A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Researchers have analyzed cause-of-death data for 24 countries, uncovering the extensive impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on life expectancy. 



The study reveals sharp declines in life expectancy across most countries in 2020 and 2021, driven by both direct and indirect effects of the pandemic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-expectancy-during-the-pandemic">Life expectancy during the pandemic</h2>



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-covid-pandemic-influence-the-seasonal-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2020</a>, life expectancy fell in all but four of the 24 countries studied, with the United States experiencing the steepest decline of 2.1 years for males.



The downward trend continued into 2021, with females in Bulgaria and males in Latvia suffering losses exceeding two years. Japan and South Korea emerged as notable exceptions, experiencing only minimal declines during this period.



"This study explores the direct and indirect effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on mortality across the world and highlights that life expectancy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-lockdowns-weakened-our-immune-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">losses</a> had still not returned to pre-pandemic levels in several countries by 2022," noted Antonino Polizzi, lead author and student at the <a href="https://www.demography.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leverhulme Centre for Demographic Science</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indirect-impacts-on-mortality">Indirect impacts on mortality</h2>



Beyond COVID-19-related deaths, the study found increased mortality from cardiovascular diseases significantly contributed to the decline in life expectancy. 



Russia and Bulgaria were particularly affected, with cardiovascular disease-related losses reaching 5.3 months in Russia in 2020 and 5.5 months in Bulgaria in 2021. These figures may reflect disruptions in prevention and treatment or undercounted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-pandemic-change-our-transportation-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a> fatalities.



"The pandemic reversed years of progress in reducing cardiovascular deaths in several countries, which constituted one of the largest sources of gains in life expectancy over the period 2015–2019. These losses continued through 2022," noted Professor Jennifer Dowd, Deputy Director of the Leverhulme Centre for Demographic Science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pandemic-factors-lowering-life-expectancy">Pandemic factors lowering life expectancy</h2>



Substance abuse and mental health-related causes also surged in certain regions. The United States and Canada saw significant increases in drug-related deaths, contributing to their life expectancy declines. 



Latvia faced notable alcohol-related mortality, while suicide and accident mortality typically declined during the pandemic years. However, Japan’s females experienced comparatively large losses from suicide mortality in 2020.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bright-spots-amid-the-crisis">Bright spots amid the crisis</h2>



Despite the many challenges highlighted in the study, there was some encouraging news regarding cancer mortality. 



In most countries, deaths from cancer continued to decline during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-makes-a-virus-capable-of-causing-a-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pandemic</a>. This indicates that the disruptions to cancer care, such as screenings or treatments, may not have been as severe as initially feared.



The researchers propose two potential reasons for this trend:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Sustained efforts in cancer care: Health systems might have prioritized cancer treatments despite the strain of the pandemic, ensuring that patients received the necessary care.</li>



<li>Reclassification of causes of death: In some cases, individuals with cancer who passed away from COVID-19 might have been recorded as COVID-19 fatalities rather than cancer-related deaths, which could have contributed to the decline in cancer mortality figures.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-the-pandemic">Lessons from the pandemic </h2>



The findings emphasize the need for resilient health care systems capable of maintaining care for various conditions during global crises. 



Addressing regional disparities and developing targeted public health interventions are critical to mitigating the broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-can-prevent-future-pandemics-by-protecting-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impacts of future pandemics</a>.



"This study highlights the extent to which the COVID-19 pandemic impacted other causes of death, and the need to analyze different diseases and causes of death in a post-pandemic context to identify factors that can improve global health care systems," said Dr. José Manuel Aburto, a co-author and demographer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-effect-on-global-life-expectancy">Lasting effect on global life expectancy </h2>



In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant and lasting effect on global life expectancy, undoing progress made in areas like reducing deaths from cardiovascular disease and other preventable conditions.



Many countries saw increases in mortality, not just from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/staying-home-is-the-new-going-out-after-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a> itself, but also from related issues like delayed medical care and worsening health conditions. This setback has reversed years of health improvements, highlighting vulnerabilities in global health systems.



By studying these changes and understanding the factors behind them, policymakers and health authorities can learn valuable lessons. 



This analysis emphasizes the importance of creating healthcare systems that are both robust - able to handle emergencies - and equitable - ensuring all populations have access to care during a crisis.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/advance-article/doi/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae508/7928941?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Life expectancy fell sharply during the COVID-19 pandemic

Researchers have analyzed cause-of-death data for 24 countries, uncovering the...

The Winter Solstice, often referred to as “the shortest day of the year,” is an astronomical event that marks the beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere.



In this region of the world, the solstice also marks the turning point when days gradually grow longer.



While the solstice represents the start of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-winters-are-getting-colder-while-world-is-getting-warmer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">winter</a>, the coldest temperatures often occur weeks later due to the “seasonal lag,” as the Earth continues losing heat.



Beyond its scientific significance, the winter solstice has profound cultural, spiritual, and historical importance across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-winter-solstice">What is the Winter Solstice?</h2>



The winter solstice occurs when one of Earth’s poles is tilted farthest away from the Sun, resulting in the least amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-we-actually-benefit-from-daylight-saving-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">daylight</a>. This happens because Earth's axis is tilted at approximately 23.5 degrees relative to its orbit around the Sun.&nbsp;



“Earth’s axis may be imagined as an imaginary pole going right through the center of our planet from ‘top’ to ‘bottom.’ Earth spins around this pole, making one complete turn each day. That is why we have day and night,” explained <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/Watch_the_Skies/tag/solstice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



In the Northern Hemisphere, the Winter Solstice typically occurs between December 20 and 23, with December 21 being the most common date.



On this day, the Sun appears to travel its shortest path across the sky. For those at the Arctic Circle, the Sun may not rise at all, creating 24 hours of darkness. Conversely, the Antarctic Circle experiences 24 hours of daylight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-the-winter-solstice">Cultural significance of the Winter Solstice </h2>



The Winter Solstice has been celebrated across cultures for thousands of years. Early humans observed the solstice as a critical marker of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peoples-moral-values-literally-change-with-the-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seasonal change</a>, signifying the gradual return of longer daylight hours and the promise of spring.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stonehenge">Stonehenge</h3>



This ancient monument in England aligns with the solstices, suggesting its builders may have used it as a calendar to track astronomical events.



Constructed in several phases between roughly 3000 BCE and 2000 BCE, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stonehenges-famous-altar-stone-has-surprising-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stonehenge</a> remains a mystery regarding its exact purpose. It may have served as a burial ground or a ceremonial site.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yule-in-norse-tradition">Yule in Norse tradition</h3>



The Norse people celebrated Yule, lighting fires to symbolize the Sun's rebirth and feasting to mark the turning of the season.



Yule coincided with the darkest days of the year. The festival celebrated the return of the Sun and the lengthening of days, symbolizing hope and renewal.



Yule was dedicated to the gods, particularly Odin, who was associated with wisdom, magic, and the Wild Hunt - a ghostly procession believed to occur during this time. Offerings, feasts, and sacrifices were made to gain their favor.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saturnalia-in-ancient-rome-nbsp">Saturnalia in ancient Rome&nbsp;</h3>



Saturnalia was one of the most popular festivals in ancient Rome, held in honor of Saturn, the god of agriculture, wealth, and time.&nbsp;



Celebrated annually in mid-December, the festival originally lasted for a single day (December 17) but eventually expanded to a week. The celebration involved feasting, gift-giving, and a temporary social reversal where traditional roles were upended.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dongzhi-in-east-asia">Dongzhi in East Asia </h3>



Dongzhi (冬至), meaning "Winter Solstice" in Chinese, is an important festival in East Asia.&nbsp;



Rooted in the philosophy of Yin and Yang, Dongzhi symbolizes the balance and transformation of natural energies as the days begin to lengthen, bringing more light and warmth.



Modern celebrations like Christmas and Hanukkah incorporate elements of these ancient traditions, emphasizing light and hope during the darkest days of the year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-universal-reminder">A universal reminder</h2>



The Winter Solstice is more than just an astronomical event; it serves as a reminder of nature’s rhythms and humanity’s enduring connection to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anthropic-principle-we-live-in-a-universe-fine-tuned-to-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>. It symbolizes resilience, as the darkest day paves the way for the return of light.&nbsp;



Across millennia, it has inspired wonder, reflection, and celebration - a testament to the timeless bond between Earth, its inhabitants, and the heavens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spiritual-turning-point">A spiritual turning point</h2>



The solstice encourages people to look inward, reflect on the past year, and set intentions for the year ahead, aligning with the natural pause of winter.



This occasion represents the balance and cycles of life, urging us to embrace both light and shadow in our personal journeys.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Winter Solstice: The shortest day of the year has arrived

The Winter Solstice, often referred to as “the shortest day...

In the depths of planet Earth, a hidden microbial world thrives under extreme conditions that are beyond the reach of our regular perception.



This extraordinary and invisible ecosystem harbors an abundance of life forms that flourish in environments such as gold mines, aquifers, and deep boreholes in the seafloor.



But how do these below-the-surface microbiomes compare to the vibrant ecosystems bathed in Earth's sunlight?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-the-microbial-deep-dwellers">Discovering the microbial deep dwellers</h2>



Researchers have now investigated this question in a first-of-its-kind comprehensive endeavor undertaken at the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> (MBL).



What they found was incredibly rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-soil-planet-warming-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial diversity</a> in certain subsurface habitats, which extended up to 491 meters (1,610 feet) below the seafloor and 4,375 meters (14,300 feet) below ground level in terrestrial habitats.



This unprecedented revelation hints at vast, unexplored, subsurface sources of diversity, and presents possible opportunities for finding new compounds and medicines.



The study holds potential for identifying how cells adapt to extremely energy-scarce environments. The findings may also be useful in the search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expanding-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraterrestrial life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-diversity-below-the-surface">Microbial diversity below the surface</h2>



The study's lead scientist, MBL associate scientist Emil Ruff, addressed some of the common assumptions about life below the Earth's surface.



“It’s commonly assumed that the deeper you go below the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-of-how-diamonds-reach-the-earths-surface-finally-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s surface</a>, the less energy is available, and the lower is the number of cells that can survive,” noted Ruff. 



“Whereas the more energy present, the more diversity can be generated and maintained - as in tropical forests or coral reefs, where there’s lots of sun and warmth."



However, the study’s findings tell a different story. In some subsurface habitats, microbial diversity can easily match or surpass the diversity on the surface.



This was found to be especially true for marine environments and for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-microbes-discovered-in-2-billion-year-old-rocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> in the Archaea domain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-two-realms">A tale of two realms</h2>



The study, which took almost a decade to complete, was also one of the first to compare marine and terrestrial environments in terms of microbial diversity and community composition.



While the experts found that the marine and terrestrial microbiomes differed greatly in composition, their level of diversity was similar. This finding gives rise to a fundamental ecological principle.



“There’s a very clear divide between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-life-forms-from-800-million-years-ago-redefine-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life forms</a> in the marine and in the terrestrial realms, not just in the surface, but also in the subsurface. The selective pressures are very different on land and in the sea, and they select for different organisms that have a hard time living in both realms," explained Ruff.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-in-low-energy-environments">Microbes in low-energy environments</h2>



The existence of a vast reservoir of microbes kilometers deep - both under our feet and beneath the seafloor - was first broadly recognized by scientists in the mid-1990s.



Now, scientists estimate that between 50 and 80 percent of Earth’s microbial cells live in the subsurface sediments, where energy availability is significantly lower than on the sunlit surface.



The study suggests that potentially half of Earth's microbial diversity can be found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-great-harm-earth-subsurface-deep-interior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">subsurface zones</a>.



In addition, the findings point towards a fascinating phenomenon: in these low-energy environments, life appears to be slowed down to an absolute minimum. Some subsurface cells are estimated to divide only once every 1,000 years. 



These microbes live on completely different timescales and could provide intriguing insights about aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-finding-extraterrestrial-life">Implications for finding extraterrestrial life</h2>



If planets like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-water-found-on-mars-would-cover-the-planet-over-one-mile-deep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars had liquid water</a> at some point in their history, the rocky ecosystems below their surface could resemble those currently on Earth.



“The energy would be very low; the organisms’ generation times would be very long. Understanding deep life on Earth could be a model for discovering if there was life on Mars, and if it has survived,” said Ruff.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbiomes-of-diverse-locations-on-earth">Microbiomes of diverse locations on Earth</h2>



Past studies of microbial life on Earth’s surface and subsurface aren't scarce, but synthesizing the data was challenging due to inconsistencies in methodology across different research groups.



However, in 2016, a breakthrough method allowed for a consistent dataset to compare more than 1,000 samples from 50 marine and terrestrial ecosystems.



Samples from around the world were sent to MBL, where scientists used identical routines to sequence and analyze the microbial DNA present. 



This consistent methodology allowed for the first direct comparison of microbiomes from vast and diverse locations.



Ultimately, the research serves as a foundation for exposing the rich tapestry of life forms that inhabit the invisible worlds below the Earth’s crust.



As we continue to explore these subsurface habitats, we stand to learn much about the adaptability and resilience of life in its myriad forms.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq0645" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Half of Earth's microbial life may be hiding beneath the surface

In the depths of planet Earth, a hidden microbial world...

Despite their reputation as buzzing nuisances, flies serve a critical role as some of the Earth's most prolific pollinators. A new study led by Penn State scientists suggests that flies are increasingly at risk due to rising global temperatures.



An international team of researchers examined the heat tolerance of various bee and fly species in tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas.&nbsp;



The results indicate that flies are more vulnerable to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-is-buzzing-off-bumblebee-senses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming climates</a> than bees, since bees can handle significantly higher temperatures and occupy a broader range of habitats.



“Bees and flies are essential for pollinating plants, both in the wild and in agriculture,” said Margarita López-Uribe, an expert in pollinator health at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> and lead author on the study. “However, these vital insects are declining due to habitat loss, pesticides, disease and the growing threat of climate change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-are-underappreciated-yet-vital-pollinators">Flies are underappreciated yet vital pollinators</h2>



Flies, second only to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-do-not-learn-to-be-cooperative-it-is-in-their-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> in terms of the volume of crops and habitats they pollinate, play a crucial role in sustaining wild ecosystems.&nbsp;



By facilitating the reproduction of numerous plant species, flies help maintain biodiversity and provide resources for countless other organisms. They also increasingly contribute to agriculture - for example, flies serve as the primary pollinators of cocoa trees, the source of chocolate.



A 2020 analysis of global crops found that the 105 most widely planted crops benefiting from pollinators represent more than $800 billion in gross economic value. Among these pollinators, flies, specifically hoverflies and blowflies, consistently ranked just behind bees.



“It's time we gave flies some more recognition of their role as pollinators,” López-Uribe said. “Flies have a significant role, but they don't get as much attention - and they are vulnerable in all the same ways that bees are.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-bees-and-climate-change">Flies, bees, and climate change </h2>



Because insects cannot easily control their body temperatures, rising global temperatures present a serious challenge. 



To assess how different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> might cope, the research team measured the “critical thermal maximum” (CTMax) - the highest temperature at which insects can still move - of both bees and flies.



They found that bees can tolerate substantially warmer conditions than flies. On average, bees had a CTMax 2.3 degrees Celsius higher than that of flies.&nbsp;



Additionally, bees foraging in cooler morning hours proved more heat-tolerant than those active in warmer afternoons.&nbsp;



Geographic factors also mattered - pollinators living at high-elevation tropical sites showed lower CTMax values than their counterparts in subtropical areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-data-collection-across-the-americas">Data collection across the Americas</h2>



The study’s data collection occurred during COVID-19 lockdowns, so international students from Penn State and other universities conducted research in their home countries.&nbsp;



Instead of traveling, students worked with equipment sent to them, gathering measurements in their own kitchens and backyards.



“We sent out all of the equipment to do the study to students throughout the U.S. and South America,” López-Uribe said. “These students were collecting the data in their houses, using their kitchens to understand the thermal ecology these insects could withstand.”



“We effectively were able to provide an international research experience without being able to travel internationally.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-battling-climate-change">Flies battling climate change </h2>



The findings suggest that insects from cooler, high-altitude environments, such as Cajicá in Colombia, are particularly susceptible to even slight temperature increases.&nbsp;



Since flies are often the primary pollinators in alpine and subarctic regions, their reduced ability to withstand warming could jeopardize entire ecosystems.



“In alpine and subarctic environments, flies are the primary pollinator,” López-Uribe said. “This study shows us that we have entire regions that could lose their primary pollinator as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-is-buzzing-off-bumblebee-senses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> warms, which could be catastrophic for those ecosystems.”



As climate change continues to reshape global temperatures, understanding the vulnerabilities of flies - as well as bees - will be key in guiding conservation efforts.&nbsp;



Without recognizing and protecting the essential pollination services flies provide, communities may face declining biodiversity, reduced crop yields, and unstable ecological networks in the years to come.



The study is published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.17161/jom.vi122.22505" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Melittology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Flies are more vulnerable to climate change than bees

Despite their reputation as buzzing nuisances, flies serve a critical...

When marathon runners train, their minds typically focus on mileage, nutrition, and gear. Yet recent research from the Brown University School of Public Health suggests that runners may also need to think about the air they breathe on race day.&nbsp;



According to a new study published in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-024-02160-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sports Medicine</a>, higher levels of fine particulate matter in the air are linked to slower average marathon finish times.



“Runners at that level are thinking about their gear, their nutrition, their training, the course, even the weather,” said study author Elvira Fleury, who conducted the research while enrolled as a graduate student at <a href="https://www.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a> and is now a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>. 



“Our results show that those interested in optimizing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-fatigue-impairs-athletic-performance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">athletic performance</a> should consider the effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-air-pollution-forms-may-help-us-prevent-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a>, as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-scale-analysis-across-major-marathons">Large-scale analysis across major marathons</h2>



The study drew on finish times from 1,506,137 male and 1,058,674 female participants who ran in nine major marathons throughout the United States - including Boston, Houston, and Los Angeles - between 2003 and 2019.&nbsp;



By combining publicly available race data with a sophisticated statistical model developed by Allan Just, an associate professor of epidemiology and environment and society at Brown, the researchers could determine the amount of fine particulate matter at various points along each course.



“This really sophisticated spatial-temporal model of particulate matter allowed us to plot pollution at every mile of every course,” Fleury said. “Without a model like this, it wouldn't have been possible to look at so many different marathons in different states across different years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-air-pollution-and-marathon-performance">Air pollution and marathon performance </h2>



Fine particulate matter, known as PM2.5, consists of airborne particles smaller than 2.5 microns in diameter and originates from sources like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intense-forest-fires-leave-scorched-earth-heating-the-planet-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest fires</a>, vehicle emissions, and industrial activities.&nbsp;



Analyzing the data, the researchers found that every 1 µg/m³ increase in PM2.5 was associated with slower finish times: on average, 32 seconds slower among men and 25 seconds slower among women. The effect was particularly evident among faster-than-median runners, suggesting that even elite athletes might be affected.



Although these time differences may seem small, Fleury pointed out that they matter greatly in elite competitions, where the margin between victory and defeat or achieving a personal record can be just a few seconds.



“Think of all the effort, time and money that a professional runner like Eliud Kipchoge put into trying to break the world record and run a marathon in less than two hours,” Fleury said. “Every second matters.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marathon-runners-exposed-to-air-pollution">Marathon runners exposed to air pollution </h2>



While previous research has linked air pollution to health issues like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-diet-may-save-your-life-six-key-foods-lower-the-risk-of-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart disease</a>, lung disease, and even mortality, this study examined its impact on the athletic performances of fit, well-trained individuals.&nbsp;



The researchers suggested that exposure to air pollution could lead to increased blood pressure, constricted blood vessels, reduced lung function, respiratory discomfort, or short-term cognitive difficulties - factors that together might slow a runner’s pace.



“People who can complete a marathon are generally quite healthy, and we can assume they have honed their cardiorespiratory fitness,” said study author Joseph Braun, a professor of epidemiology at Brown’s School of Public Health.&nbsp;



“This study revealed a negative impact from air pollution, even at levels below current health-based standards, on these very healthy people. This means that air pollution can be a health risk not just for those who are elderly or susceptible - it can negatively affect even the most healthy and well-trained among us.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-b-roader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research </h2>



The results serve as a reminder that if air pollution can hamper marathon runners - often among the healthiest individuals - then the general population may also face health risks from polluted air.&nbsp;



The researchers concluded that efforts to lower pollution through regulation of power generation, industry, and transportation not only protect public health but may also help athletes perform at their peak.



For runners striving to set new personal records, paying attention to air quality forecasts could be one more step toward success.&nbsp;



For policymakers and environmental advocates, these findings underscore the importance of continuing efforts to reduce air pollution, ensuring a healthier environment for everyone - from elite athletes to casual joggers and beyond.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Air pollution negatively affects marathon performance

When marathon runners train, their minds typically focus on mileage,...

Murder,Hornet,Vespa,Mandarinia,Giant,Wasp,Known,As,Killer,Bee

The giant "murder hornet," once feared for threatening insects, agriculture, and human comfort, has been eradicated from its foothold in the United States.



Officials in Washington State have announced that the invasive species, long feared to be on a path to permanent establishment, is no longer lurking in the region where it first appeared. This development, five years in the making, has calmed local growers and everyday folks who once wondered whether the hornet’s presence would spread beyond that northwest corner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-narrow-escape-from-the-murder-hornet">Narrow escape from the murder hornet</h2>



The campaign against the giant murder hornet began when stunned beekeepers discovered eerily decapitated honeybees. Aggressive trapping and tracking techniques soon followed. Specialists from state agencies donned thick suits and carefully approached <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oriental-hornets-have-the-highest-alcohol-tolerance-of-any-animal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hornet</a> nests, using delicate methods to remove them. It took years for the last hornet to turn up empty-handed. This outcome did not come easily. The <a href="https://agr.wa.gov/departments/insects-pests-and-weeds/insects/hornets" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State Department of Agriculture</a> and the United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, represented by pest program manager Sven Spichiger and associate deputy administrator <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/news/agency-announcements/aphis-plant-protection-quarantine-selects-new-leader-its-emergency" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nicole Russo</a>, stand as key figures in this success story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-front-lines">From the front lines</h2>



The individuals who led the fight against this insect had been worried about the possibility of a permanent invader.&nbsp;



“As an entomologist, I’ve been doing this for over 25 years now, and it is a rare day when the humans actually get to win one against the insects,” said <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sven-Erik-Spichiger" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sven Spichiger</a> at the end of the months-long 2023 tracking season. The dramatic effort to find and eradicate the nests pushed everyone involved to remain vigilant, setting traps, training local port inspectors and working tirelessly to address every reported sighting.



The project required help from all angles.



Observant residents phoned tip lines. Field teams outfitted giant murder hornets with tiny trackers. Nests discovered near the Canadian border were carefully sealed off.



With continued support, officials now say the species is no longer present in that part of Washington. Despite this, many agencies remain on their toes. The United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, called the successful effort a <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/news/agency-announcements/aphis-action-victory-over-worlds-largest-hornet-species" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“landmark achievement”</a> to celebrate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-the-murder-hornets-get-here">How did the murder hornets get here?</h2>



Experts have not identified the precise route by which the giant murder hornet originally arrived. Some suggest it might have hidden inside a shipping container. 



Without clear proof, there is no guarantee a fresh introduction will never happen again. Potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-hornets-so-successful-as-invasive-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">future detections</a> will likely trigger a swift response. New sightings remain possible, and teams intend to keep watch. Officials in Washington say that any further activity will face the same intense scrutiny as before. Past lessons will guide all future efforts, so no one wants to take chances.



Outside the United States, fears linked to hornets have rattled others. 



In parts of Europe, alarm spread after a related species, the southern giant hornet, surfaced in northern Spain, prompting researchers to warn that more outbreaks could follow if left unchecked. The wide distribution of similar insects shows that this is not a contained issue. Scientists point to climate conditions, global shipping patterns, and changing ecosystems as reasons why these insects appear in unlikely places.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-a-name">More than a name</h2>



The hornet once caused a buzz in the media under various nicknames. Many remember it being called the “Asian giant hornet” and “murder <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hornets-are-the-most-important-pollinators-for-some-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hornet</a>,” but specialists have moved toward a name they find more accurate. 



As per the <a href="https://www.entsoc.org/publications/common-names/better-common-names-project" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Entomological Society of America</a>, calling it the “northern giant hornet” better suits its native range while also reducing problematic associations. That shift may help everyone talk about the insect without tying it to any single region or prompting unnecessary assumptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-really-mattered">What really mattered</h2>



The giant hornet’s potential to damage honeybee colonies and other beneficial insects raised alarms among ecologists, beekeepers and farmers. 



A single hornet nest, if left alone, can cause serious losses in crucial pollinator populations. Many experts knew that if the species spread, it would be no small matter. 



<a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-Bionomic-Sketch-of-the-Giant-Hornet%2C-Vespa-a-Pest-Matsuura-Sakagami/67e9b6a08e424b124bae2965e0d292e55d93ad43" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> on the behavior of the northern giant hornet (Vespa mandarinia) suggest that these hornets can quickly invade hives, and their stings pack a painful punch for humans and other animals as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-lessons-from-the-murder-hornets">Key lessons from the murder hornets</h2>



One positive takeaway from this situation is that clear communication and community involvement can pay off. Early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-invasion-yellow-legged-hornet-spotted-in-the-u-s-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">detection</a> and rapid response efforts worked. The strong network of officials, scientists and residents raised the alarm, tracked every possible hornet and prevented it from spreading to other areas. Officials have also given training and supplies to various inspectors at key points of entry. The entire scenario, though tense, underlined how people can come together to stop a serious threat before it turns into an ongoing crisis.



Further details on the eradication of the northern giant hornet are available <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/news/agency-announcements/aphis-action-victory-over-worlds-largest-hornet-species">here</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Victory: Invasive "murder hornets" have been completely eradicated from the US

The giant "murder hornet," once feared for threatening insects, agriculture,...

A new study has provided the clearest evidence yet that music therapy can significantly ease the agitation, anxiety, and distress frequently seen in people with advanced dementia. The research also explains in detail why music has such a positive effect, and how it can be systematically woven into daily care. 



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s44220-024-00342-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Mental Health</a>, the study offers hope that this readily available and cost-effective tool can help improve quality of life for those facing the greatest challenges of dementia.



Around a million people in the UK live with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/certain-personality-traits-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a>, over half of them in advanced stages. As dementia progresses, it can lead to difficult behaviors like aggression, restlessness, wandering, and resistance to care - factors that make life harder for patients, loved ones, and professional caregivers alike.&nbsp;



Now, the evidence indicates that music therapy can offer a pathway to greater calm, improved mood, and more meaningful connections, even in the later phases of the disease.



“With an aging population and increasing numbers of people diagnosed with dementia, music is a relatively straightforward and cost-effective way of improving the quality of life of those affected,” said Naomi Thompson of <a href="https://www.aru.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anglia Ruskin University</a> (ARU), who led the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tailored-music-therapy-for-dementia-patients">Tailored music therapy for dementia patients </h2>



The research shows that when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-therapy-can-reduce-pain-stress-and-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music therapy</a> is carefully tailored to an individual’s personal history, tastes, and needs - through listening to familiar recordings, playing instruments, or singing - there can be immediate and short-term improvements in attention, mood, alertness, and engagement.&nbsp;



Just as importantly, these music sessions can reduce anxiety and agitation, helping people feel safer and more oriented.



Why does music have such a profound impact? The study found that music taps into both sides of the brain, stimulating cognitive and sensory networks even as dementia erodes other faculties.&nbsp;



This can allow individuals to access preserved memories and emotions, and regulate their body’s stress responses, leading to reduced distress. In other words, music can gently awaken parts of the mind that are otherwise difficult to reach.



“Our study not only shows why music therapy is successful - including meeting the person’s need for stimulation, supporting familiarity through memories, encouraging relationships, and crucially helping with the reduction of distress and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-and-anxiety-the-mental-health-impacts-of-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a> - it also paves the way for its wider use in dementia care,” Thompson said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-comfort-of-familiar-music">The comfort of familiar music</h2>



One of the key reasons music therapy works so well is its ability to spark memories. Songs from an individual’s younger years, generally between ages 10 and 30, appear most effective at triggering positive, personal recollections.&nbsp;



These music-driven memories can help restore a sense of identity and comfort, soothing the emotional turmoil that often accompanies advanced dementia.



Music therapists can help caregivers and families identify tracks that resonate with the individual’s life story.&nbsp;



Recorded music, which is easily accessible and affordable, can be integrated into a person’s daily routine, introduced at times when they are most likely to become agitated, or used to foster moments of relaxation and reminiscence.



“Just as a doctor prescribes medications with a specific dose and frequency, a music therapist can outline an individualised program, setting out how music should be used throughout someone’s day to reduce distress and improve their wellbeing,” Thompson explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nonverbal-communication-and-social-interaction">Nonverbal communication and social interaction</h2>



Music does not require words - or strong cognitive function - to be enjoyed or understood. People with severe dementia who struggle with language can still respond to melodies, rhythms, and harmonies. They may sway, hum, or smile in response.&nbsp;



This opens up new avenues for connection between the individual, caregivers, family members, and even other residents in a care home.



Such musical encounters can shift the caregiving dynamic. Instead of focusing solely on managing difficult behaviors, caregivers can share positive experiences that validate the person’s humanity.&nbsp;



These uplifting moments can reduce caregivers’ stress and help them feel more empathetic, strengthening the bond between them and the individuals they support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effective-use-of-music-therapy-for-dementia">Effective use of music therapy for dementia </h2>



To ensure music therapy is widely adopted, the study recommends training for all care staff in using music effectively.&nbsp;



Music therapists can provide guidance on how to select songs, structure sessions, and integrate these sessions into daily life.&nbsp;



Families should also be encouraged to contribute their knowledge of a loved one’s musical preferences, helping to shape personalized playlists that maximize the therapy’s impact.



The guidance outlined in the study is the result of careful research, including interviews with staff and music therapists working on inpatient dementia wards at the<a href="https://www.cpft.nhs.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust</a>, a systematic review of published studies, a national survey of healthcare professionals, and collaboration with the dementia nursing charity <a href="https://www.dementiauk.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dementia UK</a>.



“People with advanced dementia can sometimes become quite distressed, and we need to find the best ways to help them,” said study co-author Ben Underwood, an associate professor at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>.&nbsp;



“Music is one thing which can help, and so I am excited to see such high-quality work being done in partnership to see how we can bring music therapy to <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NHS</a> dementia patients.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-more-positive-environment-for-everyone-nbsp">Creating a more positive environment for everyone&nbsp;</h2>



Although the primary aim is to improve life for people with advanced dementia, the advantages also extend to families and caregivers.&nbsp;



Engaging with music can reduce their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> and create moments of shared enjoyment, leading to better job satisfaction, reduced caregiver burnout, and a more positive environment all around.



As the number of people living with dementia continues to grow, cost-effective, accessible interventions like music therapy become increasingly valuable. This study not only confirms music’s potential but also provides a realistic plan for making it a standard part of dementia care.



“Music is not just a way to soothe - it’s a way to connect, to remember, and to live more fully in the moment,” Thompson said. “Our study shows that music therapy is not just an option but an essential component of dementia care.”



By embedding music into the heart of dementia care, we can help people with advanced dementia experience less distress, rediscover parts of themselves hidden by the disease, and reconnect with those around them, creating moments of calm, understanding, and human connection.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Music therapy reduces distress in people with dementia

A new study has provided the clearest evidence yet that...

Adelie,Penguins,On,Ice,Floe,Balleny,Islands,Antarctica

It is well known that Arctic ice captures most headlines when it comes to climate change, but the icy waters around Antarctica are also showing troubling shifts. 



In 2023, Antarctic sea ice hit record lows, a development that left researchers scratching their heads as they observed a surprising surge in ocean changes beneath the now more exposed Southern Ocean surface. This year-over-year shift is no small blip, and it appears that 2024 will surge past the record lows of 2023, continuing this disturbing trend. It represents a dramatic event that scientists have long feared might happen but hoped to avoid. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-winter-without-cover">A new winter without cover</h2>



As the protective ice blanket thinned, the ocean underneath became more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vulnerable</a>. 



Without a solid covering, heat from the water escaped in far greater amounts than seen before. The result was a measurable spike in warmth shifting into the air above the waves. At the same time, storm activity began ramping up, turning the region into a hotbed of atmospheric commotion. 



According to recent <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08368-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a>, the low ice levels in 2023 allowed for unprecedented ocean heat loss and triggered more frequent storms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-antarctic-sea-ice">Changing Antarctic sea ice</h2>



This study was conducted by Professor <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=b-RiXNQAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Simon Josey</a>, an expert on ocean-atmosphere interaction at the UK’s National Oceanography Centre (<a href="https://noc.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOC</a>).&nbsp;



The work paints an unsettling picture of a Southern Ocean entering a new era, where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-patterns-point-to-rapid-melting-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> once considered extreme are becoming common. 



Researchers say these harsh conditions could repeat in coming years if <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/152547/antarctic-sea-ice-at-near-historic-lows" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea ice</a> fails to recover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-antarctic-sea-ice-conditions">Science behind the Antarctic sea ice conditions</h2>



Shifts in Antarctic <a href="https://nsidc.org/sea-ice-today" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea ice</a> do not only matter for penguins and seals. The Southern Ocean is a key player in our climate system. It stores carbon, moves heat around the planet, and supports large-scale ocean currents. As ice declines, the ocean’s personality changes. According to the research team’s findings, years with low ice cover will likely feature more intense winter weather and unusual ocean properties. According to the findings, years with minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-are-intense-heat-waves-affecting-life-in-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea ice</a> are likely to experience heightened storm activity and significant transformations in ocean characteristics. Simon Josey explained that this trend highlights the ongoing impact of Antarctic sea ice loss which could cascade into long-term disruptions in global climate systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-what-we-thought-we-knew">Rethinking what we thought we knew</h2>



The new results mark a dramatic departure from previous assumptions about the stability and resilience of Antarctica’s icy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-peace-is-at-risk-as-nations-race-for-its-resources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>. 



Before 2023, <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/35/14/JCLI-D-21-0918.1.xml">scientists</a> did not anticipate such a sharp decline in sea ice and the related jump in ocean heat release. “I didn’t expect to see a real-world ice decline as large as that observed in 2023 with such strong consequences for the ocean heat loss,” said <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/35/14/JCLI-D-21-0918.1.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Holly Ayres</a>, formerly at the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a> and now at NOC.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-heavier-ocean-in-ice-free-zones">A heavier ocean in ice-free zones</h2>



One of the most striking changes involves the <a href="https://floats.pmel.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/gcj_4j.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">density of surface waters</a>. When the ocean loses heat, the top layer becomes denser. With more ice-free regions, the water is sinking more readily into the depths. “The massive increase in ocean heat loss to the atmosphere is increasing the density of water at the sea surface to values not previously seen,” said Professor Josey.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/declining-Antarctic-sea-ice_Schematic-representation_credit-NOC_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/declining-Antarctic-sea-ice_Schematic-representation_credit-NOC_1s.webp" alt="Declining Antarctic Sea-ice from the NOC Near Present Day NEMO ocean model simulation (credit Dr Adam Blaker). Colors show the difference of June to July 2023 from June to July 1991-2020, blue shows less ice around much of Antarctica." class="wp-image-1954264"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Declining Antarctic Sea-ice from the NOC Near Present Day NEMO ocean model simulation (credit Dr Adam Blaker). Colors show the difference of June to July 2023 from June to July 1991-2020, blue shows less ice around much of Antarctica.</figcaption></figure>



These shifts in density can influence the formation of heavier water masses that can travel far into the ocean’s interior, affecting how heat and nutrients flow across the globe. Over time, the unusual movement of these waters could even alter patterns of <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2024GL111229" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic bottom water</a>, which helps shape global ocean circulation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracks-in-the-global-weather-puzzle">Cracks in the global weather puzzle</h2>



Far-reaching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-will-the-antarctic-ice-sheet-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a> may emerge. Scientists have long known that the Southern Ocean plays an outsize role in managing Earth’s heat and carbon storage. Now, with the ice slipping away, and more energy escaping into the air, there is a chance that <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1602.01393?utm_">distant regions</a> could feel the pinch in the form of altered weather patterns. The team at NOC has indicated that it’s too early to confirm whether 2023 and its record-breaking sea-ice decline marked the onset of a fundamental shift in the amount of Antarctic sea ice. The puzzle includes potential changes in how warm waters move beneath the surface, which could set the stage for shifting conditions that ripple far beyond Antarctica but only time will tell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-new-antarctic-sea-ice-simulations">Need for new Antarctic sea ice simulations</h2>



Scientists stress that these findings are not just about one odd year. 



They argue that understanding what is happening now can help us predict what might come next. Improved climate models are needed to understand why this happened and what might follow.



“We need to use our ocean and climate simulations to understand how the major increase in heat loss and increased surface water density in regions of declining Antarctic sea ice impacts the wider ocean circulation,” said Professor Josey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gazing-ahead-with-cautious-eyes">Gazing ahead with cautious eyes</h2>



No one wants to see a permanent slide toward less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-is-greening-at-an-unprecedented-rate/">ice</a> and more climate chaos. However, if low sea ice cover conditions repeat in future winters, these extraordinary shifts could become the new normal.



What matters now is how researchers worldwide pull together their data, simulations, and knowledge to figure out what this all means for the planet.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rapid Antarctic sea ice loss is causing severe storms around the world

It is well known that Arctic ice captures most headlines...

Many educators say students should reach for big goals and targets, but the targets they talk about often revolve around outperforming others or reaching certain test scores. 



Over the past few decades, this familiar pattern has led to a laser-like focus on performance metrics, rank orders, and standardized benchmarks.



Something else may be lurking in the background, though. Something that could explain why some learners surge ahead while others stall out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goals-for-student-motivation">Goals for student motivation</h2>



There is new research that suggests we have been overlooking an important dimension - something called potential-based goals.



This fresh look at how students define their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schools-are-in-a-battle-with-cell-phones-to-keep-students-engaged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aims in school</a> appears in a study recently published in the <a href="https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/bjep.12728" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Journal of Educational Psychology</a>.



After analyzing years of data from international undergraduate students, the researchers found that these overlooked goals could hold the key to understanding student effort and improvement.



The lead author, <a href="https://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/dt-tempelaar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dirk Tempelaar</a>, from the Department of Quantitative Economics, School of Business and Economics, <a href="https://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maastricht University</a> in The Netherlands, and his colleagues, point out that when we cling too hard to the old measurements, we miss this extra layer of understanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-based-goals-and-students">Potential-based goals and students</h2>



Potential-based goals are about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/paper-vs-computer-tests-which-is-better-for-students/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">students working</a> toward what they could achieve, rather than just chasing a top grade or beating the class average. These goals encourage learners to consider their own progress over time.



Unlike performance-based goals, potential-based ones do not compare a student with anyone else. They inspire students to measure their efforts against what they might be capable of down the road. 



By doing this, learners may find better ways to improve skills and develop stronger internal motivation.



“Our analysis shows that all eight goal constructs clearly distinguish and confirm both first-order and second-order factor analysis models,” stated Tempelaar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-way-to-measure-success">A different way to measure success</h2>



Potential-based goals do not show up much in standard achievement frameworks. 



Traditional methods often focus on whether students master content or outperform others. This can push <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-disrupts-college-students-sleep-more-than-screen-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">students</a> toward short-term gains, like cramming for a test, rather than long-term growth.&nbsp;



Potential-based goals guide learners to think about their own learning journey, which encourages them to consider their personal limits and challenge themselves beyond any fixed notion of ability.&nbsp;



Research on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotional-intelligence-may-be-secret-to-academic-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motivation and achievement</a> theory supports the idea that the way in which students think about learning - whether they believe their abilities can grow - can influence how much effort they put into tough tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-to-students">Why this matters to students</h2>



Academics have long examined the links between motivation and performance. They have explored growth mindsets, personal best goals, and learning goals. Potential-based goals may fit right alongside these established ideas.



These goals highlight the importance of comparing current progress to a student’s own future possibilities. 



Studies inspired by <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-295X.95.2.256" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carol Dweck’s</a> work on goal orientations have shown strong links between how a student views their own ability and how they perform over time.



“Individuals who adopt a learning goal orientation tend to engage in more effective learning strategies,” reported Dweck and co-author Ellen Leggett. Adding potential-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/students-benefit-the-most-from-shorter-homework-assignments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goals</a> to the toolbox might enrich this connection.



By encouraging students to consider what they could accomplish, instead of where they currently stand, teachers might help them stretch their efforts in a healthier direction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-size-does-not-fit-all">One size does not fit all</h2>



The researchers examined a large sample - over ten thousand international undergraduates from several academic years - so they could analyze patterns across different cohorts.



This allowed them to confirm that these potential-based goals are not just an outlier or a passing trend. The data suggest these goals matter in a consistent and measurable way.



In a world where classrooms often differ in terms of backgrounds, skill sets, and languages, this new perspective could support <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A%3A1024944429347" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more tailored approaches</a>. Not every student responds the same way to competition.



Some learners find it inspiring, while others get discouraged. Potential-based goals may help level the playing field by nudging students toward personal improvement rather than forcing them to run a race they feel they cannot win.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reshaping-student-goals">Reshaping student goals</h2>



Adding these goals to the existing 3×2 achievement goal framework might also challenge the way in which researchers and educators develop interventions.



Without acknowledging potential-based goals, they may be missing a chance to understand deeper motivational currents.



Certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-students-learn-is-key-to-helping-them-succeed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teaching techniques</a> that focus solely on hitting predefined targets might overlook what really drives a learner’s persistence. 



When educational policies emphasize grades and rankings, they may unintentionally push aside the student’s sense of personal potential.



“Consistent with Dweck’s model, a learning goal orientation was positively related to successful academic performance,” one <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-0663.96.2.216" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> reported. 



This line of thought suggests that if teachers learn to recognize a student’s sense of potential, they might design activities that inspire a student to grow, rather than just aim for a fixed benchmark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-move-toward-practical-application">A move toward practical application</h2>



In practice, educators might consider ways to integrate potential-based goals alongside existing performance or mastery goals. This could mean advising students to set <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1158116.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personal milestones</a> based on their own capabilities, not just on standard expectations.



It might involve classroom discussions that focus on <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11218-014-9257-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">what learners think they can achieve</a> next semester, not just whether they hit last semester’s targets.



By paying attention to <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1304716.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential-based goals</a>, educators and policymakers may open new doors, making academic life feel less like a grind and more like a path of individual discovery.



At the end of the day, supporting these goals does not push aside the importance of grades or mastery. It simply gives students another lens by which to understand themselves, their ambitions, and their power to move forward.



The study was published in the <a href="https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/bjep.12728" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Journal of Educational Psychology</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Potential-based goals help students achieve peak performance

Many educators say students should reach for big goals and...

In many parts of the world, drought leaves farmers struggling. Dry fields often translate into puny harvests and financial heartache.



Traditional methods of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-in-dry-landscapes-have-surprising-diversity/">checking plants for dryness</a> are slow, and rely heavily on visible signs like wilting leaves. By the time farmers notice, it can be too late to prevent major losses.



Last month, researchers unveiled a promising solution: a sensor that detects dryness in plants up to 48 hours before symptoms first appear. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-clues-hidden-in-plant-fluids">Early clues hidden in plant fluids</h2>



Subtle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-that-detect-plant-stress-could-revolutionize-farming/">chemical shifts</a> deep inside a plant’s tissues can hint at dehydration long before leaves look limp. 



Instead of waiting for obvious signs, researchers used these sensors to measure pH levels inside living plants, thus detecting the early signs of stress.



A decrease in acidity signals the onset of dehydration, and the sensors are designed to detect this shift early. By embedding these <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00216-023-05003-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensors</a> into plant tissues, scientists aim to give farmers an edge in managing water stress.



This research was led by Michael Strano at the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (<a href="https://smart.mit.edu/post/smart-researchers-pioneer-method-to-detect-dehydration-in-plants" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMART</a>), in collaboration with Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory and MIT.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-these-tiny-sensors">Inside these tiny sensors</h2>



The secret to this approach lies in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0039914023003648" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Covalent Organic Framework (COF) sensors</a>. These advanced materials are built from carbon-containing molecules that are arranged in crystal-like grids. They shift colors in response to changes in pH, making them ideal for tracking plant health.



However, COFs had not been used in biological systems until researchers combined them with <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/ma/d4ma00479e" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silk fibroin microneedles</a>. These microneedles allow the sensors to penetrate plant xylem tissues gently and effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-vision-of-ph-changes">Clear vision of pH changes</h2>



The silk fibroin microneedles are transparent, which enables real-time observation of pH changes inside plants. Drought stress triggers a rise in pH, which these sensors detect through subtle shifts in color.



This breakthrough offers farmers a way to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53532-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spot stress early</a> and intervene before visible damage occurs. As climate change intensifies, tools like these could become essential for maintaining crop yields.



“This type of sensor can be easily attached to the plant and queried with simple instrumentation,” explained <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/innovator/michael-strano/">Michael Strano,</a> SMART researcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precision-agriculture-for-harsh-times">Precision agriculture for harsh times</h2>



Agriculture faces increasing challenges from climate unpredictability and rising costs. Many farmers rely on reactive methods to manage crops, which leads to resource inefficiencies.



The new sensors enable proactive measures by offering precise insights into a plant’s internal health. With these <a href="https://smart.mit.edu/research/distap/about-distap" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a>, growers can conserve water, apply nutrients strategically, and minimize waste.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-voices-behind-the-silk-cof-marriage">Voices behind the silk-COF marriage</h2>



“These sensors make agriculture more precise under the challenges of climate change,” said <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=vDv5NCcAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Benedetto Marelli,</a> SMART researcher. By integrating nanosensors with biomaterials, the technology offers a seamless method for monitoring plant health.



This innovation enables researchers to explore plant stress indicators more comprehensively. Furthermore, it supports global efforts to improve agricultural sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-subtle-ph-shifts-in-practice">Detecting subtle pH shifts in practice</h2>



When dryness begins to stress a plant, pH levels increase. The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53532-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COF sensors</a> capture these shifts by changing from dark red to red.



This simple visual cue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiktok-can-help-farmers-discuss-climate-change/">helps farmers</a> detect problems without requiring expensive equipment. By addressing water stress earlier, farmers can protect their crops and reduce overall losses.



“We’ve developed a method to detect pH changes in plant tissues to prevent yield loss,” said <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1fO3teIAAAAJ&amp;hl=zh-CN" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Song Wang</a>, SMART researcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-sensor-design">Practical sensor design</h2>



The sensors are minimally invasive and easy to use. Farmers can monitor results with a smartphone camera, capturing color changes directly from the sensor.



“SF microneedles allow real-time mapping of plant health in a minimally invasive way,” confirmed <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=eb8KurwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Yangyang Han</a>, SMART researcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-to-more-targets">Looking ahead to more targets</h2>



The researchers plan to expand this technology beyond pH detection. They aim to design sensors capable of measuring plant hormones and metabolites, which would provide even deeper insights into plant health.



By tracking multiple indicators, COF sensors could revolutionize crop management by enabling farmers to safeguard their crops and resources effectively. This would help farmers adapt to changing environmental conditions, and demonstrate the potential for precision <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-nutrient-loss-due-to-heavy-rainfall-threatens-agriculture/">agriculture</a> to tackle the challenges of climate change and food security.&nbsp;



The research was published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53532-7">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny sensors can detect dehydration before it destroys crops

In many parts of the world, drought leaves farmers struggling....

In 1969, paleobotanists identified fossilized leaves in eastern Utah belonging to the extinct species Othniophyton elongatum, a name that translates to “alien plant.” Initially, researchers speculated it might be part of the ginseng family.&nbsp;



However, new discoveries have turned this assumption on its head. Recent fossil specimens reveal that this ancient plant is even stranger than previously thought, challenging how scientists classify extinct flora.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alien-plant-with-an-unknown-family">Alien plant with an unknown family</h2>



Steven Manchester, curator of paleobotany at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, has spent years studying 47-million-year-old fossils from Utah.&nbsp;



During a visit to the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, Manchester encountered an unusually well-preserved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant fossil</a> from the same area as the original Othniophyton elongatum leaves. This fossil included leaves, fruits, and flowers attached to a woody stem - a rare find.



“This fossil is rare in having the twig with attached fruits and leaves. Usually those are found separately,” Manchester said.



Further analysis revealed that these fossils were from the same species as the 1969 find. However, the new evidence showed that Othniophyton elongatum didn’t fit within the ginseng family -- or any other known plant family.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-plant-with-no-living-relatives">A plant with no living relatives</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Alien-plant.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">To uncover the origins</a> of Othniophyton elongatum, Manchester and his colleagues compared the physical features of the fossils to over 400 modern plant families. Despite their extensive search, they couldn’t find a match.



“There are many things for which we have good evidence to put in a modern family or genus, but you can’t always shoehorn these things,” Manchester said.



This was the case with Othniophyton elongatum. Its peculiar combination of traits - including leaves, fruits, and flowers - defied placement in any known group. Even extinct families failed to provide a fit.



The research highlights a significant challenge in paleobotany: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-plants-on-earth-could-be-saved-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct plants</a> from less than 65 million years ago are often assigned to modern families or genera.&nbsp;



This practice can distort our understanding of ancient biodiversity, creating the false impression that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric ecosystems</a> were more similar to today’s than they actually were.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-fossils-from-an-ancient-lake">Strange fossils from an ancient lake</h2>



The fossils were discovered in the Green River Formation near the ghost town of Rainbow in eastern Utah. This formation, a massive inland lake system 47 million years ago, provided ideal conditions for preserving plants and animals in remarkable detail.



Low-oxygen sediments and volcanic ash slowed decomposition, resulting in the preservation of fish, reptiles, birds, and plants, including the fossils of Othniophyton elongatum.&nbsp;



However, the original specimens collected in 1969 offered limited information. Researchers could only analyze the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-had-complex-leaf-vein-networks-200-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaves</a>, which resembled compound leaves commonly found in the ginseng family.



New fossils, though, painted a very different picture. Leaves attached directly to stems, rather than in a compound arrangement, ruled out the ginseng family.&nbsp;



Additional features, including the plant’s fruits and flowers, ruled out other families like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fairy-circles-kill-all-newly-planted-grasses-deepening-their-mystery/">grasses</a> and magnolias. Even with such detailed specimens, the team remained stumped.



“The two twigs we found show the same kind of leaf attached, but they're not compound. They’re simple, which eliminates the possibility of it being anything in that family,” Manchester explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-the-alien-plant">A new look at the alien plant</h2>



For years, the fossils sat in storage as researchers struggled to make sense of them. Then, new technology offered a breakthrough. The Florida Museum of Natural History established a microscopy workstation that allowed the team to examine the fossils in unprecedented detail.



Using a digital microscope with computer-enhanced shadow illumination, Manchester and his colleagues discovered features they had previously missed. The minute fruits revealed micro-impressions of their internal anatomy, including developing seeds.



“Normally we don't expect to see that preserved in these types of fossils, but maybe we've been overlooking it because our equipment didn’t pick up that kind of topographic relief,” Manchester said.



One of the most striking aspects was the plant’s stamens, the male reproductive organs of its flowers. In most plants, stamens detach after fertilization, but in Othniophyton elongatum, they remain attached to the mature fruits - an unusual trait not seen in any modern plant.



“Usually, stamens will fall away as the fruit develops. And this thing seems unusual in that it's retaining the stamens at the time it has mature fruits with seeds ready to disperse. We haven't seen that in anything modern,” Manchester noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shedding-light-on-ancient-ecosystems">Shedding light on ancient ecosystems</h2>



The study’s lead author, Julian Correa-Narvaez, a doctoral student at the University of Florida, emphasized the importance of the discovery. “It’s important because it gives us a little bit of a clue about how these organisms were evolving and adapting in different places,” he said.



The diversity within plant families can be astonishing. For example, seemingly unrelated species like poison ivy, cashews, and mangoes belong to the same family, which contains over 800 species. However, with Othniophyton elongatum, scientists can only speculate about how much diversity has been lost to time.



Similar discoveries from the Green River Formation have unveiled other extinct plant groups, showing that it remains a rich site for paleobotanical mysteries.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-alien-plant">Significance of the alien plant</h2>



Digital tools like <a href="https://www.idigbio.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDigBio</a>, which allow researchers to access museum specimens remotely, are helping to unlock these mysteries and advance our understanding of plant evolution.



The discovery of Othniophyton elongatum not only expands our knowledge of extinct plants but also challenges assumptions about how ancient ecosystems functioned.&nbsp;



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcae196" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Botany</a>, this study serves as a reminder of how much remains to be discovered in the fossil record - and how evolving technology can illuminate the secrets of the distant past.



Image Credit: Florida Museum of Natural History photo by Jeff Gage



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fossil mystery: The "alien plant" that defies classification

In 1969, paleobotanists identified fossilized leaves in eastern Utah belonging...

The Greenland Ice Sheet, part of which is shown in this image of Jakobshavn Glacier, is now melting at an incredibly rapid pace, pushing sea levels upward while upsetting global weather patterns. 



Precise measurements of the ice sheet’s changing shape and volume matter greatly at this point in Earth's history because accurate data helps scientists understand what's coming next.



Until recently, getting this information was tricky. 



Now, two advanced missions, ESA’s CryoSat and NASA’s ICESat-2, have joined forces to offer data that reaches far beyond old limits. 



Their combined measurements deliver a more complete view that was not possible before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-greenland-ice-melt">Measuring Greenland ice melt</h2>



As of today, scientists have recorded the first measurements of the Greenland Ice Sheet’s shape changes using both <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO/CryoSat" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CryoSat</a> and <a href="https://icesat-2.gsfc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICESat-2</a> satellites.



This work is led by researchers from the UK Centre for Polar Observation and Modelling (<a href="https://cpom.org.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CPOM</a>). Lead author and CPOM researcher Nitin Ravinder has confirmed that these missions are able to capture changes in ice elevation with impressive accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technologies-from-different-skies">Technologies from different skies</h2>



To measure the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speed-of-greenland-ice-melt-confirmed-to-be-rapidly-increasing-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rapid loss</a> of the ice all across Greenland, one of the mission satellites relies on radar, and the other uses a laser. 



Radar can measure through clouds but needs careful adjustments because it can pass into the ice surface before bouncing back.



Laser measurements track the actual surface but cannot see through clouds. 



These tools stand at opposite ends, yet when put together, they form a better pair than either could alone. 



In fact, a new study published in Geophysical Research Letters notes that CryoSat and ICESat-2 measurements of Greenland Ice Sheet elevation change agree within 3% of what is actually happening.



This stronger confidence means if one mission fails, the other can still <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-ice-loss-tracked-by-new-gps-system-on-a-daily-basis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keep track of ice changes</a>.



“We are very excited to have discovered that CryoSat and ICESat-2 are in such close agreement. Their complementary nature provides a strong motivation to combine the data sets to produce improved estimates of ice sheet volume and mass changes," says lead author and CPOM researcher Nitin Ravinder.



"As ice sheet mass loss is a key contributor to global sea level rise, this is incredibly useful for the scientific community and policymakers.”



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="23p8n2tdza-4146590-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-ice-and-natural-beauty">Greenland, ice, and natural beauty</h2>



Greenland, the world’s largest island, sits between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans. It is mostly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-ice-sheet-discovery-transforms-sea-level-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">covered with thick ice</a>, and its glaciers run from the heart of the island to its shores. 



There are small towns along the coastal edges where people make a life that ties closely to the environment. 



Long winters and brief summers shape a culture centered on fishing, hunting, and a respect for nature’s power. 



The capital, Nuuk, brings together old traditions and new ways of living in a place where weather is a big player in daily life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-ice-and-everyday-lives">Melting ice and everyday lives</h2>



A warming climate makes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-glacial-outburst-observed-in-greenland-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland’s glaciers break apart</a> and slip into the ocean. As they melt, sea levels climb, and coastal cities thousands of miles away face the threat of water creeping up their streets. 



Wildlife in Greenland itself struggles when the ice they depend on thins. Polar bears, seals, and walruses have fewer safe spots to rest and hunt. 



For local people, the loss of stable ice can disrupt fishing and hunting practices. Shifts in ocean currents triggered by fresh meltwater also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-transformation-ice-melt-plant-growth-vegetation-cascading-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">change weather patterns</a>, and that can spell trouble for everyone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-numbers-behind-greenland-ice-melt">Real numbers behind Greenland ice melt</h2>



Between 2010 and 2023, Greenland’s ice sheet thinned by an average of four feet In the ice sheet’s ablation zone, where summer melting outpaces winter snowfall, the average thinning reached 20 feet. 



The worst thinning was at Sermeq Kujalleq, also known as Jakobshavn Isbræ, with a peak thinning of 220 feet. At Zachariae Isstrøm in the northeast, peak thinning hit about 250 feet. 



Altogether, the ice sheet shrank by 7,700 cubit feet over a 13-year stretch. It lost more than 1300 cubic feet in 2012 and 2019, matching extreme conditions. 



According to the study, these changes affect not only local environments but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atmospheric-rivers-are-shifting-with-global-climate-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global weather patterns</a>.



“CryoSat has provided an invaluable platform for understanding our planet’s ice coverage over the past 14 years, but by aligning our data with ICESat-2, we’ve opened new avenues for precision and insight," says Tommaso Parrinello, CryoSat Mission Manager at <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



"This collaboration represents an exciting step forward, not just in terms of technology but in how we can better serve scientists and policymakers who rely on our data to understand and mitigate climate impacts.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aligning-with-sister-missions">Aligning with sister missions</h2>



<a href="https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/missions/cryosat/cryo2ice" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Cryo2ice campaign</a> that began in 2020 let scientists put CryoSat and ICESat-2 measurements side by side. 



By adjusting CryoSat’s orbit, ESA allowed the two satellites to gather radar and laser data over the same areas, almost at the same time. 



This set the stage for measuring snow depth from space with a level of accuracy that simply did not exist before.



“It is great to see that the data from ‘sister missions’ are providing a consistent picture of the changes going on in Greenland,” says Thorsten Markus, project scientist for the ICESat-2 mission at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“Understanding the similarities and differences between radar and lidar ice sheet height measurements allow us to fully exploit the complementary nature of those satellite missions." 



Studies like this are critical to put a comprehensive time series of the ICESat, CryoSat-2, ICESat-2, and, in the future, CRISTAL missions together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-ice-and-earth-s-future">Greenland ice and Earth's future</h2>



The accurate data now available will help in decisions that governments must make soon. Timely, reliable information on ice thickness shifts can guide planning for coastal infrastructure. 



It matters to millions of people who live near shores in every corner of the planet, and for those who rely on stable weather patterns to grow food and make a living.



ESA’s CryoSat and NASA’s ICESat-2 work as a team to keep an eye on the ice. Together, they paint a detailed picture of changes in Greenland. 



That picture gives experts and leaders better tools for understanding the future and figuring out how to adapt.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL110822" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



Video Credit: ESA/Planetary Visions



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Greenland ice sheet seen melting in real-time from Earth orbit

The Greenland Ice Sheet, part of which is shown in...

A new study provides compelling evidence that the Chicxulub meteorite impact, rather than massive volcanic activity, was the principal driver behind the extinction of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago.&nbsp;



Climate scientists from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> have found that the climatic disturbances caused by colossal volcanic eruptions in India had largely subsided thousands of years before the meteorite struck, leaving the asteroid impact as the ultimate reason for the dinosaurs’ demise.&nbsp;



The findings, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ado5478">Science Advances</a>, help resolve a decades-long scientific debate.



“These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/violent-volcanic-eruptions-likely-caused-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic eruptions</a> and associated CO₂ and sulphur release would have had drastic consequences for life on Earth,” said Lauren O’Connor, a researcher at Utrecht University. “But these events happened millennia before the meteorite impact and probably played only a small part in the extinction of dinosaurs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controversy-over-dinosaur-extinction-nbsp">Controversy over dinosaur extinction&nbsp;</h2>



For many years, researchers have debated whether the catastrophic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nadir-crater-second-massive-asteroid-impact-discovered-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> impact near the present-day Gulf of Mexico or the extensive volcanic eruptions of the Deccan Traps in India led to the mass extinction that ended the Cretaceous Period.&nbsp;



Both events significantly impacted Earth’s climate and ecosystems. The asteroid impact unleashed a chain of disasters including massive wildfires, tsunamis, earthquakes, and a lingering “impact winter” that darkened the skies and devastated the global food chain.



Meanwhile, the Deccan Traps eruptions, occurring both before and after the asteroid strike, released huge volumes of CO₂, dust, and sulphur into the atmosphere.&nbsp;



These emissions could have induced substantial warming or cooling, depending on their composition and duration. Determining which event bore the greatest responsibility for the dinosaurs’ extinction has long proved challenging due to their overlapping timelines and complex climatic effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-in-ancient-peats">Clues in ancient peats</h2>



To break this impasse, the research team turned to an innovative method: examining ancient peats in the United States for molecular fossils that record past temperatures.&nbsp;



Certain bacteria produce characteristic membrane-spanning molecules that vary in structure with ambient temperature.&nbsp;



By analyzing these molecular traces in sediments from the time leading up to the dinosaur extinction, the researchers reconstructed detailed timelines of Earth’s climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-timeline-leading-to-dinosaur-extinction-nbsp">Temperature timeline leading to dinosaur extinction&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis uncovered a distinct sequence of events. Approximately 30,000 years before the asteroid impact, a major phase of Deccan Traps volcanism triggered significant climate change, cooling the Earth’s surface by at least 5° Celsius.&nbsp;



This cooling was most likely caused by volcanic sulphur emissions, which blocked incoming sunlight.&nbsp;



However, the record shows that some 20,000 years before the asteroid struck, global temperatures had already rebounded, returning to levels similar to those before the volcanic eruptions.



“We were able to create a detailed ‘temperature timeline’ for the years leading up to the dinosaur extinction,” O’Connor explained. “By aligning these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-may-have-become-warm-blooded-180-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate changes</a> with the fossil record, we can better understand the relative timing of these events.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-effects-had-faded-before-the-impact">Volcanic effects had faded before the impact</h2>



The revelation that Earth’s climate had stabilized well in advance of the Chicxulub meteorite impact is crucial. Although the Deccan Traps eruptions undoubtedly stressed ecosystems and altered climates, their effects had dissipated long before the asteroid arrived.&nbsp;



With the volcanic disruptions out of the picture during the critical window, the data strongly point to the meteorite collision as the primary catalyst for the extinction event.



This finding helps distinguish between the gradual, prolonged influence of volcanism and the abrupt, globally catastrophic consequences of the asteroid strike.&nbsp;



The volcanoes may have prepared a stage of ecological vulnerability, but they did not deliver the final, fatal blow. By the time the asteroid hit, Earth’s systems had largely recovered from the volcanic perturbations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-asteroid-s-fatal-blow">The asteroid’s fatal blow</h2>



With volcanic influences waning thousands of years before the end of the Cretaceous, the Chicxulub meteorite impact emerges more clearly than ever as the decisive factor behind the dinosaurs’ extinction.&nbsp;



Unlike volcanic activity, which occurs over extended periods, the asteroid collision was sudden and brutally efficient, throwing a shroud of debris into the atmosphere, blocking sunlight, and triggering a cascade of environmental calamities.



“By comparison, the impact from the asteroid unleashed a chain of disasters, including wildfires, earthquakes, tsunamis, and an ‘<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-winter-dinosaurs-were-likely-killed-by-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact winter</a>’ that blocked sunlight and devastated ecosystems,” said Rhodri Jerrett of the University of Manchester. “We believe the asteroid ultimately delivered the fatal blow.”



This swift and worldwide onslaught overwhelmed ecosystems, knocking out plant life dependent on sunlight and collapsing food webs that supported large terrestrial animals like dinosaurs.&nbsp;



While some species survived - leading to the rise of mammals and, eventually, humans - the mighty dinosaurs could not endure this sudden catastrophe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-accurate-picture-of-earth-s-past">An accurate picture of Earth’s past</h2>



The methods employed in this study highlight the power of molecular paleoclimatology. By examining microscopic bacterial remains embedded in ancient sediments, scientists can now resolve the timing and intensity of climate changes from millions of years ago with remarkable precision.&nbsp;



These advances allow researchers to clarify the interplay between volcanic eruptions, asteroid impacts, and mass extinctions, painting a more accurate picture of Earth’s deep past.



The study’s conclusions provide a clearer understanding of why the dinosaurs disappeared. While volcanic activity did shape the Earth’s environment, it was not the immediate executioner. 



Instead, the researchers confirm that the Chicxulub impact, with its sudden and universal repercussions, was the ultimate cause of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>’ end.



“These findings help us understand the relative timing of events and confirm that the asteroid was the ultimate driver of the extinction event,” O’Connor said.



Armed with these insights, scientists can continue to refine their understanding of ancient Earth crises, shedding light on how life responds to abrupt environmental shifts - lessons that may prove valuable as our planet faces its own ecological challenges today.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dinosaur extinction was not caused by global volcanic eruptions 

A new study provides compelling evidence that the Chicxulub meteorite...

Ground squirrels are commonly associated with their diet of nuts, seeds, and grains, but a groundbreaking new study reveals an unexpected twist in their behavior.&nbsp;



Researchers from the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire and the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, have discovered that California ground squirrels also hunt, kill, and eat voles.&nbsp;



This surprising finding, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10164-024-00832-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Ethology</a>, marks the first documented evidence of widespread carnivorous behavior among squirrels.



The findings fundamentally challenge long-held assumptions about California ground squirrels as primarily granivorous. Instead, the study suggests that these animals are opportunistic omnivores, capable of adjusting their diet to include meat when the opportunity arises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shocking-discovery-of-carnivorous-squirrels">A shocking discovery of carnivorous squirrels</h2>



The surprising observations occurred in 2024 during the 12th year of the Long-term Behavioral Ecology of California Ground Squirrels Project at Briones Regional Park in Contra Costa County.&nbsp;



Study lead author Jennifer E. Smith is an associate professor of biology at UW-Eau Claire who co-leads the project with Sonja Wild of UC Davis.&nbsp;



Over the course of June and July, the researchers recorded 74 interactions between squirrels and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prairie-voles-can-form-bonds-without-oxytocin/">voles</a>, 42% of which involved active hunting by the squirrels.



“This was shocking,” said Professor Smith. “We had never seen this behavior before. Squirrels are one of the most familiar animals to people. We see them right outside our windows; we interact with them regularly.”&nbsp;



“Yet here’s this never-before-encountered in science behavior that sheds light on the fact that there’s so much more to learn about the natural history of the world around us.”



Even for Wild, a seasoned observer of ground <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-affects-ground-squirrels-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squirrels</a>, the behavior was initially hard to believe.&nbsp;



When undergraduate students first reported seeing squirrels hunting voles, Wild admitted skepticism. “No, I’m not sure what you’re referring to,” she said, until she watched the video evidence.



“I could barely believe my eyes,” Wild recounted. “From then, we saw that behavior almost every day. Once we started looking, we saw it everywhere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-opportunists-in-a-changing-landscape">Opportunists in a changing landscape</h2>



The study documented squirrels of all ages and genders hunting and consuming voles, often competing over the prey. This behavior peaked in early July, coinciding with a sudden increase in vole populations reported by citizen scientists on <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iNaturalist</a>.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the researchers observed squirrels hunting only voles and no other mammals, suggesting that the behavior arose in response to the temporary abundance of this particular prey.



Wild emphasized the adaptability of California ground squirrels in the face of environmental changes.&nbsp;



“The fact that California ground squirrels are behaviorally flexible and can respond to changes in food availability might help them persist in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-learning-speed-keeping-pace-with-a-changing-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a> rapidly changing due to the presence of humans.”



Smith echoed this sentiment, pointing to the broader trend of mammals adapting to human-altered landscapes.&nbsp;



“Many species, including the California ground squirrel, are incredible opportunists,” she said. “From raccoons and coyotes to spotted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/friendly-hyenas-more-likely-to-engage-in-mobbing-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hyenas</a> and humans, the flexibility these mammals apply to their hunting strategies helps them change and adapt with the human landscape.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-for-future-research">Questions for future research</h2>



While the discovery sheds new light on ground squirrel behavior, it raises numerous questions about the ecological and evolutionary implications of their hunting habits. The researchers are particularly curious about how widespread this behavior is among other squirrel populations and whether it is learned or instinctual.



“Through this collaboration and the data coming in, we’re able to document this widespread behavior that we had no idea was going on,” Smith said. “Digital technology can inform the science, but there’s no replacement for going out there and witnessing the behavior because what animals are doing always surprises us.”



The team also plans to investigate whether vole hunting has any impact on squirrel reproduction, comparing data from this year to the previous decade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-carnivorous-squirrels">Significance of carnivorous squirrels</h2>



This discovery of carnivorous behavior in California ground squirrels adds a fascinating layer to our understanding of a species we thought we knew well. It demonstrates not only the behavioral flexibility of these animals but also highlights the value of direct observation and collaboration in scientific research.



The findings suggest that even the most familiar animals can surprise us with behaviors that challenge established assumptions. As researchers prepare for next year’s field season, they remain eager to uncover what other secrets these seemingly ordinary squirrels might reveal.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

First evidence of carnivorous squirrels documented in California

Ground squirrels are commonly associated with their diet of nuts,...

A recent study highlights a critical challenge for coral reproduction in the face of climate change. Led by Professor Peter Mumby from The University of Queensland, the research found that corals must be within a few meters of each other to reproduce successfully.



This surprising discovery has significant implications for coral survival, as warming oceans and other climate impacts continue to decimate reefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-in-coral-reproduction">Factors in coral reproduction</h2>



The research team measured the success of a natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-illuminates-fish-interactions-in-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral spawning</a> event in March this year. 



“In what came as a surprise, we saw that corals needed to be within 10 metres (32.8 feet) of one another, and preferably closer than that for fertilization to take place,” explained Professor Mumby.



The team’s findings revealed a stark reality. Fertilization rates averaged 30% when corals were very close to each other. However, this figure dropped to less than 10% at a separation of 10 meters (32.8 feet) and was virtually zero at distances beyond 20 meters (65.6 feet).



“We knew corals couldn’t be too far apart, but we found they need to be closer than we’d expected,” noted Professor Mumby.



“Climate change impacts like bleaching are killing and reducing the density of corals, so we’re concerned that individuals may end up too far apart to reproduce successfully.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-proximity-in-coral-reproduction">Importance of proximity in coral reproduction</h2>



The research team set up their experiment on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-seeding-increases-resistance-to-extreme-heatwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a> in Palau, Micronesia. They placed containers above 26 coral colonies during a spawning event, capturing eggs and allowing sperm from nearby corals to enter the containers.



“The containers captured some of each corals’ eggs and drifted to the surface where they followed the tide,” said Professor Mumby.



“Although the eggs could not escape, sperm could enter the container and fertilize the eggs. After an hour of drifting, the proportion of fertilized eggs was noted for each type of coral, along with the distance to similar established corals.”



The results demonstrated the importance of proximity among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-in-some-parts-of-the-world-actually-benefit-from-warming-el-nino-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals</a> for successful reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-coral-survival">Implications for coral survival</h2>



The findings from <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Queensland</a> highlight how climate change exacerbates challenges for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/multivitamins-could-save-coral-reefs-from-climate-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral populations</a>. Bleaching events and other stressors not only kill corals but also reduce their density, making reproduction increasingly difficult.



Dr. Christopher Doropoulos from <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a>, a co-author of the study, emphasized the importance of coral reproduction for population resilience and evolution.



“In the future, we may need to help corals continue this key part of their lives,” said Dr. Doropoulos. “Understanding the importance of local neighbourhoods provides tangible targets for interventions like coral restoration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoration-efforts-and-future-directions">Restoration efforts and future directions</h2>



Coral restoration emerges as a vital strategy to combat this reproductive challenge. 



“Ideally, the density of corals would be monitored at important locations and restoration carried out to return the density back to the levels required for successful reproduction,” Dr. Doropoulos added.



Professor Mumby highlighted the significance of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-could-vanish-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restoration</a> efforts. 



“Our work over the past 5 years on the Great Barrier Reef through the Reef Restoration and Adaptation Program is also helping to define these critical thresholds to help restoration practitioners set targets for density to help maintain coral populations,” said Professor Mumby.



The study, funded by the McCusker Foundation and the Australian Government’s Reef Restoration &amp; Adaptation Program, provides actionable insights for coral conservation. 



By identifying critical density thresholds, researchers hope to guide interventions that can enhance coral reproduction and resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-amidst-challenges">Hope amidst challenges</h2>



This research highlights how vulnerable coral populations are, and emphasizes the critical need for focused <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/60-percent-global-coral-reefs-face-bleaching-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> efforts.



Climate change, through factors like ocean warming and bleaching, is making coral survival increasingly difficult. However, studies like this provide essential insights for scientists and conservationists to better protect coral reefs. 



The key finding - that corals need to be close to each other for reproduction - can guide efforts to ensure they remain healthy and viable. If corals are not able to reproduce due to greater distances between them, it could lead to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-coral-bleaching-event-is-now-underway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decline of these vital ecosystems</a>.



Ensuring corals are sufficiently close for successful reproduction is therefore crucial in maintaining and preserving coral reefs for the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2418314121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Corals count on nearby neighbors for successful reproduction

A recent study highlights a critical challenge for coral reproduction...

You may have come across axolotls - those smiling amphibians with pink, plume-like gills - in pet stores, as plush toys, or even featured in video games. 



Yet, their growing presence in popular culture has emerged just as the wild population of this remarkable species faces critical endangerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-axolotls-have-become-a-cultural-icon">Axolotls have become a cultural icon</h2>



James Monaghan, a biology professor at <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University</a>, has long studied axolotls and their extraordinary regenerative capabilities. “Axolotls have just exploded in popularity the past couple of years,” he said. 



Monaghan recalled that when he began his PhD studies, the general public had little idea what an axolotl was.&nbsp;



“No one knew in the general public what an axolotl was, so I'd have to explain,” he remembered, contrasting that with today’s situation: “Now I just can say, 'Oh, I work on axolotls,' and everyone just lights up.”



Monaghan noted that young people, in particular, have been drawn to axolotls, most likely due to their aesthetic charm.&nbsp;



“They're pink, they have feathers,” he said. “Well, they don't really have feathers, but their gills are feathery. They have a constant little smile on their face. If you were to create a cute animal that you couldn't think existed naturally, it's kind of the axolotl. It's got the vibes of a dragon, but a nice dragon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-ancient-roots-to-gaming-stardom">From ancient roots to gaming stardom</h2>



The axolotl is no newcomer to cultural significance. “It's named after an Aztec god, Xolotl,” Monaghan explained, referencing its deep ties to Mexican heritage. Initially found in Lake Xochimilco near Mexico City, this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibian</a>’s recent surge in popularity has transcended borders.



Its presence in mainstream culture can be traced in part to its introduction into the world of Minecraft, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-violent-video-games-impact-the-human-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video game</a> of immense popularity.&nbsp;



“Minecraft is enormously popular for young players. The game allows for social play, exploration, sandbox style play where you can make anything,” said Northeastern assistant professor of computer science Alexandra To. By featuring axolotls, the game inspires curiosity and a desire to learn.&nbsp;



“Minecraft provides players great intrinsic motivation to discover more about any new elements that are added to the game,” To added.



In some cases, this might involve players constructing elaborate environments to house every in-game creature. “As my own partner did, in embarking on a project to create an enormous zoo with every in-world animal,” she remarked.



Monaghan suggests that axolotls may have also influenced other media. “I don't know if it's actually the motivation for 'How To Train Your Dragon,'” he said, pointing out that the character Toothless resembles an axolotl with its perpetual smile and ear-like flaps suggesting feathery gills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance-of-axolotls-nbsp">Scientific significance of axolotls&nbsp;</h2>



While their looks and cultural presence have captured public affection, axolotls are scientifically remarkable as well. Their regenerative powers extend beyond limbs. Monaghan’s lab has found that they can regenerate a large portion or their lung.&nbsp;



“They are notoriously resistant to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancers</a>, never get infections after an injury,” he said, and can live for up to two decades - qualities that have made them valuable subjects of study for generations.



“Axolotls are the longest standing lab animal of any animal, longer than flies, longer than worms, longer than mice,” Monaghan said. First collected in 1864 from Lake Xochimilco, their initial appeal stemmed from their unusual, fully aquatic life cycle.&nbsp;



Over time, they became critical for studies on genetics, development, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-sheds-light-on-the-pathways-of-plant-regeneration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regeneration</a>. With modern genetic tools like CRISPR, researchers can now pinpoint which genes drive their regenerative capabilities.



All lab and pet axolotls today descend from that original 19th-century population, and this lineage includes the distinct white axolotl familiar to fans worldwide.&nbsp;



“The white axolotl, which seems to be pretty much every stuffed animal that's out there, is actually a mutation of a single animal that was collected in 1864,” Monaghan explained. “You can get color variants, but the pink variety - that's from one founding animal.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-species-in-peril">A species in peril</h2>



As axolotls capture hearts around the globe, their wild counterparts hover on the brink of extinction. Once, locals could easily scoop them from Lake Xochimilco’s waters.&nbsp;



“Maybe up to the 1950s, you could put a net in Lake Xochimilco, the canal system, and pull up adult axolotls. And then every decade since, it's just crashed,” Monaghan said. “To the point now that they're critically endangered, and it takes weeks to even find one.”



They are exquisitely sensitive to environmental changes. “Being an amphibian, you're at the whim of your environment. You're taking in everything through your water,” he explained.&nbsp;



Climate change warms these waters, making survival harder, while pollution and introduced species further destroy fragile habitats and devour axolotl eggs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-conservation">The challenge of conservation</h2>



Given their success in captivity, one might assume we could simply return these lab and pet lineages to Lake Xochimilco. But it’s not that simple.&nbsp;



“It's probably not the best strategy to take a species that's been inbred since 1864 and reintroduce it into its natural habitat,” Monaghan said.&nbsp;



The modern axolotl has adapted to controlled conditions, while its original environment has changed drastically.&nbsp;



“We can't take the current axolotl and put it into the environment in Mexico City and expect them to thrive the same way as the original collection in 1864. The environment's changed, but the animals themselves have changed.”



Still, rising awareness may help efforts to protect the axolotl’s wild habitat. According to To, the team behind Minecraft has embraced conservation as part of its mission.&nbsp;



“Mojang has been pretty transparent about conservation as one of their core values,” she explained. “The inclusion of axolotls and their in-game rareness mirroring their real-world endangered status is a fantastic example of how game mechanics can reinforce educational messages.”



Monaghan is involved as well, serving on the advisory board of the Ambystoma Genetic Stock Center to support both scientific understanding and conservation. “Those direct efforts could really go a long way toward saving the axolotl,” he said.



All this attention suggests that the axolotl’s time has arrived. “All of a sudden, it seems to be absolutely everywhere,” Monaghan said.&nbsp; Yet, for all the joy and fascination these creatures provide, the work to secure their future in the wild is only just beginning.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Axolotls have exploded in popularity, but they are fighting for survival

You may have come across axolotls - those smiling amphibians...

Orphaned apes, like bonobos, victimized by illegal trade practices, are showing the world their resilience. They can bounce back from traumatic experiences and develop social capabilities akin to those raised in their natural habitats.



A recent study conducted by researchers at Durham University sheds light on the social and emotional development of orphaned bonobos and the impact of rehabilitation efforts.



The findings highlight the potential for orphans to develop critical social abilities, even after experiencing early-life trauma. The study, spanning 10 years, involved observations at Lola ya Bonobo, the world’s only bonobo sanctuary located in the Democratic Republic of Congo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plight-of-bonobos">Plight of bonobos</h2>



Bonobos, like chimpanzees, share a very close evolutionary history with humans, making them one of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nearest living relatives</a> in the animal kingdom. Both species are genetically similar to humans, which is why scientists study them to better understand human behavior and evolution.



Bonobos are found exclusively in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in Central Africa, where they live in the wild. 



Unfortunately, these apes face several dangers, such as logging (cutting down trees) and illegal activities like hunting for bushmeat (the meat of wild animals). These practices severely harm bonobo populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-skills-of-orphaned-bonobos">Emotional skills of orphaned bonobos</h2>



One of the most damaging effects of these illegal activities is that young bonobos are often taken from their mothers. 



Losing their mothers at a young age means that these orphaned bonobos miss out on the vital care and socialization they would normally receive in their natural environment. 



Without maternal care, young bonobos face difficulties in learning important social behaviors and emotional skills. 



For example, they may not learn how to interact with others properly, show empathy, or understand group dynamics - which are all crucial for their survival and well-being in the wild.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-rehabilitation">Role of rehabilitation</h2>



The researchers aimed to understand how rehabilitation at Lola ya Bonobo affects the development of orphaned bonobos compared to their mother-reared <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-thriving-in-salonga-national-park/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">counterparts</a>.



The team examined critical traits like empathy, social skills, and aggression across different life stages and sexes.



“The Lola ya Bonobo sanctuary does vital work in protecting this vulnerable species. While the orphans’ social development is not equivalent to that of their mother-reared counterparts, they overlap in the development and behaviours they display,” said study lead author Stephanie Kordon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orphaned-bonobos-after-rehab">Orphaned bonobos after rehab</h2>



The research revealed that female bonobos’ social skills increased with age, consistent with the female-led nature of bonobo societies.



Conversely, male bonobos showed a decline in social skills as they aged. Although orphaned bonobos exhibited reduced social abilities compared to mother-reared ones, they still demonstrated species-typical behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-in-orphaned-bonobos">Empathy in orphaned bonobos</h2>



Orphaned bonobos were less likely to show empathetic behaviors, such as comforting distressed peers.



However, their ability to console others, while reduced, remained within the range observed in mother-reared <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a>. This indicates they retain sufficient skills to function in social groups, crucial for their survival in the wild.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aggression-dynamics">Aggression dynamics</h2>



Mother-reared and older female bonobos displayed higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peaceful-bonobos-are-actually-more-aggressive-than-chimps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">levels of aggression</a>, while younger and male bonobos were more often victims. However, the way bonobos were reared did not influence their likelihood of being targeted by aggression.



“While we cannot say the orphaned bonobos are absolutely rehabilitated, our findings do show a good direction to their social function as we are seeing them demonstrate species-typical behaviors within low but normal ranges,” said study senior author Professor Zanna Clay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-development-in-orphaned-bonobos">Social development in orphaned bonobos</h2>



The research from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> offers a rare glimpse into how early-life experiences shape the social and emotional development of bonobos. 



By comparing orphaned and mother-reared bonobos, the study highlights the resilience of orphaned individuals and the critical role that sanctuaries play in aiding their recovery.



“By better understanding the healthy social development of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-cooperation-challenges-beliefs-about-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a>, we aim to help the important rehabilitation and conservation efforts of this unique species,” noted Kordon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-conservation-goals">Broader conservation goals</h2>



Bonobo rehabilitation not only helps individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-interested-in-the-emotions-of-strangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> but also contributes to broader conservation goals. By reintroducing socially competent bonobos into the wild, efforts like those at Lola ya Bonobo ensure the survival and well-being of this endangered species. 



While challenges remain, the findings offer hope for orphaned bonobos and reinforce the value of dedicated sanctuaries in conservation.



The research team included experts from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emory University</a> in the United States. 



The work was funded by the Templeton World Charity Foundation’s Diverse Intelligences initiative and a European Research Council Horizon 2020 Starting Grant.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.240435" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Orphaned bonobos can regain social skills and empathy

Orphaned apes, like bonobos, victimized by illegal trade practices, are...

Do you ever get the feeling that your dog knows your voice even before you walk through the front door? 



A team of researchers in Hungary wanted to see if there was more to this beautiful bond between dogs and their owners than meets the eye (or in this case, ear).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-recognize-human-voices">Dogs recognize human voices</h2>



“Previous studies demonstrated that dogs are sensitive to certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-use-soundboards-to-express-their-needs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acoustic cues</a> in the human voice. They can recognize the sex of the speaker and distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar voices,” explained Kinga Surányi, a PhD student at the <a href="https://ethology.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELTE Department of Ethology</a>.



“Whether dogs are capable of voice-based individual-level recognition of humans had not been demonstrated before this experiment.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-individual-level-recognition">Understanding individual-level recognition</h2>



Animals have the amazing ability to recognize individual members of their group, like being able to tell apart their siblings or friends. This is important because it helps them <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-slower-helps-dogs-understand-what-humans-are-saying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communicate better</a>. 



However, identifying specific voices can be tricky, especially when those voices are from a different species. 



Dogs being able to recognize human voices is quite a complex skill. So far, only a few animals, like rhesus monkeys and horses, have shown they can do this.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-voice-recognition-ability-of-dogs">Testing the voice recognition ability of dogs</h2>



The researchers designed an experiment to test dogs’ ability to recognize voices within their human families. Each participating dog attended the experiment with three family members, all equally familiar to the dog. 



The owners’ voices were pre-recorded. During the test, the owners sat side by side, and loudspeakers placed behind them played the recordings. The dogs were required to match the voice to the corresponding owner.



"Throughout the experiment, all three owners were present and, depending on the experimental phase, their live speech or their prerecorded speech was used as acoustic stimuli," noted the researchers.



To ensure objectivity, the owners remained silent and refrained from making any gestures while the recordings played. Each dog underwent 18 trials of this test, resulting in data from 31 dogs.



The researchers also used questionnaires and acoustic analyses to evaluate demographic and acoustic factors that might influence the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-training-is-more-effective-when-nice-voice-tone-is-used/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs’ performance</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-can-match-voices">Dogs can match voices</h2>



The results showed that dogs could successfully match voices to their respective owners.



“Dogs performed well: they chose more often and looked longer at the person whose voice they heard. Dogs' performance was above chance for all family members, indicating that they could recognize all of them based on voice,” said Anna Gábor, postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://ethology.elte.hu/en/content/neuroethology-of-communication-lab.t.31929" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuroethology of Communication Lab</a>.



“Furthermore, dogs’ performance was the best when they heard their main owner's voice. This could be because dogs most frequently had vocal interactions with the main owner and were most likely to need to react to their voice.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-findings">Implications of the findings</h2>



This study sheds light on dogs’ complex understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-imitate-human-actions-from-2d-videos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human communication</a>.



“Dogs can discriminate between familiar human voices and match the voices to the corresponding person. This ability seems to be beneficial for communication between different species as well,” said Surányi.



“The study shows that dogs do know a lot about human voices: not only if they heard it before or not, but also who that voice belongs to," said Gábor.



"Future research will need to clarify whether this is a general ability among mammals or the result of specific evolutionary adaptations in certain species to whom humans are especially important."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This research is a big first step in understanding how animals recognize voices. Scientists are curious to see if other mammals, like cats or monkeys, may possess the same skill.



If experts find that many animals share this ability, it might help us understand how communication between different species (like humans and animals) evolved over time.



On top of that, this knowledge could have real-world applications. For example, if we learn more about how dogs recognize voices, we might be able to improve how we train them to work with humans.



This could be especially useful for therapy dogs or working dogs, making their connection with humans even more effective.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000334722400318X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dogs can recognize familiar human voices, even in recordings

Do you ever get the feeling that your dog knows...

Frontal,Portrait,Of,A,Male,Mandrill

The order&nbsp;'"Primates"&nbsp;includes over 450 species of monkeys, lemurs, lorises, and galagos, in addition to our closest relatives, the seven species of great apes. 



From 400-pound gorillas to minute mouse lemurs (Microcebus) that can weigh a single ounce, primates showcase incredible diversity.



They also display remarkable behaviors. For example, chimpanzees use sticks to fish for termites, while orangutans use leaves as gloves to handle spiky durian fruits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-timetree-for-primates">Building a timetree for primates</h2>



Despite extensive studies on their diversity, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> evolutionary history remains incompletely understood. 



There is no comprehensive molecular phylogenetic tree summarizing the relationships and timing of all primates.



Existing efforts include a timetree for just over 200 species, and a synthetic timetree, derived from over 4,000 studies, that covers only about 300 primate species. This leaves a significant portion of the primate evolutionary tree unresolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-complete-evolutionary-trees-matter">Why complete evolutionary trees matter</h2>



Timed evolutionary trees are essential for understanding biodiversity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary history</a>. 



These phylogenetic trees, also called timetrees, provide insights into when species emerged and how they relate to one another. Their importance extends beyond curiosity. 



Timetrees form the foundation for:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Taxonomy and species identification: they help identify and catalog new species. </li>



<li>Evolutionary studies: researchers analyze rates of evolution and factors like climate change or geological events that influence species development. </li>



<li>Biogeography and historical ecology: timetrees reveal spatial and ecological patterns in species distributions. </li>



<li>Conservation:&nbsp;as biodiversity declines, timetrees highlight conservation priorities and assess preservation efforts.</li>
</ul>



Simply put, phylogenies are critical tools for understanding the past, present, and future of species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rarity-of-complete-phylogenies">Rarity of complete phylogenies</h2>



Considering their value, one might assume that complete phylogenies are common. However, they remain rare. The NCBI taxonomy database holds molecular sequences for nearly 500,000 species. 



In contrast, <a href="https://timetree.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The TimeTree of Life</a>, the largest timed phylogeny database, includes only about 150,000 species. Most published phylogenies focus on smaller groups of organisms, averaging just 25 species.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/primates_timetree_455-species_credit-Craig_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/primates_timetree_455-species_credit-Craig_1s.webp" alt="Timetree of 455 species of primates. Images from phylopic.org. Credit: Craig et al., 2024." class="wp-image-1953893"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Timetree of 455 species of primates. Images from phylopic.org. Credit: Craig et al., 2024.</figcaption></figure>



These smaller phylogenies prioritize precision within limited taxonomic groups. However, to construct a complete tree of life, researchers must merge these smaller efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-path-to-build-complete-primate-timetrees">New path to build complete primate timetrees</h2>



While complete timetrees are uncommon, the resources to build them already exist. Untimed phylogenies, which outnumber timed ones, hold significant potential. 



By adding a few calibrations, researchers can transform these untimed trees into useful components of larger timetrees. 



Additionally, molecular data for many species exist in public repositories like&nbsp;NCBI GenBank, where DNA sequences are freely available.



This abundance of untapped data offers an opportunity to construct comprehensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary</a> trees. Researchers have developed a supertree-building method to maximize these resources. 



Their approach involves:



<ol start="1" class="wp-block-list">
<li>Collecting published, timed phylogenies of species. </li>



<li>Searching for untimed phylogenies and adding calibrations to estimate timing. </li>



<li>Assembling new alignments using molecular data from repositories. </li>



<li>Combining all of the above to produce a complete, synthetic timetree.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-complete-primate-timetree-to-date">Most complete primate timetree to date</h2>



Using this method, researchers from <a href="https://www.temple.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Temple University</a> have successfully constructed a new synthetic supertree of&nbsp;455 primate species, covering 98% of primates listed in NCBI taxonomy.



This achievement adds 55 species previously absent from the TimeTree of Life. The new primate timetree represents the most complete depiction of primate evolutionary relationships to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-on-primate-evolution">Insights on primate evolution</h2>



This effort proves that incomplete knowledge of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-who-are-facially-expressive-make-the-best-leaders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary</a> history can be addressed with existing data. Complete timetrees not only provide evolutionary context but also enable researchers to test new hypotheses.



For instance, in this study, the researchers explored whether the diversity of primate clades resulted from faster speciation rates in some lineages or simply from the passage of time. 



The findings revealed that major primate groups shared similar speciation rates. Therefore, older lineages accumulated more species over time. 



This analysis highlights the utility of large, complete timetrees. Without accurate dates and species counts, such conclusions would be unreliable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-completing-the-tree-of-life">Completing the tree of life</h2>



The new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-loss-is-forcing-endangered-primates-to-interbreed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> timetree demonstrates that filling gaps in evolutionary history is achievable. The tools and data exist, but collaboration and synthesis remain key. 



As researchers continue to combine molecular sequences, untimed phylogenies, and calibrated studies, the dream of a complete TimeTree of Life grows closer to reality.



Complete timetrees have far-reaching impacts. They guide taxonomic studies, reveal evolutionary trends, and can strengthen conservation efforts during the ongoing biodiversity crisis. 



This research offers a blueprint for future projects that aim to build complete evolutionary trees.



Ultimately, understanding primate evolution helps us appreciate the rich diversity of life on Earth - from the tiniest mouse lemur to the powerful gorilla - and the intricate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-hotspots-may-skew-our-view-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> that shaped it all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bioinformatics/articles/10.3389/fbinf.2024.1495417/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Bioinformatics</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Primate evolution: Completing the timetree of life for all of our closest relatives

The order&nbsp;'"Primates"&nbsp;includes over 450 species of monkeys, lemurs, lorises, and...

The remarkable fossil of a tiny worm found in South Australia has unveiled a crucial piece of the evolutionary puzzle: the origins of Ecdysozoa.&nbsp;



This superphylum includes familiar molting animals like insects, crustaceans, and nematodes, which together form the largest and most species-rich group on Earth. Despite their dominance, evidence of early ecdysozoan ancestors has remained elusive - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-significance-of-the-tiny-worm-fossil">Evolutionary significance of the tiny worm fossil</h2>



In a study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.10.030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, researchers describe Uncus dzaugisi, a 555-million-year-old <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worm-youti-yuanshi-lived-520-million-years-ago-explains-insect-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worm</a>-like fossil found in the Precambrian rocks of <a href="https://www.parks.sa.gov.au/parks/nilpena-ediacara-national-park" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nilpena Ediacara National Park</a> (NENP).&nbsp;



At just a few centimeters long, Uncus represents the oldest known ecdysozoan and the only one confirmed from the Precambrian period.



“It’s an incredibly exciting discovery,” said Ian Hughes, lead author and Ph.D. candidate at Harvard University’s <a href="https://oeb.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology</a>.&nbsp;



“Ecdysozoans were prevalent in the Cambrian fossil record, and we know they didn’t just appear out of nowhere. But, until now, we had no concrete fossil evidence to confirm it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-animal-ecosystems-on-earth-nbsp">The first animal ecosystems on Earth&nbsp;</h2>



Hughes and his team unearthed Uncus from exceptionally fine-grained sandstone beds at NENP, a site renowned for its beautifully preserved Ediacaran <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-life-forms-from-800-million-years-ago-redefine-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life forms</a>. Once an ancient seafloor, the park holds a wealth of fossils preserved under thick microbial mats that covered the sediment millennia ago.



“A lot of the beds that we have are relatively coarse-grained, but the sandstone in several new beds at Nilpena is so fine-grained that it allows for finer details and preservation of smaller animals,” Hughes explained.



“Imagine pouring concrete over the ocean, waiting a half-billion years, and then flipping it over to find an entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-can-lead-to-total-ecosystem-collapse/">ecosystem</a>. That’s what’s really unique about this locality. Because they were all smothered at the same time, we can actually also conduct ecological work on the first animal ecosystems on Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tiny-window-into-early-ecdysozoan-life">A tiny window into early Ecdysozoan life</h2>



While scientists have documented over 100 genera of Ediacaran fossils, none had been confidently linked to Ecdysozoa - until now. Uncus dzaugisi bridges this gap, shedding light on the origins and rapid diversification of ecdysozoans during the Cambrian explosion.



The fossil’s unique features stood out immediately. With its cylindrical body, consistent length-to-width ratio, rigid cuticle, and distinct curved traces of movement, the tiny worm shows strong similarities to modern nematodes.&nbsp;



Its trace fossils - evidence of the animal’s mobility - were particularly exciting for the researchers. Unlike many other soft-bodied organisms from that era, Uncus was surprisingly active.



“It’s a remarkable find, as it places Ecdysozoans in the Precambrian Eon, supporting the theory that this lineage predates the Cambrian explosion,” Hughes said. “Ecdysozoans are so diverse and occupy so many niches, that to actually identify an early one and see what Ecdysozoans were doing is just amazing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-discovery-and-preservation">Balancing discovery and preservation</h2>



For Hughes, Nilpena Ediacara National Park isn’t just another field site. It’s a place he and his family have worked for over 25 years, developing close relationships with the indigenous community and local landowners. The park is protected, and researchers follow strict rules to preserve its delicate fossils.



“We do everything we can to make sure every rock stays on site,” Hughes said. “The only exception is if we discover and describe a new species. Then, we deposit a holotype in the Museum in South Australia. This is really important to our work ethic, to not disrupt the land that belongs to the indigenous people.”



Thanks to a grant from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>, the team uses a 3D laser scanner to capture high-resolution images of their discoveries in the field. This ensures detailed data collection while keeping the site intact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-a-tiny-worm-fossil">Mysteries of a tiny worm fossil</h2>



The discovery of Uncus has opened up new avenues for research. Moving forward, Hughes and his team will use laser scan data to analyze how the species moved and behaved.



“Uncus body fossils and associated trace fossils give us a really unique opportunity to look in detail into the sinuosity and curvature to model the potential musculature of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-wild-beast-how-climate-and-culture-shaped-an-iconic-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient species</a>,” Hughes explained.&nbsp;



“Moreover, because these fossils are preserved on fossil bed surfaces, we can investigate the ecology of this taxon and try to understand whether its distribution on the seafloor might correlate with another species or a particular type of microbial mat structure.”



This tiny worm-like fossil provides a rare and exciting glimpse into life on Earth over half a billion years ago. As researchers dig deeper into its story, Uncus dzaugisi may help unravel even more mysteries about the earliest animal ecosystems and the origins of some of the most diverse life forms on the planet.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Gene Oh



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny worm fossil helps solve an evolutionary mystery

The remarkable fossil of a tiny worm found in South...

Tucked away in the vast expanse of our oceans, marine animals are capable of making remarkable journeys. Species like the green turtle and loggerhead turtle travel thousands of miles to return to the beaches where they were born to lay eggs.



Humpback whales migrate seasonally between cold, nutrient-rich waters where they feed and warm tropical waters where they breed and give birth.



Regardless of the species, marine animals use specific strategies to conserve energy. In a recent study, researchers have found a common theme among these animals - they all swim at similar relative depths when traveling and not feeding.



The research, led by experts from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a> and Deakin University, highlights how marine species minimize energy loss by swimming in a precise “sweet spot” below the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swimming-patterns-in-marine-animals">Swimming patterns in marine animals</h2>



The study, led by&nbsp;Dr. Kimberley Stokes, Professor Graeme Hays, and&nbsp;Dr. Nicole Esteban, compared the swim depths of sea turtles, penguins, and whales across five countries.



The results showed that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fentanyl-discovered-in-dolphins-what-it-means-for-marine-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> consistently traveled at depths around&nbsp;three times their body size&nbsp;from the surface. This specific depth reduces the amount of energy that could be lost to wave formation and minimizes vertical travel distance - both of which contribute to efficient swimming.



Some semi-aquatic animals, like mink, swim closer to the surface, where wave generation causes significant energy waste. However, for air-breathing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-climate-impacts-threaten-key-marine-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine animals</a> that travel vast distances during migrations or daily commutes, adaptations to reduce energy costs are essential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-standing-theory-confirmed-in-wild-animals">Long-standing theory confirmed in wild animals</h2>



Physics has long predicted that drag from wave formation decreases significantly once an object travels at depths greater than three times its diameter. 



Until now, proving this theory in wild animals posed a challenge due to limitations in tracking their movements.



The researchers overcame these challenges by using advanced tracking tools. They recorded near-surface swim depths within&nbsp;1.5 centimeters&nbsp;for&nbsp;penguins&nbsp;and&nbsp;loggerhead turtles.



Motion data and video footage from animal-borne cameras were combined with satellite tracking data for long-distance&nbsp;green turtle migrations. Data from previous studies on penguins and whales further supported the findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-animals-optimize-swim-depth">Marine animals optimize swim depth</h2>



The study was focused on animals traveling for extended distances while not foraging. These patterns showed a clear alignment with the theoretical optimal depths predicted by physics.



“There are of course examples where animal swim depth is driven by other factors, such as searching for prey, but it was exciting to find that all published examples of non-foraging air-breathing marine animals followed the predicted pattern,” said&nbsp;Dr. Kimberley Stokes, lead author of the study.



“This has rarely been recorded because of the difficulty in retrieving depth data from animals that migrate over large distances, so it was great to find enough examples to show a common relationship between swim depth and body size from animals across the size spectrum from 30 cm to about 20 m in length."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-marine-travel-and-conservation">Implications for marine travel and conservation</h2>



The discovery highlights the energy-efficient swimming strategies that marine animals have evolved over millions of years.



Penguins, whales, and turtles all utilize similar techniques, regardless of their size or species, to reduce energy costs during travel. 



For animals covering thousands of kilometers in their lifetimes, such adaptations ensure survival and longevity.



Understanding these patterns could aid marine conservation efforts. Tracking swim depths could help identify migration routes, foraging patches, and key habitats for endangered species. 



Conservationists may use this knowledge to create more effective strategies for protecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine animals</a> and their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relationship-between-swim-depth-and-body-size">Relationship between swim depth and body size</h2>



The study’s findings provide a rare glimpse into the consistent relationship between body size and swim depth among marine animals. 



From the smallest little penguin, measuring&nbsp;30 centimeters, to massive whales reaching&nbsp;20 meters, the same energy-efficient pattern emerges. 



This highlights a universal principle of physics that governs the behavior of animals across vast size differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



While the study focused on non-foraging travel of marine animals, future research may explore how swim depths change under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1-8-million-species-are-yet-to-be-identified-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different conditions</a>, such as varying water temperatures, ocean currents, or predator avoidance behaviors. 



Advancements in tracking technologies will continue to improve our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-forms-dust-clouds-that-devastate-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine animal</a> movements and energy conservation strategies.



Marine mammals, birds, and reptiles have evolved to swim at precise depths that minimize energy loss. This new study confirms a long-held theory with real-world data, showing that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> as different as turtles, penguins, and whales use the same strategy for efficient long-distance travel. 



The work by Swansea and <a href="https://www.deakin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Deakin</a> Universities opens new doors for understanding marine animal behavior and enhancing conservation efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2413768121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Marine animals swim at the perfect depth to save energy

Tucked away in the vast expanse of our oceans, marine...

In the abandoned lands surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear disaster site, something unexpected is happening. Amid decaying buildings and lingering radiation, Chernobyl dogs are not just surviving -- they're thriving. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-wolves-have-evolved-resistance-to-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine communities</a> are offering scientists a unique glimpse into how life adapts in one of the most hostile environments on Earth.



"Somehow, two small populations of dogs managed to survive in that highly toxic environment," head researcher <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/profile/norman-kleiman-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Norman J. Kleiman</a> remarked.



Dr. Kleiman's team discovered significant genetic differences between two groups of dogs. 



One group roams near the former Chernobyl reactors, while the other lives about 10 miles away in Chernobyl City. This finding suggests that these are two distinct populations that rarely interbreed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-is-chernobyl-and-what-happened">Where is Chernobyl and what happened?</h2>



The Chernobyl disaster happened on April 26, 1986, when a nuclear reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine exploded during a late-night safety test. 



The test was supposed to simulate a power outage to see if the reactor could operate safely without electricity. But things went horribly wrong due to a mix of poor design, operator errors, and miscommunication. 



A sudden power surge caused an uncontrollable reaction in Reactor 4, leading to a massive explosion that blew the reactor’s lid off and released tons of radioactive material into the atmosphere.



The immediate aftermath was chaotic. Fires raged, and radioactive smoke spread across Europe, making it one of the worst nuclear disasters in history. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-go-zone-becomes-a-dog-and-nature-haven">"No-go zone" becomes a dog and nature haven</h2>



In the months and years that followed, the Chernobyl region became a no-go zone, with widespread environmental damage, health problems for people, dogs, and other animals exposed to radiation, and lingering fears of contamination.



In the first few days, radiation levels were so high that plants turned brown and died, and forests close to the reactor were devastated. 



The "Red Forest," just a mile from the plant, got its name because the radiation killed the pine trees, turning them a reddish-brown before they withered away.



Wildlife suffered initially, with high radiation levels causing genetic mutations, reproductive problems, and a sharp decline in populations. 



Birds and small mammals in the area were particularly affected, and aquatic life in nearby rivers and lakes also faced significant harm. 



However, over time, the absence of humans in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone allowed nature to rebound in surprising ways. 



Without people, many species, including wolves, bears, rare animals like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-przewalskis-horse-the-last-surviving-species-of-wild-horse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Przewalski’s horse</a>, and the Chernobyl dogs discussed in this article have made the area home. 



While radiation hotspots remain, wildlife has thrived in the absence of hunting, farming, and urban development, turning Chernobyl into an accidental refuge for nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chernobyl-dogs-the-basics">Chernobyl dogs -- the basics</h2>



The Chernobyl dogs are a heart-wrenching part of the disaster's legacy. After the 1986 nuclear meltdown explosion, many residents evacuated and were forced to leave their pets behind. 



Among them were countless dogs, now descendants of those left behind, roaming the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyls-exclusion-zone-wildlife-refuge/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chernobyl Exclusion Zone</a>. 



These dogs adapted to life in a harsh, radioactive environment, surviving extreme winters, limited food, and lingering radiation. 



They live around abandoned villages and near the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, often relying on scraps from workers and visitors.



Many of them form packs for protection and companionship, while some have surprisingly bonded with humans, especially the workers and scientists who still operate in the zone. 



Efforts to help these dogs have increased over the years, with organizations stepping in to provide vaccinations, medical care, and even adoption programs to give some of them a chance at a new life outside the zone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-clues-in-a-toxic-landscape">Genetic clues in a toxic landscape</h2>



This study marks the first time scientists have delved into the genetic makeup of stray dogs living near the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. 



"In addition to classifying the population dynamics within these dogs at both locations, we took the first steps towards understanding how chronic exposure to multiple environmental hazards may have impacted these populations," Dr. Kleiman explained.



According to Dr. Matthew Breen from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NC State</a>, "The overarching question here is: does an environmental disaster of this magnitude have a genetic impact on life in the region?" 



By analyzing the dogs' DNA, the team identified 391 outlier regions in their genomes that differed between the two groups.



"Think of these regions as markers, or signposts, on a highway. They identify areas within the genome where we should look more closely at nearby genes," Dr. Breen explained.



Moreover, some of these markers are pointing to genes associated with genetic repair; specifically, with genetic repair after exposures similar to those experienced by the dogs in Chernobyl.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-much-still-unknown-about-the-chernobyl-dogs">Much still unknown about the Chernobyl dogs</h2>



Despite these intriguing findings, the researchers caution that there's still much to learn. 



"At this stage we cannot say for sure that any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-labrador-retrievers-genetic-mutation-pomc-causes-hunger-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic alterations</a> are in response to the multigenerational and complex exposures; we have a lot more work to do to determine if that is the case," Dr. Breen added.



Ph.D. candidate Megan Dillion, a lead author of the study at NC State, is eager to dig deeper. 



"The question we must answer now is why are there striking genetic differences between the two dog populations?" she said. 



"Are the differences just due to genetic drift, or are they due to the unique environmental stressors at each location?"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The research has broader implications beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the canine world</a>, because dogs are a sentinel species with much to teach us about human health.



"By teasing out whether or not the genetic changes we detected in these dogs are the canine genome's response to the exposures the populations have faced, we may be able to understand how the dogs survived in such a hostile environment and what that might mean for any population -- animal or human -- that experiences similar exposures," Breen concluded.



With 37 years having passed since the Chernobyl disaster, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-is-teeming-with-worms-resistant-to-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dangers of radiation</a> haven't faded. 



The approximately 30-year-long half-lives of lingering radioisotopes mean the danger posed by radiation exposure is still very much real.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-environmental-challenge">Complex environmental challenge</h2>



Radiation isn't the only concern in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-exposed-to-radiation-show-no-signs-of-accelerated-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chernobyl Exclusion Zone</a>. The area is contaminated with chemicals, toxic metals, pesticides, and organic compounds left behind from years of cleanup efforts and decaying infrastructure. 



"When radiation exposure is combined with a complex toxic chemical mixture of uncertain composition, there are very real human health concerns raised for the thousands of people who continue to work within the Exclusion Zone," Dr. Kleiman warned.



"Understanding the genetic and health impacts of these chronic exposures in the dogs will strengthen our broader understanding of how these types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/car-tires-shed-pollutants-that-are-especially-toxic-for-humans-and-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental hazards</a> can impact humans and how best to mitigate health risks."



The research team plans to continue their work, hoping to unravel more of the genetic mysteries held by these resilient dogs. Their findings could pave the way for new insights into genetic adaptation in extreme environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-chernobyl-and-its-dogs">Learning from Chernobyl and its dogs</h2>



To sum it all up, the story of Chernobyl's dogs is a testament to life's resilience. These animals have carved out an existence in a place deemed uninhabitable. 



Their journey raises thought-provoking questions: How do organisms adapt to such hostile conditions? What can we learn from their survival?



As scientists continue to explore these questions, one thing is clear: the dogs of Chernobyl have much to teach us. 



Their survival offers a unique opportunity to understand the genetic impacts of environmental disasters, potentially informing how we protect both wildlife and ourselves in the face of similar challenges.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://cgejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40575-023-00124-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canine Medicine and Genetics</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Chernobyl dogs are responding to the toxic radiation with rapid genetic evolution

In the abandoned lands surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear disaster site,...

Humpback,Whale,Breaching.,Humpback,Whale,Jumping,Out,Of,The,Water.

Humpback whales have long impressed us with their incredible travel distances, often covering thousands of miles between feeding and breeding areas. 



Scientists recently recorded an adult male humpback whale making an unexpected journey from South America to Africa, traveling more than 8,106 miles (13,046 kilometers). 



This new finding suggests there is still much to learn about how whales spread across oceans, especially in the Southern Hemisphere.



“These animals are distinct individuals, and they’ll do surprising things. These oceans are very much connected spaces, and whales travel beyond borders," enthused Ted Cheeseman, a marine biologist at <a href="https://www.scu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Cross University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-breaking-journey">Record-breaking journey</h2>



A new study detailed this whale’s journey as the longest migration ever recorded for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a single whale</a>. The trek also marked the first time researchers documented an adult male humpback traveling between the Pacific and Indian oceans. 



The whale was first spotted off the coast of Colombia in 2013 and seen again near that area a few years later. But in 2022, it turned up near Zanzibar, off the coast of East Africa. 



Researchers noted that the typical migration route can exceed 4,971 miles (8,000 kilometers) one way, and this whale’s path was close to twice that distance, according to the study published in the journal Royal Society Open Science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whale-travel-behavior">Humpback whale travel behavior</h2>



Scientists say this unexpected movement sheds light on how adaptable humpbacks can be. They say that global data are needed to better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-warming-climate-will-change-the-humpback-whales-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understand whale behavior</a>. 



Such large-scale research could show how whales respond to environmental changes and whether factors like shifting ocean temperatures or reduced food availability push them to seek new territories. 



The whale’s travel between distinct breeding grounds highlights that humpbacks, while often returning to the same places, are not completely predictable. 



“Our dogmatic thinking is that (whales) always go to the place where they came from,” said Ari Friedlaender, professor of ocean sciences at the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>, who was not involved in the study. 



“But there has to be some movement where you get some (animal) explorers that decide, for whatever reason, to follow a different path," Friedlaender told CNN.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-a-unique-individual">Tracking a unique individual</h2>



Humpbacks exist in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-have-moved-their-singing-rituals-away-from-shorelines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans all over the world</a> and are known for covering huge distances. This whale’s journey stands out because it involved switching between two separate breeding areas. 



Males often travel widely when competing for mates, and scientists note that these movements may depend on shifting conditions. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/humpback-whale_record-migration_sightings-map_credit-Meynecke_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/humpback-whale_record-migration_sightings-map_credit-Meynecke_1s.webp" alt="The sighting locations of the male humpback whale between the breeding grounds G and C. Squares represent primary feeding grounds of the Southern Hemisphere humpback whale breeding stocks (BS) G, A, B and C, with the latter split into C1 southern (C1S) and C1 northern (C1N) extents, C2, C3 and C4. Semicircles represent their respective core breeding grounds. Credit: Seyboth E, Meynecke JO, de Bie J, Roychoudhury A, Findlay K." class="wp-image-1953566"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The sighting locations of the male humpback whale between the breeding grounds G and C. Squares represent primary feeding grounds of the Southern Hemisphere humpback whale breeding stocks (BS) G, A, B and C, with the latter split into C1 southern (C1S) and C1 northern (C1N) extents, C2, C3 and C4. Semicircles represent their respective core breeding grounds. Credit: Seyboth E, Meynecke JO, de Bie J, Roychoudhury A, Findlay K. </figcaption></figure>



They tracked the whale using a platform called <a href="https://happywhale.com/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Happy Whale</a>, which Cheeseman cofounded. It lets citizen scientists, researchers, and whale watchers share their whale photos, helping experts identify whales by the unique underside of their tails. 



“When (whales) dive, they lift their tails, and anyone taking a picture of their tail can record the identity of the animal,” Cheeseman said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-patterns-in-a-changing-world">Changing patterns in a changing world</h2>



Humpbacks generally show strong loyalty to their breeding sites, though occasional shifts happen. 



Researchers do not fully understand why whales change their breeding locations, but they see that males and females can both move between different spots. 



Scientists think that environmental conditions, competition, and mate availability may influence these changes. Instead of repeating their old routes, some whales may strike out in new directions. 



Cheeseman explained that the whale in this study may have left Colombia due to competition with other males for mates or because of food scarcity, noting that these conditions might push whales to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-perform-full-body-scrubs-on-their-return-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">explore new waters</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



In the 20th century, whaling in the Indian Ocean killed nearly 95% to 99% of the humpback population there, according to Cheeseman. 



That leaves many questions unanswered about their current habits. Researchers say that understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/add-humpback-whales-to-list-of-animals-that-build-and-use-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humpback behavior</a> is like observing a classroom full of youngsters without many older individuals around. 



“We’re looking at their behavior like going into a kindergarten classroom,” Cheeseman said. “There’s maybe one adult, someone who’s middle-aged and a whole bunch of children.” 



These shifting demographics mean whales are making new cultural patterns, and unexpected movements could shape how these creatures interact with each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-documenting-humpback-whale-travel">Documenting humpback whale travel</h2>



Since the 1970s, whale watchers and scientists have used tail photography to identify individuals. Platforms like Happy Whale now let many people submit images, broadening the amount of information available. 



Cheeseman noted that the database currently includes around 109,000 individual whales. The increased collaboration encourages more inclusive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-fail-to-respond-to-vessel-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research projects worldwide</a>. 



“(Happy Whale) is going to bring more opportunity for sharing and networking to make our global research partnerships more inclusive,” Friedlaender said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncertain-futures-and-new-connections">Uncertain futures and new connections</h2>



This whale’s travel outside its usual breeding pattern raises questions about acceptance in its new location. Changes in travel routes may mean whales encounter different populations. 



As these movements occur, whales could begin mixing genes and behaviors, influencing how future generations migrate and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-felt-less-stressed-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">choose their homes</a>. 



Cheeseman said that new sightings will provide more clues. “With every photograph we receive we’re looking for every whale we know,” Cheeseman said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whale-travel-creates-communities">Humpback whale travel creates communities</h2>



The Indian Ocean now holds younger populations of humpbacks trying to find their way. Some may follow old patterns, while others search for new possibilities. 



In addition, shifts in migration might change social bonds and behaviors.



“These different paths can connect populations that we otherwise would never think would be in touch with each other to share information and genes that make these populations into more of a global community," Friedlaender concluded.



No one can say when or where this whale will appear next, but future sightings and photographs may deepen our understanding. The world’s oceans hold many secrets about how humpbacks live, move, and interact. 



As more data come to light, researchers and regular folks can pool their knowledge, helping piece together how whales adapt to changing waters and shifting relationships.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241361" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Humpback whale travels farther than any mammal ever recorded

Humpback whales have long impressed us with their incredible travel...

Proper food intake is essential for pregnant humpback whales to complete their extraordinary annual migration between Hawaii and Alaska.&nbsp;



Researchers with the <a href="https://www.mmrphawaii.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Mammal Research Program</a> (MMRP) at the <a href="https://www.himb.hawaii.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mānoa Hawaiʻi Institute of Marine Biology</a> (HIMB) have revealed the energetic demands and vulnerabilities of these migratory mothers-to-be.&nbsp;



The findings, published in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1113/JP287304" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Physiology</a>, show that while the initial stages of pregnancy are relatively low in energy cost, the final trimester dramatically increases the mother’s energetic needs - just when she must fast and cover great distances without feeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humpback-whales-astonishing-migrations">Humpback whales’ astonishing migrations</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-felt-less-stressed-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humpback whales</a> feed in polar waters and then embark on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrations</a> reaching up to 5,000 kilometers to the tropical regions where they mate and give birth.&nbsp;



During pregnancy, which lasts about 10 months, these females must travel and fast, relying solely on the energy reserves built up in feeding grounds.&nbsp;



By examining a combination of recent and historical data, the researchers found a direct correlation between maternal size and fetal growth: larger mothers carry larger fetuses that grow at faster rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-demands-of-pregnant-whales">Energy demands of pregnant whales</h2>



These findings allowed the team to estimate the energy demands for different stages of pregnancy. The first two-thirds of the pregnancy required only minimal extra energy, accounting for just 0.01–1.08% of the mother’s energy expenditure.&nbsp;



The most significant strain came in the final 100 days, when energy needs soared to 98.2% of the pregnancy’s total metabolic cost.



“It was surprising to see how the peak of energy requirements coincided with the onset of fasting in pregnant females, ultimately highlighting how crucial those final 100 days of pregnancy are for this migratory species,” said lead author Martin van Aswegen, a PhD student at MMRP.



“Females that are late in the pregnancy are therefore particularly vulnerable to disruptions in energy balance, given periods of greatest energetic stress coincide with fasting and migration to sub-tropical breeding grounds.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerable-period-for-pregnant-whales">Vulnerable period for pregnant whales</h2>



According to van Aswegen, the study highlights a particularly vulnerable period for pregnant humpback whales.&nbsp;



“This is important, because once these whales leave their high-latitude feeding grounds, they have a finite amount of energy available to invest in their offspring over a 3–5 month fasting period, with energy requirements being even higher after calf birth.”



Humpback whales depend on abundant feeding during summer months in high-latitude regions to gather the energy reserves necessary for migration and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-reproduction-is-linked-to-krill-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproduction</a>.&nbsp;



The new data highlights how critical it is for these whales to have access to sufficient prey before beginning their long journeys southward to deliver calves in warmer, predator-scarce waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-calf-production-raises-concerns">Declining calf production raises concerns</h2>



Recent observations have shown a worrying trend: there has been a 75.6% decline in the number of humpback whale mothers with calves off Hawaiʻi between 2013 and 2018.&nbsp;



In Southeast Alaska, a recent study documented that calf production between 2015 and 2019 was about six times lower than in pre-2015 years, while midsummer calf mortality increased tenfold from 2014 to 2019.&nbsp;



These declines coincided with significant, extended changes in the marine food web, leading to poor feeding conditions for humpback whales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-lives-of-humpback-whales">Complex lives of humpback whales</h2>



“This research underpins future studies on humpback whale energy demands,” said Lars Bejder, co-author of the study and director of MMRP.&nbsp;



“Our drone-collected whale health database, developed in partnership with the <a href="https://www.alaskawhalefoundation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alaska Whale Foundation</a>, includes over 11,000 measurements from 8,500 individual North Pacific whales. Its extensive temporal and spatial scale offers invaluable insights into the effects of large-scale climatic events on this iconic sentinel species.”&nbsp;



Bejder noted that sustaining such long-term, wide-scale studies is crucial for understanding these impacts within the context of natural variability in whale health.”



“This research underscores the value of collaboration in tackling complex questions about the lives of humpback whales,” added Jens Currie, co-author and chief scientist at <a href="https://www.pacificwhale.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific Whale Foundation</a>.&nbsp;



“Through large-scale collaborations, we're able to gain critical insights into the challenges migratory whales face during pregnancy to better inform conservation strategies. Together, we can address large-scale ecological challenges that no single institution could achieve alone.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pressure-faced-by-pregnant-whales">The pressure faced by pregnant whales</h2>



By analyzing the whales’ energy use and nutritional demands, this study sheds light on key factors influencing whale reproductive success.&nbsp;



Understanding the energetic pressures faced by pregnant females can guide future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> efforts aimed at safeguarding feeding grounds and migration routes.&nbsp;



In a warming ocean where prey availability and distribution are changing, such science-based insights will prove essential for ensuring that humpback whales continue to complete their life cycle and thrive for generations to come.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The hidden struggles of pregnant humpback whales

Proper food intake is essential for pregnant humpback whales to...

Dog owners often have strong opinions about what to feed their pets. From kibble to raw food, the options are diverse. But what actually influences these choices?



A new study from the Dog Aging Project (DAP) uncovers surprising trends, showing that an owner's age plays a bigger role than their income or education.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-how-aging-impacts-dogs">Studying how aging impacts dogs </h2>



The <a href="https://dogagingproject.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dog Aging Project</a>, a unique research effort at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a>, focuses on understanding how aging impacts dogs. 



With over 50,000 dogs enrolled across the U.S., it’s a community-driven initiative that aims to promote healthier and longer lives for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-healthcare-needs-change-as-they-enter-old-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our furry friends</a>. Not only does the research help dogs, but it also provides insights into human health and aging.



In their latest study, published in the&nbsp;Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, the researchers gathered data from more than 40,000 dog owners.



The team analyzed how factors like owner age, income, education, and living environment influence dietary decisions for dogs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-owners-and-pet-food">Dog owners and pet food </h2>



The study revealed that who you are as an owner plays a huge role in what you feed your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-dogs-are-rapidly-evolving-in-strange-ways-due-to-nuclear-radiation-exposure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a>.



“We found that owner demographics play a much more important role in the selection of dog diets than previously thought,” explained Dr. Katie Tolbert, a veterinary nutritionist and associate professor at Texas A&amp;M.



For instance, older dog owners are more likely to opt for canned or home-cooked diets. At first glance, you might think this has to do with the dog’s age. But Dr. Tolbert pointed out that it’s more about the owner’s age and their beliefs about what’s healthiest.



“Without considering the owner, we might assume that this choice is a result of dog age,” said Dr. Tolbert.



“But now we have data suggesting that it might be that older dogs are more likely to have older owners, and they are making decisions based on what they believe are healthier choices for their dog that have nothing to do with the dog’s age.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-dog-owner-s-lifestyle">Impact of dog owner's lifestyle</h2>



The study also uncovered how a dog’s lifestyle and location influence diet choices. Active and working dogs in rural areas are often fed home-prepared raw or cooked diets, while urban and less active dogs are more likely to eat canned or commercial raw food.



“Although the majority of dogs are fed a kibble diet, regardless of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-use-soundboards-to-express-their-needs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> size or geographic location, we found that highly active dogs, working dogs, and those living in rural environments were more likely to be fed home-prepared raw or cooked diets when fed something other than kibble,” noted Dr. Tolbert.



“In contrast, sedentary dogs and dogs living in urban areas were more likely to be fed canned, commercial raw, or home-cooked diets when fed something other than kibble.”



The findings emphasize the importance of considering both the dog’s traits and the owner’s lifestyle when analyzing dietary decisions.



“The point of this study was to show that we need to consider information about both the dog and their owner when assessing why a dog is fed a particular diet,” said Dr. Tolbert. “This will make sure that we continue to support canine health with the most accurate information possible.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dog-owners-choose-pet-food">How dog owners choose pet food</h2>



This research provides valuable insights for veterinarians and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-feel-our-emotions-through-our-heart-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet</a> food companies to better understand how owners decide what to feed their dogs. 



By looking at both the dog and the owner, experts can offer more tailored recommendations to keep dogs healthy and happy.



The Dog Aging Project continues to welcome new participants from across the United States. They’re inviting dogs of all breeds, ages, and health conditions to join this remarkable effort.



By studying canine aging, they hope to improve the lives of dogs and their humans alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relationships-of-dogs-and-their-owners">Relationships of dogs and their owners</h2>



The bond between dogs and their owners goes far beyond food choices. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-simple-technique-instantly-reduces-heat-stress-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dogs</a> often mirror their owners’ lifestyles and emotional states, creating a unique dynamic that impacts both parties. 



Studies have shown that dogs can sense human emotions, respond to stress, and even adopt similar activity levels to their owners. This close relationship makes it imperative to understand both a dog’s needs and also how the owner’s habits and beliefs shape their pet’s overall well-being.



For example, owners who value fitness may encourage their dogs to stay active, leading to healthier lifestyles for both. On the other hand, sedentary owners might unintentionally promote less activity in their pets. 



This interplay highlights how deeply interconnected the lives of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/friends-family-members-and-guardians-dogs-are-more-than-just-pets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> and owners are, and emphasizes the need for holistic approaches to pet care that consider the human-canine bond.



The study is published in the&nbsp;<a href="https://avmajournals.avma.org/view/journals/javma/262/12/javma.24.05.0358.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dog owners' ages and beliefs influence their pet food choices

Dog owners often have strong opinions about what to feed...

Who knew that there's a significant bond between grizzly bears and huckleberries? Their interaction transcends the simple paradigm of consumption, offering a deep dive into the realm of plant ecology.



In a recent study led by scientists from the University of British Columbia's Vancouver and Okanagan campuses, an eye-opening revelation was made about grizzly bears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grizzly-bears-feasting-on-huckleberries"> Grizzly bears feasting on huckleberries</h2>



The study was focused on the behavior of grizzly bears in the Canadian Rocky Mountains during the summer season. The researchers found that while these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/were-polar-bears-feasting-on-fish-in-scotland-30000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bears</a> enjoy a feast of huckleberries, they are doing more for the development of these plants than just eating.



"Bears don't just eat huckleberries - they help them grow in new places," noted Aza Fynley Kuijt, the study's lead researcher from UBC's <a href="https://forestry.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Faculty of Forestry</a>.



"Our findings show that this mutual relationship is crucial for both species, especially as climate change shifts suitable habitats for huckleberries."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bears-as-long-distance-seed-dispersers">Bears as long-distance seed dispersers</h2>



At the heart of the study, an aspect of plant ecology known as endozoochory was examined. 



Simply put, endozoochory is the process where animals eat fruits containing seeds and later disperse those seeds over large areas through their droppings. In the case of grizzly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bears</a> and huckleberries, the researchers found this process to be highly beneficial.



When bears eat huckleberries, the seeds travel through their digestive system and are deposited far from the original plant. This not only spreads the seeds to new areas but also improves their chances of germination, helping the huckleberries grow in fresh and potentially better-suited habitats.



The team found that seeds which pass through a grizzly bear’s digestive system are much more likely to sprout and grow into huckleberry plants. These seeds have a germination rate of up to 28.5%, compared to only 0.2% for seeds that remain inside uneaten berries.



Why the difference? The digestive process removes the berry pulp, which contains substances that prevent the seeds from sprouting (known as germination inhibitors). 



By breaking down this barrier, the bears’ digestion enhances the seeds’ ability to grow, making the process essential for the huckleberries’ reproduction and survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grizzly-bears-huckleberries-and-ecosystems">Grizzly bears, huckleberries, and ecosystems</h2>



Imagine the movement of seeds being akin to an expansive, rippling shadow, journeying up to seven kilometers (4.3 miles) from their original feeding site.



This is what the researchers discovered from the 74 collared grizzly bears observed in the study. Up to 50% of the seeds consumed by the bears were spread about a kilometer from their source.



With huckleberries being a vital food source for grizzly bears during the late summer, this seed dispersal mechanism holds profound implications. It helps the huckleberries adapt to changing climates by infiltrating new, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suitable habitats</a>. 



Human activities such as urban development, resource extraction, and increased recreational activities in bear habitats could potentially disrupt this crucial ecological partnership.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-ecological-processes">Protecting ecological processes</h2>



This study highlights the intricate connections between large mammals and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-diets-can-reduce-environmental-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>. 



"Wildlife conservation is not just about protecting certain species, but about looking after ecological processes and relationships," said Clayton Lamb, co-author and <a href="https://ok.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UBC Okanagan</a> biologist. 



"As we show here, looking after grizzly bears and movement corridors can also help huckleberries, which people and bears both adore." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-for-grizzly-bears">Conservation efforts for grizzly bears</h2>



Grizzly bears, a subspecies of the brown bear, are iconic symbols of North American wilderness. Known for their size and strength, adult males can weigh between 300 to 800 pounds, while females are slightly smaller. 



These omnivores have a diverse diet that includes plants, insects, fish, and mammals, but berries play a critical role in their nutrition during late summer and fall.



Grizzlies are highly intelligent and exhibit complex behaviors, such as tool use and strategic hunting. They rely heavily on large home ranges for survival, often spanning hundreds of square kilometers. 



However, habitat loss and fragmentation pose significant threats to their populations. Conservation efforts focus on creating wildlife corridors to connect isolated habitats, ensuring genetic diversity and long-term survival.



Interestingly, beyond huckleberry seed dispersal, grizzly bears also play a role in soil enrichment. By digging for roots or preying on animals, they disturb the soil, aiding in nutrient cycling. 



This behavior benefits plant growth and contributes to overall ecosystem health. Their status as a keystone species highlights their importance in maintaining ecological balance.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0311809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Grizzly bears help huckleberries thrive in a changing climate

Who knew that there's a significant bond between grizzly bears...

Over the past few decades, a strange sight has caught the attention of anyone watching orcas move through Pacific Northwest waters. Some of these giant marine predators seem to have taken an interest in carrying dead salmon atop their heads.



In the late 1980s, several killer whales were seen displaying this puzzling behavior for weeks. Now, a recent photograph suggests it may have resurfaced, leading many to wonder if it has any significance beyond being a quirky phase.



There was a recent event in Washington’s Puget Sound. An adult male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flexible-diets-are-key-to-killer-whale-survival/">killer whale</a>, known to researchers as J27 or Blackberry, was spotted with a lifeless salmon perched squarely on his head. 



The image spread quickly among wildlife enthusiasts and sparked talk that the past trend might be returning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-curious-absence-of-new-images">A curious absence of new images</h2>



The possibility that these whales are getting back into their fish-balancing routine is intriguing. When looking for confirmation, some tried to track new reports or see if more whales had done the same thing.



Observers have kept close tabs, but fresh proof remains elusive. “There have not been any more recent images of these orcas wearing salmon hats,” said Stephanie Raymond, program director for the <a href="https://www.orcanetwork.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orca Network</a> (Raymond, n.d.).



Every year, these whales return to Puget Sound, and when they do, people are ready. Boaters, photographers, and professional researchers follow their movements with keen interest. Some study their diet, others track their social bonds, and many capture their every move with high-resolution cameras. 



“ . . . There is no shortage of eyes on the water and cameras capturing their visit, in addition to permitted research vessels carefully observing them,” Raymond told CNN in an email. She confirmed that, if the fashion trend of wearing salmon hats was making a comeback among these orcas, “there would be ample documentation of that.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-standout-moment-in-time">A standout moment in time</h2>



On October 25, a photographer positioned at the tip of a peninsula in the area managed to capture something unforgettable. J27 was at the surface with a salmon resting on his head, as if perched there by design.



This single snapshot lit up inboxes and social media feeds after it appeared in a popular whale sighting newsletter. “It was a standout photograph, a lucky shot,” said <a href="https://readthedirt.org/author/orca-network" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Howard Garrett,</a> a former orca researcher and co-founder of Orca Network (Garrett, n.d.).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glancing-back-for-a-surprise">Glancing back for a surprise</h2>



In a similar event, some researchers were working to understand orca behavior using unconventional methods. “We used a scent-detecting dog at the front of the boat to help us sniff out floating orca poop,” said Dr. Deborah Giles, director of science and research for the conservation group Wild Orca (Giles, n.d.). This approach allows scientists to learn more about what these whales eat and how their health and environment might be changing over time.



While the scientists focused on their equipment and research dog, one individual happened to glance behind and noticed an orca head bobbing at the surface with a fish resting on it.



The orca slipped away almost immediately, making it tough to confirm who it was. “I had enough time to shout to the front of the boat and say ‘hey, there’s a fish on the head behind me!’” said Dr. Giles (Giles, n.d.). The moment passed quickly, and the whale, along with its odd accessory, vanished into the water below.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-reasons-for-fish-hats-on-killer-whales">Possible reasons for fish hats on killer whales</h2>



This behavior does not come with an instruction manual. In the past, whales in a particular group displayed it for a limited time before stopping.



One idea is that such actions might occur when these predators have easy access to their preferred prey. When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-salmon-can-help-lower-your-cholesterol/">salmon are plentiful</a>, they might feel comfortable doing odd things with their meal.



Some researchers have noted that when certain types of food become abundant, these whales show surprising actions that have little to do with feeding efficiency and more to do with enjoying an unusual moment.



Killer whales depend on cooperation. They often live in family groups that persist throughout their lives. Southern Resident killer whales, a small population that includes J27, prefer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-threatened-by-lack-of-high-quality-food/">chinook salmon</a> and are known for strong bonds between individuals.



They also share their catch with one another. Some orcas will split their meals and distribute portions. Such habits help maintain connections. 



When carrying dead fish on their heads, they may be adding a fresh twist to these social gestures, blending feeding and interaction in ways that still puzzle observers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-back-to-understand-tomorrow">Looking back to understand tomorrow</h2>



The initial salmon hat sightings recorded in 1987 involved different family groups known as pods. At that time, it went on for several weeks, then subsided. 



Later, it barely reoccurred, making it a rare, short-lived practice. Historical notes indicate it was observed more frequently back then, at least for that brief period.



Today, only a handful of sightings have trickled in. Scientists who remember the old days keep one eye on the present, hoping to catch a repeat occurrence if it ever shows up consistently. For now, it remains a scattered set of sightings without a solid pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-life-of-killer-whales-in-changing-conditions">The life of killer whales in changing conditions</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-killer-whales-struggling-to-survive-in-the-pacific/">Southern Resident killer whales</a> face many pressures, including limited prey and increasing environmental disturbances. They are listed as endangered, and each year is a test of their resilience (<a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/killer-whale#overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a>, 2023). 



Studying odd behaviors, even if they come and go, might give clues about their health or their mindset in changing conditions.



Some speculate that these unusual actions happen more readily when whales feel less stressed. Others suggest it might be nothing more than a passing fancy, easily forgotten once circumstances shift.



With so few confirmed sightings and no repeated patterns, there are more questions than answers. 



Without additional documentation, it is hard to know if balancing a fish atop one’s head carries deeper meaning or is just a surprising whim.



For now, the best anyone can do is keep watching, keep listening, and keep learning from what these whales share, intentionally or not, as they navigate their watery world.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Photographer captures killer whales wearing fish hats

Over the past few decades, a strange sight has caught...

The world beneath the ocean waves is home to countless mysteries, and frogfish are among its most intriguing inhabitants. 



These elusive masters of disguise, a subgroup of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-anglerfish-defy-evolutionary-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anglerfish</a>, have evolved unique adaptations to thrive in diverse marine environments and make their presence felt in fascinating ways.



Frogfish are famously known for their deceptive charms. The clever and effective use of elaborate camouflage allows frogfish to blend seamlessly with their surroundings and renders them nearly invisible to unsuspecting prey.



Their dine-and-dash tactics revolve around catching small fish and crustaceans off guard. In this approach, they embody the notion that everything is fair in love and war - and survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-frogfish-dorsal-fins">The role of frogfish dorsal fins</h2>



The secret behind the successful hunting strategy of frogfish lies in the magic of their dorsal fins, which perform crucial functions.



While the dorsal fins located in the center of their bodies are used to exhibit threatening behavior, the back fin offers stability and propulsion while swimming. 



The real showstopper, however, is the front dorsal fin or the "illicium," which is essentially a rod-like structure with a lure or "eska" that bears an uncanny resemblance to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-simplest-organisms-like-worms-have-unique-personalities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clam worm</a>.



Much like a seasoned angler, the frogfish uses the illicium to wave the eska around as a tantalizing bait.



The ill-fated prey fish are deceived into mistaking the eska for a meal, only to be engulfed by frogfish in a single, swift gulp. Despite this seemingly simple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-in-plain-sight-brilliant-hunting-strategy-of-the-trumpetfish-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting technique</a>, the mechanical processes behind it are complex and curious.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neuronal-mechanism-for-fishing-behavior">Neuronal mechanism for fishing behavior</h2>



In a recently published study, researchers from <a href="https://www.agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp/index-e.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University's Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences</a> led by Professor Naoyuki Yamamoto set out to explore the unique neuronal mechanisms that drive the unusual hunting behavior of frogfish.



The scientists discovered a population of specialized motor neurons in the illicium, which they referred to as "fishing motor neurons."



It turns out that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-walk-jump-and-dance-using-the-same-motor-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motor neurons</a> enable the fishing behavior of frogfish by making the illicium different from the other dorsal fins.



To investigate, the researchers used tracer injections to visualize motor neurons that were situated in the ventral horn of the spinal cord. These particular neurons control swimming movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-of-frogfish-motor-neurons">Migration of frogfish motor neurons</h2>



Yamamoto’s team was amazed to find that the illicium's motor neurons reside in the dorsolateral zone. These are distinct from the neurons of the second, third, and fourth dorsal fins, which are located in the ventrolateral zone of the ventral horn.



The researchers compared the motor neurons of frogfish with those of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-grew-larger-as-the-oceans-cooled-over-millennia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white-spotted pygmy filefish</a> – a species that uses the first dorsal fin for warding off competition and predators rather than for fishing. 



The results suggested that the motor neurons used by frogfish for hunting had shifted during the evolution of their function.



"This is an extremely rare case in which motor neurons for the illicium were originally dorsal fin motor neurons, but their location was shifted to serve a role completely different from their original function," said Yamamoto.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-evolution">Implications for human evolution</h2>



These fascinating revelations, though seemingly exclusive to the marine world, may also be relevant to life on land. According to Yamamoto, these findings shed light on human evolution as well.



By drawing parallels between the motor neuron organization in frogfish and that in other vertebrates, this study highlights the evolutionary connections shared across diverse species.



"While we, as land animals, do not have fins, our forelimbs and hindlimbs are similar to the pectoral and ventral fins in the light of their distribution in the spinal ventral horn, and our ancestors also once had dorsal fins," noted Yamamoto.



"The organization of different groups of motor neuron groups is similar among vertebrates. In vertebrates, there are several species with highly specialized behavior."



"Our study provides a new point of view on motor neurons, and we hope it prompts similar studies in other species that lead scientists to understand the rules that govern their organization."



Yamamoto hopes that these findings will serve as a catalyst for further research into motor neuron organization across species, which could deepen our understanding of the intricate connections within the evolutionary tapestry of life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cne.25674" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Comparative Neurology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Frogfish lure their prey with a built-in fishing rod and bait

The world beneath the ocean waves is home to countless...

Many people share their homes with cats. Some say their presence changes the atmosphere, while others find comfort in the quiet purring that fills a room. There are many neighborhoods where cats perch near doorsteps, waiting for a gentle scratch behind the ear. A common claim of cat owners is that their feline friends have boosted their mood, helping them during tough times. 



This special connection might come from the way humans form emotional bonds, not only with relatives and close friends, but also with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-superstitions-to-selfies-black-cats-struggle-to-find-homes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cat companions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-affection-for-cats">Deep affection for cats</h2>



Appreciation and love for cats can often run very deep. It may start with simple observations -- watching them curl up on a couch, listening to them meow softly for attention.



Research from Dr. Adnan I. Qureshi from the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota</a> suggests that a fondness for cats might say something about a person’s outlook on life. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeing-personality-through-a-feline-lens">Seeing personality through a feline lens</h2>



These preferences might not be limited to finding their antics to be "cute." Some people who gravitate toward cats seem to value independence, quiet companionship, and an atmosphere free of chaos. 



They watch these animals weave through the house with sure steps, never apologizing for their nature. 



This calm presence can inspire people who relate to the idea of embracing uniqueness, shrugging off expectations, and cherishing private time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-atmosphere-of-comfort">An atmosphere of comfort</h2>



When individuals surround themselves with cats, they may be searching for comfort and security. Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-use-nearly-300-facial-expressions-to-communicate/">cats greet</a> their owners with subtle affection, no grand gestures or flashy tricks. 



According to the study, this subtlety can appeal to those who prize sincerity as a personality trait in others. 



Those who connect with other humans in this way during their daily lives might find in cats a kind of refuge, or a way to recharge in a friendly environment that doesn't call for forced conversation or insincere smiles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emphasizing-thoughtfulness">Emphasizing thoughtfulness</h2>



Some cat admirers may be deep thinkers, taking more time to ponder a situation than they talk without a full grasp of a topic. 



People of this mindset may place greater value on observation and introspection. Studying how cats perceive the world could strike a chord in those who appreciate quiet contemplation. 



This sort of interest might reflect a tendency to value privacy, boundaries, and respect. In a world filled with noise, a home shared with a cat may feel like a welcome retreat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-authenticity">Seeking authenticity</h2>



In some cases, people who enjoy cats may not feel pressured to perform for others. Just as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-cat-day-creating-life-saving-change-for-cats/">cats</a> do not try to please everyone, their fans might see strength in being genuine. 



Rather than follow trends or seek to impress their peers, cat enthusiasts usually prefer to act from a place of authenticity. 



Cats do not pretend, nor do they make promises they cannot keep. They just exist as they are, which might resonate with those who value honesty over flattery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-and-physical-well-being">Mental and physical well-being</h2>



Over time, some researchers have studied health connections in those who keep cats around. Academic work has identified various benefits associated with cat ownership. 



Owning a cat is associated with a reduced risk of death due to cardiovascular diseases, including heart attacks and strokes. 



Companion animals, including cats, provide benefits to individuals with mental health conditions by offering calming support, companionship, and aiding in maintaining a positive sense of self. 



Interactions with pets, such as cats, during lockdown phases were reported to mitigate negative psychological effects, providing emotional support and reducing feelings of isolation.&nbsp;



Companion animals, including cats, were significant sources of support during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shock-discovery-cats-play-a-role-in-spreading-covid-19/">COVID-19</a> lockdown, helping to alleviate some negative psychological effects and reduce loneliness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-these-traits">Understanding these traits</h2>



To sum it all up, cat enthusiasts come from many backgrounds. They might be individuals who think outside the box and find joy in unexpected places. 



Most cat lovers welcome differences and seek meaningful connections while preferring to make their own decisions about how to spend their time. 



They show patience and empathy, and their bond with cats could reflect the qualities they value in themselves and others. The qualities might be intelligence, a calm disposition, respect for personal space, or an inclination toward a freer way of living.



People who are drawn to cats might be sending a quiet message to the world that resonates through their actions and attitudes -- they are secure in the fact that they've found their happy place amidst the chaos in society.



These findings are supported by research such as <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/PMC/3317329" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Qureshi et al.</a> (2009), <a href="https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-018-1613-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brooks et al.</a> (2018), and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/3/976" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shoesmith et al.</a> (2021), which highlight the benefits of human-animal interactions for physical and mental health.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Most cat lovers share these personality traits, according to psychologists

Many people share their homes with cats. Some say their...

A new study led by researchers at Dartmouth College proposes a method to enlist the help of immense populations of zooplankton in reducing atmospheric carbon. 



The plan is to convert CO2 into food that these creatures will consume and send deep into the ocean through their carbon-rich waste. 



This approach aims to enhance the ocean’s natural carbon removal process - known as the biological pump - by stimulating the zooplankton’s appetite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-clay-dust-to-capture-carbon">Using clay dust to capture carbon</h2>



The key innovation involves spreading clay dust across the ocean’s surface after massive algae blooms, which can cover hundreds of square miles.&nbsp;



As these blooms die, marine bacteria normally consume the resulting particulate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-alkalinity-may-safely-boost-the-carbon-storage-capacity-of-seawater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a>, sending it back into the atmosphere.&nbsp;



Instead, clay dust attaches to the carbon particulates, transforming them into tiny, sticky pellets.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-are-rapidly-escalating-the-threat-of-nanoplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zooplankton</a>, unable to differentiate between these clay-carbon pellets and their natural food, consume them and later excrete them far below the surface , effectively storing the carbon in the deep ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-zooplankton-poop-in-carbon-capture">The role of zooplankton poop in carbon capture</h2>



“The novelty of our method is using clay to make the biological pump more efficient - the zooplankton generate clay-laden poops that sink faster,” said Mukul Sharma, the study’s corresponding author and a professor of earth sciences at <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a>.&nbsp;



Once digested, the clay-enriched carbon is deposited at lower depths, where it may remain for millennia.&nbsp;



By accelerating the ocean’s capacity to trap carbon, this technique could offer a strategic intervention for mitigating climate change.&nbsp;



The approach also takes advantage of “marine snow” - a continuous shower of organic matter, minerals, and dead organisms - which serves as a conduit for transferring nutrients and carbon to deeper waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zooplankton-poop-and-carbon-storage">Zooplankton poop and carbon storage</h2>



“This particulate material is what these little guys are designed to eat. Our experiments showed they cannot tell if it's clay and phytoplankton or only phytoplankton , they just eat it,” Sharma said.&nbsp;



“And when they poop it out, they are hundreds of meters below the surface and the carbon is, too.”&nbsp;



In laboratory experiments, the team tested water collected from the Gulf of Maine during a 2023 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-caused-toxic-algae-blooms-since-the-bronze-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae bloom</a>.&nbsp;



The results confirmed that when clay dust binds to organic carbon left behind by dying algae, marine bacteria produce a sticky substance that causes the clay and organic carbon to form flocs - small, cohesive clusters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-field-testing-and-future-research-directions">Field testing and future research directions</h2>



The experiments revealed that the introduction of clay dust captured as much as half of the carbon released by dead phytoplankton, preventing it from re-entering the atmosphere.&nbsp;



The presence of clay also increased the concentration of sticky organic particles, boosting their capacity to trap additional carbon on the journey downward.&nbsp;



Adding clay reduced the numbers of bacteria that drive carbon back into the atmosphere, reinforcing the carbon’s downward path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-deployment-on-a-larger-scale">Exploring deployment on a larger scale</h2>



Earlier studies by co-authors Manasi Desai and David Fields from the <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences</a> showed that clay flocs consumed and excreted by zooplankton do indeed sink more quickly.&nbsp;



The team’s next goal is to test the approach by releasing clay onto <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> blooms off Southern California’s coast.&nbsp;



By placing sensors at various depths, researchers hope to identify the best deployment conditions and measure the carbon moved into the deep ocean, optimizing both timing and location.



“It is very important to find the right oceanographic setting to do this work. You cannot go around willy-nilly dumping clay everywhere,” Sharma noted.&nbsp;



“We need to understand the efficiency first at different depths so we can understand the best places to initiate this process before we put it to work. We are not there yet - we are at the beginning.”



If successful, this novel method could present a proactive solution to climate change, leveraging natural marine processes to store carbon away from the atmosphere and guiding future policy and environmental strategies.



The findings were presented at the <a href="https://www.agu.org/annual-meeting" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Geophysical Union annual conference</a> in Washington, D.C.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Zooplankton poop can be used to store carbon in the deep ocean

A new study led by researchers at Dartmouth College proposes...

Turns out, giraffes have a distaste for inclines. The tall, majestic, and gracefully lumbering creatures of Africa's grasslands aren’t fans of hilly terrain and actively avoid slopes greater than 20 degrees. 



These findings, set to be presented at the British Ecological Society’s (BES) Annual Meeting in Liverpool, underline critical implications for giraffe conservation efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giraffes-avoid-steep-slopes">Giraffes avoid steep slopes</h2>



In a new study, experts monitored the movements of 33 GPS-collared <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-are-suffering-a-silent-extinction-and-need-more-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giraffes</a> in South Africa.



The results showed that giraffes avoid steep slopes due to the energy required to navigate them and the risk of falling. Researchers found that giraffes tolerate gradients of up to 12° only when these lead to areas with favorable vegetation.



“We often think of giraffes roaming in large, flat grassland savannas in Africa, but that's not really their true habitat. There are also rolling hills, deep riverbeds, and high plateaus,” noted Jessica Granweiler, a PhD candidate at the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> and the study presenter.



“Our study shows that giraffes much prefer flat areas. They will tolerate some steepness to access food, but simply cannot access areas above a 20° gradient. It's quite shocking when you look at distribution maps.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-challenges-of-steep-terrain">Conservation challenges of steep terrain </h2>



The findings reveal a stark mismatch between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-giraffe-day-2024-a-towering-celebration-of-the-gentle-giants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giraffes</a>’ preferred habitats, including flat areas and gentle slopes, and the locations of many protected reserves.



By applying the 20° gradient threshold, the researchers calculated the amount of inaccessible land for giraffes in key African countries. For example, in Namibia and Tanzania, nearly 8,000 km² of habitat, about half the size of Wales, is unusable for giraffes.



Similarly, in Kenya and South Africa, about 4,000 km² of land is inaccessible. Alarmingly, one-third of the countries analyzed had more unsuitable terrain within protected reserves than outside them.



“If a reserve is, say, 200 hectares but has a large mountain in the middle, from a giraffe’s perspective, this reserve is not 200 hectares anymore. We need to start including topography in giraffe conservation planning and habitat assessments, especially for small fenced reserves,” said Granweiler.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giraffe-conservation-must-address-slopes">Giraffe conservation must address slopes</h2>



Current habitat suitability models often focus on factors such as vegetation, predation, and human disturbance - neglecting the role of topography.



This oversight may result in conservation efforts that fail to meet giraffes’ ecological needs. The study highlights the necessity of integrating geographic and physical limitations into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-four-unique-giraffe-species-across-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat assessments</a>.



“Steep and rugged environments are challenging for large-bodied animals, like giraffes. Unfortunately, natural and protected areas are more likely to be placed in such places, which can lead to a mismatch between the landscapes animals ‘want’ to use and the landscapes that we have ‘left’ for them,” noted Professor Susanne Shultz.



“Incorporating geography and physical limitations in habitat assessments can help avoid conserving animals in inappropriate places.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-giraffes-around-slopes">Analyzing giraffes around slopes</h2>



The research repurposed GPS data collected from 2011 to 2023 by Dr. Francois Deacon’s team at the <a href="https://www.ufs.ac.za" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Free State</a>, South Africa. 



This dataset included information from 33 giraffes, comprising 10 males and 23 females, across five reserves in South Africa. By combining the GPS data with topographic maps, the researchers identified the slopes giraffes could and couldn’t navigate.



“The more awareness we can bring to giraffe ecology, the more research effort there will be on this species in the future,” said Dr. Francois Deacon.



“The fact that we are still discovering major limitations or drivers of their ecology and behaviour is worrying. But research like ours helps closing this gap in knowledge and will help better management and conservation of giraffes in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-picture-for-giraffe-conservation">Bigger picture for giraffe conservation</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-precarious-state-of-kordofan-giraffes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giraffes</a> inhabit 21 African countries, but their populations have been declining due to habitat loss, poaching, and human-wildlife conflict. 



Conservation initiatives are vital for their survival. This study highlights the importance of considering topography in conservation planning to ensure suitable habitats for giraffes.



“Giraffes are tolerant animals and resilient to many things like food availability and human pressures, but this is a scenario where they simply may not be able to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-gained-their-long-necks-for-food-not-sex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt</a> due to physiological limits,” Granweiler concluded.



By addressing these challenges, conservationists can create more effective strategies to protect giraffes, their habitats, and the slopes they rely on.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Giraffes hate slopes, and it’s threatening their survival

Turns out, giraffes have a distaste for inclines. The tall,...

Dogs aren't just pets - they are members of the family. So naturally, you would want them to live a happy and healthy life for as long as possible.



A recent study from the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Liverpool</a> sheds light on when dogs are considered to reach "old age" and the common health challenges they face as seniors.



Published in the&nbsp;Journal of Small Animal Practice, the research provides valuable guidance for dog owners aiming to ensure their pets enjoy healthy and comfortable golden years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-do-dogs-reach-old-age">When do dogs reach old age?</h2>



The experts analyzed veterinary electronic health records (EHRs) to determine the average age at which dogs are classified as old by veterinarians. On average, dogs enter old age at 12.5 years. However, this milestone varies by breed:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Smaller breeds:&nbsp;Jack Russell Terriers and similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-use-soundboards-to-express-their-needs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeds</a> tend to age more slowly, reaching old age closer to 14 years.</li>



<li>Larger breeds:&nbsp;Labrador Retrievers and other large breeds are considered old much earlier, around 12 years.</li>
</ul>



The findings highlight that aging is not a "one-size-fits-all" process, with breed-specific differences playing a key role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-common-health-issues-in-senior-dogs">Common health issues in senior dogs</h2>



The research identified five major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-dogs-are-rapidly-evolving-in-strange-ways-due-to-nuclear-radiation-exposure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health concerns</a> frequently affecting older dogs:



<ol start="1" class="wp-block-list">
<li>Weight-related issues (35%):&nbsp;This includes being overweight, underweight, or experiencing weight loss.</li>



<li>Musculoskeletal problems (33%):&nbsp;Conditions like stiffness and mobility challenges are prevalent.</li>



<li>Dental Conditions (31%):&nbsp;Problems range from tartar buildup to periodontal disease.</li>



<li>Skin-related problems (28%):&nbsp;Lumps, infections, and hair loss are common.</li>



<li>Digestive issues (22%): Symptoms such as vomiting or diarrhea are often observed.</li>
</ol>



"This study allowed us for the first time to examine when vets start noting that dogs are now in a stage of their life where they consider them to be 'elderly' or 'senior,'" said Professor Carri Westgarth, who led the research.



"By analyzing what signs owners were noticing and conditions the vets were diagnosing, we can improve our understanding of how to provide the best care for our dogs."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caring-for-senior-dogs">Caring for senior dogs</h2>



The study provides valuable advice for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-were-bonding-much-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet owners</a> to ensure their aging dogs remain healthy and happy:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understand-breed-specific-aging-needs">Understand breed-specific aging needs</h3>



Different dog breeds age at different rates, and each breed may face unique health challenges as they get older. 



By learning how your dog’s breed typically ages, you can better prepare for issues they may encounter and provide the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-simple-technique-instantly-reduces-heat-stress-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">best care</a> at the right time.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-address-common-conditions-early">Address common conditions early</h3>



Older dogs often experience specific health issues such as weight problems (either overweight, underweight, or weight loss), dental issues (like tartar build-up or gum disease), and mobility challenges (such as joint stiffness). 



By addressing these problems early, you can help prevent them from becoming more serious or affecting your dog’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-speech-changes-when-we-talk-to-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quality of life</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-schedule-regular-vet-visits">Schedule regular vet visits</h3>



Regular veterinary check-ups are crucial for catching health problems early. During these visits, the vet can identify any signs of aging-related issues, like arthritis or heart conditions, and suggest preventive measures or treatments. 



Early detection can significantly improve your dog’s chances of living a longer, healthier life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-provide-a-balanced-diet">Provide a balanced diet</h3>



As dogs age, their nutritional needs change. It’s important to adjust their diet to ensure they’re getting the right balance of nutrients, especially to maintain a healthy weight and support joint, heart, and digestive health. Consult your vet for age-appropriate food recommendations.



Based on the study’s findings, the researchers developed the Ageing Canine Toolkit, which includes a free checklist for owners to monitor signs of aging that might require veterinary advice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This research highlights the importance of tailoring care to your dog’s specific needs as they age. 



"Older dogs are estimated to account for 30% to 40% of patients seen in veterinary practice," noted the researchers. "Their health can be negatively impacted by a wide variety of age-associated issues affecting all body systems; as a result, the healthcare needs of dogs change as they age."



By understanding the unique aging patterns of different breeds and being proactive about common health issues, dog owners can make a significant difference in their pets' quality of life as they grow older. 



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jsap.13809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Small Animal Practice</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dogs' healthcare needs change as they enter 'old age'

Dogs aren't just pets - they are members of the...

How does a barn owl, with its striking white plumage, vanish seamlessly against a night sky? A recent study conducted by a team of biology and optics researchers from various Spanish institutions unveils the intriguing secrets behind the barn owl’s stealthy hunting strategies.



The findings reveal how the barn owl’s distinctive white underbelly and face help it remain nearly invisible to its prey under moonlit and starlit skies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barn-owls-are-skilled-hunters">Barn owls are skilled hunters</h2>



Barn owls, scientifically known as Tyto alba, are medium-sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-gray-owls-thrive-closer-to-human-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">owls</a> found across a wide range of habitats - including grasslands, farmland, and woodlands - throughout much of the world.



Recognized for their distinctive heart-shaped face, they have a striking appearance with a light-colored underbelly and a mottled brown and gray upper body. 



The owls have a unique facial disc that helps funnel sound directly into their ears, giving them exceptional hearing - which is crucial for hunting in low-light conditions.



Unlike most owls that hunt at dusk or in the early morning, barn owls are primarily nocturnal, relying on their acute sense of hearing to locate prey in complete darkness. 



Their diet mostly consists of small mammals, particularly rodents like mice and voles, but they also hunt birds, insects, and reptiles.



Barn owls are highly skilled hunters, capable of flying silently thanks to their specialized feather structure. The soft, velvety feathers on their wings and facial disc help reduce sound as they swoop in on their prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barn-owls-hunting-in-the-moonlight">Barn owls hunting in the moonlight</h2>



Most owls rely on dark feather colors to blend into their surroundings, allowing them to remain inconspicuous while hunting. In contrast, barn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-silent-flight-of-owls-is-one-of-natures-great-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">owls</a> stand out with a strikingly pure white underbelly and a round white face. 



At first, this coloration seems counterintuitive, as it could potentially make the owl more noticeable to prey.



However, researchers propose that this seemingly conspicuous trait is actually a highly effective adaptation for nocturnal hunting. The barn owl’s white feathers may serve as camouflage when seen against a clear, moonlit, or starlit night sky.



To test this theory, the researchers conducted an extensive study using advanced techniques. They measured light conditions in various nighttime scenarios, created models to simulate visibility, and used hyperspectral imaging to analyze how light interacts with the owl’s plumage.



These methods provided a detailed understanding of how the barn owl’s unique coloring aids its stealthy hunting strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barn-owls-blend-into-the-night-sky">Barn owls blend into the night sky</h2>



The researchers used sophisticated techniques to evaluate how visible barn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-plans-to-save-spotted-owls-by-killing-450000-barred-owls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">owls</a> are under various nighttime lighting conditions. 



The team recreated scenarios involving moonlight, starlight, and reflected light to study how these light sources interact with the owl’s plumage, the night sky, and the ground below.



The analysis revealed that the white feathers of barn owls closely mimic the reflectance of moonlight. This alignment significantly reduces the contrast between the owl’s body and its background, making it exceptionally difficult for prey to detect the owl until it is too late.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-advantage-of-moonlight">The advantage of moonlight</h2>



A critical part of the study involved using hyperspectral imaging to measure how light reflects off different parts of the owl’s body. 



This technique provided precise data on how the feathers interact with various wavelengths of light, reinforcing the finding that the owl’s white plumage effectively minimizes visibility under moonlit conditions.



As discussed above, on clear nights illuminated by moonlight, the barn owl’s white underbelly blends almost perfectly with the bright night sky. 



This seamless blending reduces the chance of prey, such as rodents, spotting the owl as it silently approaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-owl-s-feathers-reflect-light">How the owl’s feathers reflect light</h2>



The owl’s feathers reflect light in a manner that significantly lowers the contrast between its body and the sky. This optical effect makes the barn owl nearly invisible to its prey, providing it with a crucial camouflage advantage during nighttime hunting.



Data from hyperspectral imaging confirmed these observations by showing how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-barn-owls-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">owl’s feathers</a> reflect specific wavelengths of light. 



The measurements indicated that the plumage’s reflectance closely matches the light of the moonlit sky, further reducing visibility and enhancing its ability to evade detection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-research">Implications for future research</h2>



This study presents an opportunity for further exploration into how other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-barred-owls-live-in-the-city-they-prefer-affluent-neighborhoods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nocturnal predators</a> might employ similar strategies to avoid detection. 



The role of light reflectance in predator-prey dynamics opens a promising avenue for interdisciplinary research, integrating biology, optics, and behavioral science.



As barn owls continue to intrigue both researchers and bird enthusiasts, studies like this contribute to a greater understanding of how these silent hunters master the art of invisibility. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2406808121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Stealthy hunters: Barn owls use moonlight for camouflage

How does a barn owl, with its striking white plumage,...

In the quiet stillness of the ocean, when the sun dips below the horizon, marine creatures on coral reefs experience a significant shift.



As daytime creatures retreat into the safety of corals, nocturnal predators begin their evening hunt.



This fascinating cycle is as routine as the setting sun – until the intrusion of artificial light disrupts the natural order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-study-on-coral-reef-nightlife">A study on coral reef nightlife</h2>



A recent press release revealed the details of an insightful study on the effects of light pollution on coral reef communities.



The research is recognized as the first, large-scale experiment addressing the influence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-pollution-disrupts-entire-ecological-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light pollution</a> on coral reef nightlife. 



The study was conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, the Centre de Recherches Insulaires et Observatoire de l’Environnement (CRIOBE) in French Polynesia, and Chile's Pontificia Universidad Católica.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-artificial-light-a-silent-intruder">Artificial light: A silent intruder</h2>



"When the sun sets, coral reefs undergo a dramatic transformation," noted Dr. Emma Weschke, the study's lead author from the University of Bristol’s School of Biological Sciences.



The vibrant fish that command our attention during the day retreat to rest among the corals, and elusive nocturnal species emerge from caves and crevices in pursuit of prey.



"The night usually brings a veil of darkness that allows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-ocean-dna-study-uncovers-mysteries-of-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a> to hide from nocturnal predators. But artificial light generated by human activities exposes coral reef inhabitants to unexpected danger," explained Professor Andy Radford, the study's senior author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-night-vision-experiment">The night vision experiment</h2>



The team utilized specially designed underwater infrared cameras to observe a coral reef at night.



These cameras allowed the researchers to film the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystem</a> without altering fish behavior since fish cannot see in the infrared spectrum.



What they discovered was quite alarming. Compared to control sites that lacked artificial light, a larger number of different fish species were present on artificially illuminated reefs at night.



Further investigation revealed these species to be predatory fish feeding on zooplankton, small fish, and invertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangers-of-light-pollution">Dangers of light pollution</h2>



Dr. Weschke explained that many species detected on artificially lit reefs were not nocturnal. Instead, these fish are usually active during the day.



"Finding that light pollution can cause fish to stay awake later than usual is concerning because sleep - like for us - is likely essential for regenerating energy and maintaining fitness," said Dr. Weschke.



"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-clownfish-are-struggling-to-survive-under-artificial-lights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Artificial light</a> makes it much easier for predators to locate and capture prey, reducing their foraging effort. Which is why we think that greater numbers are being attracted to artificially illuminated coral reefs at night," noted Professor Radford.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-the-impacts-of-artificial-light">Reducing the impacts of artificial light</h2>



However, the situation isn’t completely bleak. The researchers observed changes in the reef's nightlife after an average of 25 consecutive nights of being exposed to artificial light.



Brief periods of exposure didn't cause noticeable changes in fish communities. This suggests that implementing low-cost solutions rapidly could have a positive impact.



"Reducing the impacts of artificial light could help build resilience on valuable coral reefs," noted study co-author Professor Steve Simpson.



"Unlike greenhouse gases and plastics, artificial light is a pollutant that doesn’t leave a residue when switched off. Limiting artificial light in both its intensity and duration, prioritizing it for essential needs and reducing aesthetic use, will help re-establish naturally dark nights that marine ecosystems evolved with."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-coral-reefs-in-a-brightening-world">Preserving coral reefs in a brightening world</h2>



Coral reefs, often referred to as the "rainforests of the sea," are among the most diverse and vital ecosystems on the planet. 



They support nearly 25% of all marine species, provide coastal protection, and serve as critical sources of food and income for millions of people globally. 



However, the increasing intrusion of artificial light adds another stressor to already vulnerable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-food-webs-threatened-by-the-loss-of-picky-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reef systems</a>, which are struggling against threats such as climate change, overfishing, and pollution. 



Mitigating light pollution is one of the easiest ways to support coral reef health. By prioritizing low-impact lighting technologies and implementing targeted lighting practices near reef habitats, significant strides can be made in preserving these ecosystems.



Reinstating natural light-dark cycles by limiting artificial light exposure provides reefs a better chance to recover and thrive. 



As urban expansion and tourism increase near coastal regions, innovative solutions to minimize light pollution are becoming essential to ensure the survival of these ecological treasures.



The full study was published in the journal Global Change Biology.



Image Credit: Emma Weschke



 -----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Light pollution is transforming nightlife on coral reefs

In the quiet stillness of the ocean, when the sun...

Cow,At,A,Meadow,In,Austria

We've all heard it before -- to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and curb fossil fuel dependency, we should consider reducing the energy and resources we use to make meat and animal products.



The entire lifecycle of raising animals for beef production -- from planting and harvesting feed crops to transportation, processing, and refrigeration -- consumes a very substantial amount of energy, mostly coming from fossil fuels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-a-baby-calf-to-one-single-hamburger">From a baby calf to one single hamburger</h2>



Raising a cow from calf to hamburger really puts a strain on our planet's resources. For starters, producing a single quarter-pound hamburger can use up to 1,600 gallons of water. 



This water goes into growing the feed the cow eats, irrigating crops, and managing waste. Plus, producing beef from animals is very energy-intensive, requiring around 2 to 3 kilowatt-hours of energy for each burger -- and that energy comes from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cop28-agreement-marks-the-beginning-of-the-end-of-fossil-fuels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuels</a>.



On top of that, each cow needs about 4.5 acres of land for grazing and feed production -- that's 4.5 acres for every cow in the world that is being raised to ultimately become hamburger. That's an incredible amount of land, to say the least.



Next, beef farming is a major source of greenhouse gases, releasing roughly 44 to 55 pounds of CO₂ equivalent per hamburger. Think about how many hamburgers are eaten around the world every day, and you'll start to get the idea.



But the impact doesn't stop there. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cattle-farming-expansion-could-expose-more-than-a-billion-cows-to-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cattle farming</a> often leads to deforestation and habitat loss, especially in sensitive areas like the Amazon rainforest, which harms biodiversity and disrupts ecosystems while adding to carbon emissions. 



Cows are also not very efficient at turning feed into meat, needing about 15 pounds of feed to produce just 5 pounds of beef. To make beef production more sustainable, we can adopt several strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raising-animals-takes-lots-of-energy">Raising animals takes lots of energy</h2>



A new study recently attempted to put a quantifiable number on this entire process, proving that it's not just about reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-greenhouse-emissions-rebounded-in-2021/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse emissions</a>.



Scientists from Norway, Austria, and Switzerland, based at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a>'s (NTNU) Industrial Ecology Programme, have put a microscope to the energy requirements of our global food system. 



The study reveals that our consumption of animal products has a more significant impact than we might have imagined.



Crunching the numbers from 2015-2019, they found that a whopping 60% of the energy footprint of agriculture worldwide is attributed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-products-linked-to-double-the-emissions-of-plant-based-foods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal-based products</a>.



"That energy is predominately from fossil fuels," said Edgar Hertwich, a professor at NTNU’s Industrial Ecology Programme and the senior author of the paper.



As we have seen, societies are increasingly looking at electricity as a cleaner energy option. However, this does not readily apply to agriculture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-animals-an-energy-hungry-industry">Eating animals: An energy hungry industry</h2>



One of the key challenges highlighted in the study is the inefficiency of animal husbandry. 



In simple terms, we grow food to feed animals, and then we consume the animals -- but the energy return on this "investment" is disappointingly low.



The research found that whilst livestock accounted for the majority of agriculture's energy footprint during the study period, it only provided a minor 18% of the calories consumed worldwide.



Led by Kajwan Rasul, the team sought to calculate the energy return on the energy investment, essentially benchmarking the efficiency of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-meat-and-dairy-alternatives-will-dramatically-transform-the-global-food-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food system</a>.



It's a simple equation. If the figure is less than 1, it signifies that it takes more energy to produce the food than we get back from consuming it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-out-the-energy-footprint">Mapping out the energy footprint</h2>



To conduct this study, Rasul employed two models, EXIOBASE and FABIO, that respectively allowed him to estimate energy use across various sectors and track the production, trade, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-food-consumption-doubled-in-the-last-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumption of food</a>. 



Integrating these two models using innovative methodologies enabled the team to examine the energy footprint of our food system on a much deeper level than previously possible.



Their study covered ten food categories, broken down from 123 different commodities, across a global spread of 20 regions. 



They also investigated the food system's energy footprint over two, five-year phases, namely 1995-1999 and 2015-2019, which enabled them to identify trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bright-side-positive-trends-over-time">The bright side: Positive trends over time</h2>



There is some good news to share. 



Rasul and the team of scientists found a noticeable improvement in the energy efficiency of global food systems over the two decades.



The energy return on energy investment shifted from 0.68 in 1995 to 0.91 in 2019. Yet, this still meant that, in 2019, it cost 10% more energy to produce every calorie provided to society than was returned in consumption.



Regions with less industrialized food systems, like parts of Africa and Asia, consistently had energy returns on investments higher than one. 



This is encouraging as these regions are home to 68% of the world's population.



Rasul noticed that this trend was also reflected in four of the world's five high-income regions. However, he expressed caution over whether this trend was genuinely due to efficiency improvements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-security-and-the-fossil-fuel-energy-equation">Food security and the fossil fuel energy equation</h2>



The findings of this study raise broader implications beyond greenhouse gas emissions.



If energy for food production was boundless and environmentally neutral, we wouldn't need to worry about inefficiencies in agriculture. But that's not our reality.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seed-systems-will-play-a-key-role-in-future-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food security</a> is a significant concern. If our agriculture continues to depend heavily on fossil fuels, we may face a significant crisis. 



This isn't just a theoretical proposition: historical incidents, like the 1970s energy crisis or the more recent ripple effects from conflicts, highlight the potential risk.



As the authors of the study succinctly put it, agricultural systems heavily reliant on fossil fuels "turn the question of food security into a question of energy security." 



It's time for us all to take note and reconsider what's on our dinner plate.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/3/12/pgae524/7919164" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The amount of energy it takes to make one hamburger is hard to believe

We've all heard it before -- to reduce greenhouse gas...

A concentrated sugar solution might be just as effective as antibiotics in treating a prevalent infection in dairy cows, according to new research led by Penn State.



The findings could significantly reduce antibiotic use in dairy farming, combating antimicrobial resistance in both animals and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antimicrobial-resistance-in-the-dairy-industry">Antimicrobial resistance in the dairy industry</h2>



Antimicrobial resistance poses a growing public health concern, making alternatives to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antimicrobial-resistance-could-cause-39-million-deaths-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotics</a> vital. 



“The main goal of this research was to test an antibiotic-free alternative option against the current gold standard for treating this prevalent disease,” said Erika Ganda, assistant professor of food animal microbiomes at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>.



The study focused on treating clinical metritis, a uterine infection that affects cows after calving. This condition, one of the most common diseases in U.S. dairy cattle, is typically treated with antibiotics like ceftiofur. 



While effective, such treatments may contribute to antimicrobial resistance, a pressing issue for farm workers and their communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sugar-solution-as-an-alternative-to-antibiotics">Sugar solution as an alternative to antibiotics </h2>



The researchers explored intrauterine dextrose, a sugar solution, as an alternative to systemic antibiotics. Dextrose kills bacteria by pulling water out of them, causing the cells to dry out and die. 



“We have been searching for alternative therapies that can effectively treat metritis without relying on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotics</a>,” explained Adrian Barragan, associate research professor and co-lead author of the study.



This approach has shown promise in human wound healing but had previously delivered mixed results in cattle. Encouragingly, the study found that dextrose worked just as well as antibiotics for mild cases of metritis. 



“We were definitely not expecting to find that both treatments worked similarly for mild cases,” Barragan said. “That was a very exciting discovery.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-the-effects-of-sugar-and-antibiotics">Comparing the effects of sugar and antibiotics </h2>



The study was conducted on 77 dairy cows from a farm in Pennsylvania that were diagnosed with clinical metritis.



The researchers divided the cattle into two groups for treatment comparison. One group received intrauterine dextrose while the other group was treated with systemic ceftiofur, a commonly used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanoplastics-can-alter-the-course-of-antibiotics-within-our-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic</a>.



To assess the effectiveness of both treatments, the researchers carefully monitored the cows' recovery. They also analyzed the microbial communities in the cows' reproductive tracts using advanced DNA sequencing techniques.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preservation-of-microbial-health">Preservation of microbial health</h2>



The analysis provided insights into how the treatments affected the bacterial populations in the uterus.



The results revealed that both treatments had similar success rates in curing mild cases of metritis. However, there were variations in how the treatments performed depending on the severity of the infection. 



A key finding was that dextrose, unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-viruses-to-combat-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotics</a>, did not disturb the natural balance of bacteria in the uterus. 



This preservation of microbial health could have long-term benefits for the cows, potentially improving their overall reproductive health and reducing the risk of complications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-organic-dairy-farms">Implications for organic dairy farms </h2>



The discovery of an effective sugar-solution holds particular promise for organic dairy farms, where antibiotics are restricted.



“Our findings may be applicable to reproductive disease in human medicine. In fact, we were inspired by medical literature and sugar-based wound treatments for people,” noted Barragan.



Ganda emphasized the benefits of minimizing antibiotics. "We treat cows with antibiotics only when necessary to ensure their welfare,” she said. "Minimizing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-sea-microbes-show-promise-as-new-antibiotic-drugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic use</a> helps reduce the risk of resistant bacteria that can impact farm workers, families, and communities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-dependency-on-antibiotics">Reducing dependency on antibiotics </h2>



While the study’s results are promising, the researchers acknowledge the need for further investigation. 



The study's relatively small sample size means the researchers cannot make definitive conclusions about the effectiveness of sugar-based treatments in curing uterine infections. 



However, the results are promising and provide an important starting point for further research. These findings suggest that sugar-based treatments could potentially be developed as viable alternatives to antibiotics. 



This can be used not only for treating infections in animals like dairy cows but also for addressing similar reproductive health issues in humans. The study opens the door to new, antibiotic-free approaches in both veterinary and human medicine.



By reducing antibiotic dependence, this research could have far-reaching impacts on animal welfare, public health, and the fight against antimicrobial resistance. 



“Antimicrobial resistance in human and veterinary medicine is a growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antimicrobial-resistance-projected-to-kill-10-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health concern</a>,” Ganda noted. This sweet solution might just be a game-changer for addressing it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/veterinary-science/articles/10.3389/fvets.2024.1478288/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Veterinary Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sugar solution could replace antibiotics for treating dairy cows

A concentrated sugar solution might be just as effective as...

species in Linotaeniidae