A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Jupiter's striking size, swirling gases, and dramatic bands in its atmosphere set it apart from every other planet. One of its most iconic features is the Great Red Spot, a storm so vast that it has defined the planet’s appearance for centuries.



Until now, much of the discussion has centered on the spectacle of that colossal storm itself. Recent observations are shining a new light on what happens above this famous vortex. 



These details open a fresh perspective on Jupiter’s upper atmosphere, revealing unexpected structures and patterns.



These findings have been led by team leader Henrik Melin of the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> in the United Kingdom. 



By focusing on the region above the Great Red Spot, researchers have broadened our understanding of ionospheric activity on the gas giant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-insights-on-jupiter-s-atmosphere">Fresh insights on Jupiter’s atmosphere</h2>



Astronomers used the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) to look at a portion of Jupiter once thought to be nondescript. 



The instrument’s infrared capabilities allowed scientists to analyze the gas giant’s upper atmosphere, an area where sunlight plays a role but had been assumed to be uniform. 



They found that Jupiter’s distance from the Sun means it receives only 4% of the sunlight hitting Earth, so it came as a surprise to see a host of intricate activity at these heights.



The team studied this region using Webb’s Near-Infrared Spectrograph (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/nirspec/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIRSpec</a>). After targeting the area above the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-great-red-spot-shrinks-and-expands-like-a-stress-ball/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Red Spot</a>, they identified dark arcs and bright points, distributed across the field of view in ways never documented before. 



“We thought this region, perhaps naively, would be really boring,” shared team leader Henrik Melin. “It is in fact just as interesting as the northern lights, if not more so. Jupiter never ceases to surprise.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wave-patterns-and-the-great-red-spot">Wave patterns and the Great Red Spot</h2>



Although solar illumination drives the light coming from this zone, something else seems to be shaping the patterns. 



“One way in which you can change this structure is by gravity waves - similar to waves crashing on a beach, creating ripples in the sand,” explained Melin. 



“These waves are generated deep in the turbulent lower atmosphere, all around the Great Red Spot, and they can travel up in altitude, changing the structure and emissions of the upper atmosphere.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Jupiter_Great-Red-Spot_mysterious-shapes_JWST-NIRSpec_ESA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Jupiter_Great-Red-Spot_mysterious-shapes_JWST-NIRSpec_ESA_1s.webp" alt="New observations of the Great Red Spot on Jupiter have revealed that the planet’s atmosphere above and around the infamous storm is surprisingly interesting and active. This graphic shows the region observed by Webb — first its location on a NIRCam image of the whole planet (left), and the region itself (right), imaged by Webb’s Near-InfraRed Spectrograph (NIRSpec). Credit: ESA" class="wp-image-1963902"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New observations of the Great Red Spot on Jupiter have revealed that the planet’s atmosphere above and around the infamous storm is surprisingly interesting and active. This graphic shows the region observed by Webb — first its location on a NIRCam image of the whole planet (left), and the region itself (right), imaged by Webb’s Near-InfraRed Spectrograph (NIRSpec). Click to enlarge. Credit: ESA</figcaption></figure>



The fact that Earth also experiences these phenomena is intriguing, though the effect here at home is much weaker. 



The group behind these observations hopes to follow up on these wave patterns to see how they migrate through Jupiter’s upper atmosphere and affect the energy balance of that region. 



By observing these shifts over time, scientists can refine their ideas about Jupiter’s atmospheric mechanics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jupiter-s-upper-atmosphere">Jupiter's upper atmosphere</h2>



Tom Stallard, Professor of Planetary Astronomy at <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northumbria University</a>, worked on this effort and has been studying the upper layers of gas giants for many years. 



“We used to think of a planet’s aurora as the only interesting place in terms of ionospheric activity, but these new images show that is not always the case," Stallard explained. 



“Even spacecraft which have gone to Jupiter, such as the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/juno/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Juno mission</a>, have not had the sensitivity required to pull out this level of ionospheric detail.”



The images taken by Webb highlight features that were once simply too faint for ground-based equipment or earlier missions to spot. 



Stallard continued, “In future it would be interesting to observe how the patterns we see over the Great Red Spot change, and how these waves move throughout Jupiter’s upper atmosphere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Jupiter’s magnetic field is much more intense than Earth’s, yet there are parallels in the way ionospheres behave. 



“Although Jupiter appears very different to Earth there is actually much we can learn about our own planet by studying Jupiter. The processes going on are very similar, but Jupiter’s magnetic field is much stronger, and stranger," Stallard concluded.



By investigating these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-about-jupiters-clouds-not-ammonia-ice-leaves-astronomers-astonished/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes on a bigger stage</a>, scientists can apply fresh insights to our own world. 



When features are magnified on Jupiter, it can offer straightforward ways to test models that might be more subtle in Earth’s environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-waiting-for-the-juice">Waiting for the Juice</h2>



These discoveries may also help guide work on ESA’s Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer, <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Juice" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juice</a>, which lifted off on April 14, 2023. 



That mission carries instruments designed to learn more about Jupiter and its icy satellites, specifically Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa. 



The goal is to assess these worlds as potential habitats while exploring the planet’s broader surroundings. 



The insights from Webb could prove vital when Juice measures the structures of Jupiter’s magnetic and atmospheric environment up close.



Researchers plan to examine Jupiter’s entire system to see how it compares to other gas giants across the universe. 



By focusing on wave patterns near the planet’s equatorial belt and looking at how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-causing-the-mysterious-haze-at-jupiters-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">charged particles behave</a>, the mission might provide further clarity on what drives the weather patterns and emissions in Jupiter’s upper layers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-jupiter-s-atmosphere">Learning from Jupiter's atmosphere</h2>



With the Webb telescope’s remarkable precision, scientists have found another layer of interest that is changing the way we think about ionospheric activities in the outer solar system. 



Each new image confirms there are still stories unfolding above that swirling red storm. 



The spotlight now shifts to exploring these atmospheric waves, the structures they create, and the lessons that might await our own planet. 



By mapping these patterns and testing how they evolve, researchers are poised to gain a deeper understanding of giant planets both close to home and beyond.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02305-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Surprising 'shapes' discovered near Jupiter’s Great Red Spot

Jupiter's striking size, swirling gases, and dramatic bands in its...

Every summer feels hotter than the last. News reports cover deadly heatwaves, rising humidity, and collapsing infrastructure under soaring temperatures. But while climate models predict extreme weather, a deeper question lingers: how much heat can the human body actually tolerate?



A recent study from the University of Ottawa’s Human and Environmental Physiology Research Unit (<a href="https://hepru.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HEPRU</a>) has provided fresh insights. 



The team, led by Dr. Robert D. Meade and Professor Glen Kenny, set out to measure the biological limits of thermoregulation - our body’s ability to control internal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-is-pushing-parts-of-earth-beyond-human-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> under conditions of environmental stress.



This research does more than update old data. It redefines our understanding of human survival in a warming world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-tolerance-is-lower-than-expected">Heat tolerance is lower than expected</h2>



Until recently, scientists assumed that humans could tolerate “wet bulb” temperatures - where humidity and heat combine - up to 35 °C. This threshold was widely cited as the maximum point for survival. However, new experiments have challenged that belief.



“The conditions under which humans can effectively regulate their body temperature are actually much lower than earlier models suggested,” said Professor Kenny.



This revelation comes from a series of precise laboratory experiments that exposed volunteers to controlled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat</a> and humidity. 



The research team applied a method called thermal-step protocols, where air temperature or relative humidity is increased in steps to determine when the body loses control over its internal temperature. 



This point, called the “core temperature inflection,” was assumed to mark the edge of thermoregulation. Yet, until now, no study had tested this assumption directly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-human-thermoregulation-limits">Testing human thermoregulation limits</h2>



To validate the threshold, researchers subjected 12 healthy adults to extreme conditions in a climate-controlled chamber. First, each participant underwent a humidity-step protocol. 



They were gradually exposed to increasing levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-broke-records-for-450-straight-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat</a> or moisture to determine their personal inflection point - the moment when their core temperature started climbing sharply.



But the experiment didn’t stop there. Each participant returned for two additional 9-hour trials. In one session, they were exposed to a wet bulb temperature just below their individual limit (around 30.9 °C). 



In the other, they faced a temperature just above it (approximately 33.7 °C). The goal was to see whether the body could adapt and stabilize, or whether it would succumb to the heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-body-fails-to-cool-itself">When the body fails to cool itself</h2>



The outcome was decisive. “The results were clear. The participants’ core <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> streamed upwards unabated, and many participants were unable to finish the 9-hour exposure,” Dr. Meade explained.



These extended trials confirmed that even slightly exceeding the inflection point leads to dangerous, unmanageable rises in body temperature. Heat stroke levels (around 40.2 °C core temperature) could be reached in under 10 hours under “Tabove” conditions. 



Even in the “Tbelow” trials, where conditions were slightly milder, the body struggled. It would take more than 24 hours to reach heat stroke, but the trajectory was still upward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-heat-impacts-on-humans">Predicting heat impacts on humans</h2>



This research does more than confirm a theory - it validates a method.



Thermal-step protocols have been used for decades to estimate limits for thermoregulation, but they lacked direct validation. Now, with this study, scientists can confidently rely on these models when projecting future human risks.



“Our findings [are] especially timely, given estimated limits for thermoregulation are being increasingly incorporated into large scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clouds-have-become-less-reflective-making-global-warming-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> modeling,” noted Dr. Meade.



By testing human physiology in real-world simulations, this study connects lab science with global climate data. It also provides detailed measurements of physiological strain during prolonged exposure.



Even when core temperature didn’t immediately reach lethal levels, participants showed signs of uncompensated heat stress - rapid heart rates, fatigue, and inability to finish the trial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-climate-map">Global climate map</h2>



As climate models grow more detailed, they are beginning to include human physiological limits. This study adds confidence to those models by showing that the lab-based thermal-step method can predict real-life responses. 



It also shifts expectations: survivability thresholds now fall between 26 °C and 31 °C wet bulb temperature, which is much lower than the previously cited 35 °C mark.



“By integrating physiological data with climate models, we hope to better predict and prepare for heat-related health issues,” said Professor Kenny.



In other words, this isn’t just about lab numbers. It’s about how cities will respond to heat emergencies, how healthcare systems can adapt, and how urban planning must change. Policies can now draw on data that reflect the actual stress on human bodies under conditions of rising temperature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-exposure-may-exceed-human-capacity">Heat exposure may exceed human capacity</h2>



What makes this study urgent is the projection that large regions across the globe will soon experience these dangerous conditions. 



Some of these zones include densely populated areas where millions may face extended periods of wet bulb temperatures of above 32 °C. With each degree rise, the margin for survival shrinks.



These findings serve as both a warning and a guide. They remind us that biological systems - unlike machines - can only adapt so far. The limits are real, measurable, and fast approaching.



Human survival under climate stress will depend not only on environmental policy but on understanding and respecting the boundaries of our own physiology.



This research marks a turning point. It shows that the future of climate adaptation must start with the human body. It is not a matter of theory, but of the unmistakable rise of core temperatures, the lab data collected over nine sweltering hours, and the shared vulnerability of every person facing a hotter planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2421281122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Humans have a much lower heat tolerance than expected

Every summer feels hotter than the last. News reports cover...

Why would prehistoric humans carry their youngest children deep into the winding, pitch-black recesses of ancient caves - places riddled with danger, low oxygen, and claustrophobic tunnels? 



A new study from researchers at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> suggests an answer that goes beyond simple tradition or education: these children weren’t just tagging along - they were spiritual participants.



A paper recently published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/arts14020027" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arts</a>, a journal from MDPI, presents an innovative interpretation of children’s presence at cave art sites. The study proposes that small children were believed to serve a powerful spiritual function - acting as mediators between humans and the unseen world.



The research was conducted by Dr. Ella Assaf, Dr. Yafit Kedar, and Professor Ran Barkai from Tel Aviv University's Jacob M. Alkow Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-children-participated-in-cave-art">Children participated in cave art</h2>



Cave paintings, particularly those found in France and Spain, date back between 40,000 and 12,000 years and continue to mystify archaeologists.&nbsp;



While previous studies have focused on the adult creators of these artworks, there’s growing evidence that children were also involved. Handprints and finger paintings left by young ones, some as young as two years old, are scattered among the animal figures and abstract shapes. 



Footprints and hand impressions found near these ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-cave-painting-discovered-in-indonesia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paintings</a> suggest that children didn’t merely observe - they actively took part.



“There is solid evidence of children’s participation in the artwork,” Assaf said. “This naturally raises the question: why were very young children taken on exhausting and hazardous journeys deep into the dark, meandering caves with low oxygen levels - crawling through crevices, descending shafts, and climbing rocks to reach their destination?”



So far, most hypotheses have leaned toward the educational. The assumption was that adults brought children along to pass on cultural knowledge - traditions, myths, artistic skills. But the experts believe there’s more to the story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-children-as-powerful-figures">Children as powerful figures</h2>



“Despite extensive research on cave art, few studies have focused on the presence of children,” Kedar said. “The prevailing hypothesis is that their participation served an educational purpose. In our study, we argue that children’s involvement had an additional meaning.”



Drawing on ethnographic studies of indigenous societies and recent insights into the nature of cave rituals, the researchers suggest that small children were considered spiritually potent. 



In many traditional cultures, children are not seen merely as passive observers or learners, but as powerful figures in their own right - what the researchers call “active agents.”



“Children possess a range of unique mental and cognitive traits, For this reason, indigenous cultures worldwide, throughout history and prehistory, have viewed children as 'active agents' - mediators between this world and the entities inhabiting the natural world, the underworld, and the cosmos as a whole,” Assaf said.&nbsp;



“In this way, children made a vital contribution to their communities - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-hunter-gatherers-had-a-very-organized-domestic-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunter-gatherers</a> who lived in nature and sought to maintain continuous, respectful relationships with various entities: animals and plants that served as food sources, stones used for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toolmaking</a>, ancestral spirits, and more.”



By involving children in cave rituals and artwork, ancient communities may have believed they were strengthening their connection to spiritual entities - animals, ancestral spirits, or cosmic forces - that governed their survival. 



These were communities deeply reliant on nature, where food, tools, and spiritual meaning were derived from the landscape around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-children-delivered-messages-in-cave-art">Children delivered messages in cave art</h2>



According to Barkai, caves themselves were often seen as liminal spaces - gateways to the underworld. For prehistoric societies, descending into the earth was not merely physical but symbolic. Within the depths, shamanic rituals could be performed to communicate with unseen forces.



“Young children were perceived as liminal beings - belonging to both the realm they had left just recently (before birth) and the world they currently inhabit,” he said. “Thus, small children were considered particularly suited to bridging the gap between the worlds and delivering messages to non-human entities.”



By this logic, children were not just extras in a ceremonial performance, but integral players. Their presence, their touch, even their handprints may have been believed to amplify the ritual’s power.&nbsp;



Thus, children joined adults on journeys into the depths of caves and participated in painting and rituals as part of their role in the community - as ideal mediators with entities from the beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-childhood-and-spiritual-connection-nbsp">Childhood and spiritual connection&nbsp;</h2>



This study contributes to a growing body of work that rethinks the role of children in prehistory. Rather than viewing them as mere bystanders or apprentices, researchers are beginning to see young members of ancient communities as active participants in shaping both social life and spiritual practices.



By blending archaeological evidence with cultural anthropology and religious studies, the scientists opened a new window into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> understood the roles of the youngest among them.&nbsp;



It’s a theory that paints childhood not just as a period of learning, but as a time of spiritual connection - and children, not just as learners, but as vital messengers between worlds.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Children played a spiritual role in prehistoric cave art

Why would prehistoric humans carry their youngest children deep into...

An international team of researchers took advantage of a rare chance encounter to explore a massive new expanse of seafloor exposed by the breakup of an Antarctic ice shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea.&nbsp;



On January 13, 2025, an iceberg named A-84 - which was the size of the city of Chicago - broke off from the George VI Ice Shelf, which sits along the Antarctic Peninsula. 



This event uncovered roughly 209 square miles (540 square kilometers) of seafloor that had previously been concealed under floating ice.



The team arrived aboard <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Schmidt Ocean Institute</a>’s R/V Falkor (too) at this newly exposed site on January 25, making them the first to study such a large underwater area that had previously been covered by an ice shelf.&nbsp;



Their effort marks the first large-scale interdisciplinary exploration of geologic, oceanographic, and biological features hidden beneath an extensive floating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-glacier-retreat-in-the-arctic-signals-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> front.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapidly-shifting-expedition-goals">Rapidly shifting expedition goals</h2>



Co-chief scientist Patricia Esquete is a researcher in the <a href="https://www.cesam-la.pt/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Environmental and Marine Studies</a> (CESAM) and the Department of Biology (DBio) at the <a href="https://www.ua.pt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Aveiro</a> in Portugal.&nbsp;



"We seized upon the moment, changed our expedition plan, and went for it so we could look at what was happening in the depths below,” said Esquete.



“We didn’t expect to find such a beautiful, thriving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-environmental-stress-strengthens-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>. Based on the size of the animals, the communities we observed have been there for decades, maybe even hundreds of years.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor-study_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor-study_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="The newly exposed Antarctic seafloor also allowed the team to gather critical data on the past behavior of the ice sheet. The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass over the last few decades due to climate change. Credit: Alex Ingle / Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963228"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The newly exposed Antarctic seafloor also allowed the team to gather critical data on the past behavior of the ice sheet. The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass over the last few decades due to climate change. Credit: Alex Ingle / Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



Originally, the science mission did not include venturing beneath a freshly fractured portion of the ice shelf. 



However, the movement of this newly calved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-iceberg-that-broke-away-from-antarctica-sparks-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg</a> offered a rare opportunity to explore a site that, until recently, had never been examined by any human.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-seafloor-reveals-lush-communities">Antarctic seafloor reveals lush communities</h2>



Using Schmidt Ocean Institute’s remotely operated vehicle, ROV SuBastian, the science team spent eight days surveying the seafloor at depths down to 1,300 meters (4,265 feet).&nbsp;



The experts discovered an unexpectedly rich ecosystem that was teeming with corals, sponges, icefish, giant sea spiders, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> - an indication that marine life can flourish under ice-covered regions of the Antarctic in ways not previously documented.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_octopus-resting_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_octopus-resting_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="An octopus rests on the seafloor 1150 meters deep, in the Bellingshausen Sea off Antarctica, at an area where the shelf break and slope are cut by several underwater gullies. Credit: ROV SuBastian / Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963224"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An octopus rests on the seafloor 1150 meters deep, in the Bellingshausen Sea off Antarctica, at an area where the shelf break and slope are cut by several underwater gullies. Credit: ROV SuBastian / Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



According to the researchers, these observations offer insight into how ecosystems function beneath the Antarctic ice sheet.&nbsp;Such an ecosystem has seldom been accessed. 



Earlier findings, notably by <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a> researchers in 2021, revealed possible bottom-dwelling life beneath ice, but the present study marks the first time an ROV survey has thoroughly documented wide areas of this vibrant seabed.



The experts were surprised by the large biomass and biodiversity in the ecosystem and suspect they have discovered several new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-marine-life-survives-in-darkness">How marine life survives in darkness</h2>



Deep-sea ecosystems generally depend on nutrients trickling down from surface waters. However, these Antarctic seafloors had been buried under ice some 150 meters (nearly 500 feet) thick for centuries.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_Sponge_Anemone_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_seafloor_Sponge_Anemone_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="A large sponge, a cluster of anemones, and other life is seen nearly 230 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963226"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A large sponge, a cluster of anemones, and other life is seen nearly 230 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



With no direct sunlight, how such abundant organisms manage to feed is still uncertain. The scientists propose that ocean currents under the ice may be funneling essential nutrients to these communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-ice-sheet-behavior">Antarctic ice sheet behavior</h2>



Apart from their ecological discoveries, the international group - which included scientists from Portugal, the United Kingdom, Chile, Germany, Norway, New Zealand, and the United States - examined geological samples to gain knowledge about past changes in the Antarctic ice sheet.



The ice sheet has been shrinking and losing mass for decades in response to climate change.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_modis-satellite-view_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Antarctic-iceberg-detached_modis-satellite-view_NASA_1s.webp" alt="The MODIS Corrected Reflectance satellite imagery showing the iceberg calved from George VI Ice Shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea on 19 January 2025. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute" class="wp-image-1963222"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The MODIS Corrected Reflectance satellite imagery showing the iceberg calved from George VI Ice Shelf in the Bellingshausen Sea on 19 January 2025. Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute</figcaption></figure>



“The ice loss from the Antarctic Ice Sheet is a major contributor to sea level rise worldwide,” said co-chief scientist Sasha Montelli of <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>, who is also a 2019 Schmidt Science Fellow.&nbsp;



“Our work is critical for providing longer-term context of these recent changes, improving our ability to make projections of future change - projections that can inform actionable policies. We will undoubtedly make new discoveries as we continue to analyze this vital data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-samples-from-the-antarctic-seafloor">Samples from the Antarctic seafloor </h2>



During this mission, the team collected both biological and geological samples. 



In addition, they deployed autonomous underwater vehicles, called gliders, to analyze how meltwater from the ice shelf impacts the region’s physical and chemical properties.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/antarctic-iceberg_Solitary-Hydroid_unseen-ecosystem_credit-SOI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/antarctic-iceberg_Solitary-Hydroid_unseen-ecosystem_credit-SOI_1s.webp" alt="A solitary hydroid drifts in currents approximately 380 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Solitary hydroids are related to corals, jellyfish, and anemones, but do not form colonies. Credit: SOI" class="wp-image-1963895"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A solitary hydroid drifts in currents approximately 380 meters deep at an area of the seabed that was very recently covered by the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier in Antarctica. Solitary hydroids are related to corals, jellyfish, and anemones, but do not form colonies. Click image to enlarge. Credit: SOI</figcaption></figure>



Preliminary measurements hinted at high biological productivity and strong meltwater flow from the George VI ice shelf, providing further context for how such deep-sea populations may thrive in these surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-part-of-a-larger-global-initiative">Part of a larger global initiative</h2>



The expedition is part of Challenger 150, a global cooperative dedicated to deep-sea biological study, and recognized by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (<a href="https://www.ioc.unesco.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IOC/UNESCO</a>) as an Ocean Decade Action.&nbsp;



This alignment ensures that findings from the George VI Ice Shelf breakage feed into broader international efforts to understand and safeguard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.



“The science team was originally in this remote region to study the seafloor and ecosystem at the interface between ice and sea,” noted Schmidt Ocean Institute’s executive director, Jyotika Virmani.&nbsp;



“Being right there when this iceberg calved from the ice shelf presented a rare scientific opportunity. Serendipitous moments are part of the excitement of research at sea - they offer the chance to be the first to witness the untouched beauty of our world.”



Looking ahead, the researchers plan to continue analyzing the collected data for insights into both ice sheet behavior and the unique marine life that has flourished unseen for centuries beneath the ice.&nbsp;



With accelerating climate change, the study’s findings about species adaptability and the resilience of Antarctic habitats carry implications for future conservation and policy decisions on a global scale.



<a href="https://schmidtocean.photoshelter.com/galleries/C0000QszlkoaNkKU/G0000p4LRtGEAfWo/I0000X_S5KjUr4QU/FKt250110-20250126-IceScanningCollectionAndIcebergViewing-Ingle-0202-jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">See more of the photos taken on this mission by the Schmidt Ocean Institute here...</a>



Images Credit: Schmidt Ocean Institute



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Antarctic iceberg breaks away and reveals ecosystem never seen by humans

An international team of researchers took advantage of a rare...

Memories don't follow a straight, linear path, even though we often recall them like tidy stories. Researchers are now embracing this complexity, using smartphones to explore how memories shift over time, how they become richer or fade, and how we might intentionally strengthen them.&nbsp;



These digital tools are allowing scientists to track real-life experiences in ways that lab studies can’t, revealing how actions like trying something new, replaying moments before sleep, or feeling strong emotions may enhance our memory.



These insights are being shared at the <a href="https://www.cns.org/annualmeeting?gad_source=1&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjwna6_BhCbARIsALId2Z32nZKBwJfBW1xlk4p1DeZXQCu-j2lAYuBjcMNte24oAjQO4Thu2rEaAj5-EALw_wcB" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">annual meeting of the Cognitive Neuroscience Society (CNS)</a>, where researchers are highlighting a range of smartphone-based studies that explore how memory is shaped by daily life.&nbsp;



“Smartphones are an incredible tool for understanding patterns of feelings, behavior, and experiences in daily life, and how different types of everyday events stay with us in memory,” said Elizabeth Goldfarb from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a>, who is chairing a session on the topic. 



“Real experiences have so much more salience and self-relevance than anything I can generate in the lab, and being able to quantify how people remember those events is very exciting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-dreams-and-the-timing-of-memory">Sleep, dreams, and the timing of memory</h2>



One line of research being presented comes from Morgan Barense at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, who is examining how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-rewires-the-brain-to-strengthen-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> and dreams affect memory retention. This work emerged unexpectedly, when a previous study showed that memory recall was significantly affected by when material was reviewed in relation to sleep.&nbsp;



“We found that the timing of when someone first reviews material relative to sleep had an enormous effect on how well they later remembered it,” Barense said.&nbsp;



“The effect was so striking that I initially didn’t believe it. That discovery made me realize that sleep is something all memory scientists should be paying close attention to.”



Barense’s team, led by graduate student Nelly Matorina, developed a smartphone app called HippoCamera to test how a night of sleep impacts memories from the day before.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memories-following-sleep-are-more-vivid">Memories following sleep are more vivid</h2>



Participants recorded two events each day - one in the morning, one in the evening - for two weeks. The researchers then tested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recall</a> after 12-hour intervals, comparing the effects of sleep versus wakefulness. 



Their earlier findings were confirmed. “Memories following sleep were more vivid, felt temporally closer, and were easier to recall, suggesting that a single night of sleep helps preserve the richness of autobiographical memory,” Barense explained.



Participants also recorded dreams and identified any that related to events captured with the app. “Interestingly, memories that were dreamt about were also rated as feeling temporally closer and were more likely to be recalled from a first-person perspective,” she added.



The team followed up by testing those same memories a year later to see how they changed, particularly in relation to the event's location.&nbsp;



“Our pattern of results suggests that the link between an event and its location may initially weaken after a night’s sleep to allow for memory reorganization, but over the long term, a year later, our memory is strongly connected to where it took place,” Matorina said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smartphones-improve-memory-research-nbsp">Smartphones improve memory research&nbsp;</h2>



While studying memory outside the lab comes with challenges, Barense sees great value in this approach.&nbsp;



“Real-world data collection introduces variability that is difficult to control, and tracking sleep and memory over time requires careful methodological design,” she said.&nbsp;



“However, these challenges are also what make smartphone-based research so promising - it allows us to move beyond artificial settings and study memory as it naturally unfolds in daily life.”



Looking ahead, Barense’s team will partner with Ken Paller’s lab at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> to see if memory retention can be boosted during sleep. They plan to combine HippoCamera with targeted memory reactivation, which uses sound cues tied to events and plays them during specific sleep stages.&nbsp;



“While our previous work has shown that HippoCamera strengthens autobiographical memory in older adults, we believe that incorporating sleep-based memory reactivation will further amplify its benefits,” Barense said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smartphone-app-tests-recall">Smartphone app tests recall</h2>



Lila Davachi of <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> is also using smartphone-based research to explore memory, inspired by the mental and emotional effects of the pandemic.&nbsp;



“The lab had already published several papers on the impact of context representations on associative memory and here we all were sitting in our homes, meeting on Zoom, with very little change in our contexts,” she said.&nbsp;



“It was natural to wonder how this was going to impact our long-term memories and, perhaps by consequence, our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-crisis-half-of-the-worlds-population-will-be-affected-by-age-75/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a>.”



Davachi and her team used a “daily diary” smartphone app, asking participants to report and categorize daily events over two weeks as “novel,” “routine,” or “periodic.” Two weeks later, they tested recall.&nbsp;



With the help of artificial intelligence to analyze responses, the researchers found that novel events were remembered with greater vividness and detail.&nbsp;



“Perhaps more exciting, we found that routine and periodic events that happened on the same day as a novel event were also better remembered than routine and periodic events that took place on days with less novelty,” Davachi explained. “This suggests a penumbra-like effect of novelty.”



This effect hints at the value of “experiential diversity” in strengthening memory. By mixing up daily routines with new experiences, people might be able to enhance not just specific memories but their overall ability to recall an entire day.&nbsp;



“Being able to sample and record data from individuals in the real world, along with the use of AI-based large language models to help us analyze large amounts of complex data, is a solid stepping stone,” Davachi said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-role-of-emotion-and-addiction">Exploring the role of emotion and addiction </h2>



Goldfarb is also using smartphones to investigate how people remember emotionally intense experiences, particularly in the context of substance use. In one study, she is examining the role of memory in alcohol addiction.&nbsp;



Memory is an important factor in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zapping-the-brain-with-ultrasound-waves-may-cure-drug-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">addiction</a>, since, for instance, someone can’t relapse in a place where they used to drink if they have no memories of drinking there. “Yet we know very little about what people remember about their time drinking that drives this behavior,” Goldfarb said.



Using smartphone recordings, her team is able to compare real-life memories of drinking events with patterns seen in lab studies.&nbsp;



“We’re uncovering some similarities with what we measure in the lab, which is great for establishing ecological validity,” she said. However, these real-world observations are also revealing new insights.&nbsp;



“We are seeing that people are more likely to link different parts of a positive event together in memory,” she said. “As a researcher, the effects of real emotions are so much stronger than what we can create in the lab.”



Goldfarb believes this emerging body of work - from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dream-recall-who-remembers-their-dreams-and-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dreams</a> to novelty to emotions - is opening new doors in memory research. As she concludes, these new tools and findings are a significant step forward in helping people build stronger and more detailed memories.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Smartphones are teaching us how to supercharge our memory

Memories don't follow a straight, linear path, even though we...

Single-celled organisms that group together can generate stronger water currents to pull in food, a benefit that may have encouraged early life forms to assemble into colonies, according to a new study. This could have set the stage for more complex, multicellular life.



Ultimately, the research suggests that the evolution of multicellular organisms may have been shaped by the fluid dynamics of cooperative feeding.



“So much work on the origins of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-snowball-earth-conditions-drove-evolution-complex-multicellular-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life</a> focuses on chemistry,” said Shashank Shekhar, lead author of the study and assistant professor of physics at <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emory University</a>. “We wanted to investigate the role of physical forces in the process.”&nbsp;



Shekhar was inspired by observing the feeding behavior of stentors - large, trumpet-shaped, single-celled organisms. He began exploring how their movements through liquid might provide clues about the transition from single cells to complex life. 



“The project started with beautiful images of the fluid flows,” Shekhar said. “Only later did we realize the evolutionary significance of this behavior.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-physics-of-feeding">The physics of feeding</h2>



Stentors are visible to the naked eye and are commonly found floating near the surface of freshwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ponds-release-more-greenhouse-gases-than-they-store/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ponds</a>. These organisms can grow up to two millimeters in length - roughly the size of a pencil tip.&nbsp;



They attach to leaves, twigs, or other floating matter using a sticky secretion from one end of their body, while the wider, open end is surrounded by cilia - tiny hair-like structures that beat rhythmically to create water currents and pull in food particles.



Using microscope video, Shekhar captured how a single stentor feeds by creating twin vortices at its mouth, which effectively draw in food like bacteria and algae.&nbsp;



To make the fluid motion visible, he added plastic beads small enough to trace the currents. This experiment revealed the efficiency of the cilia-generated flow in solitary feeding.



However, Shekhar noticed that stentors sometimes clustered together, forming pairs or even colonies in a semi-spherical shape. When he recorded the feeding dynamics of these groups, he discovered something intriguing:&nbsp;



“I call that movement ‘I love you, I love you not,’” Shekhar said, referring to how pairs of stentors would sway toward and away from each other. When their heads drew closer together, their fluid flows merged into a single, stronger vortex that attracted food from a larger area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-celled-organisms-working-together">Single-celled organisms working together </h2>



The feeding advantage increased further when stentors joined larger groups. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-ant-colonies-drove-the-evolution-of-worker-castes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colonies</a> were able to generate currents significantly more powerful than individual organisms or even pairs, drawing in more food from farther away. 



This finding raised a question: if cooperation improved feeding, why did some stentors occasionally leave the group?



The team proposed that not all stentors gained equally from forming colonies. “The colonies are dynamic as the stentors keep changing partners,” Shekhar explained. “The stronger ones are being taken advantage of, in a sense. They change partners often so that everyone benefits similarly.”&nbsp;



This suggested that stronger individuals might temporarily withdraw from the group to avoid being exploited by weaker ones, while the weaker stentors had more to gain by staying attached.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-in-organisms-without-a-brain">Cooperation in organisms without a brain</h2>



To test these ideas, the researchers turned to mathematical modeling. Co-authors Eva Kanso of the <a href="https://www.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern California</a> and Haniliang Guo of <a href="https://www.owu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio Wesleyan University</a> helped construct simulations that reproduced the dynamics seen in the lab.&nbsp;



The models confirmed that in pairings, one organism always had a greater advantage. Meanwhile, larger groups, especially those in which members periodically changed positions, increased the overall food intake for each member on average.



These findings suggest that the benefits of forming temporary colonies - especially the ability to draw in more food - could have played a role in the early transition from single cells to complex life. 



“It’s amazing that a single-celled organism, with no brain or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a>, developed behaviors for opportunism and cooperation,” Shekhar said. “Perhaps these kinds of behaviors were hard-wired into organisms much earlier in evolution than we previously realized.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-multicellular-organisms">The evolution of multicellular organisms </h2>



The research emerged from a decade-long journey that began in 2014, when Shekhar joined a summer program at the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> (MBL) in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. There, he was able to collaborate with scientists from various universities.&nbsp;



“Renowned scientists come there every summer from around the world for organic collaborations,” Shekhar said. “You have the time and resources to explore extreme questions that capture your interest.”



Marshall’s research on stentors and their ability to regenerate has sparked even greater curiosity about these unique cells. Their remarkable properties and visible behaviors made them ideal subjects for studying physical phenomena that could drive evolutionary change.



“You can chop up a stentor and each tiny piece will become a complete organism within 12 hours,” said Shekhar.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-single-cells-to-complex-life">From single cells to complex life</h2>



Though Shekhar is known for his work on actin, a protein essential to cell mobility, this project marked a new direction for his lab.&nbsp;



“The stentor work was a passion project,” he said. “It’s wonderful to work at your own pace, over many years, on a question that fascinates you and wind up with such beautiful and significant results.”



The study offers a fresh perspective on how simple, physical interactions between organisms could have contributed to the emergence of complex life.&nbsp;



While chemistry has long dominated theories about the origins of multicellularity, these results highlight the potential role of fluid mechanics and cooperation in shaping the earliest stages of biological organization.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41567-025-02787-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Physics</a>.



Image Credit: Shashank Shekhar



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

From single cells to complex life: Was cooperation the first step?

Single-celled organisms that group together can generate stronger water currents...

Clothing rental has been pitched as a way to curb the fashion industry’s massive environmental impact. But so far, many of these ventures haven’t lasted long. 



What could make this idea work? It turns out that focusing on a specific market and building strong relationships with suppliers could be the key.



A recent study investigated whether clothing rental is a possible solution to the fashion industry's footprint. The research was led by <a href="https://www.chalmers.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chalmers University of Technology</a>, along with experts at the University of Borås and the research institute RISE.



The team explored what has and hasn’t worked for companies trying to make renting clothes a practical, long-term business.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rental-clothes-and-sustainable-consumption">Rental clothes and sustainable consumption </h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fashion-industrys-plastic-waste-is-a-major-environmental-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fashion industry</a> is one of the top contributors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unprecedented-increase-in-global-ocean-plastic-pollution-since-2005/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global pollution</a>. In Sweden alone, over 90% of the climate impact from clothing comes from newly produced garments.



Renting instead of buying could keep clothes in circulation longer and reduce the need for constant production.



"Many people have clothes hanging in the closet that are rarely or never used. Renting clothes can extend the use of each garment and thus contribute to more sustainable consumption," said study co-author Professor Frida Lind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-fashion-rental-models">Types of fashion rental models</h2>



The researchers examined nine Swedish clothing rental companies. Some were still active, while others had shut down. Through this, they identified three common types of rental models.



The first model is membership-based. Customers sign up and borrow clothes for a set period of time, similar to how a library works. These companies were often founded by individuals who were driven by an interest in sustainability.



The second approach is subscription-based. In this model, customers pay a monthly fee and receive a rotating selection of garments to wear. Companies using this model usually aimed to expand quickly and attract investors.



The third model focuses on individual rentals. These businesses typically offered clothing for specific purposes - such as renting out ski jackets along with ski equipment - creating a bundled, purpose-driven experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fashion-rental-companies-struggle">Why fashion rental companies struggle </h2>



Despite genuine interest from consumers, many of the businesses struggled to stay afloat.



"What struck us was that it seemed so difficult for them to make their business profitable. Several had had to end their investments for various reasons," said Professor Lind.



Running a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-were-already-making-clothing-120000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clothing</a> rental service involves multiple layers of effort. Every garment needs to be returned, cleaned, inspected, and prepared before it can be sent out again. This process is time-consuming and costly. 



Many companies also had high overhead expenses related to storage, transportation, and laundry. For those using a subscription model, raising early-stage investment proved difficult. 



The researchers found that most of these models simply require more time and support to take root in the market.



"Renting out <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-dark-side-of-donating-clothes-to-charity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clothes</a> involves many steps where each item of clothing needs to be handled and inspected before it can be rented out again, which takes time. Companies also struggled with high costs for warehousing, logistics and laundry, for example," said Professor Lind.



"Especially for the subscription models, there were also difficulties in obtaining venture capital to be able to survive financially through the first phase of building the company. All this shows that these business models need time to establish themselves in the market."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-niche-markets-are-more-promising">Niche markets are more promising</h2>



Not all of the business models fared poorly. Companies that targeted a narrow and specific market - such as outdoor gear - had better outcomes, especially when they operated near places where such clothing was needed.



"They seem to have found their niche and seen that there is a specific need that the customer is willing to pay for each time they need to use that type of clothing," said Professor Lind.



Companies that collaborated closely with clothing designers, manufacturers, and suppliers tended to do better as they gained useful insights that helped improve both product quality and customer satisfaction.



"Rental companies that worked closely with clothing manufacturers and suppliers, such as designers with a sustainability profile, benefited greatly from this as they were able to quickly get feedback on which types of clothing were most popular," said Professor Lind.



"They also gained valuable information about the quality of the garments, for example if there was something that often broke."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-efforts-matter">Why these efforts matter</h2>



The researchers didn’t measure the environmental impact of each business model in this particular study. But earlier findings from Chalmers show that 70 percent of a garment’s climate impact comes from production, while 22 percent is linked to the shopping trips consumers make to buy them. 



In the U.S., an average person throws away about 81 pounds of clothing per year. In the EU, that number is about 26 pounds per person.



If people buy fewer new clothes and use existing garments for longer, that shift could bring major environmental benefits. And if those changes happen without extra travel emissions - even better.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-habits-one-attempt-at-a-time">Changing habits, one attempt at a time</h2>



While some of the companies examined for the study didn’t survive, Professor Lind believes the broader effort is still important. She noted that even failed attempts help shift public attitudes around how we view clothing ownership and consumption. They also provide useful lessons for future ventures.



"All initiatives that can contribute to the sustainability transition are important. Not least because they help to change attitudes about clothing consumption and increase knowledge about what can and cannot work," said Professor Lind.



"Our study can be an important contribution to the fashion industry's sustainability transition, as it shows the possibilities of new business models in this industry." 



"We hope that it can have an impact on decision-makers who need a basis for establishing incentives and financial motivation for a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealthy-nations-are-making-more-progress-toward-sustainable-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable</a> fashion industry."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/jbim-04-2024-0281/full/html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Borrow clothes, save the planet? The reality of fashion rental

Clothing rental has been pitched as a way to curb...

A new blood test could revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer’s. Beyond confirming the presence of the disease, the test also helps determine the stage of its progression. This may fundamentally change how physicians manage Alzheimer’s care.



The test was developed by experts at <a href="https://medicine.washu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis</a> and Lund University in Sweden. Their studies indicate that a particular blood protein, MTBR-tau243, can be used to monitor the extent of dangerous tau accumulation in the brain.



The tangles of tau protein are some of the hallmark characteristics of Alzheimer’s and are directly proportional to the intensity of the symptoms. 



This new technique is considerably more convenient than brain scans since it is non-invasive, and does not require expensive procedures that are difficult to access.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-alzheimer-s-with-a-blood-test">Tracking Alzheimer’s with a blood test</h2>



Right now, doctors can use several blood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-tests-offer-new-hope-in-detecting-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tests</a> to help detect Alzheimer’s. Some of the tests that are already in use are based on earlier discoveries at Washington University. 



These tests look for early warning signs but don’t reveal how much the disease has progressed. That’s a crucial gap. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medical-breakthrough-new-vaccine-may-prevent-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s treatments</a> are most helpful in the early stages, before too much damage has been done.



Having a way to tell whether someone is in an early or late phase of the disease would help doctors decide which treatment would work best. It could also clarify whether a person’s memory or thinking issues are actually caused by Alzheimer’s or something else.



“This blood test clearly identifies Alzheimer’s tau tangles, which is our best biomarker measure of Alzheimer’s symptoms and dementia,” said co-senior author Dr. Randall J. Bateman.



“In clinical practice right now, we don’t have easy or accessible measures of Alzheimer’s tangles and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-dementia-is-much-higher-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a>, and so a tangle blood test like this can provide a much better indication if the symptoms are due to Alzheimer’s and may also help doctors decide which treatments are best for their patients.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-reliable-way-to-monitor-the-disease">A reliable way to monitor the disease</h2>



Alzheimer’s typically starts with a buildup of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-may-lower-levels-of-alzheimers-abnormal-proteins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amyloid protein</a> in the brain. Tau tangles develop later and mark the point when symptoms begin to show. 



The best way to see these changes has been through PET scans, which can track amyloid and tau deposits. But these scans are expensive, time-consuming, and often only available in large hospitals or research centers. That’s why scientists have been working on blood-based alternatives.



The team had already developed blood tests that measure amyloid plaque buildup. Earlier research showed that levels of MTBR-tau243 in spinal fluid could match up with brain tau levels.



In this new study, the researchers demonstrated that they could get the same results using blood samples. A blood draw is much easier and more accessible than a spinal tap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-new-approach">Testing the new approach</h2>



To validate the test, the researchers used data from two groups of people. One group came from a research center at Washington University and included 108 volunteers. The other group included 55 people from a Swedish study known as BioFINDER-2.



Next, the experts checked their findings with data from 739 additional people in the BioFINDER-2 group.



These participants represented a range of Alzheimer’s stages - from people who had no symptoms but had amyloid in their brains, to those with mild cognitive issues, to people with full dementia.



The study also included individuals with memory or thinking problems due to other conditions, and some who were cognitively healthy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alzheimer-s-progression-revealed-in-blood">Alzheimer’s progression revealed in blood</h2>



The results were promising. MTBR-tau243 levels in the blood matched the amount of tau tangles in the brain with 92% accuracy. 



In healthy people and those in the earliest stage of the disease, the levels were normal. But in people showing symptoms, the protein levels were clearly elevated - and much higher in those with advanced disease.



This difference made it easy to tell who was in an early or late stage of Alzheimer’s. It also helped distinguish Alzheimer’s dementia from other kinds of cognitive problems. 



That kind of clarity could make a huge difference in choosing the right treatment path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tool-for-personalized-alzheimer-s-care">A tool for personalized Alzheimer’s care</h2>



The new test uses technology licensed by Washington University to C2N Diagnostics, which previously developed similar blood tests for amyloid plaques. The earlier tests were designed to detect another tau protein called p-tau217.



“I believe we will use blood-based p-tau217 to determine whether an individual has Alzheimer’s disease, but MTBR-tau243 will be a highly valuable complement in both clinical settings and research trials,” said Oskar Hansson, a professor of neurology at Lund University.



“When both of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-disease-earliest-biomarker-protein-psd-95-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers</a> are positive, the likelihood that Alzheimer’s is the underlying cause of a person’s cognitive symptoms increases significantly, compared to when only p-tau217 is abnormal. This distinction is crucial for selecting the most appropriate treatment for each patient.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-to-better-treatments">Looking ahead to better treatments</h2>



Currently, there are two FDA-approved drugs that target amyloid in the brain to slow Alzheimer’s. But more treatments are being tested - including ones that aim at tau protein and other disease mechanisms.



As these therapies become available, doctors will need reliable ways to match the right treatment to each stage of the disease. Blood tests could be the key to this shift toward personalized Alzheimer’s care.



“We’re about to enter the era of personalized medicine for Alzheimer’s disease,” said Kanta Horie, a research associate professor of neurology at WashU Medicine. 



“For early stages with low tau tangles, anti-amyloid therapies could be more efficacious than in late stages. But after the onset of dementia with high tau tangles, anti-tau therapy or one of the many other experimental approaches may be more effective." 



"Once we have a clinically available blood test for staging, plus treatments that work at different stages of the disease, doctors will be able to optimize their treatment plans for the specific needs of each patient.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-025-03617-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Medicine</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Breakthrough: New blood test can diagnose and track the progression of Alzheimer’s

A new blood test could revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment...

NASA’s Curiosity rover has made another remarkable discovery on Mars - the largest organic compounds ever detected on the Red Planet. 



These <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wektNJExGks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecules</a>, discovered in a rock sample drilled in 2013, offer fresh insights into the potential of Mars to support life.



The findings suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> might have hosted more advanced prebiotic chemistry than scientists had assumed.



Inside Curiosity’s onboard mini-lab called SAM, scientists identified three organic molecules: decane, undecane, and dodecane. 



These compounds contain 10, 11, and 12 carbon atoms, respectively. The researchers believe they are remnants of fatty acids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-fatty-acids-the-basics">Understanding fatty acids - the basics</h2>



On Earth, fatty acids play a big role in the foundation of life - they’re key players in what makes cells work. Alongside proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, fatty acids help build and maintain living organisms. 



One of their main jobs is forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-first-cells-life-form-on-earth-scientists-think-they-finally-figured-it-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cell membranes</a>. They link up with other molecules to create phospholipids, which act like a flexible, protective skin around every cell. 



Without fatty acids, cells wouldn’t have that structure or protection, and life as we know it would fall apart - literally.



They also help cells communicate and stay energized. Fatty acids store energy more efficiently than carbs or proteins, so your body taps into them when it needs a long-lasting fuel source. 



Plus, they help make signaling molecules that tell your cells how to grow, heal, and respond to their environment. 



So while they might not get as much attention as DNA or proteins, fatty acids quietly keep the whole operation running behind the scenes.



Detecting these molecules on Mars is a thrilling step. It shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-mars-once-host-life-we-finally-know-where-to-look/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex chemistry</a> did occur there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-awaited-sample-yields-new-surprises">Long-awaited sample yields new surprises</h2>



<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/msl-curiosity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity</a> drilled into the rock target “Cumberland” on May 19, 2013. The sample came from a location called Yellowknife Bay inside Gale Crater. 



At the time, scientists believed the area resembled an ancient lakebed. That guess turned out to be correct.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mars-Curiosity_Cumberland-rock_sample-drilling_organic-molecules_NASA_1big-1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mars-Curiosity_Cumberland-rock_sample-drilling_organic-molecules_NASA_1s.webp" alt="NASA's Curiosity rover drilled into this rock target, &quot;Cumberland,&quot; and collected a powdered sample of material from the rock's interior. Curiosity used the Mars Hand Lens Imager camera on the rover’s arm to capture this view of the hole in Cumberland on the same sol as the hole was drilled. The diameter of the hole is about 0.6 inches. The depth of the hole is about 2.6 inches. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS" class="wp-image-1963755"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">NASA's Curiosity rover drilled into this rock target, "Cumberland," and collected a powdered sample of material from the rock's interior. Curiosity used the Mars Hand Lens Imager camera on the rover’s arm to capture this view of the hole in Cumberland on the same sol as the hole was drilled. The diameter of the hole is about 0.6 inches. The depth of the hole is about 2.6 inches. Click to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS</figcaption></figure>



The rock was rich in clay, sulfur, and nitrates. All three materials help preserve organic compounds. Also present was methane with a carbon signature that, on Earth, often points to the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/detecting-life-on-mars-a-breakthrough-in-space-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.



“There is evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-water-reservoir-discovered-medusae-fossae-formation-two-miles-deep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liquid water existed</a> in Gale Crater for millions of years and probably much longer, which means there was enough time for life-forming chemistry to happen in these crater-lake environments on Mars,” said Daniel Glavin, senior scientist at NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-serendipitous-discovery-of-molecules">Serendipitous discovery of molecules</h2>



The discovery came during an unrelated experiment. Scientists were searching for amino acids in the Cumberland sample. They heated the sample and measured released gases. 



No amino acids were present. But instead, the experts found small amounts of decane, undecane, and dodecane.



These molecules could have broken off from longer ones during heating. Scientists traced them back to possible parent compounds: undecanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, and tridecanoic acid.



To confirm their findings, the researchers recreated the process in labs on Earth. They added undecanoic acid to Mars-like clay and heated it. It released decane, just like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian sample</a> had.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-martian-molecules-may-hint-at-past-life">Martian molecules may hint at past life</h2>



One interesting detail emerged. The detected fatty acids seem longer than those usually formed by geological activity. Non-biological processes tend to produce shorter chains - usually with fewer than 12 carbon atoms.



Cumberland’s molecules had 11 to 13 carbon atoms. That suggests either a unique chemical process or possible signs of past biology. However, SAM’s tools cannot detect the longest chains reliably.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mars-Curiosity_Cumberland-rock_Hydrocarbons_organic-molecules-discovery_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mars-Hydrocarbons_discovery_Curiosity-Rover_Cumberland-rock_illustration_NASA_1s-1.webp" alt="The long-chain organic molecules decane, undecane, and dodecane. These are the largest organic molecules discovered on Mars to date. They were detected in a drilled rock sample called &quot;Cumberland&quot; that was analyzed by the Sample Analysis at Mars lab inside the belly of NASA's Curiosity rover. The rover, whose selfie is on the right side of the image, has been exploring Gale Crater since 2012. An image of the Cumberland drill hole is faintly visible in the background of the molecule chains. Credit: NASA/Dan Gallagher" class="wp-image-1963756"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The long-chain organic molecules decane, undecane, and dodecane. These are the largest organic molecules discovered on Mars to date. They were detected in a drilled rock sample called "Cumberland" that was analyzed by the Sample Analysis at Mars lab inside the belly of NASA's Curiosity rover. The rover, whose selfie is on the right side of the image, has been exploring Gale Crater since 2012. An image of the Cumberland drill hole is faintly visible in the background of the molecule chains. Click to enlarge. Credit: NASA/Dan Gallagher</figcaption></figure>



“Our study proves that, even today, by analyzing Mars samples we could detect chemical signatures of past life, if it ever existed on Mars,” said Caroline Freissinet, the study’s lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-future-missions">Why this matters for future missions</h2>



The research supports the idea that organic molecules can survive Mars’s harsh conditions. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-can-survive-mars-space-journey-but-their-kidneys-will-be-permanently-damaged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Radiation and oxidation</a> often destroy organic molecules over time. 



The preservation in Cumberland gives scientists hope for future discoveries.



Curiosity’s instruments can only do so much. That’s why scientists are eager to return Mars samples to Earth.



“We are ready to take the next big step and bring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-discovery-of-minerals-on-mars-hints-at-a-habitable-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> samples home to our labs to settle the debate about life on Mars,” stated Glavin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-for-life-linked-molecules">Search for life-linked molecules</h2>



​NASA's Curiosity rover continues its mission inside <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/a-guide-to-gale-crater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gale Crater</a>, exploring rock layers to better understand Mars’s ancient environments. 



The Sample Analysis at Mars (<a href="https://ssed.gsfc.nasa.gov/sam/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SAM</a>) tool remains key to these investigations. Every new sample adds another clue to a much larger puzzle.



With each discovery, scientists move one step closer to exploring one of the oldest and most profound questions we’ve ever asked: Did life ever exist on Mars, and if so, what traces of it remain locked beneath the planet’s surface?



<a href="https://youtu.be/wektNJExGks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Watch NASA's video about this discovery here...</a>



-----



This research was supported by NASA’s&nbsp;<a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Exploration Program</a>.&nbsp;Curiosity is managed by NASA’s&nbsp;Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mars-science-laboratory-curiosity-rover-msl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>)&nbsp;in Southern California.&nbsp;The&nbsp;Centre National d'Études Spatiales (<a href="https://cnes.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNES</a>), the French Space Agency, contributed to SAM’s gas chromatograph system.​



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2420580122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mars rover makes the most significant find yet in the search for alien life

NASA’s Curiosity rover has made another remarkable discovery on Mars...

We all know how tempting it is to scroll through our phones or other screens before bed - just one more video, one more post. But new research shows that bedtime tech use may be robbing you of rest.



A survey of over 45,000 young adults in Norway found that using screens after going to bed increases the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insomnia-increases-heart-attack-risk-by-69-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insomnia</a> by nearly 60% and cuts sleep time by about 24 minutes each night. The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.fhi.no/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Institute of Public Health</a>.



The research was focused on students in full-time higher education, aged 18 to 28, and explored the impact of different screen activities - from social media and gaming to podcasts and studying - on sleep habits and quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sleep-screen-connection">The sleep-screen connection</h2>



Sleep is essential for our physical health, mental well-being, and academic performance. Yet many people struggle to get enough rest. One possible reason? Screens in bed.



According to the researchers, screen use in bed can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-who-watch-screens-in-bed-have-the-most-disrupted-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disrupt sleep</a> in multiple ways. Notifications may interrupt sleep cycles, screen time can reduce total sleep duration, and engaging content might delay the onset of sleep. 



Additionally, the light emitted by screens can interfere with the body's internal clock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evaluating-screen-use-among-students">Evaluating screen use among students </h2>



The team used the 2022 Students’ Health and Wellbeing Survey, a nationally representative study of Norwegian students, to gather data. 



Participants were asked if they used screens after going to bed and how long they used them. The students also reported on the nature of their screen use - whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scrolling-online-videos-is-not-a-good-cure-for-boredom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching videos</a>, gaming, scrolling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goldilocks-amount-of-social-media-time-may-protect-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social media</a>, listening to audio, browsing the internet, or reading study materials.



The individuals shared details about their sleep habits: when they went to bed and woke up, how long it took to fall asleep, how often they had trouble sleeping, how sleepy they felt during the day, and how long their sleep issues lasted.



Insomnia in this study was defined as experiencing both nighttime sleep difficulties and daytime sleepiness at least three times a week for three months or more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-screen-activity-was-irrelevant">Screen activity was irrelevant </h2>



Surprisingly, the researchers didn’t find social media to be any worse than other screen-based activities when it came to disrupting sleep.



“The type of screen activity does not appear to matter as much as the overall time spent using screens in bed,” said Dr. Gunnhild Johnsen Hjetland, lead author of the study. 



“We found no significant differences between social media and other screen activities, suggesting that screen use itself is the key factor in sleep disruption - likely due to time displacement, where screen use delays sleep by taking up time that would otherwise be spent resting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-suffers-from-screen-use-in-bed">Sleep suffers from screen use in bed</h2>



Participants were grouped into three categories: those who only used social media in bed, those who used screens but not for social media, and those who engaged in a mix of activities that included social media. 



Across the board, the more time they spent on screens after lights-out, the more their sleep suffered.



An extra hour of screen time after bedtime increased the chances of insomnia symptoms by 59%. It also shortened sleep duration by an average of 24 minutes. 



But the specific activity - whether social media or otherwise - didn’t appear to make a difference.



“Given the widespread use of screens in bed we aimed to explore the relationship between different screen activities and sleep patterns,” added Hjetland. 



“We expected that social media use might be more strongly associated with poorer sleep, given its interactive nature and potential for emotional stimulation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-for-a-digital-curfew">Time for a digital curfew?</h2>



If screen time is cutting into your sleep, experts say there are simple ways to adjust.



“If you struggle with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-night-of-lost-sleep-can-trigger-hidden-health-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> and suspect that screen time may be a factor, try to reduce screen use in bed, ideally stopping at least 30–60 minutes before sleep,” Hjetland advised. “If you do use screens, consider disabling notifications to minimize disruptions during the night.”



However, the researchers caution that the study was conducted within a single cultural context - Norway.



Sleep habits and technology use may differ across regions. Additionally, some screen activities that may affect sleep in unique ways, like gaming or listening to music, were grouped together. That means the effect of each activity might not be fully understood.



“This study cannot determine causality - for example, whether screen use causes insomnia or if students with insomnia use screens more,” noted Hjetland. “The study also did not include physiological assessments, which could provide more precise insights into sleep patterns.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-screen-use-changes-before-bed">Screen use changes before bed</h2>



While more research is needed, this large-scale survey adds to growing evidence that screen use at bedtime may not be doing your sleep any favors. 



If your nights feel restless and your days feel sluggish, it may be worth reevaluating how - and when - you use your phone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1548273/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Psychiatry</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Put the phone down: Screen use in bed linked to insomnia

We all know how tempting it is to scroll through...

Every year, humpback whales in the southeastern Pacific make a long and difficult journey. They travel up to 10,000 kilometers from Central and South America to their feeding grounds in Antarctica.



But how do they know when it's time to leave? According to new research, these whales rely on both real-time changes in their environment and long-term memories of past ocean conditions to time their migrations.



The study, led by scientists from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a>, used eight years of satellite tracking data collected between 2009 and 2016. The team tracked 42 humpback whales tagged near Costa Rica, Panama, and Ecuador.



By following the whales' movements southward to Antarctica, the researchers hoped to understand what cues triggered their annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-use-memory-to-time-their-journey">Whales use memory to time their journey</h2>



The study revealed that whales respond to local cues such as sea surface temperature and food availability.



But they don’t rely solely on current conditions. They also seem to remember when food was most abundant in the Southern Ocean during previous years.



That memory, combined with what’s happening around them, helps them decide when to go.



“They seem to know that changes happening in their immediate environment are linked to conditions thousands of kilometers away,” said Professor Virginie Millien. “This allows them to fine-tune their migration, so they arrive just as their food supply peaks.”



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-reproduction-is-linked-to-krill-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Krill</a>, a small crustacean, is the whales’ main food source in Antarctica. Each year, krill populations bloom during a specific seasonal window. 



For centuries, whales have timed their migration to match this pattern. But that rhythm is now being disrupted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-whales-keep-up-with-climate-change">Can whales keep up with climate change?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/krill-face-a-double-whammy-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warmer oceans</a> and changes in sea ice are beginning to shift the timing of the krill bloom. Even though whales are adjusting their departures, climate change may be moving too fast for them to keep up.



“We don't know how long they'll be able to keep up,” said Millien. “Every year since 2016 has been the warmest on record, and that pattern is speeding up. At some point, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-memories-feeding-sites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory-based</a> strategy may no longer work.”



The study also revealed notable differences in how males and females migrate. Male humpbacks tend to travel more quickly and take direct paths. 



In contrast, females - especially those with calves - stick to the coast. Their route is slower but possibly safer, giving their young time to rest and stay away from predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delicate-balance-of-marine-ecosystems">Delicate balance of marine ecosystems </h2>



These findings have important implications for conservation. As ship traffic increases along coastal routes, so do the dangers whales face.



Collisions with vessels and disturbances to their migration corridors can have serious effects on whale populations.



“This research provides the data needed to inform conservation efforts,” said Hector Guzman of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. “It's not just about protecting whales; it's about preserving the delicate balance of marine ecosystems.”



The researchers emphasize the need to safeguard migration routes and feeding zones, especially as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-warming-climate-will-change-the-humpback-whales-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate continues to shift</a>. Protecting these areas doesn’t just benefit whales - it supports the entire marine food web.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-whales-matter-more-than-ever">Why whales matter more than ever</h2>



Whales are amazing animals that help keep oceans and seas healthy. As they move, whales consume food and excrete waste - assisting with the distribution of nutrients in the water body.



This enables the growth of phytoplankton and other microscopic plants which take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. Thus, whales make a direct contribution to the food webs of the ocean and the climate on land.



Their existence also boosts biodiversity, creating new feeding opportunities for other marine creatures that depend on nutrient-rich zones. 



If whale populations are decimated, the productivity of the ocean will decline. As waters undergo more drastic changes, the survival of humpback whales is crucial.



Observations of humpback whales provide researchers with insights into the limits of ecosystem resilience and the measures needed to prevent collapse. From this perspective, protecting whales becomes a priority, along with assessing the overall health and stability of the oceans.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-87489-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Whales in hot water: Will climate change disrupt their migration?

Every year, humpback whales in the southeastern Pacific make a...

The climate crisis no longer lies in the future. It is unfolding now, reshaping lives, ecosystems, and economies with each passing year. Extreme weather, deadly air, rising seas, and shrinking habitats are no longer predictions. They are our reality. 



Behind much of this damage stands a powerful engine: fossil fuels. From coal plants to gas flares, fossil fuel use drives the most pressing crises of our time.



A new review published in Oxford Open Climate Change delivers this message with renewed clarity. Scientists from leading institutions have reviewed extensive data and issued a unified warning.



Fossil fuels, they say, are not just damaging the climate. They are fueling health crises, destroying biodiversity, worsening <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental injustice</a>, and choking the planet with plastic and chemical waste.



The United States plays a major role in these challenges. As the largest oil and gas producer, the country drives much of the damage. The review calls for a full shift to clean, renewable energy. This shift must happen rapidly and fairly across all economic sectors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-harm-from-burning-fossil-fuels">Extensive harm from burning fossil fuels</h2>



“The science can’t be any clearer that fossil fuels are killing us,” said Dr. Shaye Wolf, lead author of the review and climate science director at the <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Biological Diversity</a>.



“Oil, gas and coal will continue to condemn us to more deaths, wildlife extinctions and extreme weather disasters unless we make dirty fossil fuels a thing of the past. Clean, renewable energy is here, it’s affordable, and it will save millions of lives and trillions of dollars once we make it the centerpiece of our economy.”



Fossil fuels drive about 90% of human-caused carbon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>. These emissions warm the planet and acidify oceans. They also fuel deadly weather events. 



On top of this, fossil fuel pollution causes millions of premature deaths globally every year. In the U.S. alone, hundreds of thousands die early due to air pollution.



The review links climate change to worsening disease spread, food insecurity, and forced migration. These add new layers of suffering, especially in already vulnerable populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-immediate-action">A call for immediate action</h2>



Governments must act now. The scientists call for an end to fossil fuel expansion. Existing fossil fuel projects should be phased out. Only strong, immediate policy action can limit the mounting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-constantly-reshuffling-earths-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">damages</a>.



“Fossil fuel pollution impacts health at every stage of life, with elevated risks for conditions ranging from premature births to childhood leukemia and severe depression,” said Dr. David J.X. González, assistant professor at <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a>.



“We’ve got to work fast to end fossil fuel operations near our homes, schools and hospitals and trade fossil fuel infrastructure for healthy, clean energy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-injustice-due-to-fossil-fuels">Environmental injustice due to fossil fuels</h2>



The report also highlights racial and economic disparities. Communities of color and low-income neighborhoods bear the brunt of fossil fuel pollution. Historic policies like redlining have trapped many in toxic zones.



“Decades of discriminatory policies, such as redlining, have concentrated fossil fuel development in Black, Brown, Indigenous and poor white communities, resulting in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-shrinking-earths-atmosphere-and-thats-bad-for-satellites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">devastating consequences</a>,” said Dr. Robin Saha from the <a href="https://www.umt.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montana</a>.



“For far too long, these fenceline communities have been treated as sacrifice zones by greedy, callous industries. The most polluted communities should be prioritized for clean energy investments and removal and cleanup of dirty fossil fuel infrastructure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinction-risks-and-plastic-pollution">Extinction risks and plastic pollution</h2>



Unchecked fossil fuel use could wipe out up to one-third of animal and plant species in the next 50 years. 



To protect ecosystems, renewable energy infrastructure must avoid damaging natural habitats. Instead, it should be placed in developed areas whenever possible.



The review also focuses on plastics. Fossil fuel companies ramp up plastic production, increasing pollution across air, water, and food systems. These pollutants harm wildlife and people alike.



The scientists urge bold targets to cut primary plastic production. They also push for alternatives to plastic and more sustainable farming methods. These shifts can reduce petrochemical pollution from pesticides and fertilizers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-disinformation">Decades of disinformation</h2>



A major barrier that stands in the way of progress is industry propaganda.



“The fossil fuel industry has spent decades misleading us about the harms of their products and working to prevent meaningful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-age-cycles-are-predictable-but-humans-may-change-that/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate action</a>,” said Naomi Oreskes, professor at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>. 



“Perversely, our governments continue to give out hundreds of billions of dollars in subsidies to this damaging industry. It is past time that stops.”



The review ends with a clear message: We have the tools to change course. What’s needed now is political will.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/oocc/article/5/1/kgaf011/8099165" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Open Climate Change</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fossil fuel pollution is causing disease, disaster, and extinction

The climate crisis no longer lies in the future. It...

A tiny fossil with an unusually well-preserved interior is rewriting what we know about ancient life. Discovered 25 years ago and affectionately named "Sue," the fossil is unlike most others from its time.



Instead of showing off a tough outer shell like other arthropods, this creature gives a rare peek inside - offering a glimpse at muscles, tendons, and guts from the Ordovician period, 444 million years ago.



The fossil, now officially named Keurbos susanae, was found in South Africa's Soom Shale, a rock layer north of Cape Town that was formed after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mass-extinction-event-was-caused-by-ocean-deoxygenation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">massive global extinction event</a>. 



During that time, a freezing climate wiped out about 85% of Earth’s species. Somehow, a few marine creatures survived in this basin, and Sue was among them.



This unusual fossil was recently studied by scientists from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keurbos-susanae-fossil-is-all-guts">Keurbos susanae fossil is all guts</h2>



“Sue is an inside-out, legless, headless wonder,” said Professor Sarah Gabbott from the University of Leicester’s School of Geography, Geology and the Environment. 



“Remarkably, her insides are a mineralized time-capsule: muscles, sinews, tendons and even guts all preserved in unimaginable detail. And yet her durable carapace, legs and head are missing - no douubt lost to decay over 440 million years ago."



Sue stands out because her internal features are fossilized, rather than her external shell. This is rare. 



Most fossilized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-fossil-sheds-light-on-arthropod-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a> - members of a group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-closer-to-unlocking-the-secrets-of-spider-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a>, lobsters, and millipedes - preserve hard body parts like exoskeletons. In Sue’s case, the soft tissues were sealed away by unique conditions on the ancient sea floor.



The lack of oxygen, combined with toxic hydrogen sulfide in the sediments, likely helped create an environment where her soft tissues were not decomposed, but could remain intact.



Scientists believe a strange chemical process was involved in preserving her this way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-a-mystery-in-the-family-tree">Still a mystery in the family tree</h2>



While researchers are confident Sue was a primitive marine arthropod, exactly where she fits into the evolutionary story is still unclear.



“We are now sure she was a primitive marine arthropod but her precise evolutionary relationships remain frustratingly elusive,” Professor Gabbott explained.



Her unique preservation makes it hard to match her with other known species from the time. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="University of Leicester" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Sue-fossil_Keurbos-susanae_Credit-ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="The fossil Keurbos susanae - or Sue - in the rock. Discovered by Professor Sarah Gabbott. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1963799"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The fossil Keurbos susanae - or Sue - in the rock. Discovered by Professor Sarah Gabbott. Click to enlarge. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



Most comparable fossils only show hard outer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-shells-can-help-predict-the-impacts-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shells</a> or limbs, offering little internal detail for comparison. With no modern equivalent and no other specimens like her, Sue remains a puzzle. 



No other fossils with the same level of detail have turned up in over two decades of searching. And the original quarry where Sue was found - a small roadside site - has all but vanished.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personal-tribute-25-years-in-the-making">Personal tribute, 25 years in the making</h2>



“This has been an ultramarathon of a research effort,” said Professor Gabbott. “In a large part, because this fossil is just so beautifully preserved, there's so much anatomy there that needs interpreting."



She spent years studying every layer of the fossil, hoping to one day find another with more complete features like a head or legs. But as time passed, she realized this might be a once-in-a-lifetime find.



“I'd always hoped to find new specimens but it seems after 25 years of searching this fossil is vanishingly rare - so I can hang on no longer,” she said.



And so she named the fossil Keurbos susanae, or Sue, after her mother.



“Especially as, recently, my mom said to me, 'Sarah if you are going to name this fossil after me, you'd better get on and do it before I am in the ground and fossilized myself,'" she shared.



"I tell my mom in jest that I named the fossil Sue after her because she is a well-preserved specimen. But, in truth, I named her Sue because my mom always said I should follow a career that makes me happy - whatever that may be. For me, that is digging rocks, finding fossils and then trying to figure out how they lived, what they tell us about ancient life and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution on Earth</a>."



Sue may not have her head or legs, but her legacy - both scientific and personal - is unforgettable.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/spp2.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

444-million-year-old fossil named 'Sue' has a story to tell

A tiny fossil with an unusually well-preserved interior is rewriting...

What does it take to truly understand evolution? For centuries, scientists studied bones in museums and fossils in stone. But in recent decades, a quiet shift has been underway. 



A group of dedicated researchers has started tracking life as it changes - not over millennia, but through real-time observation. At the heart of this movement is a growing collection of long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-itself-found-to-be-evolving-as-life-constantly-learns-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary studies</a>, some spanning generations, others stretching across continents.



Now, a new review article published in the journal Nature pulls these threads together for the first time. Led by scientists from Georgia Tech, the study explores how these extensive research programs are capturing evolution’s most elusive processes. The findings reveal more than biological data - they offer a window into life’s unfolding story.



"Evolution isn't just about change over millions of years in fossils - it's happening all around us, right now," said lead author James Stroud, an assistant professor in the <a href="https://biosciences.gatech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Biological Sciences</a> at Georgia Tech.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-long-term-research-matters">Why long-term research matters</h2>



Understanding evolution isn't just about snapshots. It’s about watching a process play out, one generation after another. Many evolutionary events unfold too slowly or unpredictably to catch in a brief study. This is where long-term research comes in. 



By investing time - sometimes decades - scientists can observe what shorter experiments might miss entirely.



"However, to understand evolution, we need to watch it <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unfold in real time</a>, often over many generations. Long-term studies allow us to do that by giving us a front-row seat to evolution in action," explained Stroud.



This is the first major review to examine the role of long-term evolutionary studies in such depth. It highlights not only their scientific value but also their potential to answer questions that once seemed unapproachable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-islands-to-petri-dishes">From islands to petri dishes</h2>



The review explores case studies from both the wild and the lab. One example comes from the Galápagos Islands, where researchers have spent forty years studying Darwin’s finches. 



These iconic songbirds provided direct evidence of speciation - when a new species formed through hybridization.



In the lab, scientists observed 75,000 generations of bacteria evolve. Over time, these microbes developed new metabolic abilities that no one had predicted at the start. 



These events might seem extraordinary, but they were not accidents. They were only visible because of the patient design and extended timeline of each study.



"These remarkable evolutionary events were only caught because of the long-term nature of the research programs," said Stroud. "Even if short-term studies captured similar events, their evolutionary significance would be hard to assess without the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">historical context</a> that long-term research provides."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-results-in-evolution">Unexpected results in evolution</h2>



One thing long-term studies teach us: nature rarely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-age-cycles-are-predictable-but-humans-may-change-that/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">follows our expectations</a>. Surprising discoveries often emerge years after a study begins. 



This unpredictability makes such work especially valuable. Long-term experiments serve as both a test of hypotheses and a source of entirely new questions.



"The most fascinating results from long-term evolution studies are often completely unexpected - they're serendipitous discoveries that couldn't have been predicted at the start," said co-author Professor Will Ratcliff, co-director of the Interdisciplinary Ph.D. in Quantitative Biosciences at <a href="https://www.gatech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Tech</a>.



Ratcliff also points to a practical truth that often goes unnoticed. "While we can accelerate many aspects of scientific research today, evolution still moves at its own pace. There's no technological shortcut for watching species adapt across generations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-evolution-reacts-to-climate-shifts-nbsp">How evolution reacts to climate shifts&nbsp;</h2>



The Nature paper also reflects on how long-term studies have captured changes driven by the planet itself. One area of growing concern is phenology - the timing of biological events like flowering or migration.



As the climate warms, many species shift their schedules. But how much of that change is temporary flexibility, and how much is actual evolution?



Long-term studies provide the answer. They allow researchers to see whether traits are inherited, and whether those changes persist. Without enough time, it’s nearly impossible to tell the difference between momentary adaptation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lasting change</a>.



A recent case showed how both phenotypic plasticity and adaptive evolution influence the timing of flowering in plants. Such insights matter, especially in a world where ecosystems face rapid and unpredictable shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decade-long-evolution-experiments">Decade-long evolution experiments</h2>



Stroud and Ratcliff do more than study other people’s work. They run their own long-term experiments as part of Georgia Tech’s evolutionary biology community. These projects not only inform the review - they reflect its central message.



In South Florida, Stroud oversees a project known informally as “Lizard Island.” Over the last ten years, he and his team have monitored a tiny island’s lizard population - about 1,000 individuals from five species.



By watching how these animals compete, coexist, and sometimes change, his group uncovers how species evolve and hold their identity under pressure.



Meanwhile, Ratcliff’s work focuses on a deeper evolutionary shift: the origin of complex life. His Multicellularity Long Term Evolution Experiment (MuLTEE) observes snowflake yeast as they evolve into multicellular forms. 



Running for more than 9,000 generations already, this project may continue for 25 more years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-life-s-transitions">Revealing life’s transitions</h2>



One of Ratcliff’s most important findings is that becoming multicellular might not be as hard as once believed. 



That single-celled organisms can evolve cooperation, division of labor, and complexity - all within an observable timeframe - challenges long-standing views.



These results make long-term projects not just informative but essential. Some evolutionary transitions were thought to be rare or nearly impossible. But with time as an ally, researchers are discovering that nature may have more flexibility than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-in-a-time-of-speed">Science in a time of speed</h2>



Despite their value, long-term studies face growing challenges. Today’s academic culture often rewards fast results. Funding cycles rarely last more than a few years. Publishing systems favor novel discoveries over incremental work. This creates an environment where slow research becomes harder to sustain.



Yet, the most powerful findings about life’s processes often take time. Stroud and Ratcliff argue that the scientific community must protect and support these efforts. 



In the review, they point out how many breakthroughs happened only because researchers kept going - even when immediate outcomes weren’t clear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-present-predicting-future">Understanding present, predicting future</h2>



Stroud believes that this work has never been more urgent. "The world is rapidly changing, which poses unprecedented challenges to Earth's biodiversity," he noted. "It has never been more important to understand how organisms adapt to changing environments over time."



"Long-term studies provide our best window into achieving this. We can document, in real time, both short-term and long-term evolutionary responses of species to changes in their environment, like climate change and habitat modification."



This review doesn’t just celebrate what has already been learned. It points toward the future. Understanding evolution isn’t only about looking back. It’s about predicting what comes next - and that takes time, patience, and a commitment to seeing the whole picture.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08597-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Evolution isn’t just ancient history, it’s happening right now

What does it take to truly understand evolution? For centuries,...

Evolution drives all biological change. It shapes every lifeform we know, including birds. Charles Darwin laid its foundation with natural selection, explaining how organisms adapt and survive through generations.



Recent advances in genetics and bioinformatics have pushed our understanding far beyond Darwin’s notebooks. One question still haunts the scientific world: What really drives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-itself-found-to-be-evolving-as-life-constantly-learns-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">novelty</a> in evolution? 



A new study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> offers a fresh approach and some surprising answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-evolution-tick">What makes evolution tick</h2>



DNA changes lie at the center of evolution. These changes fuel the dazzling variety of life around us. Sometimes, they produce traits that surprise us. Other times, they lead to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mutations</a> behind deadly viruses.



That’s why understanding DNA’s shifting patterns isn’t just scientific curiosity. It matters for protecting ecosystems. It matters for predicting health threats.



"Basically, we showcase a method to extract information from genomes and reveal the forces driving biological novelty with unprecedented detail," said David Duchene, a professor in the Department of Public Health at the University of Copenhagen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-as-evolution-s-case-study">Birds as evolution’s case study</h2>



The team used birds as their main study group. Why birds? They’re the most diverse group of vertebrates - 10,000 species strong.



"We used birds as our study subject. With 10,000 known species, they are the most diverse class of vertebrates and uniquely suited for exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary phenomena</a>. With our method, we were able to identify key factors that influence how these bird lineages and their thousands of genes evolve," explained Duchene.



Their method identified four key evolutionary factors: clutch size, gene biochemistry, chromosome size, and leg length. Duchene says these results break the idea that one trait, like flying or singing, steers a group’s evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-evolution-depends-on-many-traits">Bird evolution depends on many traits</h2>



"Our study tells us that you will find much nuance as to the drivers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">novelty</a> once you look at multiple lineages and genes in detail. The biochemistry, chromosomes, and various aspects of lifestyle all play distinct roles in bringing about novelty," said Duchene.



It’s not one factor but many. The research shows how each piece, from gene makeup to physical traits, helps shape the tree of life. This view gives experts a better toolkit for tracking changes across different organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-the-next-pandemic">Clues to the next pandemic</h2>



The findings stretch beyond birds, offering deeper insight into evolution across many forms of life.



The method could help scientists track how diseases evolve. It could help understand how plants respond to climate change. And it could point to what we risk losing in our current biodiversity crisis.



According to Duchene, the findings can be applied to a variety of contexts, such as understanding how diseases adapt to human demographics or climate conditions.



"The same principles that help us decode the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> of birds could also be used to investigate the genetic changes driving everything from pandemics to species adaptation in shifting ecosystems," said Duchene.



"This method could tell us: What is special about what we are losing in the current biodiversity crisis? What exactly made those animals so novel and unique, and what have they taught us about evolution such that we might want to preserve them?" 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-evolution-and-the-study-of-life">Bird evolution and the study of life</h2>



Every extinct species takes with it a chapter of evolution’s story. Understanding why those species were unique helps us grasp the full scale of what’s being lost. 



It also shows us what we must protect - not just for the sake of nature, but for future discoveries about life itself.



With this new approach, scientists can now map the drivers of evolution more clearly than ever before. The tools used to decode bird diversity may soon help us understand the rise of new diseases or the disappearance of key species. 



The study invites a shift in thinking - from seeing evolution as a slow and distant process to recognizing it as something dynamic and ongoing.



Nature still holds many secrets. But thanks to this work from the University of Copenhagen, we are one step closer to understanding how life continues to surprise, survive, and evolve.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08777-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Decoding evolution: How birds can help us prevent pandemics

Evolution drives all biological change. It shapes every lifeform we...

Amphibians are in crisis. Climate change, pollution, and habitat loss are stripping their ecosystems. But something even more silent is killing them - disease. From frogs to tadpoles, the losses and disrupted growth are staggering.



Since the 1970s, about 200 amphibian species have vanished. Today, 34% of the 7,296 known species face extinction, according to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>).



One fast-moving culprit is ranavirus. This genus of viruses spreads quickly among fish, reptiles, and amphibians. The virus can devastate species that lack any built-in defense. But a recent study in Frontiers in Amphibian and Reptile Science offers a glimpse of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibian resilience</a>.



“Here we show that in response to ranavirus, wood frog tadpoles change their growth, development, and resource allocation. This may help tadpoles tolerate the energetic demands of infection or escape risky environments to avoid infection entirely,” said Logan Billet, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> and the study’s first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deadly-virus-is-wiping-out-frogs">A deadly virus is wiping out frogs</h2>



Ranavirus has caused 40 to 60% of amphibian die-offs in the US. 



Once infected, larvae become lethargic, stop eating, swim abnormally, and bleed internally. Outbreaks often end in total pond die-offs. And with warming temperatures, these outbreaks may increase.



The researchers decided to focus on one species: the wood frog (Rana sylvatica). This species breeds explosively in temporary snowmelt ponds. The team observed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-lead-the-way-in-developing-new-antibiotics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> from 2021 to 2023 in Connecticut forests. They tracked their survival, growth, and the virus’s impact.



They monitored 47 ponds: 35 remained virus-free, 7 had infections but low death rates, and 5 experienced full-blown die-offs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tadpoles-grow-faster-around-ranavirus">Tadpoles grow faster around ranavirus</h2>



From mid-April to July, scientists collected tadpoles regularly. They euthanized up to 20 from each pond for lab analysis. They tested 1,583 livers for ranavirus and measured the length and developmental stage of 4,299 tadpoles.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-on-water-cricket-frogs-redefine-aquatic-locomotion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amphibians</a> grow flexibly. Size and developmental stage do not always go hand in hand. A tadpole might be small yet advanced in development or vice versa. This plasticity makes their responses interesting to study.



The results showed that tadpoles in ponds later hit by die-offs grew faster during their first month. They also developed quicker - about 0.38 stages ahead of others. But once mortality began, growth collapsed. In the end, they were smaller and less developed than their healthy counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quick-growth-may-help-tadpoles-survive">Quick growth may help tadpoles survive</h2>



Interestingly, tadpoles in infected ponds that avoided full die-offs showed similar trends. They grew faster and reached stages 1.7 Gosner points ahead of those in clean ponds.



The data points to a clear pattern. Tadpoles exposed to ranavirus grow and develop faster - at least in the early days. This may be their way of dodging death by jumping ahead in their life cycle.



Study senior author Dr. David Skelly is a professor at the <a href="https://peabody.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peabody Museum</a> and Billet’s doctoral supervisor.



“Accelerating growth and resource allocation early on may allow tadpoles to improve their physical condition, and thus the strength of their immunity, in anticipation of infection. They might also metamorphose and move onto land earlier, potentially reducing their exposure to ranavirus,” said Dr. Skelly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-survival-strategy">A unique survival strategy</h2>



These early responses may help explain why some outbreaks kill only a portion of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



“These responses are likely to give tadpoles a survival advantage. We hypothesize they are the reason why mortality wasn’t always 100%, but only partial in some outbreaks in our study," said Billet.



“What we don’t yet know is how tadpoles detect ranavirus in their environment, for example through chemical or visual cues, and how effective these responses improve survival or tolerance of infection. Controlled experiments will be important to address these questions."



The study opens a new window into amphibian survival in the face of disease. These creatures, from adult frogs to fragile tadpoles, are adjusting their growth in real time to a rapidly changing world. But their limits remain unknown.



As human-driven changes reshape the planet, the quiet struggles in our forest ponds may soon speak volumes about the future of biodiversity. The story of the wood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-amphibians-survived-earths-deadliest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> and its fight against ranavirus is just one chapter. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/amphibian-and-reptile-science/articles/10.3389/famrs.2025.1529060/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Amphibian and Reptile Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tadpoles speed up their growth to outsmart a deadly virus

Amphibians are in crisis. Climate change, pollution, and habitat loss...

The forests and fields of North America hold secrets that even motion-sensitive cameras can't always reveal. Among those secrets are weasels - small, swift, and almost invisible to modern wildlife monitoring.



These elusive predators have slipped through digital traps for decades, making scientists wonder whether their silence signals absence or simply stealth.



It’s not just curiosity that drives this concern. Weasels, as small mustelids, play vital roles in ecosystems. They control rodent populations and serve as prey for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger animals</a>. 



Understanding where they thrive or vanish can reveal larger patterns of ecological change. But until recently, researchers lacked a clear method to study their population numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-monitoring-weasels">Challenge of monitoring weasels</h2>



Camera traps work well for large mammals. Deer, bears, and even coyotes often stroll past, triggering a flurry of images. But weasels are a different story. 



Their bodies are small and they move fast. They often live in habitats with thick cover, making them almost invisible, even when present.



Roland Kays is a research professor at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> and scientist at the N.C. Museum of Natural Sciences.



“We’re a little worried about the weasels,” said Kays. "We don’t see them very often, but it’s difficult to tell if they’re actually gone or if they’re just so sneaky that we can’t find them."



"We decided that we needed to better understand the best method to detect them. There wasn’t a great consensus on that.”



The lack of consensus led Kays and a group of researchers to try something new. Instead of relying on luck, they decided to identify the best <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bait</a> - and the best method - for attracting weasels to camera traps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-a-massive-survey">Designing a massive survey</h2>



Between January 2022 and April 2023, the scientists launched one of the largest camera-trap bait studies ever done for mustelids.



The team placed 486 cameras across 122 clusters in 14 U.S. states, focusing on areas where weasels were previously recorded or where habitat conditions seemed ideal.



Each site hosted a set of four trail cameras, positioned close enough to give weasels a full choice of lures while minimizing overlap between camera zones.



The researchers tested various bait types. These included red meat, raw chicken, cat food, and scent-based lures like anise oil, salmon oil, and a commercial product called Weasel Super All Call. 



In 2023, they switched fully to meat baits after finding weak results from scent lures alone the year before.



The bait wasn't just thrown on the ground. It was secured in cages to prevent theft by other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. One new method, a cage-within-a-cage system, eventually proved highly successful in stopping bait robbers like raccoons and coyotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-weasels-preferred">What the weasels preferred</h2>



“There is a huge variety of scent lures available, and trappers often make their own from all kinds of ingredients,” noted Kays. “As it turns out, however, just having a chunk of meat works the best.”



Red meat emerged as the top performer. It tripled the chance of weasel detection compared to scent lures alone. 



Short-tailed weasels especially loved red meat, showing up twice as often at those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bait</a> stations than at sites with chicken or cat food. When salmon oil was added to the red meat, results improved even further - especially for short-tailed weasels.



In the southern U.S., long-tailed weasels appeared more frequently at chicken-baited sites. They also arrived faster. On average, it took just 14.5 days for a chicken-baited camera to record a long-tailed weasel, compared to nearly 40 days with red meat.



Cat food, by contrast, was the least effective. It took over 27 days to attract weasels - if it attracted them at all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-least-weasel-may-be-in-trouble">The least weasel may be in trouble</h2>



Of all the weasel species in North America, the least weasel remains the most mysterious. The study detected only four individuals in total - one in 2022 and three in 2023.



Their scarcity raises conservation alarms. Researchers have suggested that the least weasel may be the most endangered of the group, with one study estimating a 54% decline in this species' habitat over the past century.



Even in targeted areas, where previous records or ideal habitats existed, least weasels barely registered. This highlights the need for specialized monitoring tools, such as enclosed camera traps like the Mostela, which have had some success in limited trials.



“Now that we have an understanding of the best ways to lure the weasels, we can be more confident in the findings of our surveys,” Kays said. 



“When we have sites where we don’t detect them, we can be much more assured that they aren’t just in hiding, they’re really just not there at all.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-activity-patterns-and-behavioral-clues">Activity patterns and behavioral clues</h2>



The study also revealed new insights into how different weasel species behave. Short-tailed weasels were active both day and night - an unusual pattern that differs from past observations in Europe and Canada.



In contrast, long-tailed weasels were mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, showing peak activity at dawn and dusk.



These activity patterns have practical implications. If researchers know when weasels are likely to appear, they can time camera placements and checks more effectively. 



It also offers clues about predator-prey dynamics, as prey animals may adjust their own schedules to avoid these hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bait-matters">Why bait matters</h2>



Getting the bait right was only half the battle. The researchers quickly learned that non-target species - especially raccoons and opossums - loved the bait too. Red meat and chicken were often stolen, reducing the time that bait remained in front of cameras.



In southern sites, bait theft was particularly high. This lowered detection rates. When cameras lost their bait early, they became less attractive to passing weasels. 



In contrast, northern sites experienced less bait theft. That could explain why red meat worked so well in the north, where short-tailed weasels live.



The addition of salmon oil helped keep sites attractive even after the meat disappeared. Its strong scent lingered, possibly drawing in curious weasels until the bait was replenished. Cameras baited with salmon oil recorded detections in just 6.5 days, compared to 22 days without the oil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-better-monitoring-system">Building a better monitoring system</h2>



This study provides a crucial step toward standardizing how we monitor small carnivores like weasels. With clear bait preferences identified, wildlife agencies can now deploy cost-effective, reliable surveys over large areas.



The best approach? Use red meat or chicken, depending on the region. Add salmon oil for stronger scent cues. Protect the bait using a cage-within-a-cage system. Place cameras in areas with prior weasel activity or suitable habitat. And check the traps monthly during winter, when meat lasts longer and bear activity is low.



Large-scale, standardized surveys like this can finally reveal what decades of anecdotal data couldn’t - the locations where weasels still thrive, and those where they don’t, and how their numbers change over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-track-weasels">A new way to track weasels</h2>



Despite their size, weasels carry ecological weight. They matter. This study, which was published in <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wsb.1580" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Society Bulletin</a>, helps bring these predators out of the shadows.



The research team included experts from over 20 universities and wildlife agencies, and was led by corresponding author Scott M. Bergeson of <a href="https://www.pfw.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University Fort Wayne</a>. Funding came from the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937, a cornerstone of American conservation.



Thanks to their work, weasels are no longer invisible. We can now track their paths, confirm their presence, and protect what remains - one camera trap at a time.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Weasels are vanishing - or are they just too sneaky to spot?

The forests and fields of North America hold secrets that...

Some fish are not just fast - they’re smart. A team of scientists, including researchers from the University of Edinburgh, has revealed a never-seen-before hunting trick in the Mediterranean Sea. Small fish called blue runners hide behind sandbar sharks to sneak up on prey.



This behavior stands out. Fish often swim near <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sharks-make-sounds-despite-not-having-vocal-cords/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> to avoid threats or shed parasites. But hiding behind a shark to launch a hunt? That’s a first.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-use-sharks-as-cover">Fish use sharks as cover </h2>



Until now, scientists had noticed that fish sometimes trail sharks. This was usually for protection or parasite removal. Some even used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-predator-missing-what-happens-when-great-white-sharks-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> as moving shields to escape larger predators. But the new footage captured around Lampione Island in Italy shows something more calculated.



Over several years, divers and remotely operated vehicles recorded 34 separate cases of blue runners sneaking behind sharks. Each time, a lone blue runner shadowed a sandbar shark for about 30 seconds. Then, without warning, it broke away to dart at smaller fish, especially damselfish.



What changed wasn’t just the fish’s timing - but their approach. Blue runners typically hunt in groups. But these solo hunts seemed far more effective when combined with the shark’s distraction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-cover-boosts-hunting-success">Shark cover boosts hunting success </h2>



The team analyzed hours of underwater footage to understand the success of this hunting trick. The findings were clear. When blue runners used sharks as cover, prey detected them only 10 percent of the time.



In contrast, when they hunted as a group - without shark cover - their targets noticed them over 95 percent of the time.



The difference changed everything. Instead of fleeing or forming tight defensive schools, the damselfish and other prey stayed relaxed. The shark’s presence seemed to lull them into a false sense of security, never realizing another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-shark-species-face-extinction-despite-fishing-bans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> swam in its shadow.



The blue runners also appeared to gain other benefits. Scientists believe that swimming behind the shark may help conserve energy, thanks to reduced water resistance. It may also offer safety, as predators are less likely to attack a fish moving close to a large shark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-gathering-of-sharks">A rare gathering of sharks</h2>



This remarkable behavior occurs in one of the few places in the Mediterranean where sandbar sharks still gather in groups. 



Every summer, they return to the waters around Lampione Island, creating what scientists call an “aggregation.” This kind of natural event is rare in these seas, especially as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-clues-from-old-shark-jaws-reveal-diets-and-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark populations</a> decline due to overfishing and habitat stress.



Because of the consistency and uniqueness of this site, the researchers had the chance to observe complex behaviors that would likely go unnoticed elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-loss-could-affect-hunting-behavior">Shark loss could affect hunting behavior</h2>



“The study highlights how interactions between species can drive alternative hunting tactics in marine ecosystems. Understanding these dynamics enriches our knowledge of marine biodiversity and underscores the importance of conserving high-level predators, like sharks,” said Professor Fabio Badalamenti, of the University of Edinburgh and CNR-IAS Palermo.



“This unique interaction emphasizes the ecological importance of the few remaining shark aggregations, which can influence the structure and function of ecosystems,“ noted Dr. Carlo Cattano, of the Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn.



“Lampione Island is one of only two known aggregation areas for the sandbar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-great-hammerhead-sharks-rarely-leave-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark</a> in the Mediterranean Sea. The ongoing decline in large shark populations due to overfishing could jeopardize associations like these, which could have knock-on effects on other species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-dynamics-of-fragile-ecosystems">Hidden dynamics of fragile ecosystems </h2>



This behavior isn't just a cool trick of nature - it carries serious implications. The blue runners’ strategy depends on the shark’s presence. If sharks vanish, so might these unique hunting methods. As top predators decline, ripple effects may shift entire ecosystems in ways we don’t yet understand.



Understanding these hidden dynamics reveals how fragile marine systems can be. Every player in the food web, no matter how strong or small, shapes the behavior of others. 



Preserving biodiversity, then, isn't just about saving one species - it’s about keeping the game of life in motion, with all its surprises intact.



The study's success resulted from collaboration across institutions. Scientists from the University of Edinburgh, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, the National Biodiversity Future Center, CNR-IAS, and the University of Palermo all played roles.​



Support from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.bluemarinefoundation.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blue Marine Foundation</a>&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic Society</a>&nbsp;enabled long-term observation, which proved key in documenting this behavior over multiple seasons.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sneaky fish use sharks like moving shields while hunting

Some fish are not just fast - they’re smart. A...

For centuries, sharks have stirred fear and fascination. They glide through water with quiet power. Unlike whales or dolphins, they never seem to speak. Scientists assumed that sharks lived in a world of silence - masters of stealth with no sound.



That idea was rooted in biology. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-shark-species-face-extinction-despite-fishing-bans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sharks</a> lack swim bladders, organs that help many fish produce sound. 



They also don’t have vocal cords or specialized structures like drumming muscles. So the conclusion felt safe: sharks don’t make noise.



But nature is full of surprises. A recent discovery made at the University of Auckland's <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/science/about-the-faculty/university-reserves/leigh-marine-laboratory.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leigh Marine Laboratory</a> has rewritten what we know about these ancient predators. 



Sharks might not be voiceless after all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-recorded-shark-sounds">The first recorded shark sounds</h2>



In a study published in Royal Society Open Science, <a href="https://rs.figshare.com/articles/media/Data_1_from_Evidence_of_active_sound_production_by_a_shark/28596448?backTo=%2Fcollections%2FSupplementary_material_from_Evidence_of_active_sound_production_by_a_shark_%2F7720015&amp;file=52990585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientists shared the first known recordings</a> of active sound production by sharks. 



The species involved, the rig shark (Mustelus lenticulatus), is a small, bottom-dwelling shark native to New Zealand.



During routine hearing experiments, ten juvenile rig <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-clues-from-old-shark-jaws-reveal-diets-and-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> produced distinct clicking sounds when handled underwater. These weren’t random splashes or incidental noise. They were consistent, sharp clicks — deliberate and audible.



"Sharks have sensory systems that are more refined than their hearing, like their electroreceptors, their smell, and the way they propel themselves through the water… But I think the original notion that we had that sound isn't important at all is also likely not true," said Carolin Nieder, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clicks-as-stress-or-warning-signals">Clicks as stress or warning signals</h2>



The clicks didn’t happen while the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-great-hammerhead-sharks-rarely-leave-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> swam freely. They didn’t appear during feeding or rest. They only occurred when the sharks were briefly handled. Most clicks happened in the first ten seconds of handling and dropped off after that.



This suggests the sounds may be a reaction to stress. The sharks could be trying to defend themselves or confuse potential predators. Some clicks coincided with physical movements, like swaying or sudden bends. Others came with no visible movement.



The researchers counted an average of nine clicks per shark in a 20-second window. About three-quarters of those clicks were short, single-pulse bursts. The remaining were double-pulse clicks, produced in rapid succession.



“Maybe they weren't afraid for their lives anymore,” Nieder said, noting the decline in clicks over time. This behavior may resemble a natural escape tactic in the wild, used as a quick distraction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-not-vocal-cords">Teeth, not vocal cords</h2>



So how do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> make these sounds without sound-producing organs? The team examined this closely. Using microCT scans and detailed dissections, the researchers studied the cranial structure of the rig shark. The teeth emerged as the most likely mechanism.



Rig sharks have blunt, interlocking teeth arranged like flat plates. These teeth snap together during rapid jaw movements. This snapping action likely creates the broadband clicks observed in the study.



The sounds recorded had an average duration of 48 milliseconds, with frequencies between 2.4 and 18.5 kHz. 



Most clicks peaked around 9.6 kHz, far above the rig’s hearing threshold, which tops at around 800 Hz. Yet, the first burst of each click contained low frequencies that might be audible to the sharks themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-these-shark-sounds-meaningful">Are these shark sounds meaningful?</h2>



The purpose of the clicks remains uncertain. Are they a biological signal - a warning, alarm, or defensive cry? Or are they simply a byproduct of muscle contractions and jaw tension under stress?



The study notes that rigs did not produce sounds during other behaviors, like swimming or feeding. This supports the idea that the clicking is linked to disturbance, not daily communication.



Still, comparisons with other fish species are revealing. Teleost fish, like cod and piranhas, often emit clicks when threatened or approached by predators. These “predator-related” sounds serve no obvious communicative role but may momentarily confuse or startle attackers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similar-sounds-in-other-species">Similar sounds in other species</h2>



This discovery also echoes recent findings in rays. Since 2022, several studies have reported click-like sounds in stingrays and skates when divers approached. 



Species like the mangrove whipray and the blonde ray produce sharp broadband clicks, seemingly in reaction to disturbance.



These clicks share many traits with the rig’s clicks: short duration, high frequency, and apparent links to stress. While the anatomical mechanisms may differ, the pattern is striking.



In rays, the movement of spiracles and fins has been observed during sound production. In rigs, however, no clear body movement could be linked directly to the clicks. This raises the need for better underwater observation - perhaps through close-up video - to pinpoint exactly how the sound is made.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-sharks-click">Not all sharks click</h2>



Interestingly, not all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> show this behavior. The study tested three dusky smoothhounds (Mustelus canis), close relatives of the rig. These sharks, when handled under the same conditions, produced no clicks.



This may point to differences in species behavior, evolutionary paths, or simply varying sensitivity to human presence. The dusky smoothhounds had been in captivity longer, which might explain their lack of response.



The researchers noted that Mustelus as a genus includes many species with similar tooth shapes. It’s possible that other species may also produce clicks under the right circumstances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-rig-sharks-hear-their-own-sounds">Can rig sharks hear their own sounds?</h2>



This question remains unresolved. Rigs are most sensitive to very low frequencies, far below the peak of their clicks. Yet, each click begins with a powerful burst that includes frequencies under 1 kHz. These lower frequencies may fall within the shark’s hearing range.



Whether the clicks carry a message for other sharks is unclear. But it’s possible the clicks aren’t meant for sharks at all. The energy-rich sounds could affect predators with better hearing, like toothed whales or large marine mammals. 



Some fish also produce similar sounds that deter or confuse predators, even if they aren’t always effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-voices-from-the-deep">New voices from the deep</h2>



For years, researchers assumed that sharks lacked the ability - or need - to make sound. This study shifts that narrative. It reveals not only a sound, but a potential signal - a cry, a warning, or perhaps an instinctive snap.



The rig shark now holds the title of the first confirmed sound-producing shark. And its clicks may not be alone for long. As scientists look closer, more species may reveal their hidden voices.



In the quietest corners of the ocean, even sharks might have something to say.



-----



<a href="https://rs.figshare.com/articles/media/Data_1_from_Evidence_of_active_sound_production_by_a_shark/28596448?backTo=%2Fcollections%2FSupplementary_material_from_Evidence_of_active_sound_production_by_a_shark_%2F7720015&amp;file=52990585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click this link to hear the noises made by these sharks during the hunt...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.242212" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sharks recorded making terrifying sounds while hunting - despite not having vocal cords

For centuries, sharks have stirred fear and fascination. They glide...

A newly published study paints a grim picture for amphibians in the Upper Paraguay River Basin, which includes the vast Pantanal wetlands and surrounding areas. The researchers predict that the region may lose almost all suitable habitats for toads, frogs, and tree frogs by 2100. 



The findings emerge from a collaboration between researchers from Brazil and Switzerland, who combined species distribution data with climate modeling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-amphibians-will-lose-their-habitats">Most amphibians will lose their habitats</h2>



The experts cross-referenced locations of amphibian species with two greenhouse gas emissions scenarios (one optimistic, one pessimistic). The team concluded that more than 80% of amphibian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-are-being-pushed-beyond-their-heat-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> in the Upper Paraguay River Basin would lose suitable habitats.



In the optimistic scenario, 99.87% of the basin would experience local extinctions, and in the pessimistic one, this figure rises to 99.99% of the region, according to lead author Matheus Oliveira Neves of the <a href="http://www.ufmt.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Mato Grosso</a> (UFMT).&nbsp;



With these numbers, there is scant room left for doubt: amphibian biodiversity in the Pantanal and nearby zones appears to be on a steep and accelerating decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-current-protection-falls-short">Current protection falls short</h2>



The researchers also found that existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protected-areas-slow-down-biodiversity-loss-but-they-cant-reverse-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protected areas</a> - integral conservation units - cover only 5.85% of the territory, and within those reserves, less than 5% of amphibians’ geographical ranges are effectively safeguarded. 



“Fully protected conservation units are currently doing very little to protect amphibian species in the Pantanal,” said Brazilian researcher Mario Ribeiro Moura, who coordinated the project while at the <a href="https://www.ib.unicamp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Biology of the State University of Campinas</a> (IB-UNICAMP). Moura is now a professor at the <a href="https://www.ufpb.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Paraíba</a> (UFPB).



The international community, alarmed by the accelerating loss of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-light-sustains-biodiversity-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, recently called for 30% of Earth’s surface to be set aside in protected areas by 2030. Moura notes that right now, this coverage stands at just 17%, including both conservation units and indigenous lands.&nbsp;



He and his team argue for the creation of new protection zones and enlargement of existing ones, focusing on regions that modeling indicates will remain relatively hospitable to amphibians as climate change advances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-divergent-climate-futures">Two divergent climate futures</h2>



The research used future climate projections from the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC). In one model, an optimistic scenario keeps emissions at current levels, leading to an estimated 2 °C increase by 2100.&nbsp;



In a more pessimistic model, emissions continue to rise, potentially pushing the temperature up by 4 °C by century’s end.&nbsp;



For the Upper Paraguay River Basin - including parts of Paraguay and Bolivia - the difference between these scenarios translates into a near-total collapse (99.87% or 99.99%, respectively) of viable amphibian habitats.



The team relied on more than 4,000 records for 74 amphibian species native to the basin. These species encompass a wide range of frogs, toads, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-frogs-live-in-trees-but-lay-eggs-on-the-ground/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree frogs</a> that are highly dependent on moisture and aquatic environments - features that climate change, habitat conversion, and other human impacts are making increasingly rare or degraded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-few-viable-refuges-in-the-future">Few viable refuges in the future</h2>



Even in the best-case scenario, the study suggests that the most likely refuges for amphibians occur near Cuiabá in northern Mato Grosso, on the edge of the Cerrado savannah, and in the southeast near Campo Grande in Mato Grosso do Sul state.&nbsp;



Some southwestern areas near the Paraguayan Chaco may remain viable as well. However, these spots represent only a fraction of the Upper Paraguay River Basin.



The researchers also found that among the protected areas currently established, hardly any harbor an amphibian diversity above the baseline.&nbsp;



While a small number of protected zones may actually see unexpected gains in species, the authors caution that the net picture is one of overall loss.&nbsp;



“In summary, only 13.7% of the current protected areas in the Upper Paraguay River Basin have the potential to host more or lose fewer species in at least one future scenario. Most of these areas are indigenous lands,” noted Moura.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-habitats-for-amphibians">Protecting habitats for amphibians </h2>



Moura and colleagues advocate for a combination of new conservation areas, expanded existing reserves, and changes in land use practices that limit the destruction of aquatic ecosystems. They further stress the magnitude of the climate challenge.&nbsp;



“While the Paris Agreement aimed to limit the global temperature increase to 1.5 °C by the end of the century, we already reached that level in 2024,” Moura said.&nbsp;



In his opinion, the global economic model remains deeply entwined with fossil fuel consumption, and without “radical” mitigation steps, both biodiversity and human society face profound risks.



For the amphibians of the Upper Paraguay River Basin - creatures that rely on stable, humid environments - time is running out.&nbsp;



The results indicate that if greenhouse gas emissions continue unabated, nearly all of the watery niches they need could vanish, drastically shrinking populations and possibly setting the stage for mass regional extinctions. 



On the other hand, through determined conservation policy and aggressive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-action-and-biodiversity-striking-the-right-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate action</a>, it may still be possible to give these species a chance to survive and thrive well beyond this century.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.14846" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

99% habitat loss: The dire future of amphibians in the Pantanal

A newly published study paints a grim picture for amphibians...

Humans are having a highly detrimental impact on biodiversity worldwide. Not only is the number of species declining, but the composition of species communities is also changing.&nbsp;



These are the findings of a study by the <a href="https://www.eawag.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology</a> (Eawag).



“It is one of the largest syntheses of the human impacts on biodiversity ever conducted worldwide,” said Florian Altermatt, a professor of aquatic ecology at the University of Zurich and head of a research group at Eawag.



Many previous studies have addressed the threat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species loss</a>. Yet most such efforts focused on particular ecosystems, a single human activity, or localized conditions, making it challenging to draw broad conclusions. 



This new study attempts an unprecedented synthesis: it compares nearly 50,000 sites around the world subject to human influence with an equal number of reference sites that remain relatively untouched. 



By covering terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments and targeting everything from microbes and fungi to larger organisms such as fish, birds, and mammals, the researchers provide a uniquely comprehensive snapshot of biodiversity challenges across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-pressures-on-ecosystems">Human pressures on ecosystems</h2>



The project examines the five principal human activities that affect biodiversity: habitat modification, direct exploitation (e.g., hunting or fishing), climate change, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-air-pollution-forms-may-help-us-prevent-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a>, and invasive species.&nbsp;



“We analyzed the effects of the five main human impacts on biodiversity: habitat changes, direct exploitation such as hunting or fishing, climate change, pollution and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a>," said lead author François Keck, a scientist at Eawag.



"Our findings show that all five factors have a strong impact on biodiversity worldwide, in all groups of organisms and in all ecosystems."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-numbers-at-impacted-sites">Species numbers at impacted sites </h2>



One clear outcome is that species numbers at impacted sites were nearly 20% lower than at unaffected ones. 



Vertebrates such as reptiles, amphibians, and mammals stand out for their major declines, likely because they typically have smaller population sizes and can vanish more readily.



However, beyond just the loss of species, the researchers also documented considerable shifts in the types of species that persist under human pressure.&nbsp;



“It’s not just the number of species that is declining,” Keck noted. “Human pressure is also changing the composition of species communities.”&nbsp;



That means even if the overall number of species remains the same at a site, the functions those species perform might be different, leading to potential disruptions in ecosystem services and stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drastic-changes-from-human-pressure">Drastic changes from human pressure</h2>



Environmental pollution and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-face-critical-threats-from-disease-and-habitat-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a> emerged from the study as especially damaging. Habitat modification frequently involves stark, abrupt transformations of a region - for example, clearing forests or converting grasslands to farmland.&nbsp;



Pollution introduces hazardous substances into the ecosystem, including everything from oil spills to agricultural pesticides. These drastic changes can weaken or kill resident organisms.



In contrast, climate change - though likely a major long-term threat - did not stand out as prominently within the timeframe of data analyzed, which Altermatt attributes to potential time lags. “However, it is likely that the full extent of its impact cannot yet be verified today,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-homogenization-or-collapse">Homogenization - or collapse?</h2>



Another important finding concerns the degree of similarity among different species communities (often termed “homogenization”). Large-scale farming tends to homogenize landscapes, making ecological communities more uniform.&nbsp;



But the study also uncovered cases where communities grew more dissimilar from one another, particularly in severely impacted locations.



“The human influence that we find is sometimes so strong that there are even signs that could indicate a complete collapse of the species communities,” Altermatt explained. Such changes might reflect temporary upheavals in biodiversity that could herald further declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



One critical lesson from this study is that measuring biodiversity strictly by counting species may overlook significant community-level changes.&nbsp;



A site could hold the same number of species as before, yet the particular species present could shift in ways detrimental to essential ecosystem services - like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-disappearing-and-its-bad-news-for-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a>, soil stability, or water purification.



The magnitude and universality of the findings “provide clear indications of which human influences are having the greatest impact on biodiversity,” Keck said. “This also shows what goals need to be set if these trends are to be reversed.”



Though every region and ecosystem experiences different pressures, the authors hope the results offer a sort of benchmark. Policymakers, conservationists, and land managers could lean on these large-scale insights as they devise more localized strategies to safeguard biodiversity.&nbsp;



For instance, focusing on preserving or restoring specific habitats, curbing pollution, or carefully managing invasive species might bring tangible benefits more swiftly than previously realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-alter-ecosystems-worldwide">Humans alter ecosystems worldwide</h2>



Ultimately, the study emphasizes that humans are altering the face of ecosystems worldwide - not just through outright loss of species, but also by reshaping the composition of those that remain. 



The authors warn that these changes can reverberate throughout ecosystems, undermining everything from pollinator networks to fisheries. 



As the scientists emphasize, the next step is to use these insights to inform meaningful action on behalf of the countless species that still share our planet.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Human pressure is changing biodiversity faster than we realize

Humans are having a highly detrimental impact on biodiversity worldwide....

Tucked into the highlands of southern Ecuador, a new nature reserve has just been established in Selva Alegre to protect an endangered bird, the Red-faced Parrot.



With fewer than 2,400 individuals left in the wild, these rare parrots now have a dedicated sanctuary where they can thrive.



The newly established Ecuador Ridgely Reserve goes beyond protecting a single species - it contributes to restoring vital ecosystems and enhancing the well-being of nearby communities.



This initiative is the result of efforts by scientists from the <a href="https://abcbirds.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Bird Conservancy</a> (ABC), Fundación de Conservación Jocotoco, and Rainforest Trust.



Together with support from the Conserva Aves initiative, the Ridgely Reserve was established to preserve vital habitat in the Chilla Mountain Range, near the city of Saraguro in the province of Loja.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protection-for-the-red-faced-parrot">Protection for the Red-faced Parrot</h2>



The Red-faced Parrot is one of the rarest parrots in the world. It depends on the unique climate and biodiversity of tropical high-elevation forests to survive.



“The Red-faced Parrot is a very rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neotropical species</a> whose habitat is restricted to montane cloud forests of southern Ecuador and adjacent northern Peru,” said Marcelo F. Tognelli, international project officer at ABC.



“Unfortunately, deforestation and habitat loss have been contributing to its rapid decline. The creation of the Ridgley Reserve in southern Ecuador will help ensure this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-must-cross-borders-to-save-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered species</a> thrives by improving habitat connectivity, while also providing a healthier environment for local communities.”



The reserve spans 518 acres (210 hectares) and is expected to expand to 1,388 acres (500 hectares). It lies along a mix of high Andean and stunted forest terrain, gradually giving way to Páramo grasslands, pine stands, eucalyptus groves, and areas affected by grazing and agriculture.



Though the area has not been extensively surveyed, over 90 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird species</a> have already been recorded. The Red-faced Parrot has been consistently observed there since the mid-1990s, making it the most reliable site for seeing this elusive bird.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-conservation-legacy">A conservation legacy</h2>



The Ridgely Reserve honors the work of Dr. Robert Ridgely, a renowned ornithologist and longtime advocate for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-birds-diving-petrels-return-home-island-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird conservation</a>. His decades of travel and field research in South America helped document countless bird species and inspired conservation projects across the continent.



Through his collaboration with local communities, he also trained local monitors to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-migratory-birds-navigate-with-such-accuracy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a> - laying the foundation for sustainable protection efforts that continue today.



"Bob Ridgely and all the other founders of Jocotoco have created a remarkable legacy by establishing our reserves, founding the Jocotoco Foundation, and expanding our protected areas across Ecuador,” said Martin Schaefer, CEO of Jocotoco. 



“Today, we can see how that legacy has flourished, with the Ridgely Reserve in southern Ecuador serving as a prime example." 



"This new sanctuary in Selva Alegre, home to the world's largest known population of the endangered Red-faced Parrot, shows our commitment to safeguarding Ecuador's incredible biodiversity."



The reserve also represents a personal milestone for Dr. Ridgely’s conservation work. James Deutsch, CEO of Rainforest Trust, noted that Dr. Ridgely has committed his life to conserving Ecuador's biodiversity, and it is so fitting that his name will grace the newest reserve established and managed by the Ecuadorian NGO he founded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconnecting-fragmented-forests">Reconnecting fragmented forests</h2>



In the last 30 years, southern Ecuador has seen extensive deforestation. Forest has been cleared for agriculture and cattle grazing, and these activities now occupy nearly half of Selva Alegre.



This fragmentation has had a severe effect on biodiversity, especially on species such as the Red-faced Parrot that are extremely sensitive to habitat disturbance.



Consequently, the bird was recently uplisted from “Least Concern” to “Endangered” on the IUCN Red List. Habitat loss and fragmentation have rendered its survival more doubtful.



The establishment of the Ridgely Reserve solves these issues at the source by reconnecting forest fragments, rehabilitating degraded land, and providing space for the parrot and other species to heal. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-people-and-nature">Supporting people and nature</h2>



Ecuador, a country roughly the size of Colorado, is home to nearly 1,600 bird species - twice the number found in the United States. This extraordinary biodiversity highlights the urgency of conservation efforts in the region.



The Ridgely Reserve not only protects birds, but also supports human communities. It helps preserve clean water sources, stabilize soils to prevent landslides, and maintain the health of ecosystems that local people depend on for farming and daily life.



Jocotoco, which has led many of these efforts, has become a key player in conservation and nature-based tourism in Ecuador. 



The organization continues to expand its network of protected areas across the country. Jocotoco and the Rainforest Trust have collaborated on 14 conservation projects covering over 63,000 acres, with more in progress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-movement-for-the-red-faced-parrot">A movement for the Red-faced Parrot</h2>



This new reserve is also part of the broader Conserva Aves initiative. Led by ABC, the National Audubon Society, the ultimate goal is to create 100 new subnational protected areas across Latin America and the Caribbean, protecting at least 4.9 million acres in total.



For ABC, creating protected areas has been central to its mission for 30 years. Working with local partners and communities, ABC has helped protect over 1.1 million acres in more than 100 reserves across 15 countries, benefiting thousands of bird species.



As conservation challenges grow more urgent, efforts like these demonstrate what’s possible when organizations and communities work together to protect both nature and people. 



The Ridgely Reserve is more than just a name - it’s a promise to future generations that rare species like the Red-faced Parrot will have a fighting chance.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ecuador’s Red-faced Parrot gets a new home

Tucked into the highlands of southern Ecuador, a new nature...

Animals love to show off with color, especially when it comes to mating. Birds, in particular, often use bright feathers to catch the eye of a potential mate. But lately, scientists have noticed something even cooler - some birds glow using biofluorescence.



This incredible transformation happens when their feathers absorb UV light and shine it back as visible color - usually green or yellowish.



In a recent study, researchers took a close look at all 45 species of birds-of-paradise, those famously flashy birds known for their over-the-top feathers and wild dance moves. 



Turns out, almost all of them glow in some way - 37 species to be exact. Only a few closely related ones didn’t.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biofluorescence-and-birds-of-paradise">Biofluorescence and birds-of-paradise</h2>



Male birds-of-paradise show off their glow in all the right places: their beaks, the insides of their mouths, and feathers on their heads, necks, bellies, and those fancy plumes. 



Female birds glow too, but mainly on the chest and belly.



Most of the glowing colors fall into that green to yellow-green range, shining brightest around 520–560 nanometers on the light spectrum. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_plummage_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_plummage_1s.webp" alt="Some Birds-of-paradise, like this one, use biofluorescence and glow in wavelengths that humans can't see." class="wp-image-1963524"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some Birds-of-paradise, like this one, use biofluorescence and glow in wavelengths that humans can't see. Click to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



All signs point to one thing: male birds-of-paradise probably use this glowing trick to turn up the wow factor during mating displays and social interactions.



The research was conducted by scientists at the American Museum of Natural History (<a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMNH</a>) and the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adding-a-glow-to-mating-rituals">Adding a glow to mating rituals</h2>



Birds-of-paradise inhabit regions in eastern Australia, Indonesia, and New Guinea. For generations, they have intrigued scientists with elaborate feather displays and acrobatic dances that males use to court females.&nbsp;



Bioluminescence is a phenomenon in which an organism absorbs light at one wavelength, then emits it at another



The new evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-glow-in-the-dark-fluorescence-found-to-be-very-common-in-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofluorescence</a> suggests that these dazzling birds might have yet another visual trick: a layer of fluorescent signals invisible to humans without specialized instruments.



Rene Martin is the study’s lead author and an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a>.&nbsp;



“The unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-shark-mating-behaviors-observed-for-the-first-time-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating rituals</a> and displays of birds-of-paradise have fascinated scientists and spurred a myriad of studies focused on trait evolution and sexual selection,” said Martin. 



“It seems fitting that these flashy birds are likely signaling to each other in additional, flashy ways.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-fluorescence-in-birds-of-paradise">Detecting fluorescence in birds-of-paradise </h2>



The research draws on specimens collected since the 1800s, held in the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Museum of Natural History</a>’s extensive ornithology collection.&nbsp;



A decade ago, Museum Curator John Sparks - an ichthyologist by training - noticed that certain bird species, including some birds-of-paradise, glowed green-yellow when exposed to specific wavelengths of light. This led him and colleagues to begin a deeper exploration of avian biofluorescence.



“Despite there being over 10,000 described avian species, with numerous studies that have documented their bright plumage, elaborate mating displays, and excellent vision, surprisingly very few have investigated the presence of biofluorescence,” Sparks said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_credit-Rene-Martin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_credit-Rene-Martin_1s.webp" alt="Biofluorescence is seen on an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Credit: Rene Martin" class="wp-image-1963519"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Biofluorescence is seen on an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Click to enlarge. Credit: Rene Martin</figcaption></figure>



Martin, who conducted this work while a postdoctoral researcher at the Museum, and Emily Carr, a PhD candidate in the Museum’s <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/richard-gilder-graduate-school" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Richard Gilder Graduate School</a>, took Sparks’ initial findings and broadened the analysis. 



Using ultraviolet (UV) light, the team discovered that the birds not only glow under blue wavelengths but also fluoresce strongly under UV exposure. 



This effect was mainly observed on male plumage patches crucial to courtship, such as the head, belly, and neck, as well as mouth and bill linings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biofluorescence-is-most-pronounced-in-males">Biofluorescence is most pronounced in males</h2>



The researchers found that this fluorescence is especially vibrant in males, often concentrated in areas highlighted during mating rituals.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, females also exhibit it, though to a lesser degree - primarily on their chests and bellies. The study suggests that the equatorial environments in which these birds live offer abundant and varied light conditions, possibly enhancing the visibility and function of biofluorescence.



“These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/">birds</a> live near the equator, where there is an abundance of bright solar light year-round, and they live in forests where the complexity of light is significantly affected by differences in the canopy and where biofluorescent signals may be enhanced,” Carr said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bird-fluorescence-matters">Why bird fluorescence matters</h2>



Recent studies in closely related species indicate that birds-of-paradise have eye pigments aligned with the fluorescence peaks measured in this study - meaning they can likely perceive these glowing patches.&nbsp;



In a species group already known for visually striking performances, these fluorescent signals may offer an even finer scale of detail for courtship and territorial displays.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_plummage_credit-Rene-Martin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_plummage_credit-Rene-Martin_1s.webp" alt="Biofluorescence is seen on the plumage of an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Credit: Rene Martin" class="wp-image-1963522"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Biofluorescence is seen on the plumage of an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Click to enlarge. Credit: Rene Martin</figcaption></figure>



When a male bird-of-paradise performs an intricate dance, the green-yellow glow from certain feathers might act like a hidden spotlight, contrasting sharply against the bird’s darker plumage. This could help catch a female’s attention or signal social status among competitors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



Although birds-of-paradise are among the best-studied avian groups for behavior and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-tropical-birds-are-so-strikingly-colorful-and-iridescent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coloration</a>, the discovery of broad-scale fluorescence suggests that birds may have more complex signaling systems than previously realized.&nbsp;



The presence of fluorescent patches in so many species raises the possibility that other bird lineages, especially those with striking plumage or elaborate displays, could also exhibit biofluorescence.



Moving forward, the researchers plan to investigate how environmental factors - like canopy cover, seasonal light availability, and even habitat degradation - might affect these glowing displays.&nbsp;



Understanding how birds-of-paradise perceive biofluorescence could also inform broader questions about the evolution of sexual selection and signaling in avian species.



Ultimately, this study reshapes scientists’ understanding of the “secret language of light” that these flamboyant birds use to communicate.&nbsp;



With improved imaging technologies and heightened awareness of avian fluorescence, researchers may soon discover that a hidden glow permeates many corners of the bird world, especially in those known for their spectacular visual allure.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.241905" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some birds use biofluorescence to attract mates, glowing in colors that humans can't see

Animals love to show off with color, especially when it...

Marine ecosystems in the deep ocean show little sign of recovery even decades after experimental mining, according to new research that raises major concerns about the long-term impact of future seabed mining operations.



Published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08921-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, the study examined a deep-sea mining test site in the North Pacific that was first disturbed in 1979. Forty-four years later, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in that area remains lower than in nearby untouched regions.&nbsp;



The research team, which returned to the site in 2023 and 2024, worked in the Clarion–Clipperton Zone (CCZ), a vast abyssal plain about halfway between Hawaii and Mexico.&nbsp;



Situated 5,000 meters below the ocean surface, this deep seabed region holds rich reserves of polymetallic nodules - potato-sized mineral lumps containing metals like cobalt, nickel, and manganese, all crucial for clean energy technologies.



The study was led by scientists at the <a href="https://noc.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanography Center</a> in Southampton and involved a consortium of British institutions, including the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>, the <a href="https://www.bgs.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Geological Survey</a>, <a href="https://www.hw.ac.uk/">Heriot-Watt University</a>, and several universities.&nbsp;



Together, the experts form <a href="https://smartexccz.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMARTEX</a> (Seabed Mining and Resilience to Experimental Impact), a project funded by the UK’s Natural Environment Research Council.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-recovery-from-deep-sea-mining-nbsp">Long recovery from deep-sea mining&nbsp;</h2>



The original mining test involved a mechanical seabed rake that stripped nodules from a 14-meter-wide path. Despite the small scale and brief duration of the experiment, the site still bears visible scars.&nbsp;



Areas stripped of nodules and track marks from the mining machine are clearly evident. The surrounding biological communities have yet to fully rebound.



“To tackle the crucial question of recovery from deep-sea mining, we need first to look to the past and use old mining tests to help understand long-term impacts,” said Professor Daniel Jones, the study’s lead author. 



“Forty four years later, the mining tracks themselves look very similar to when they were first made, with an 8-meter-wide strip of seabed cleared of nodules and two large furrows in the seafloor where the machine passed.”&nbsp;



“The numbers of many animals were reduced within the tracks but we did see some of the first signs of biological recovery.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-that-clings-to-nodules">Life that clings to nodules</h2>



The Clarion–Clipperton Zone covers over six million square kilometres - 25 times the size of the UK - and holds an estimated 21 billion tons of nodules. These nodules are essential to the deep-sea ecosystem, offering a rare hard surface for life to cling to in an otherwise sediment-heavy environment.&nbsp;



“These nodules are potato-sized mineral deposits that have built up in layers over thousands of years. Mining companies want to mine these for critical metals like cobalt and nickel,” said Mark Hartl, a marine ecotoxicologist from Heriot-Watt University and co-author of the study.



“But there are so many unanswered questions. For example, we know the nodules produce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-known-galaxy-contains-surprising-oxygen-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a>. If they’re removed, will that reduce the amount of oxygen in the deep sea and affect the organisms that live there?”



“What is the effect of animal exposure to metal-containing sediment plumes churned up during the mining process? These are some of the questions we’re trying to answer.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-impacts-of-deep-sea-mining-nbsp">Biological impacts of deep-sea mining&nbsp;</h2>



Hartl’s work focused on the biological effects of sediment exposure. He developed new methods to evaluate whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-forms-dust-clouds-that-devastate-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mining</a> damages DNA in deep-sea fish. 



“This has never been done before,” said Hartl. “So we had no baseline data to compare any effects of mining against. We are currently optimising tests for other signs of stress applicable to the deep sea.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recovery-may-be-measured-in-centuries">Recovery may be measured in centuries</h2>



The deep sea’s slow pace of life is one reason recovery is so limited. Many organisms grow slowly, reproduce infrequently, or are adapted to highly specific habitats.&nbsp;



“General ecological theory will predict that following disturbance, any ecosystem will go through a series of successional stages of recolonization and growth," said Adrian Glover of the Natural History Museum.



"However, until this study, we had no idea of the timescales of this critical process in the deep-sea mining regions, or how different parts of the community respond in different ways.” 



“Our results don’t provide an answer to whether deep-sea mining is societally acceptable, but they do provide the data needed to make better informed policy decisions such as the creation and refinement of protected regions and how we would monitor future impacts,” Glover added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-question-of-future-trade-offs">A question of future trade-offs</h2>



The <a href="https://www.isa.org.jm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Seabed Authority</a> (ISA), the organization responsible for managing mineral-related activity in international waters, currently maintains a moratorium on commercial deep-sea mining. It is still developing a legal and environmental framework to guide future exploitation, and the SMARTEX research may influence how those guidelines take shape.



In their paper, the scientists note that mining operations are expected to cause “immediate impacts” to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafloor-relic-uncovers-earths-ancient-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seafloor</a> habitats. Collector vehicles will remove nodules, compact sediments, and stir up sediment plumes that may travel beyond mining sites. These plumes, they argue, could have “significant impacts on ecosystems” well outside the directly affected zones.



While proponents of deep-sea mining argue that it could provide critical materials for a net-zero future, the study underscores that such gains may come at a long-term ecological cost. The scars of the past, still visible and measurable after 44 years, may well be a preview of the risks ahead.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Deep-sea mining impacts marine life for decades

Marine ecosystems in the deep ocean show little sign of...

Humans are pushing many of North America’s pollinators dangerously close to extinction, according to a newly released study.&nbsp;



Led by NatureServe, the study examined nearly 1,600 species - bees, beetles, butterflies, moths, flower flies, bats, and hummingbirds - and concluded that over 22% of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> are at high risk of disappearing.&nbsp;



Since we rely on them for everything from fruit orchards to backyard gardens, the findings raise urgent alarms about the future of our food systems, ecosystems, and well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dire-assessment-of-pollinator-decline">Dire assessment of pollinator decline </h2>



This large-scale analysis, one of the first to combine so many types of pollinators, revealed that some groups are in more trouble than others. Native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-spring-flowers-can-save-bees-and-boost-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> emerged as a major concern, with 34.7% at risk - leafcutter and digger bees were singled out as especially imperiled.&nbsp;



Bats fared no better; all three pollinating bat species in the study also face troubling declines, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a> escaped with an overall lower threat level.&nbsp;



According to the authors, the American Southwest is a “hotspot” of risk: it boasts a high diversity of pollinators but also suffers significant climate-related and human-driven stressors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-security-is-at-stake">Food security is at stake</h2>



Pollinators are not just pretty insects or interesting mammals. They are the linchpins in a massive network of life, responsible for fertilizing crops and wild plants alike.&nbsp;



Pollinator species contribute over $15 billion a year to the agricultural economy of North America. Their disappearance would undermine the reproduction of key plants, disrupt wildlife <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-awakening-arctic-food-webs-are-transforming-from-green-to-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food webs</a>, and cut into human livelihoods, from small-scale farms to major commercial operations.&nbsp;



The authors hope this work draws attention to a bigger picture: losing pollinators doesn’t just mean fewer bees in a meadow. It means fewer seeds, fruits, and flowers - a ripple effect for everything that depends on those resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-impact-on-pollinator-decline">Human impact on pollinator decline</h2>



The findings place most of the blame on agriculture, habitat loss, urban expansion, and climate change, though the specific mix of threats varies.&nbsp;



For example, the southwestern United States sees both intense urbanization and searing heat, while many farmland-heavy regions must contend with heavy pesticide use. 



In Florida, for instance, the rapid development of pine rockland habitats has raised concerns that certain butterflies - with limited historical ranges - could vanish.&nbsp;



The same goes for southwestern desert ecosystems where specialized pollinators are increasingly squeezed between farmland and sprawl.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-are-struggling-to-hold-on">Species are struggling to hold on</h2>



Dr. Jaret Daniels, a co-author of the study and curator of Lepidoptera at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, has witnessed some of these pressures firsthand. 



He noted that Florida harbors remarkable butterfly diversity, yet the state’s intense population growth and land conversion are leaving specialized species with fewer places to go. 



According to Daniels, we’re seeing species that already occupied tiny pockets of habitat now struggling to hold on because of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> - just one among the many threats identified by the study



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversing-pollinator-decline-nbsp">Reversing pollinator decline&nbsp;</h2>



While the data paint a grim picture, the study also highlights actions people can take. Policymakers could integrate at-risk pollinators into wildlife action plans, unlocking more funds and legal safeguards.&nbsp;



Land managers might set aside or restore key habitats like grasslands and shrublands, which support many fragile pollinator communities.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, homeowners can adopt pollinator-friendly landscaping, from replacing turf with native plants to reducing pesticide use. Little steps, such as planting a few pots of native flowers, truly make a difference, noted Daniels.&nbsp;



Working farmland, too, can make space for pollinators. Daniels describes how Florida’s Department of Transportation plants milkweed along roadsides: pollinators that feed there can then travel to nearby farms, helping pollinate crops like blueberries and squash.&nbsp;



Over time, well-managed roadsides and farm edges become vital corridors for creatures that can roam far beyond a single flower bed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-perspective">A broader perspective</h2>



One might ask, why not rely solely on the western honey bee? Daniels warns that placing all our bets on just one species poses risks, especially with pests, diseases, and climate extremes on the rise.&nbsp;



He compares it to a retirement plan: if you invest in only one stock, trouble with that stock could be disastrous. A diverse set of pollinators spreads out the risk and ensures pollination services remain stable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swift-action-is-needed">Swift action is needed</h2>



While these newly identified threats are serious, Daniels remains cautiously optimistic, noting that pollinators are resilient if given the right support. The study’s authors likewise call for swift action, pointing to targeted, everyday solutions that individuals, farmers, and governments can pursue.&nbsp;



By fostering habitat patches, easing up on pesticides, and recognizing the value of each native pollinator’s unique role, it may be possible to stem the tide of species declines before it is too late.



Above all, the message is clear: pollinators are in trouble, but there are proven measures we can take to help slow their decline.&nbsp;



With nearly one in five pollinators imperiled, the time for more decisive conservation steps has arrived. After all, the fate of many of our favorite foods and the health of countless ecosystems depend on safeguarding these busy creatures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418742122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Pollinator decline is a direct threat to food security 

Humans are pushing many of North America’s pollinators dangerously close...

Scientists and marine experts across the globe are on alert after discovering an invasive pufferfish in the northern Adriatic.



A recreational angler recently caught a male <a href="https://www.fishbase.se/summary/4761" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silver-cheeked toadfish</a> (Lagocephalus sceleratus) measuring 20.6 inches and weighing 2.9 pounds. The fish was captured on May 13, 2024 at a depth of about 64.6 feet.



This unexpected catch marks the fourth confirmed record of this invasive fish in the Adriatic, sparking discussions about its impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-places-are-prime-targets-for-invasive-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, coastal tourism, and public safety.



The discovery is detailed in a report by researchers from the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries and <a href="https://www.unipu.hr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juraj Dobrila University of Pula</a>, including lead author Dr. Neven Iveša.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-pufferfish-reaches-the-adriatic">Invasive pufferfish reaches the Adriatic</h2>



The silver-cheeked toadfish fish is native to the Indo-Pacific and is known to be highly adaptable. Experts have identified it as a <a href="http://www.seaslugforum.net/find/lessep" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lessepsian migrant</a>, which means it traveled into the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal.



The strong bite of this invasive pufferfish can crack open hard-shelled prey, and in some cases, it has caused partial amputations of fingers. The fish’s flesh and organs carry <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ershdb/emergencyresponsecard_29750019.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tetrodotoxin</a>, a substance that can be lethal when consumed.



Some Mediterranean communities have seen this species making up a growing portion of small-scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-lionfish-global-domination-mediterranean-sea-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> hauls. Its muscular jaws can damage nets and lines, creating headaches for fishers who rely on consistent catches.



The researchers suggest controlling it through targeted removal and updated fishing practices. They noted that gear modifications might help reduce harm to native wildlife and protect the livelihoods of coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-pufferfish-disrupts-local-species">Invasive pufferfish disrupts local species</h2>



The silver-cheeked toadfish has a reputation for munching on a wide range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a>. Its diet can include bivalves, gastropods, and sea urchins.



The worry is that these feeding habits might change local food webs and interrupt natural balances. Warmer waters and certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0278434314001034" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">currents in the Adriatic</a> also appear to be improving the odds for these newcomers, raising concerns that they could spread even further.



“The presence of Lagocephalus sceleratus in the northern Adriatic is a clear warning sign of the species’ expanding range and potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-invasive-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-mediterranean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological</a> and economic consequences," said Dr. Iveša.



"Proactive monitoring and management strategies are important to mitigating its impact on local marine biodiversity, fisheries, and public safety."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulations-and-recommendations">Regulations and recommendations</h2>



Because tourism thrives on pristine coastal attractions, communities worry that sightings or injuries related to this fish might tarnish local beach culture. Even a handful of unfortunate encounters could leave a bad impression on visitors.



<a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32014R1143" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Union policies</a> address invasive species but tend to focus on freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. Croatia lacks specific marine rules that target wild species like the silver-cheeked toadfish.



The researchers highlight the need for stricter enforcement of sales bans to keep this toxic fish from entering food markets.



They also advocate for training medical personnel, fishers, and tourism operators so they can handle any interactions or injuries efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-public-awareness">Importance of public awareness</h2>



Locals in Croatian coastal towns have been asked to inform authorities if they catch or spot any silver-cheeked toadfish. The collaboration helps with early detection and better management of invasive species.



Fishing communities, diving schools, and coastal hotels play a role in gathering sightings. Citizen contributions have proven vital in tracking new arrivals and keeping tabs on any incidents.



Prompt action can head off more trouble. Strategies like reporting catches, improving public awareness, and enlisting citizen science groups all help slow the spread of this unwelcome visitor.



Authorities also recommend adjusting fishing seasons to match the invasive pufferfish’s breeding period. This step may minimize its spread and ensure the safety of recreational boaters and swimmers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-fish-threatens-ecosystem-balance">Invasive fish threatens ecosystem balance</h2>



Research teams are currently exploring the fish’s feeding habits and movements in newly invaded waters. Their ongoing work may lead to tools that help communities stay several steps ahead of shifting populations.



Croatia’s coastline faces unique pressures, yet it also holds a strong sense of community engagement. By blending local knowledge with scientific expertise, there is hope that this invasive pufferfish’s spread can be limited.



Stakeholders suggest that simple measures, like wearing sturdy gloves to remove a line-hooked puffer, can prevent injuries. They also advise posting warning signs at busy marinas if more fish appear.



The northern Adriatic’s encounter with the silver-cheeked toadfish signals a broader challenge shared by many Mediterranean regions. 



This fish’s arrival highlights the importance of cooperation among researchers, local authorities, and the public to keep beaches safe and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-deep-sea-fish-survive-the-crushing-depths-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> healthy.



The study is published in <a href="https://aiep.pensoft.net/article/146945/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Invasive pufferfish caught in the Adriatic raises safety concerns

Scientists and marine experts across the globe are on alert...

Great white sharks are top predators in ocean ecosystems and are known for their raw power and hunting prowess. They often launch themselves out of the water in pursuit of prey.



But in South Africa’s False Bay, these apex predators have all but vanished - and scientists are sounding the alarm about what that means for the rest of the ecosystem.



A new study from the <a href="https://www.earth.miami.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami Rosenstiel School</a> of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science reveals what happens when a top predator is suddenly removed from the food chain. 



After more than two decades of research in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_Bay" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">False Bay</a>, the team found significant shifts in the marine food web that are consistent with long-held ecological theories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-great-white-sharks-the-basics">Understanding great white sharks - the basics</h2>



To state the obvious, great white sharks are the rock stars of the ocean - massive, powerful, and a little bit mysterious. They can grow over 20 feet long and weigh a couple tons, cruising through the water like it’s nothing. 



These sharks hang out in coastal waters all over the world, but they especially love cooler regions like the coasts of California, South Africa, and Australia. 



With those rows of razor-sharp teeth and an uncanny ability to sense the tiniest movements, they’re built to hunt. 



Seals, sea lions, and fish are usually on the menu, and when they strike, it’s fast and fierce - like a torpedo with teeth.



Despite their scary rep, great whites aren’t the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-shark-species-face-extinction-despite-fishing-bans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mindless man-eaters</a> movies make them out to be. They’re actually pretty curious creatures. 



Sometimes, they’ll take a “test bite” out of something unfamiliar just to figure out what it is - which, unfortunately, can include surfboards. 



In order to save them from the brink of extinction, scientists have been tagging and tracking them to learn more about their behavior, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration patterns</a>, and even social lives. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disappearance-of-great-white-sharks">Disappearance of great white sharks</h2>



False Bay was once home to large numbers of great white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias), but sightings have plummeted in recent years, indicating that the population may have crashed.



The study points to two major reasons for this decline: the long-term impact of capture in protective nets near swimming areas, and more recent predation by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-in-the-food-web">Ripple effects in the food web</h2>



The absence of white sharks is reshaping the ecosystem. Without these predators, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cape-fur-seals-are-particularly-vulnerable-to-entanglement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cape fur seal</a> (Arctocephalus pusillus) populations have increased. 



So have the numbers of sevengill sharks (Notorynchus cepedianus), which are now more dominant in the area.



These changes, however, have consequences. The seals are depleting the local fish populations they feed on. Meanwhile, the sevengill sharks are preying on smaller shark species, and reducing their numbers.



These shifts demonstrate how the removal of a single species at the top of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-food-chains-threatened-by-ocean-acidification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food chain</a> can have wide-reaching effects across multiple levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-documenting-the-ecosystem-changes">Documenting the ecosystem changes</h2>



The researchers used a combination of methods to document these changes. They conducted long-term boat-based surveys, gathered citizen science reports of Cape fur seals, and analyzed data from Baited Remote Underwater Video Surveys (<a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/inport/item/25248" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BRUVS</a>).



“The loss of this iconic apex predator has led to an increase in sightings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-happens-to-antarctic-seals-when-sea-ice-vanishes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cape fur seals</a> and sevengill sharks, which in turn has coincided with a decline in the species that they rely on for food,” said Dr. Neil Hammerschlag, the study’s lead author.



“These changes align with long established ecological theories that predict the removal of a top predator leads to cascading effects on the marine food web."



Video footage was a key source of information. It helped researchers see not just which species were present, but how they behaved.



“The use of underwater video surveys conducted more than a decade apart provided us with a snapshot of the food web both before and after the disappearance of white sharks from False Bay,” said Yakira Herskowitz, a co-author of the study. 



“The number of individuals of a given species recorded on the videos not only informs us about their numerical abundance, but also their behavior, as species under increased predation risk often become more elusive and are thus less likely to be detected on our cameras.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-matter-more-than-you-think">Sharks matter more than you think</h2>



These findings offer clear evidence that losing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-white-sharks-separated-into-three-distinct-groups-that-dont-intermingle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">top predator</a> affects far more than just one species. It sends a shockwave through the entire ecosystem.



“Without these apex predators to regulate populations, we are seeing measurable changes that could have long-term effects on ocean health,” said Hammerschlag.



As ocean systems continue to face threats from climate change, pollution, and overfishing, the study makes one thing clear: protecting sharks isn’t just about saving one species - it’s about preserving balance in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a>.



With so much of the world relying on healthy oceans for food, recreation, and natural services, the role of large sharks is too important to ignore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warning-for-other-ecosystems">A warning for other ecosystems</h2>



False Bay may be the focus of this study, but it's far from the only place where shark populations are under pressure. 



Similar patterns of disruption could be unfolding in other coastal ecosystems around the world where large predators are disappearing.



This study serves as a warning: the health of marine environments depends on keeping their food webs intact. 



Efforts to protect sharks - through conservation policies, public awareness, and improved fishing practices - are vital not just for the species themselves, but for the oceans they help keep in balance.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1530362/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

What happens when great white sharks disappear? Hint - it's not good

Great white sharks are top predators in ocean ecosystems and...

About 252 million years ago, Earth witnessed the worst biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-the-mass-extinction-that-reshaped-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disaster</a> ever recorded. Known as the end-Permian mass extinction, it erased over 80% of marine life. 



Scientists refer to it as the “Great Dying.” Yet what came next has its own strange legacy - a time when marine life everywhere looked the same.



This era, called the “Great Dulling,” spanned millions of years. From the tropics to polar regions, ocean life became oddly uniform. 



Species that once stayed in tight local zones suddenly appeared everywhere. Scientists have puzzled over this mystery for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-life-changed-after-mass-extinction">Marine life changed after mass extinction</h2>



Stanford researchers now offer a compelling explanation. The team used fossil records and environmental data to track how marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/at-least-two-of-earths-mass-extinctions-caused-by-massive-supernova-explosions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> reacted after the Great Dying. 



The research was focused on groups like clams, oysters, and snails - organisms that not only survived but spread globally.



Published in the journal Science Advances, the study introduces a climate model that tracks oxygen and temperature changes. It helps explain why some creatures expanded rapidly while others died out. 



The findings suggest that global environmental shifts shaped who survived - and where they lived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-mass-extinctions-in-a-new-way">Studying mass extinctions in a new way</h2>



Study senior study author Jonathan Payne is the Dorrell William Kirby Professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences in the <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>.



“For us in the paleobiology field, this model is the equivalent to climate scientists getting computerized climate models to make quantitative predictions of how the world should change based on some simple mathematical representations,” said Professor Payne.



“We are now able to study big biogeographic changes of mass extinctions in a new way and get a better sense of why some animal groups made it through while others perished.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shockingly-uniform-marine-communities">Shockingly uniform marine communities </h2>



To reconstruct ancient oceans, scientists use fossils and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-forests-rose-again-after-the-planets-most-extreme-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical traces</a>. 



These markers reveal environmental shifts like temperature, acidity, and oxygen levels. Around the end of the Permian period, massive volcanic activity in modern Siberia set off global warming and ocean acidification.



These changes alone can’t explain why surviving species suddenly spread across every ocean. That mystery belongs to the Triassic period, when marine life grew boringly similar everywhere.



“If someone asked you today where you’d find kangaroos, you’d say Australia,” said Jood Al Aswad, the study’s lead author and a PhD candidate. 



“But now imagine some major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/public-concern-over-species-extinctions-fades-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disaster</a> happened, like a giant volcano erupted, and afterward you’re finding kangaroos in great numbers all over the globe – they’re all the way out in Antarctica, they’re hopping by the pyramids in Egypt, and they’re even in Stanford, California.”



Before the extinction, marine communities were highly diverse. Afterward, they became shockingly uniform. The team found that species variety across different parts of the world dropped by over half.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-homogenization-on-a-global-scale">Homogenization on a global scale</h2>



For nearly 200 years, scientists have debated what caused this sudden sameness. 



One idea is "ecological release" - when surviving species thrive because predators and competitors vanish. Another idea suggests that climate change made Earth more habitable to certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-oasis-provided-refuge-for-plants-during-earths-worst-extinction-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a> everywhere. The Stanford team tested both ideas. 



The researchers used geochemical data to model ancient ocean temperatures and oxygen levels. Then, they added physiological data from living marine animals - relatives of those ancient survivors - to simulate how creatures might have spread after the mass extinction.



The model showed that environmental conditions alone - higher temperatures and lower oxygen - were enough to predict where species could live. There was no need to consider missing predators or rivals.



“Our study has provided a simple environmental explanation, rather than an ecological one, for why certain survivors of the end-Permian extinction prospered and why homogenization happened on a global scale,” said Professor Payne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-today-s-crisis-echoes-past-mass-extinction">Today’s crisis echoes past mass extinction</h2>



The model doesn’t just shed light on ancient history. It also helps scientists understand modern threats. Human activity is now causing another mass extinction. The model could offer insights into what life on Earth might look like in the future.



“The current biodiversity crisis is anticipated to herald changes in ecosystem composition that surpass even those seen in the earliest Triassic, which has been the greatest homogenization event to date,” the study authors wrote.



The research team now plans to apply this model to other mass extinction events, including the one that wiped out non-avian dinosaurs.



“Our model offers a great way of studying how animals respond to extreme changes in the environment,” said Al Aswad.



“With anthropogenically spurred climate change, there has been some warning that if we continue, then in the future we’re going to see taxonomic homogenization of organisms in modern oceans as well.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr4199" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Marine life became strangely uniform after Earth’s worst mass extinction

About 252 million years ago, Earth witnessed the worst biological...

In the vast savannas of Africa, elephant herds roam with a quiet grace that often hides the complexity behind their movements. From a distance, it may look like these giants simply wander in search of food and water. But new research reveals a different story - one of calculation, strategy, and energy balance.



African elephants, it turns out, don’t just walk aimlessly. They think before they move.



A recent study published in the Journal of Animal Ecology shows that elephants are highly efficient in how they meet their immense daily energy needs. The research brings together over two decades of data from 157 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> in Northern Kenya.



With advanced tracking and modeling tools, scientists have uncovered how elephants choose their paths based on terrain, food availability, and energy cost. The insights have far-reaching implications for conservation, especially in the face of habitat loss and climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-save-energy-to-survive">Elephants save energy to survive</h2>



Being an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-elephants-teeth-can-help-us-track-animal-movements/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> comes with some heavy burdens - literally. These massive herbivores, often weighing several tons, need to consume huge amounts of low-calorie vegetation every single day.



Their enormous size gives them strength, but it also demands constant refueling. Unlike predators that hunt calorie-dense prey, elephants must spend most of their day eating just to keep up.



But eating isn’t the only task that burns energy. Finding food in harsh, fragmented landscapes means walking long distances. Each step taken across uneven ground, up steep hills, or through dry plains carries a cost. 



For elephants, movement isn’t just a means of travel - it’s a calculation. The right decision can save hours of energy; the wrong one can drain their reserves.



That’s why understanding how elephants navigate their environment matters. Knowing the logic behind their paths helps scientists protect their habitats better and ensure that conservation strategies match their real-world needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-elephants-for-22-years">Tracking elephants for 22 years</h2>



To uncover the patterns behind <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinct-elephant-fossils-reveal-early-evidence-of-animal-butchery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> movement, researchers from the University of Oxford, the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>), and Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena worked with Save the Elephants, a UK-registered charity based in Kenya. 



Over 22 years - from 1998 to 2020 - they collected GPS data from 157 elephants moving across Northern Kenya.



This dataset provided a rare and rich look at how elephants respond to their environment. The patterns were clear. Most elephants consistently avoided areas that would require too much effort to cross. 



Rough terrain and steep slopes saw far fewer elephant visits. Instead, elephants selected flatter, smoother paths - even if those routes were longer. Energy saved, not distance shortened, seemed to be the deciding factor.



The study showed that 94% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-movement-is-influenced-by-habitat-suitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> avoided high-cost terrain. These weren't random decisions. Elephants appeared to actively weigh their options and pick the path that required the least energy, a strategy that may be essential for survival in unpredictable landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-water-choices">Food and water choices</h2>



Terrain wasn’t the only factor in elephant decision-making. Vegetation quality also played a big role. Around 93% of elephants showed a preference for areas rich in plant productivity. 



These areas offered more reward for less walking - ideal for large herbivores who need to eat for hours each day. The link between green areas and elephant movement was strong and consistent across seasons.



Water, too, influenced their choices, but not in the way one might expect. Some elephants stayed close to rivers or waterholes. Others traveled far and wide. The researchers found that while water access is important, elephants make complex individual choices about how much they prioritize it.



This adds another layer of complexity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-elephant-conflict-will-escalate-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> behavior and shows that conservation plans need to leave room for variation among individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-and-strategy-of-elephants">Speed and strategy of elephants</h2>



The study also uncovered a surprising detail: elephants are even more selective about terrain when moving at higher speeds. When walking slowly, 74% of elephants avoided difficult landscapes. 



But when moving at intermediate or fast speeds, those numbers climbed to 87% and 93% respectively. That means the faster they go, the more carefully they choose their route.



This strategy mirrors what scientists have seen in other species. Just like birds that ride thermal uplifts to glide with less effort, elephants appear to make conscious choices to preserve energy. These choices are not just about immediate survival. 



They shape long-term success, reproduction, and herd stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-tools-to-understand-old-trails">New tools to understand old trails</h2>



To analyze the movement data, the researchers used a modeling method called ENERSCAPE. This system estimates how much energy it takes for an elephant to move across various types of terrain, based on the animal's body mass and the slope of the land.



When combined with satellite data on vegetation and water, the tool creates a detailed picture of the “energy landscape” each elephant navigates.



They also used step-selection functions, a statistical method that compares the places elephants actually visited with nearby places they could have visited but didn’t. By examining these choices, the researchers identified which environmental factors shaped elephant routes most.



This approach revealed more than just preference - it showed decision-making. Elephants don’t walk randomly. They make careful, context-aware choices that reflect an understanding of effort, reward, and terrain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-elephant-energy-logic">Following elephant energy logic</h2>



These findings aren’t just academic. They could change how conservation areas and migration corridors are planned. 



Many protected zones are created based on where elephants are seen most often. But this new research suggests that energy cost must be a key factor in design. A path that looks good on paper may be too steep or rugged for real elephant use.



Planning must also consider individual differences. Some elephants prefer staying near water. Others roam far. A rigid conservation plan that doesn’t account for these preferences may fall short. Flexibility and energy-efficiency need to be built into every project aimed at protecting these animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-disturbance-and-change">Climate, disturbance, and change</h2>



The environment is changing fast. As temperatures rise and rainfall patterns shift, food and water availability will also change. 



That could force elephants to alter their routes, raising the risk of human-elephant conflict. The study's authors believe their work can help predict how elephants might respond to these changes - and guide conservation efforts accordingly.



Future work will improve the ENERSCAPE model by adding seasonal data, human activity maps, and climate projections. These enhancements will give a fuller picture of how elephant behavior adapts to a world in flux.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-save-energy-whenever-possible">Elephants save energy whenever possible</h2>



“While more detailed research is needed to fully understand how an elephant uses its habitat, this study identifies a central decision-making factor for travelling elephants: save energy whenever possible,” noted co-author Professor Fritz Vollrath from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



“These new results have important implications for assessing and planning conservation and restoration measures, such as dispersal corridors, by explicitly accounting for the energy costs of moving,” added lead researcher Dr. Emilio Berti from the&nbsp;German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research&nbsp;and&nbsp;Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena.



Elephants, long admired for their memory and strength, now reveal another layer of intelligence - how they move with intention. In learning to think like elephants, we may find better ways to protect them.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652656" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Elephants choose their paths carefully to conserve energy

In the vast savannas of Africa, elephant herds roam with...

In a quiet home office in Durham, North Carolina, neuroscientist Richard Mooney pores over vivid brain scans of zebra finches. 



Each image captures moments in the life of a young bird learning to sing - dots of neural activity scattered across the brain like a pointillist painting, or bright squiggles marking chemical changes during a solo performance.



To Mooney, a professor at <a href="https://duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> who has spent four decades studying how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/">birds</a> learn to sing, these imperfect chirps and squeaks are the earliest signs of something much bigger. “Their songs don’t sound like much at first,” he said.



But, like a child learning to talk or a pianist learning scales, zebra finches must put in hours of practice - up to 10,000 renditions a day for an entire month - before they can produce their complex, courtship-ready melodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-reveal-secrets-of-learning">Songbirds reveal secrets of learning</h2>



Now, thanks to new research by Mooney and Duke neurobiology professor John Pearson, scientists are beginning to understand what fuels this relentless drive to improve - and what it reveals about the learning process in general.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08694-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, offer new insight into how learning occurs without external rewards, and could deepen understanding of motor learning and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chemicals-linked-to-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurological disorders</a> in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-learning-process">Tracking the learning process</h2>



In their experiments, the researchers placed male juvenile zebra finches - who are the only singers among their species - in soundproof chambers where they could practice at will. 



These birds learn their courtship songs early in life by first listening to their fathers and memorizing the melodies. 



Then, like human toddlers learning speech, they begin to babble, gradually shaping their squeaks into structured songs that match their mental template.



To monitor their progress, Pearson’s team developed a machine learning model capable of analyzing and scoring thousands of song renditions in real time. This allowed the researchers to track how each bird’s performance changed from moment to moment.



“Some tries were a little better, and some were a little worse,” Pearson said. “Generally the longer the birds worked at it, the better they got.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-learning-for-the-joy-of-it">Songbirds learning for the joy of it</h2>



As the birds honed their songs, the team also monitored chemical signals in the basal ganglia, a brain region involved in learning new motor skills. 



Using fluorescent sensors engineered to light up in the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-helps-us-learn-from-positive-and-negative-experiences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine</a> - a key chemical messenger for reward and motivation - the researchers tracked its activity in real time.



What they discovered was surprising: each time a bird practiced, dopamine levels began to rise, regardless of how well the song was performed.&nbsp;



Whether the bird hit the right notes or not, simply making the effort triggered activity in the brain’s reward system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-brain-wired-to-learn">A brain wired to learn</h2>



The dopamine signal increased even more when a bird sang better than expected for its developmental stage, and dipped slightly when performance regressed.&nbsp;



These shifts suggest that the birds’ brains were reinforcing improvement and gently correcting missteps - all without any external feedback.



“Nobody’s telling the bird if he’s an honor student or going to be sent to detention,” Mooney said. “The birds were alone during their practice sessions, singing away in a soundproof room.”



Instead, the study shows that dopamine acts as an internal guide - a kind of neurological compass - helping the birds adjust and improve over time. This system of intrinsic motivation may explain how learning continues even in the absence of rewards or punishments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dopamine-provides-a-motivational-boost">Dopamine provides a motivational boost</h2>



The researchers also identified another player in the process: acetylcholine, a neurochemical known to influence attention and learning.&nbsp;



Qi, the study’s first author, demonstrated that acetylcholine could stimulate dopamine release when the birds sang, providing an extra motivational boost.



When the team blocked dopamine or acetylcholine in the basal ganglia, the results were dramatic.



“Learning basically comes to a halt,” Mooney explained. “The bird still sings a lot, but he doesn't seem to be able to learn from it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-learning">Implications for human learning</h2>



While the experiments were conducted in zebra finches, the implications go far beyond avian neuroscience. The basal ganglia, dopamine, and acetylcholine systems involved in the birds' learning are shared across vertebrates - including humans.



“These findings translate across species,” Pearson said. “Essentially every animal with a backbone shares these brain systems.”



Understanding how these internal motivation systems function may shed light on how humans acquire complex skills like speaking, playing an instrument, or juggling. 



In this sense, Mooney said, “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birdsong</a> learning is very similar to what children do when they spontaneously acquire these remarkable skills.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-as-a-model-for-learning">Songbirds as a model for learning</h2>



The research could also help explain what happens when those systems break down. Dopamine dysfunction in the basal ganglia is associated with neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. 



By studying learning in songbirds, researchers can explore the underlying principles in a simpler system.



“It’s really important that we understand these regions, and the bird is a means of getting at those principles,” Pearson noted.



For Mooney, the significance is both scientific and deeply human.



“Of all the scientific frontiers that remain, the brain is probably the most poorly understood. And it’s fundamental to being human,” he concluded.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dopamine fuels learning in young songbirds

In a quiet home office in Durham, North Carolina, neuroscientist...

The story of early human migration into South America has stirred debate. Researchers have long argued about when these first travelers arrived, how they adapted, and which paths they followed. 



Evidence has surfaced in many forms, from stone tools and butchered bone fragments to entire campfire sites once littered with animal remains. 



Although these clues have fueled lively conversations, scholars have faced frustrations when old assumptions were challenged and new findings seemed sparse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-in-the-pampas">Humans in the Pampas</h2>



The Pampas, known for its expansive plains and iconic landscapes, saw much of its early buzz dwindle in the mid-1900s. Yet the puzzle of who first roamed there has never truly gone away.



Now, according to research by Mariano Del Papa of <a href="https://unlp.edu.ar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National University of La Plata</a>, Argentina and colleagues, modern technology and updated theories are breathing fresh life into these investigations. 



Refined carbon dating, advances in ancient DNA methods, and broader approaches to human-environment interactions have sparked new interest in how and when humans walked across these southern lands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-bones-and-cut-marks">Animal bones and cut marks</h2>



Scientists have long wondered if humans and extinct giant animals, sometimes called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">megafauna</a>, overlapped in time or even shared close encounters. The debate has centered on physical associations and behavioral associations.



The former refers to animal bones and tools found in direct contact, while the latter involves traces of human activity on the bones themselves. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-europeans-practiced-cannibalism-eating-both-enemies-and-loved-ones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cut marks</a> are among the strongest signs of human interaction, yet they require careful analysis to rule out accidental scratches, weathering, or other natural wear.



In the Pampas, confident identification of these marks has been sporadic, with just a handful of sites showing possible evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> and large mammals coexisting. 



Many previous finds lacked direct proof of who caused the damage or how these animals ended up with unusual grooves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reconquista-river-discovery">The Reconquista River discovery</h2>



One significant lead emerged along the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquista_River" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reconquista River</a> in northern Buenos Aires, where researchers uncovered the fossilized remains of an extinct armored animal called Neosclerocalyptus, which resembled giant armadillos.



Scientists inspected the shell and tail bones, seeking patterns that might confirm human involvement. 



Radiocarbon dating placed these remains at around 21,000 years old, suggesting human presence in this area well ahead of many earlier estimates.



Further microscopic analysis revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eat-like-neanderthal-unpacking-ancient-cooking-methods-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cut marks</a> on parts of the pelvis, tail, and body armor. Statistical work compared these traces with known examples from butchered remains. 



The marks aligned with what stone tools commonly produce, and their location matched spots where hunters might have targeted meat-rich areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neosclerocalyptus-giant-armadillos">Neosclerocalyptus - giant armadillos</h2>



Neosclerocalyptus was one of those prehistoric oddballs you wouldn’t want to bump into on a walk through ancient South America. 



It looked kind of like an armadillo on steroids - covered in a thick, bumpy shell and sporting a short, stubby snout. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/first-humans_south-america_Neosclerocalyptus-skeleton_giant-armadillo_credit-Del-Papa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/first-humans_south-america_Neosclerocalyptus-skeleton_giant-armadillo_credit-Del-Papa_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of a Neosclerocalyptus skeleton highlighting cut-marked skeletal elements in light blue found at the CRS-10 specimen. Credit: Del Papa et al., 2024, PLOS ONE" class="wp-image-1963422" style="width:300px;height:auto"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Drawing of a Neosclerocalyptus skeleton highlighting cut-marked skeletal elements in light blue found at the CRS-10 specimen. Credit: Del Papa et al., 2024, PLOS ONE</figcaption></figure>



This guy belonged to the glyptodont family, which were basically giant armored mammals related to modern armadillos. 



Neosclerocalyptus roamed the open plains during the Pleistocene epoch, which means it shared the landscape with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smilodon-fatalis-young-saber-toothed-cats-had-double-fangs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saber-toothed cats</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-in-america-coexisted-with-giant-sloths-and-mastodons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giant ground sloths</a>, and early humans. It wasn’t exactly speedy, but its tank-like body made up for it in defense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timeline-of-humans-in-south-america">Timeline of humans in South America</h2>



The dating results place this evidence roughly 6,000 years before most recognized archaeological sites in southern South America. 



Researchers note that a small but growing body of recent findings across the Americas indicates humans may have been around even earlier than 20,000 years ago. 



These outcomes resonate with discoveries elsewhere suggesting that people reached the continent sooner than older textbooks stated.



While the giant armadillo discovery in northeastern Argentina stands out, it parallels similar points of interest in other regions. 



Scientists working elsewhere have seen indications of human activity dating beyond the once-accepted timeline of 13,000 to 16,000 years ago. 



These glimpses could fill voids in the historical record, showing that different groups explored diverse landscapes, from coastal zones to inland stretches.



Clear behavioral associations remain challenging to confirm. Bones alone can be scattered by rivers or shifting sediments, and random fractures sometimes mimic cut marks. 



In this case, careful examination of the site’s layers helped rule out normal taphonomic processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Investigations like this may steer attention to under-sampled areas where layers from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Glacial Maximum</a> remain intact. 



If additional fossils with similar markings appear nearby, the evidence for a broader human footprint dating back more than 20,000 years will become tougher to dispute. 



Radiocarbon dating and ancient DNA techniques could then piece together the connections between these early populations and later groups spread across South America.



Experts agree that ongoing exploration is essential. Early settlement patterns in the Pampas might reflect unique strategies for finding resources and adapting to shifting climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-south-america-and-giant-armadillos">Humans, South America, and giant armadillos</h2>



From a set of fossils on the Reconquista River to the possibility of unearthing more traces in the surrounding region, every fresh clue adds depth to an ancient tale. 



These findings echo other recent data suggesting humans reached the Americas well before longstanding theories indicated. 



The weight of this evidence challenges traditional timelines and inspires experts to reexamine historical assumptions.



For now, this glyptodont discovery seems to indicate that South America’s early human narrative might stretch back further than once believed.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0304956" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

First humans in South America survived by eating giant armadillos

The story of early human migration into South America has...

Climate change has long threatened species living in extreme habitats. Emperor penguins, iconic residents of Antarctica, now face a sharper edge of that threat. 



​A team led by scientists at the&nbsp;Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu/press-room/news-release/new-study-finds-emperor-penguins-increasingly-threatened-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>), along with global collaborators, has revealed new evidence that these birds are more at risk than previously believed.​



The study suggests emperor penguins should no longer be considered “Near Threatened.” Instead, the team recommends reclassifying them as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719309899?" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Vulnerable” or even “Endangered”</a>. This shift, based on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22697752/132600320?" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">updated IUCN criteria</a>, highlights an urgent need to reconsider current conservation strategies.



The researchers tailored their study to match the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/just-a-whiff-of-penguin-poop-can-send-krill-into-a-frenzy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a>’ deep dependence on stable sea ice and predictable Antarctic conditions. The changing environment now places them on unstable ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-threats-to-emperor-penguins">Climate threats to emperor penguins </h2>



Emperor penguins are at significant risk of extinction due to climate change, particularly the rapid loss of Antarctic sea ice, which they depend on for breeding and raising their chicks. 



Studies suggest that if current warming trends continue, more than 90% of emperor penguin colonies could be gone by the end of the century. 



Some projections indicate that major population declines could happen much sooner, potentially within our lifetime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study </h2>



Published in Biological Conservation, the paper titled Living with Uncertainty presents new tools to predict future risks. The researchers used a cutting-edge method: the Multi-Model Large Ensemble (MMLE) framework.



This approach combines numerous Earth system simulations to capture a fuller picture of possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enhanced-monitoring-of-emperor-penguins-can-help-us-save-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental futures</a>.



“This is the first study to integrate natural variability in physical and biological processes and employ a wide range of Earth system and ecological models to account for numerous sources of uncertainty in projecting assessments of future population trajectories,” said Stéphanie Jenouvrier, lead author and senior scientist at WHOI.



“Improved methods for accounting for uncertainties are urgently needed to strengthen assessments of extinction and inform conservation efforts in an uncertain world.”



The framework improves how scientists handle uncertainty in environmental modeling. Instead of relying on a single future scenario, the MMLE considers many outcomes. This change offers deeper insight into extinction risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-is-changing-for-emperor-penguins">The world is changing for emperor penguins</h2>



To build their models, the team used a wide variety of data. These included satellite images of 50 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-penguins-have-lost-97-percent-of-their-population/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguin colonies</a>, long-term monitoring of chicks and adults, and over a decade of observations of individual birds. The researchers also factored in how colonies move, drawn from genetic and population data.



“There are quantifiable uncertainties in projections of future environmental conditions,” said Jenouvrier. “Incorporating this uncertainty in ecosystem projections allows for a more complete and robust assessment of potential extinction risk.”



This approach blends fieldwork, satellite technology, and ecological theory. It gives conservationists a more grounded look at future risks. Such forecasts help shape stronger policies - especially when dealing with species that live in remote or harsh environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-for-future-conservation">A model for future conservation</h2>



Professor Phil Trathan, one of the study’s authors and formerly Head of Conservation Biology at the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>, emphasized the broader meaning of this research.



“Emperor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-are-struggling-to-survive-as-sea-ice-vanishes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a> are vital indicators of ecosystem health in the Antarctic, they also help inform us about wider changes in the earth system. Therefore, harnessing robust models that increase our understanding about uncertainty and risk are vital, if we are to better conserve and protect this and other species.”



“Ultimately, humans depend upon the natural world, so developing better projections of the future earth system are essential for ensuring human health and well-being. The tools used in this study should now help us all.”



The combination of modeling tools and diverse data points may set a precedent for future work. Other species in similarly vulnerable habitats may also benefit from these techniques.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-emperor-penguins">Protecting emperor penguins</h2>



The IUCN plays a central role in shaping how species like the emperor penguin are protected. The Red List guides many conservation decisions, often influencing discussions at international levels.



These include forums like the&nbsp;Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (<a href="https://www.ats.aq/e/atcm.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ATCM</a>)&nbsp;and the&nbsp;Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (<a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CCAMLR</a>).​



“The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting serves as a key forum for decision-making on Antarctic conservation. This new IUCN Red List assessment provides critical scientific support for strengthening protections for emperor penguins under the Antarctic Treaty System,” noted Jenouvrier.



”It also strengthens the case for establishing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) under the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, particularly in vital regions like the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea, which could serve as crucial refugia for emperor penguins.” 



With the scientific foundation now laid, the next step lies with policymakers. If taken seriously, this reassessment may not only protect emperor penguins but also influence how we respond to global climate threats across species and continents.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320725000746" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Emperor penguins may disappear in our lifetime

Climate change has long threatened species living in extreme habitats....

Butterflies have always captured human imagination. Their delicate wings, bright patterns, and graceful flight inspire poetry, art, and science. Beyond their beauty, butterflies play vital roles in ecosystems as pollinators and as part of complex food webs. But a new climate warning has emerged. 



A Yale-led global study suggests their mountain homes — long thought to be safe havens — are becoming death zones. Climate change, once a distant threat, is now closing in fast.



The study, published in Nature Ecology and Evolution, provides the first global analysis of butterfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-genome-has-barely-changed-after-250-million-years-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> and climate risk. It exposes a crisis unfolding in silence, high in the world’s mountain ranges. 



And it paints a troubling picture not only for butterflies but for insect life as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reverse-butterfly-effect">The reverse butterfly effect</h2>



The phrase “butterfly effect” describes how a small action, like a butterfly flapping its wings, can lead to large consequences — like a hurricane across the world. This study shows something more haunting: a global storm threatening <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-mate-preferences-shift-with-slight-brain-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> themselves.



According to the researchers, mountain habitats that once offered protection may now become population traps. These zones are warming fast. 



With nowhere higher to go, butterflies may run out of suitable conditions. Species adapted to cooler, narrow temperature bands will suffer most.



Even more concerning, the study points to a critical data gap. While scientists have long tracked changes in birds, mammals, and plants, insects - though far more numerous - have been overlooked in global biodiversity models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-butterfly-data-reveals-climate-danger">Global butterfly data reveals climate danger</h2>



To understand how butterflies might respond to climate change, Yale ecologist Walter Jetz and entomologist Stefan Pinkert led a team of researchers. They compiled phylogenetic and geographic data for over 12,000 butterfly species around the globe. 



​Jetz directs the&nbsp;<a href="https://bgc.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale Center for Biodiversity and Global Change</a>, while Pinkert, now at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.uni-marburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Marburg</a>&nbsp;in Germany, previously worked at Yale as a postdoctoral associate.​



Their work revealed that two-thirds of butterfly species live in tropical and subtropical mountains. These regions hold 3.5 times more butterfly hotspots than lowlands. 



But this concentration also increases risk. Mountains are warming quickly, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-country-without-butterflies-rapid-decline-in-u-s-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that evolved in specific temperature zones may not adapt in time.



The study predicts that 64% of the thermal niche space used by tropical butterflies will disappear by 2070. As climate zones shift upward and shrink, many butterflies will lose their homes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-puts-butterflies-at-risk">Climate change puts butterflies at risk</h2>



Jetz explained the danger with both urgency and admiration.



“The diversity, elegance, and sheer beauty of butterflies impassion people worldwide. Co-evolved with host plants, butterflies form an integral part of an ecologically functioning web of life," said Jetz.



“Unfortunately, our first global assessment of butterfly diversity and threats finds that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>’ fascinating diversification into higher-elevation environments might now spell their demise, with potentially thousands of species committed to extinction from global warming this century.”



Pinkert shares this concern, especially as someone who has spent years studying insects. 



“As an entomologist, I am committed to informing the public about the distribution of insect diversity and targeted ways to protect it. Our results are insightful from an ecological point of view but unfortunately also very alarming,” noted Pinkert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-expose-a-conservation-blind-spot">Butterflies expose a conservation blind spot</h2>



The findings reveal a sharp contrast between butterflies and other well-known animals. Conservation plans today often rely on patterns seen in birds or mammals. 



But insects show very different responses. Their diversity and rarity do not follow the same geographic rules. As a result, current protection strategies might miss critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> habitats.



The authors note that, until now, no global assessment of climate threats for any insect group existed. Butterflies offer the first test case — and the results demand a rethink. 



Butterflies are far more than pretty wings. They act as indicators of environmental health. Their decline signals deeper ecological instability.



Pinkert emphasized the scale of the project. “This research was made possible by many years of mobilizing various global data and newly developed integrative approaches, all aimed at filling this critical information gap for at least one insect taxon,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explore-climate-threat-to-butterflies">Explore climate threat to butterflies</h2>



While the results are stark, the researchers still see a path forward. Protection of key butterfly habitats, especially in the tropics, must become a priority. 



Connecting these areas with migratory corridors can help species survive shifting climates. This strategy will require better insect data, broader conservation planning, and faster emissions cuts.



Jetz points to a global tool already in use — the Map of Life, a database he directs that tracks species distributions worldwide.



“A reduction of carbon emissions, combined with proactive identification and preservation of key butterfly habitats and migratory corridors, will be key to ensuring that much of butterfly diversity survives to benefit future generations,” Jetz said.



The study’s co-authors include Nina Farwig of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.uni-marburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Marburg</a>&nbsp;and Akito Kawahara of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>. Support came from the&nbsp;Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.moore.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>, and the&nbsp;<a href="https://eowilsonfoundation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E.O. Wilson Biodiversity Foundation</a>.



To view the findings and explore butterfly distributions in more depth, visit the <a href="https://mol.org">Map of Life</a>. As butterflies face mounting pressure, the need to act has never been clearer. 



Their quiet struggle on mountain peaks is not just a story about insects. It’s a signal to humanity that time is running out.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02664-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Butterfly effect in reverse: Climate change turns havens into traps

Butterflies have always captured human imagination. Their delicate wings, bright...

For decades, tool use was seen as the hallmark of human evolution. Later, researchers began to notice this skill in chimpanzees, crows, and even sea otters. But one group remained conspicuously absent from this conversation - fish.



They were thought to be too simple, too instinct-driven, and too limited in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive ability</a>. That belief no longer holds.



A new study has revealed something remarkable: several wrasse species have been observed using hard surfaces to break open prey. 



These behaviors don’t just challenge assumptions - they expand the very definition of what it means to be intelligent.



Dr. Juliette Tariel-Adam, the study’s lead author from Macquarie University, has spent years watching these small but clever reef fish. Her team tracked and recorded behaviors that were previously dismissed or unnoticed.



"Tool use is typically associated with humans, but this behavior is proof that fish are far cleverer than they get credit for," said Dr. Tariel-Adam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-use-tools-to-smash-prey">Fish use tools to smash prey</h2>



Wrasses are colorful reef fish found in warm oceans across the world. In this study, several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-evolve-rapidly-by-switching-between-simple-and-complex-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> were observed picking up crabs, mollusks, and brittle stars in their mouths and striking them against rocks or coral heads. 



This behavior is known as “anvil use,” a form of tool use that allows the fish to access prey they otherwise couldn’t consume.



The wrasses showed clear intentionality. They didn’t just drop their prey. They positioned it, swung their bodies with force, and adjusted their angles between strikes. They seemed to know what they were doing. This wasn’t random behavior - it was targeted, practiced, and often successful.



The study documented 16 new observations across five species within the New World Halichoeres group. Three of those species had never been seen using tools before. Two others were suspected to use tools, but now video evidence confirms this.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-use-across-oceans">Tool use across oceans</h2>



These discoveries were made possible by a community <a href="https://fishtooluse.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">science initiative</a> called Fish Tool Use. 



Through social media outreach, emails, and public engagement, the research team gathered videos and reports from divers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> enthusiasts. 



The observations came from Brazil, Colombia, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and beyond.



All five species observed belong to a closely related group in the Labridae family, the second most species-rich group of marine fish. 



The team believes this behavior may have evolved in a common ancestor and persisted across related species.



Alternatively, anvil use may have emerged multiple times independently - a question that future research may help to answer.



"With these newly discovered tool-using species, it becomes clear that many species of wrasses use tools that we previously didn't know about," said Dr. Tariel-Adam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexibility-of-fish-tool-use">Flexibility of fish tool use</h2>



One surprise in the study was the absence of laterality. In primates and crows, tool use often involves a dominant hand or claw. 



Wrasses, however, appeared to use both sides of their bodies equally. In video analyses, they struck with either side depending on their position in the water.



This flexibility might offer an advantage. While lateralized tool use can be efficient, it also limits an animal’s options when environment or position changes. 



Wrasses, on the other hand, can exploit anvils in any orientation, giving them a broader range of usable surfaces.



In addition, wrasses used many different types of anvils. Rocks, coral heads, rubble, even a live conch shell - all served the same purpose. They did not show strict preferences. They adapted to what was around them.



This suggests not only cognitive flexibility but a level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-deep-sea-fish-survive-the-crushing-depths-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental awareness</a> as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-competition-on-the-reef">Food and competition on the reef</h2>



Using tools to break open hard prey is not without its costs. The action requires energy, especially when it involves several powerful strikes. 



Videos show the fish sometimes lose their grip or need to readjust by spitting out and re-securing their prey. Despite this, the behavior is consistently successful.



Sometimes, other fish circle the scene. In 12 of 19 observations, nearby fish either attempted to steal food or got chased away. In one case, a juvenile wrasse stole a brittle star from an adult just after it had broken off a piece. Tool use brings not only food, but attention - and not always the good kind.



Still, the benefits seem to outweigh the risks. Access to shelled prey means more food options and better nutrition. 



For smaller wrasses, who might not have the jaw strength to crack shells without help, this strategy opens a new dietary path. It allows them to eat prey that would otherwise be unavailable to them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-puzzle-of-tool-use">Evolutionary puzzle of tool use</h2>



The study’s results open a new chapter in animal cognition. Fish now join a growing list of tool-using animals that includes primates, parrots, octopuses, wasps, and crabs. But why have only some species developed this behavior?



Tool use is likely influenced by ecological pressures - scarce food, competition, or environmental structure. In the case of wrasses, their diverse habitats, sharp learning skills, and wide range of prey may all play a role. Yet, the exact reasons remain unclear.



Professor Culum Brown, senior author of the study and head of Macquarie University’s Fish Lab, believes this behavior sheds light on the broader story of intelligence in the animal world. 



"They demonstrate flexible and dexterous tool use, expanding our understanding of tool use evolution in the animal kingdom," noted Professor Brown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The researchers want to see more. Most documented tool use events are still opportunistic. Controlled studies - where prey is offered in experimental settings - could bring new insights.



The team hopes to receive more submissions from the public, helping them fill the gaps in geography and species data.



Those interested can contribute through Fish Tool Use, where divers and marine observers are encouraged to share footage or descriptions of wrasse behavior. With more data, scientists can explore whether anvil use is common across the family or limited to just a few clever species.



For now, wrasses have made one thing clear: we’ve underestimated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-vessels-most-industrial-fishing-activity-is-not-publicly-tracked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>. Not only are they smart, but they’re capable of innovation, planning, and creative problem-solving. 



Tool use may no longer be the preserve of a few gifted animals. It may be far more widespread - if we only care to look.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-025-02633-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral Reefs</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some clever fish use tools to crack open prey

For decades, tool use was seen as the hallmark of...

For over 165 years, scientists have puzzled over a strange fossil called&nbsp;Prototaxites. Even its appearance was unusual. It stood up to 8 meters tall, and resembled a towering tree with no leaves.



These curious lifeforms appeared during the late Silurian period, around 400 million years ago. Found among early ferns and horsetails, they lacked branches and looked nothing like modern trees.



In 1859, Canadian geologist John William Dawson thought these fossils were decaying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/palm-tree-fossils-found-in-the-arctic-rewrite-earths-climate-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> trunks. He named them "first conifer," a name that stuck even as confusion deepened. 



The mystery has only grown as modern science has applied new tools, yet the answers remained elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-was-prototaxites-a-fungus">Was Prototaxites a fungus?</h2>



For decades, the idea that Prototaxites was a fungus gained support. 



In 2001, paleontologist Francis Hueber proposed it was a giant terrestrial fungus, based on anatomical features like the presence of tubular structures. 



Later, in 2017, researchers identified what they believed were fruiting bodies in the fossil, linking it to Ascomycota, a modern fungal group.



But there was a problem - these supposed reproductive parts had never been shown to connect with the vegetative body. That raised concerns. 



Could these fragments have belonged to an entirely different organism? Without direct evidence, the fungal identity of Prototaxites remained guesswork.



Despite ongoing debate, the fungus theory persisted. That is, until a team led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a> took a closer look. 



They re-examined Prototaxites taiti, a species preserved in Scotland’s Rhynie chert, which is one of the best <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-oasis-provided-refuge-for-plants-during-earths-worst-extinction-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> deposits from the early Devonian period. Their findings call everything we thought we knew into question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-largest-organism-of-the-devonian-landscape">Largest organism of the Devonian landscape</h2>



The team focused on an exceptionally well-preserved fossil labeled NSC.36. This fossil showed a cross-section of P. taiti and revealed medullary spots - dark, circular features - spread throughout its body.



The sample of rock that was used for analysis was roughly cylindrical, 5.6 cm (2.2 inches) wide and nearly 7 cm (2.8 inches) long, but incomplete. This suggests the original organism was much larger, likely a towering figure in its environment.



At the microscopic level, the researchers discovered three distinct types of tubes running lengthwise through the fossil. 



Type 1 tubes were thin, septate, and branched. Type 2 tubes were wider, with smooth double walls and no internal cross-walls. Type 3 tubes were thickest, and featured ring-like thickenings that do not match any known fungal type. These structures appeared interwoven, forming a dense, interconnected network inside the fossil.



Interestingly, these anatomical features resembled some aspects of fungi - but not enough to confirm a match. The third tube type, with its annular thickenings, doesn’t appear in any known fungal group, which raised immediate doubts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-medullary-spots-with-no-equal">Strange medullary spots with no equal</h2>



Using confocal laser scanning microscopy and 3D imaging, the team examined the medullary spots in detail. These regions contained all three tube types and added even finer ones, some just 1 micron in diameter. The branching patterns inside were complex and lacked the clear order seen in today's fungal systems.



In modern fungi, branching follows a hierarchy - generative hyphae give rise to other types in a predictable pattern. But in P. taiti, the branching had no clear direction or sequence. Tubes connected in all directions, forming a chaotic mesh.



“There are no structures analogous to medullary spots in extant fungi,” the researchers noted.



They also rejected the idea that these spots resembled fruiting bodies of ascomycetes. Even though some scientists once thought the spots hinted at spore production, no organic connection exists between these spots and any supposed reproductive structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prototaxites-lacked-fungal-or-plant-traits">Prototaxites lacked fungal or plant traits</h2>



Next, the team analyzed the fossil’s molecular makeup using FTIR spectroscopy. 



They compared P. taiti with fungi, plants, animals, and bacteria from the same deposit. All these fossils had undergone the same fossilization process, which allowed for reliable side-by-side comparison.



The results were striking. The fossil lacked any trace of chitin or chitosan, which are essential compounds found in fungal cell walls. Even perylene - a chemical marker of ascomycete fungi - was absent in P. taiti, though present in the surrounding substratum.



Instead, P. taiti’s cells contained aromatic and phenolic compounds resembling fossilized lignin. Lignin is found in land plants, but this version differed chemically. It was something entirely distinct - resembling lignin, yet not plant-like.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-confirms-its-isolation">Machine learning confirms its isolation</h2>



To test the molecular data further, the team used machine learning models. These models were trained to distinguish organisms based on their molecular fingerprints. 



The results were clear. The models identified P. taiti as something different from fungi, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, bacteria, or plants - with over 90% accuracy.



"We conclude that the morphology and molecular fingerprint of P. taiti is clearly distinct from that of the fungi and other organisms preserved alongside it in the [Devonian deposit], and we suggest that it is best considered a member of a previously undescribed, entirely extinct group of eukaryotes," the authors note.



With no known taxonomic group sharing its combination of anatomy, chemistry, and lifestyle, Prototaxites stands apart. It was a eukaryote - meaning it had complex cells with nuclei - but that’s where the similarities end.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-a-plant-fungus-or-animal">Not a plant, fungus, or animal</h2>



The researchers tested every possible affiliation. Could it be an alga? No, P. taiti lacked the necessary photosynthetic structures and was chemically dissimilar. Could it be an early land plant? Again, the absence of vascular tissues and other plant traits ruled that out.



How about lichen? Not possible without a photobiont. Oomycetes? The molecular composition didn’t match. Even animals were ruled out. Metazoans do not have tube-like structures with cell walls, and P. taiti clearly did.



In the end, the team’s classification table showed the same result for every group: rejected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prototaxites-evolution-s-lost-experiment">Prototaxites: Evolution’s lost experiment</h2>



Prototaxites might be the last known member of its kind. It formed massive vertical structures from underground networks. It likely absorbed nutrients from decaying matter, much like modern saprotrophs. Yet it was not a fungus, not a plant, and not an animal.



"Based on this investigation we are unable to assign Prototaxites to any extant lineage, reinforcing its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">uniqueness</a>," the authors concluded.



And that may be all we ever know. With no modern descendants and no living relatives, Prototaxites exists only as a fossil - part of a long-vanished branch of life. It reminds us that evolution is full of strange ideas, some of which thrived briefly before disappearing forever.



The ancient world was full of life unlike anything we see today. Prototaxites was one of its boldest experiments - and perhaps, one of its most fascinating failures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.03.14.643340v1.full.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a>.



Image Credit: CC BY-SA 4.0



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Giant, mysterious organisms discovered are impossible to categorize

For over 165 years, scientists have puzzled over a strange...

A new study shows that the forces creating mountain ranges can also drive species diversity, illuminating how Earth’s geological processes shape the evolution of life. 



The work marks a breakthrough in understanding why mountainous areas are hotbeds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-diversity-shaped-by-climate-change-for-21000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species diversity</a> and how tectonic activities may have guided the evolutionary paths of certain groups of organisms over millions of years. The study was co-authored by researchers at <a href="https://www.iu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indiana University</a> (IU).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-mountains-and-new-species">Rising mountains and new species</h2>



Long recognized as biological treasure troves, mountain regions often hold surprising numbers of plant and animal species. Yet, it has been difficult to tease out whether high biodiversity naturally accompanies the rugged terrain or if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a>’ geological formation directly promotes new evolutionary processes.



According to this new study, the mere act of mountains rising can create conditions that give birth to new species. Shifting landscapes open up new habitats and geographically isolate populations, encouraging the emergence of new, distinct species - a process known as allopatric speciation.&nbsp;



Among smaller animals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modern-day-plague-rodents-fleas-and-their-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rodents</a>, the team found a strong correlation between how quickly and how high mountains lift up and the degree of species diversification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-with-virtual-worlds">A closer look with virtual worlds</h2>



The research team, which includes Eyal Marder of the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> (a former IU postdoctoral fellow) and Brian Yanites, an associate professor of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at IU, used advanced computer models to simulate how species might evolve in response to rising terrain over very long timescales.



They based their work on “Adascape,” a specialized model that allows for virtual representations of the Earth’s surface and how it changes. Then, they coupled it with programs that populate these landscapes with model species and track how they adapt and migrate as mountains slowly take shape.&nbsp;



The result was a synthetic view of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> might proceed in response to upheavals that can last tens of millions of years.



One of the more compelling revelations from these simulations is that certain mountainous areas can act like “cradles” of new biodiversity. A species of rodent-like mammals in the model, for instance, split into multiple distinct species as soon as the mountains rose and created different environmental niches.&nbsp;



Over time, some of these new species even migrated into adjacent lowlands, matching patterns paleontologists often see in fossil deposits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-to-the-fossil-record">Connecting to the fossil record</h2>



Past geologic intervals have left behind a record of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> booms that, until now, were not well explained. The authors propose that at least some of these booms may correlate with upticks in tectonic activity.&nbsp;



For example, the researchers suggest that a known spike in fossil diversity about 15 million years ago in the western United States might be linked to local mountain building in the Basin and Range region, which shaped both animal evolution and the formation of sedimentary basins.



“This study gives us new insights into how Earth’s physical processes influence the diversity of life,” Marder said. “It also highlights how ongoing geological changes could continue to impact biodiversity in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-role-of-mountains">The hidden role of mountains</h2>



Previous theories had proposed that mountains simply serve as a stage on which evolution plays out. In contrast, this research indicates that landscapes in flux can actively spark or redirect the evolutionary process.&nbsp;



“We often think of landscapes as passive backdrops for evolution, but this study shows that they are active participants in shaping biodiversity,” Yanites said.



Mountain-building pushes populations up or isolates them in valleys, subjecting organisms to different climates, food sources, and environmental pressures.&nbsp;



Over time, these constraints spawn new species. The link between tectonics and evolution grows even stronger when one considers that mountain ridges can capture moisture and alter local climates, further driving organisms to adapt or relocate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Beyond helping explain the past, these findings may also help conservationists decide how and where to protect species. Mountains remain sensitive to climate change; as conditions shift, those living at high elevations may have nowhere left to migrate.&nbsp;



Understanding which areas are most critical for speciation could focus conservation efforts on safeguarding genetic diversity hotspots.



By revealing how rising mountains foster new species, this study may also guide reevaluation of existing protected zones. If certain ridge systems are particularly crucial for generating biodiversity, setting them aside or expanding current reserves might become a priority.&nbsp;



This knowledge could likewise apply to other dynamic environments - like tectonically active rifts or volcanic zones - which might also harbor outsized roles in biological innovation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-uplift-and-species-evolution">Mountain uplift and species evolution</h2>



Moving forward, the authors aim to extend their computer modeling to different regions and sets of organisms, matching simulated results more closely with fossil records and genetic data. This interdisciplinary approach can refine projections about how topography influences evolution today and in the future.



According to the scientists, it’s not just about where species are now but about how a place changed over time, and how that might have sparked speciation or extinctions. This link between landscapes and life is something we’re just beginning to fully appreciate.



By establishing a clear, data-driven link between tectonic uplift and the evolution of new species, the study offers a novel perspective on Earth’s living tapestry - and on the power of the planet’s deep geological machinery to shape life across the ages.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp7290" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How rising mountains give birth to new species

A new study shows that the forces creating mountain ranges...

species in Anisacanthidae

News coming your way