tail bones, seeking patterns that might confirm human involvement. 



Radiocarbon dating placed these remains at around 21,000 years old, suggesting human presence in this area well ahead of many earlier estimates.



Further microscopic analysis revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eat-like-neanderthal-unpacking-ancient-cooking-methods-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cut marks</a> on parts of the pelvis, tail, and body armor. Statistical work compared these traces with known examples from butchered remains. 



The marks aligned with what stone tools commonly produce, and their location matched spots where hunters might have targeted meat-rich areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neosclerocalyptus-giant-armadillos">Neosclerocalyptus - giant armadillos</h2>



Neosclerocalyptus was one of those prehistoric oddballs you wouldn’t want to bump into on a walk through ancient South America. 



It looked kind of like an armadillo on steroids - covered in a thick, bumpy shell and sporting a short, stubby snout. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/first-humans_south-america_Neosclerocalyptus-skeleton_giant-armadillo_credit-Del-Papa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/first-humans_south-america_Neosclerocalyptus-skeleton_giant-armadillo_credit-Del-Papa_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of a Neosclerocalyptus skeleton highlighting cut-marked skeletal elements in light blue found at the CRS-10 specimen. Credit: Del Papa et al., 2024, PLOS ONE" class="wp-image-1963422" style="width:300px;height:auto"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Drawing of a Neosclerocalyptus skeleton highlighting cut-marked skeletal elements in light blue found at the CRS-10 specimen. Credit: Del Papa et al., 2024, PLOS ONE</figcaption></figure>



This guy belonged to the glyptodont family, which were basically giant armored mammals related to modern armadillos. 



Neosclerocalyptus roamed the open plains during the Pleistocene epoch, which means it shared the landscape with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smilodon-fatalis-young-saber-toothed-cats-had-double-fangs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saber-toothed cats</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-in-america-coexisted-with-giant-sloths-and-mastodons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giant ground sloths</a>, and early humans. It wasn’t exactly speedy, but its tank-like body made up for it in defense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timeline-of-humans-in-south-america">Timeline of humans in South America</h2>



The dating results place this evidence roughly 6,000 years before most recognized archaeological sites in southern South America. 



Researchers note that a small but growing body of recent findings across the Americas indicates humans may have been around even earlier than 20,000 years ago. 



These outcomes resonate with discoveries elsewhere suggesting that people reached the continent sooner than older textbooks stated.



While the giant armadillo discovery in northeastern Argentina stands out, it parallels similar points of interest in other regions. 



Scientists working elsewhere have seen indications of human activity dating beyond the once-accepted timeline of 13,000 to 16,000 years ago. 



These glimpses could fill voids in the historical record, showing that different groups explored diverse landscapes, from coastal zones to inland stretches.



Clear behavioral associations remain challenging to confirm. Bones alone can be scattered by rivers or shifting sediments, and random fractures sometimes mimic cut marks. 



In this case, careful examination of the site’s layers helped rule out normal taphonomic processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Investigations like this may steer attention to under-sampled areas where layers from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Glacial Maximum</a> remain intact. 



If additional fossils with similar markings appear nearby, the evidence for a broader human footprint dating back more than 20,000 years will become tougher to dispute. 



Radiocarbon dating and ancient DNA techniques could then piece together the connections between these early populations and later groups spread across South America.



Experts agree that ongoing exploration is essential. Early settlement patterns in the Pampas might reflect unique strategies for finding resources and adapting to shifting climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-south-america-and-giant-armadillos">Humans, South America, and giant armadillos</h2>



From a set of fossils on the Reconquista River to the possibility of unearthing more traces in the surrounding region, every fresh clue adds depth to an ancient tale. 



These findings echo other recent data suggesting humans reached the Americas well before longstanding theories indicated. 



The weight of this evidence challenges traditional timelines and inspires experts to reexamine historical assumptions.



For now, this glyptodont discovery seems to indicate that South America’s early human narrative might stretch back further than once believed.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0304956" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

First humans in South America survived by eating giant armadillos

The story of early human migration into South America has...

Climate change has long threatened species living in extreme habitats. Emperor penguins, iconic residents of Antarctica, now face a sharper edge of that threat. 



​A team led by scientists at the&nbsp;Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu/press-room/news-release/new-study-finds-emperor-penguins-increasingly-threatened-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>), along with global collaborators, has revealed new evidence that these birds are more at risk than previously believed.​



The study suggests emperor penguins should no longer be considered “Near Threatened.” Instead, the team recommends reclassifying them as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719309899?" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Vulnerable” or even “Endangered”</a>. This shift, based on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22697752/132600320?" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">updated IUCN criteria</a>, highlights an urgent need to reconsider current conservation strategies.



The researchers tailored their study to match the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/just-a-whiff-of-penguin-poop-can-send-krill-into-a-frenzy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a>’ deep dependence on stable sea ice and predictable Antarctic conditions. The changing environment now places them on unstable ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-threats-to-emperor-penguins">Climate threats to emperor penguins </h2>



Emperor penguins are at significant risk of extinction due to climate change, particularly the rapid loss of Antarctic sea ice, which they depend on for breeding and raising their chicks. 



Studies suggest that if current warming trends continue, more than 90% of emperor penguin colonies could be gone by the end of the century. 



Some projections indicate that major population declines could happen much sooner, potentially within our lifetime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study </h2>



Published in Biological Conservation, the paper titled Living with Uncertainty presents new tools to predict future risks. The researchers used a cutting-edge method: the Multi-Model Large Ensemble (MMLE) framework.



This approach combines numerous Earth system simulations to capture a fuller picture of possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enhanced-monitoring-of-emperor-penguins-can-help-us-save-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental futures</a>.



“This is the first study to integrate natural variability in physical and biological processes and employ a wide range of Earth system and ecological models to account for numerous sources of uncertainty in projecting assessments of future population trajectories,” said Stéphanie Jenouvrier, lead author and senior scientist at WHOI.



“Improved methods for accounting for uncertainties are urgently needed to strengthen assessments of extinction and inform conservation efforts in an uncertain world.”



The framework improves how scientists handle uncertainty in environmental modeling. Instead of relying on a single future scenario, the MMLE considers many outcomes. This change offers deeper insight into extinction risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-is-changing-for-emperor-penguins">The world is changing for emperor penguins</h2>



To build their models, the team used a wide variety of data. These included satellite images of 50 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-penguins-have-lost-97-percent-of-their-population/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguin colonies</a>, long-term monitoring of chicks and adults, and over a decade of observations of individual birds. The researchers also factored in how colonies move, drawn from genetic and population data.



“There are quantifiable uncertainties in projections of future environmental conditions,” said Jenouvrier. “Incorporating this uncertainty in ecosystem projections allows for a more complete and robust assessment of potential extinction risk.”



This approach blends fieldwork, satellite technology, and ecological theory. It gives conservationists a more grounded look at future risks. Such forecasts help shape stronger policies - especially when dealing with species that live in remote or harsh environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-for-future-conservation">A model for future conservation</h2>



Professor Phil Trathan, one of the study’s authors and formerly Head of Conservation Biology at the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>, emphasized the broader meaning of this research.



“Emperor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-are-struggling-to-survive-as-sea-ice-vanishes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a> are vital indicators of ecosystem health in the Antarctic, they also help inform us about wider changes in the earth system. Therefore, harnessing robust models that increase our understanding about uncertainty and risk are vital, if we are to better conserve and protect this and other species.”



“Ultimately, humans depend upon the natural world, so developing better projections of the future earth system are essential for ensuring human health and well-being. The tools used in this study should now help us all.”



The combination of modeling tools and diverse data points may set a precedent for future work. Other species in similarly vulnerable habitats may also benefit from these techniques.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-emperor-penguins">Protecting emperor penguins</h2>



The IUCN plays a central role in shaping how species like the emperor penguin are protected. The Red List guides many conservation decisions, often influencing discussions at international levels.



These include forums like the&nbsp;Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (<a href="https://www.ats.aq/e/atcm.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ATCM</a>)&nbsp;and the&nbsp;Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (<a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CCAMLR</a>).​



“The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting serves as a key forum for decision-making on Antarctic conservation. This new IUCN Red List assessment provides critical scientific support for strengthening protections for emperor penguins under the Antarctic Treaty System,” noted Jenouvrier.



”It also strengthens the case for establishing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) under the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, particularly in vital regions like the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea, which could serve as crucial refugia for emperor penguins.” 



With the scientific foundation now laid, the next step lies with policymakers. If taken seriously, this reassessment may not only protect emperor penguins but also influence how we respond to global climate threats across species and continents.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320725000746" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Emperor penguins may disappear in our lifetime

Climate change has long threatened species living in extreme habitats....

Antibiotic resistance is rising. Infections spread unchecked as old treatments fail. The next solution may come not from labs, but from swamps and forests. Frogs - ancient survivors of earth’s changing ecosystems - have evolved powerful natural defenses. These defenses may hold the key to future antibiotics.



Frogs thrive in environments teeming with microbes. Yet, they rarely suffer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-their-memories-to-fight-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infections</a>. That mystery has long intrigued researchers. Could frogs be carrying biological secrets that might save human lives?



​A new study led by&nbsp;Professor Cesar de la Fuente&nbsp;at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.upenn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a>&nbsp;believes the answer is yes.&nbsp;His team is tapping into the molecular defenses of frogs to design synthetic antibiotics that may defeat drug-resistant bacteria.​



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frog-evolution-shaped-powerful-antibiotics">Frog evolution shaped powerful antibiotics</h2>



Frogs have existed for over 200 million years. They have spread across continents and climates, adapting to jungles, rivers, deserts, and subarctic forests. Living in moist, microbe-rich environments, frogs constantly face bacterial threats. 



To survive, many species evolved antimicrobial peptides in their skin. These natural compounds kill harmful bacteria on contact. Unlike traditional antibiotics, they do not easily trigger resistance.



One frog species, Odorrana andersonii, has become the focus of research. It produces a peptide known as Andersonnin-D1. Chinese scientists first identified it in 2012. 



Despite its strength against bacteria, the peptide clumps together, making it less effective and more toxic. Because of this flaw, it cannot be used in clinical medicine without modification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mission-to-rebuild-nature-s-blueprints">Mission to rebuild nature’s blueprints</h2>



Professor Cesar de la Fuente’s lab works at the intersection of biology, engineering, and synthetic chemistry. His team looks for inspiration in nature’s forgotten corners. 



Their earlier work explored ancient DNA from extinct animals like the woolly mammoth and Neanderthals. They also investigated the human gut microbiome, home to countless natural compounds.



“Each study is motivated by imagining environments where evolution would spur the creation of antibiotics,” said de la Fuente.



“Amphibians live in very microbe-rich environments. They very rarely get infected despite being surrounded by microbes, so they must produce antimicrobial compounds.”



Inspired by this evolutionary logic, the team set out to redesign Andersonnin-D1. The goal was to remove its dangerous tendencies while keeping its bacterial-fighting power.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-frog-antibiotics-in-the-lab">Improving frog antibiotics in the lab</h2>



Using structure-guided design, the researchers altered the chemical structure of Andersonnin-D1. This approach allows experts to make small, deliberate changes to a molecule’s sequence and observe the effects.



Marcelo Torres is a research associate in the de la Fuente lab and co-author of the paper.



“With structure-guided design, we change the sequence of the molecule. And then we see how those mutations affect the function that we are trying to improve," said Torres.



This method generated several synthetic peptides. These versions kept the strong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cigarette-waste-fuels-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antimicrobial effect</a> but avoided the clumping that caused toxicity in the original. 



Each design aimed for maximum precision, producing molecules more suitable for real-world use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-the-molecules-to-the-test">Putting the molecules to the test</h2>



Designing new&nbsp;frog-based&nbsp;antibiotics is only the beginning. To prove their value, the synthetic peptides had to succeed in rigorous lab tests. 



The team exposed the molecules to a range of harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-could-cause-a-health-crisis-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>. The results were promising. In preclinical models, the peptides matched the strength of polymyxin B - a last-resort drug used when others fail.



More importantly, these synthetic antibiotics showed low toxicity. They left human cells unharmed and did not disrupt beneficial gut bacteria. This makes them more targeted and less harmful than many existing drugs. The lab tested the peptides in both simple and complex bacterial communities.



“Those experiments are very difficult to set up because you need to grow different bacteria at once,” says de la Fuente. “We had to come up with the specific ratio of each bacterium to have a sustained community.”



These community-based models better reflect the conditions of real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antimicrobial-resistance-could-cause-39-million-deaths-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infections</a> in the human body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-toward-clinical-use">Steps toward clinical use</h2>



If additional studies continue to show strong results, the team will prepare for Investigational New Drug (IND) enabling studies. 



These tests assess safety and efficacy before a drug can be submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Only after passing these stages can the peptides move into clinical trials involving human patients.



“We are excited that frogs - and nature in general - can inspire new molecules that could be developed into antibiotics,” said de la Fuente. “Thanks to the power of engineering, we can take those natural molecules and turn them into something more useful for humanity.”



This line of research represents a fusion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary biology</a> and advanced engineering. It shows how careful study of nature’s own defenses can guide the creation of life-saving medicines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-role-in-innovation">Nature’s role in innovation</h2>



The research was conducted at the University of Pennsylvania’s <a href="https://www.seas.upenn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Engineering and Applied Science</a>. It was supported by funding from organizations such as the National Institutes of Health (<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIH</a>), the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (<a href="https://www.dtra.mil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DTRA</a>), <a href="https://us.pg.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Procter &amp; Gamble</a>, and the <a href="https://www.aiche.org/giving" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AIChE Foundation</a>.



The study is not just about frogs or antibiotics. It reflects a larger movement in science. Instead of only inventing new molecules from scratch, researchers are increasingly exploring the solutions that evolution already tested over millions of years.



Nature, shaped by survival, often creates molecules more elegant and efficient than anything built by human hands.



In this case, one frog’s molecular defense may lead to a major medical breakthrough. As the world searches for new antibiotics, it may be ancient animals - and the researchers who study them - that help protect our future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2025.02.007" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Biotechnology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Frogs lead the way in developing new antibiotics

Antibiotic resistance is rising. Infections spread unchecked as old treatments...

In the forests of Tanzania, chimpanzees have long been known to fish for termites using handmade tools crafted from local plants. But what makes this behavior even more fascinating is how carefully they seem to choose the materials for their tools.



New research now shows that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a> are not just grabbing any nearby stick to poke into a termite nest - they’re making smart choices based on how flexible and effective the material is.



This discovery comes from a collaborative effort between researchers at the University of Oxford’s <a href="https://www.anthro.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Anthropology</a> and Museum Ethnography, the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, the Jane Goodall Institute in Tanzania, the University of Algarve, the University of Porto in Portugal, and the University of Leipzig.



The study sheds light on the technical thinking behind chimpanzee tool use, a largely invisible part of primate evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-prefer-flexible-tools-for-fishing">Chimpanzees prefer flexible tools for fishing</h2>



To eat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">termites</a>, chimpanzees must first catch them. The primates use thin plant probes to pull the insects carefully out of narrow, winding tunnels inside termite mounds.



The team proposed that flexible tools would work better in these tight spaces than rigid sticks. To test this, lead author Alejandra Pascual-Garrido brought a portable mechanical tester to Gombe Stream National Park. She measured the amount of force it took to bend different plant materials.



The results were striking. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-can-sense-when-something-touches-them-despite-not-having-nerves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants</a> that the chimpanzees actually used were much more flexible than those that were available but ignored. 



On average, unused plants were 175 percent more rigid. Even among plants growing side-by-side near the termite mounds, the ones that were repeatedly used produced significantly more flexible tools.



“This is the first comprehensive evidence that wild chimpanzees select tool materials for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-have-a-peak-season-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">termite fishing</a> based on specific mechanical properties,” said Pascual-Garrido, who has been studying chimpanzee tool-making in Gombe for over ten years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-preferences-across-africa">Shared preferences across Africa</h2>



Interestingly, the same plant species used by chimpanzees in Gombe such as Grewia - are also used by other chimpanzee populations living thousands of kilometers away.



This pattern suggests that the mechanical qualities of these plants are so useful that they’ve become common knowledge among different chimpanzee groups. It also hints that this knowledge might be deeply embedded in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-cultures-are-more-complex-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzee culture</a>.



Their choices suggest a kind of natural logic. Chimpanzees may have what scientists call a “folk physics” - an intuitive understanding of which materials will get the job done.



Their knack for selecting the right plant isn’t just done by trial and error. It’s a skill. And it's one that might reflect the kind of thinking our early human ancestors used when building their own tools.



“This novel approach, which combines biomechanics with animal behaviour, helps us better understand the cognitive processes behind chimpanzee tool construction and how they evaluate and select materials based on functional properties,” said Pascual-Garrido.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-about-chimpanzees">New questions about chimpanzees </h2>



The research opens up more questions than it answers. How do young chimpanzees learn which materials to use? Do they copy their mothers? And do they apply the same rules when choosing tools for other jobs - like collecting ants or honey?



“This finding has important implications for understanding how humans might have evolved their remarkable tool using abilities,” explained Adam van Casteren from the Department of Human Origins at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.



“While perishable materials like wood rarely survive in the archaeological record, the mechanical principles behind effective tool construction and use remain constant across species and time.”



These behaviors also raise questions about memory, experience, and even innovation in non-human primates. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-about-early-humans">Clues about early humans</h2>



Understanding how chimpanzees refine their techniques over time could reveal a primitive form of trial-and-error learning that mirrors early human problem-solving.



By studying chimpanzees and their preferences for certain types of materials, researchers hope to uncover clues about how early humans may have started crafting implements long before stone tools appeared in the archaeological record.



It’s a small but meaningful step toward understanding the roots of human intelligence - through the eyes, and hands, of our closest extant relatives.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00419-5?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2589004225004195%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Chimpanzees have tool-making skills similar to human engineers

In the forests of Tanzania, chimpanzees have long been known...

Sharks have roamed the oceans for millions of years. Their powerful jaws and sharp teeth make them top predators that are capable of influencing entire marine ecosystems. 



However, understanding what they eat and where they feed remains difficult. This is especially true for rare or protected species where direct sampling poses legal and ethical challenges.



Traditionally, scientists study shark diets by examining their teeth. But collecting samples from live sharks can be risky, costly, and often impossible, especially when dealing with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-great-hammerhead-sharks-rarely-leave-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">threatened species</a>. 



Yet, every opportunity to gather data matters. That’s where the past meets the present - inside the drawers and display cases of museums.



A new study led by researchers from Flinders University has found that preserved shark jaws - often considered to be static relics - can be a powerful scientific resource. 



Using teeth from sharks in historical collections, researchers can now study shark diets without touching a living specimen.



This breakthrough offers new hope for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-shark-species-face-extinction-despite-fishing-bans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine science</a> and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-jaws-reveal-feeding-secrets">Shark jaws reveal feeding secrets</h2>



Shark teeth hold chemical signatures that reveal details of their past meals and feeding grounds. These signatures come from ratios of stable isotopes - naturally occurring variations of chemical elements. By examining these isotopes, scientists can piece together an animal’s ecological history.



Until now, scientists avoided using preserved jaws due to concerns that cleaning chemicals might have distorted the isotopes.



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark</a> jaws in museums and private collections have been treated with substances like ethanol, bleach, or hydrogen peroxide. These treatments whiten the teeth but were thought to possibly alter their chemical composition.



However, the new research shows otherwise. The team discovered that these chemicals do not affect the key isotopes used in diet studies. This means that thousands of jaws from past decades are now usable in ways previously thought impossible.



"Most shark jaws in museums and private collections are chemically treated, so understanding if, or how these treatments affect tooth isotopes is crucial," said Flinders research associate Dr. Lauren Meyer.



"Finding that preservation chemicals had no impact on isotope values opens the door for the use of jaws from historic collections across Australia and globally."



This discovery means scientists can study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark</a> diets without needing fresh tissue samples. It also significantly broadens the scope of possible studies, including comparative diet research across different eras and regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-clarity-through-isotope-testing">Chemical clarity through isotope testing</h2>



The study involved stable isotope analysis, which looks at carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotopes. These elements help identify where and what an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodon-was-sleeker-and-longer-than-previously-imagined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> has been eating.



"The chemicals in teeth provide a story of what the shark has eaten and from where, whether that be sea lions in South Australia, or tuna in New South Wales," explained lead author Laura Holmes, from the Southern Shark Ecology Group in the College of Science and Engineering at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>.



The researchers partnered with the Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Laboratory at the <a href="https://www.utas.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tasmania</a>. 



The team tested teeth from three very different elasmobranchs: cownose rays, gummy sharks, and broadnose sevengill sharks.



Despite their structural differences, all samples held up under isotope testing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-species-now-within-scientific-reach">Rare species now within scientific reach</h2>



Access to historical jaws brings particular value when studying rare or threatened shark species. These species often cannot be sampled directly, but many have had jaws collected as trophies. 



With these now validated as reliable data sources, older specimens can help researchers understand long-term dietary trends.



"This is especially useful for rare or threatened species, for which standard tissue samples may not be readily available, but for which trophy jaws have been collected, such as white sharks, tiger sharks, and makos," said Dr. Meyer.



Older collections, such as those from the 1970s and 1980s, now offer a scientific window into the past. This information is crucial as many shark species face increasing pressure from human activities, climate change, and habitat degradation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-across-marine-life">Applications across marine life</h2>



While this study focused on sharks and rays, the implications go beyond these groups.



Other marine predators, such as killer whales, sperm whales, and fur seals, also have teeth stored in museum collections. These could be tested using the same methods, opening new research pathways.



"This study opens the door to use a tremendous resource of samples to untangle the current and historic diet and foraging habitats of complex predators - making the most exciting finding from this study the capacity for new research that is now possible," said Dr. Meyer.



These findings not only expand the toolkit for marine scientists but also enhance our understanding of ocean ecosystems over time. Every preserved tooth could tell a story. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141113625001205?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Environmental Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Chemical clues from old shark jaws reveal diets and habitats

Sharks have roamed the oceans for millions of years. Their...

What does it take to truly understand evolution? For centuries, scientists studied bones in museums and fossils in stone. But in recent decades, a quiet shift has been underway. 



A group of dedicated researchers has started tracking life as it changes - not over millennia, but through real-time observation. At the heart of this movement is a growing collection of long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-itself-found-to-be-evolving-as-life-constantly-learns-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary studies</a>, some spanning generations, others stretching across continents.



Now, a new review article published in the journal Nature pulls these threads together for the first time. Led by scientists from Georgia Tech, the study explores how these extensive research programs are capturing evolution’s most elusive processes. The findings reveal more than biological data - they offer a window into life’s unfolding story.



"Evolution isn't just about change over millions of years in fossils - it's happening all around us, right now," said lead author James Stroud, an assistant professor in the <a href="https://biosciences.gatech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Biological Sciences</a> at Georgia Tech.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-long-term-research-matters">Why long-term research matters</h2>



Understanding evolution isn't just about snapshots. It’s about watching a process play out, one generation after another. Many evolutionary events unfold too slowly or unpredictably to catch in a brief study. This is where long-term research comes in. 



By investing time - sometimes decades - scientists can observe what shorter experiments might miss entirely.



"However, to understand evolution, we need to watch it <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unfold in real time</a>, often over many generations. Long-term studies allow us to do that by giving us a front-row seat to evolution in action," explained Stroud.



This is the first major review to examine the role of long-term evolutionary studies in such depth. It highlights not only their scientific value but also their potential to answer questions that once seemed unapproachable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-islands-to-petri-dishes">From islands to petri dishes</h2>



The review explores case studies from both the wild and the lab. One example comes from the Galápagos Islands, where researchers have spent forty years studying Darwin’s finches. 



These iconic songbirds provided direct evidence of speciation - when a new species formed through hybridization.



In the lab, scientists observed 75,000 generations of bacteria evolve. Over time, these microbes developed new metabolic abilities that no one had predicted at the start. 



These events might seem extraordinary, but they were not accidents. They were only visible because of the patient design and extended timeline of each study.



"These remarkable evolutionary events were only caught because of the long-term nature of the research programs," said Stroud. "Even if short-term studies captured similar events, their evolutionary significance would be hard to assess without the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">historical context</a> that long-term research provides."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-results-in-evolution">Unexpected results in evolution</h2>



One thing long-term studies teach us: nature rarely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-age-cycles-are-predictable-but-humans-may-change-that/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">follows our expectations</a>. Surprising discoveries often emerge years after a study begins. 



This unpredictability makes such work especially valuable. Long-term experiments serve as both a test of hypotheses and a source of entirely new questions.



"The most fascinating results from long-term evolution studies are often completely unexpected - they're serendipitous discoveries that couldn't have been predicted at the start," said co-author Professor Will Ratcliff, co-director of the Interdisciplinary Ph.D. in Quantitative Biosciences at <a href="https://www.gatech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Tech</a>.



Ratcliff also points to a practical truth that often goes unnoticed. "While we can accelerate many aspects of scientific research today, evolution still moves at its own pace. There's no technological shortcut for watching species adapt across generations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-evolution-reacts-to-climate-shifts-nbsp">How evolution reacts to climate shifts&nbsp;</h2>



The Nature paper also reflects on how long-term studies have captured changes driven by the planet itself. One area of growing concern is phenology - the timing of biological events like flowering or migration.



As the climate warms, many species shift their schedules. But how much of that change is temporary flexibility, and how much is actual evolution?



Long-term studies provide the answer. They allow researchers to see whether traits are inherited, and whether those changes persist. Without enough time, it’s nearly impossible to tell the difference between momentary adaptation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lasting change</a>.



A recent case showed how both phenotypic plasticity and adaptive evolution influence the timing of flowering in plants. Such insights matter, especially in a world where ecosystems face rapid and unpredictable shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decade-long-evolution-experiments">Decade-long evolution experiments</h2>



Stroud and Ratcliff do more than study other people’s work. They run their own long-term experiments as part of Georgia Tech’s evolutionary biology community. These projects not only inform the review - they reflect its central message.



In South Florida, Stroud oversees a project known informally as “Lizard Island.” Over the last ten years, he and his team have monitored a tiny island’s lizard population - about 1,000 individuals from five species.



By watching how these animals compete, coexist, and sometimes change, his group uncovers how species evolve and hold their identity under pressure.



Meanwhile, Ratcliff’s work focuses on a deeper evolutionary shift: the origin of complex life. His Multicellularity Long Term Evolution Experiment (MuLTEE) observes snowflake yeast as they evolve into multicellular forms. 



Running for more than 9,000 generations already, this project may continue for 25 more years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-life-s-transitions">Revealing life’s transitions</h2>



One of Ratcliff’s most important findings is that becoming multicellular might not be as hard as once believed. 



That single-celled organisms can evolve cooperation, division of labor, and complexity - all within an observable timeframe - challenges long-standing views.



These results make long-term projects not just informative but essential. Some evolutionary transitions were thought to be rare or nearly impossible. But with time as an ally, researchers are discovering that nature may have more flexibility than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-in-a-time-of-speed">Science in a time of speed</h2>



Despite their value, long-term studies face growing challenges. Today’s academic culture often rewards fast results. Funding cycles rarely last more than a few years. Publishing systems favor novel discoveries over incremental work. This creates an environment where slow research becomes harder to sustain.



Yet, the most powerful findings about life’s processes often take time. Stroud and Ratcliff argue that the scientific community must protect and support these efforts. 



In the review, they point out how many breakthroughs happened only because researchers kept going - even when immediate outcomes weren’t clear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-present-predicting-future">Understanding present, predicting future</h2>



Stroud believes that this work has never been more urgent. "The world is rapidly changing, which poses unprecedented challenges to Earth's biodiversity," he noted. "It has never been more important to understand how organisms adapt to changing environments over time."



"Long-term studies provide our best window into achieving this. We can document, in real time, both short-term and long-term evolutionary responses of species to changes in their environment, like climate change and habitat modification."



This review doesn’t just celebrate what has already been learned. It points toward the future. Understanding evolution isn’t only about looking back. It’s about predicting what comes next - and that takes time, patience, and a commitment to seeing the whole picture.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08597-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Evolution isn’t just ancient history, it’s happening right now

What does it take to truly understand evolution? For centuries,...

Evolution drives all biological change. It shapes every lifeform we know, including birds. Charles Darwin laid its foundation with natural selection, explaining how organisms adapt and survive through generations.



Recent advances in genetics and bioinformatics have pushed our understanding far beyond Darwin’s notebooks. One question still haunts the scientific world: What really drives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-itself-found-to-be-evolving-as-life-constantly-learns-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">novelty</a> in evolution? 



A new study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> offers a fresh approach and some surprising answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-evolution-tick">What makes evolution tick</h2>



DNA changes lie at the center of evolution. These changes fuel the dazzling variety of life around us. Sometimes, they produce traits that surprise us. Other times, they lead to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mutations</a> behind deadly viruses.



That’s why understanding DNA’s shifting patterns isn’t just scientific curiosity. It matters for protecting ecosystems. It matters for predicting health threats.



"Basically, we showcase a method to extract information from genomes and reveal the forces driving biological novelty with unprecedented detail," said David Duchene, a professor in the Department of Public Health at the University of Copenhagen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-as-evolution-s-case-study">Birds as evolution’s case study</h2>



The team used birds as their main study group. Why birds? They’re the most diverse group of vertebrates - 10,000 species strong.



"We used birds as our study subject. With 10,000 known species, they are the most diverse class of vertebrates and uniquely suited for exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary phenomena</a>. With our method, we were able to identify key factors that influence how these bird lineages and their thousands of genes evolve," explained Duchene.



Their method identified four key evolutionary factors: clutch size, gene biochemistry, chromosome size, and leg length. Duchene says these results break the idea that one trait, like flying or singing, steers a group’s evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-evolution-depends-on-many-traits">Bird evolution depends on many traits</h2>



"Our study tells us that you will find much nuance as to the drivers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">novelty</a> once you look at multiple lineages and genes in detail. The biochemistry, chromosomes, and various aspects of lifestyle all play distinct roles in bringing about novelty," said Duchene.



It’s not one factor but many. The research shows how each piece, from gene makeup to physical traits, helps shape the tree of life. This view gives experts a better toolkit for tracking changes across different organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-the-next-pandemic">Clues to the next pandemic</h2>



The findings stretch beyond birds, offering deeper insight into evolution across many forms of life.



The method could help scientists track how diseases evolve. It could help understand how plants respond to climate change. And it could point to what we risk losing in our current biodiversity crisis.



According to Duchene, the findings can be applied to a variety of contexts, such as understanding how diseases adapt to human demographics or climate conditions.



"The same principles that help us decode the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> of birds could also be used to investigate the genetic changes driving everything from pandemics to species adaptation in shifting ecosystems," said Duchene.



"This method could tell us: What is special about what we are losing in the current biodiversity crisis? What exactly made those animals so novel and unique, and what have they taught us about evolution such that we might want to preserve them?" 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-evolution-and-the-study-of-life">Bird evolution and the study of life</h2>



Every extinct species takes with it a chapter of evolution’s story. Understanding why those species were unique helps us grasp the full scale of what’s being lost. 



It also shows us what we must protect - not just for the sake of nature, but for future discoveries about life itself.



With this new approach, scientists can now map the drivers of evolution more clearly than ever before. The tools used to decode bird diversity may soon help us understand the rise of new diseases or the disappearance of key species. 



The study invites a shift in thinking - from seeing evolution as a slow and distant process to recognizing it as something dynamic and ongoing.



Nature still holds many secrets. But thanks to this work from the University of Copenhagen, we are one step closer to understanding how life continues to surprise, survive, and evolve.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08777-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Decoding evolution: How birds can help us prevent pandemics

Evolution drives all biological change. It shapes every lifeform we...

species in Microcerberidae

News coming your way