A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Oregon’s Cascade Range is not just a scenic landscape of volcanic peaks - it also hides a massive underground aquifer filled with water.&nbsp;



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uoregon.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oregon</a> and their collaborators have mapped this extensive water storage beneath the central Oregon Cascades and found it to be at least 81 cubic kilometers in size.&nbsp;



This discovery is significant because it reveals a water resource nearly three times the capacity of Lake Mead and more than half the volume of Lake Tahoe, reshaping our understanding of regional water supplies and volcanic processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-water-tower-beneath-the-cascades">“Big water tower” beneath the Cascades </h2>



The newly mapped aquifer lies beneath volcanic rocks at the crest of the central Cascades, acting like a giant, continental-sized lake stored in the mountains.



“It is a continental-size lake stored in the rocks at the top of the mountains, like a big water tower,” said Leif Karlstrom, an Earth scientist at the University of Oregon and lead author of the study.



Karlstrom and his team suggest that similar large volcanic aquifers likely exist elsewhere in the Cascade Range, potentially making it one of the largest aquifer systems of its kind in the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-the-cascade-landscape">Evolution of the Cascade landscape</h2>



The discovery emerged from research originally aimed at understanding the evolution of the Cascades landscape and the movement of water through it. During this investigation, the team uncovered critical information about the sheer volume of water stored underground and how it relates to volcanic activity in the region.



“We initially set out to better understand how the Cascade landscape has evolved over time, and how water moves through it,” explained co-author Gordon Grant, a geologist with the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Forest Service</a>.&nbsp;



“But in doing so, we discovered important things that people care about: the incredible volume of water in active storage in the Cascades and also how the movement of water and the hazards posed by volcanoes are linked together.”



This research enhances our understanding of the region’s geology and water resources, particularly as climate change drives increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a> and reduces snowpack - a primary source of recharge for the aquifer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-water-underground-nbsp">Mapping the water underground&nbsp;</h2>



To gauge the size of the aquifer, researchers tapped into historical geothermal drilling data from the 1980s and 1990s. Those earlier projects, aimed at finding geothermal energy sources, had drilled deep into the earth and recorded temperatures at various depths.&nbsp;



By analyzing these temperature records, Karlstrom’s team could infer how water moves through the volcanic rocks.



Normally, rock temperatures increase with depth, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pumping-too-much-groundwater-affects-earths-spin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groundwater</a> flowing downward keeps deeper rocks cooler. By identifying where temperatures start to rise again in these drill holes, the team estimated how far groundwater penetrates, and thus, mapped out the aquifer’s volume.



Unlike past methods that only measured water coming out of springs or streams, this approach looked deep underground to reveal a far larger water reserve than previously thought.&nbsp;



Due to gaps in the data - since the original drill holes weren’t intended for mapping groundwater - the 81 cubic kilometer estimate is likely a lower bound, and the actual volume could be even greater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-hazards-and-future-risks">Volcanic hazards and future risks</h2>



The presence of such a large volume of water at high elevations affects not only water supply but also volcanic activity. When magma interacts with groundwater, it can lead to more explosive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-trees-predict-volcano-eruptions-when-viewed-from-space-satellites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic eruptions</a>, which change landscapes and impact air quality.&nbsp;



Understanding the size and flow of this aquifer helps scientists assess potential volcanic hazards in the Cascades.



However, the aquifer’s future is uncertain. It relies on snowpack for recharge, and climate change threatens to reduce the snow that feeds it. Warmer temperatures mean less snow and more rain, which can affect how much water is absorbed and stored underground.



“It is a big, active groundwater reservoir up there right now, but its longevity and resilience to change is set by the availability of recharging waters,” Karlstrom warned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-a-precious-resource">Managing a precious resource</h2>



While discovering this vast aquifer is encouraging, it also raises important questions about sustainability. As climate change alters precipitation patterns and reduces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-driven-climate-change-is-to-blame-for-sharp-snowpack-declines-since-1980/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snowpack</a>, the amount of water recharging the aquifer could decline.&nbsp;



Scientists like Gordon Grant and Leif Karlstrom are now focused on understanding these dynamics to manage the resource effectively.



“This region has been handed a geological gift, but we really are only beginning to understand it,” Grant said. “If we don’t have any snow, or if we have a run of bad winters where we don’t get any rain, what’s that going to mean? Those are the key questions we’re now having to focus on.”



The discovery underscores the vital role of scientific research in uncovering hidden resources and informs strategies for water management amid a changing climate.&nbsp;



As experts continue to study this “big water tower” beneath the Cascades, they aim to ensure that it remains a reliable resource for the region while also monitoring the interactions between groundwater and volcanic activity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2415155122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hidden water reservoir discovered beneath the Cascade mountains

Oregon’s Cascade Range is not just a scenic landscape of...

Ants, with their structured and highly efficient social behavior, have long been a subject of fascination for researchers. These tiny creatures exhibit complex movement patterns that allow them to navigate their environments seamlessly, even when moving in large numbers. 



The ability of ants to avoid traffic congestion and move in an orderly fashion could hold the key to solving one of the biggest challenges in modern cities - urban transportation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-help-solve-traffic-problem">Ants help solve traffic problem</h2>



In an era where traffic congestion, pollution, and inefficiencies plague urban mobility, scientists are looking toward nature for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-microbots-can-replicate-the-extraordinary-abilities-of-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inspiration</a>. 



Two professors from the <a href="https://www.unitn.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Trento</a>, Marco Guerrieri and Nicola Pugno, have turned their attention to ants, studying their movement strategies to understand how they maintain smooth traffic flow. 



The research explores how these insects avoid stop-and-go traffic despite their large numbers and limited space.



"Ants are among the few species that can handle bidirectional traffic flows, much like our roads, yet they move seamlessly without congestion," Guerrieri explained.&nbsp;



This observation raises a crucial question: can we apply the same principles to human transportation?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-ants-traffic-system">Studying the ants’ traffic system</h2>



To answer this question, the researchers analyzed the movement of ants along a 30-centimeter trail - equivalent to 100 times the body length of each ant.



By using video footage and deep learning algorithms, they were able to track each ant's individual movements, and map their trajectories, speeds, flows, and densities. The findings revealed a highly organized system in which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-ants-have-a-unique-way-of-using-earths-magnetic-field-for-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> follow specific rules that optimize traffic efficiency.



One of the most remarkable observations was that ants follow pheromone trails marked by leader ants. They move in tightly packed platoons, maintaining small gaps and avoiding overtaking behaviors. 



"Ants follow pheromone trails marked by a leader ant, and move in platoons with small gaps and no overtaking," noted Guerrieri.



This simple yet effective strategy allows ants to maintain a steady flow without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-work-in-groups-more-successfully-than-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unnecessary disruptions</a>. Unlike humans, who frequently change lanes, overtake other vehicles, and react unpredictably, ants exhibit a cooperative form of movement that minimizes delays and prevents bottlenecks. 



If such a system could be applied to urban traffic, it could drastically improve the efficiency of transportation networks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-inspired-traffic-systems">Ant-inspired traffic systems</h2>



The increasing use of connected and automated Vehicles (CAVs) presents an opportunity to rethink how we manage road networks. Guerrieri suggests that, in the future, traffic systems could be inspired by ant behavior.



"In the future, traffic systems for autonomous vehicles (CAVs) could be inspired by ant behavior. Just like insects communicate through pheromones, Connected and automated vehicles (CAV) on smart roads could use advanced communication technologies to communicate with each other and with the road infrastructure management," he explained.



By integrating advanced communication systems, CAVs could exchange real-time data with one another and with smart road infrastructure. This would allow them to form coordinated platoons - much like ants do - traveling at high speeds with minimal gaps between vehicles.



These platoons could move efficiently across parallel lanes, significantly reducing traffic congestion and increasing road capacity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steady-traffic-flow-and-improved-safety">Steady traffic flow and improved safety </h2>



This approach has several potential benefits. Enhanced traffic efficiency would lead to smoother movement, which would reduce delays and travel time. 



Road safety would improve, as autonomous vehicles moving in organized platoons would lower the chances of collisions caused by sudden lane changes and erratic driving behaviors.



A steady, uninterrupted traffic flow would also lead to lower fuel consumption and emissions, contributing to a more sustainable urban environment.



The concept of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-use-chemical-trails-to-guide-their-friends-to-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant-inspired</a> mobility aligns with broader trends in smart cities and intelligent transportation systems. As urban areas continue to expand, adopting nature-inspired strategies could be key to solving long-standing traffic challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-future-of-seamless-mobility">A future of seamless mobility</h2>



Nature has always been a source of inspiration for human innovation. From bird flight influencing aerodynamics to termite mounds inspiring sustainable architecture, biomimicry has led to significant advances across various fields.



Now, ants - some of the smallest yet most organized creatures on Earth - could hold the key to revolutionizing how we design urban traffic systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-ants">Learning from ants</h2>



The findings from the University of Trento suggest that, by mimicking the way ants move and communicate, we can create a new paradigm for urban transportation.



If implemented successfully, smart roads and CAVs could work together to form a highly efficient, congestion-free network that mirrors the natural movement of ants.



While fully autonomous traffic systems are still in development, the lessons learned from ants could serve as a guiding principle for future transportation policies and infrastructure planning. 



By studying how nature has already perfected traffic management, we can take a step closer to building smarter, safer, and more sustainable cities.



In the not-so-distant future, the same principles that govern the movement of ants may help humans navigate roads more efficiently, turning chaotic traffic jams into seamless flows of motion. Nature has provided the blueprint - now it’s up to us to apply it.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590198225000107?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ant-inspired traffic solutions could improve urban mobility

Ants, with their structured and highly efficient social behavior, have...

Solar storms have attracted curiosity for centuries. People often admire the bright colors they cause in the sky, but they rarely suspect that these same solar events can bring widespread outages that force industries to a grinding halt.



Many experts say the risk may be rising because our world depends more and more on advanced technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-solar-storms-start">How solar storms start</h2>



<a href="https://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SunspotCycle.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar flares</a>, which are bursts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noaa-severe-solar-storm-expected-to-reach-earth-tomorrow-october-10-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high-energy particles</a> from the Sun, cause these disruptions. When those particles reach Earth, they interact with the atmosphere in ways that sometimes produce remarkable light shows.&nbsp;



They can also feed into our power grids and satellites - which may lead to major problems. The current solar cycle is expected to reach its most intense phase through <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/heliophysics/nasa-noaa-sun-reaches-maximum-phase-in-11-year-solar-cycle/">2025</a>, making scientists vigilant of the storms that may unfold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-dangers-of-solar-storms">Potential dangers of solar storms</h2>



Experts from many corners of the globe have sounded alarm bells about these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-solar-storm-warning-issued-as-two-cmes-will-hit-earth-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>. 



Dr. Kęstutis Ikamas from Vilnius University points to serious vulnerabilities in places with large power <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/12507/severe-space-weather-events-understanding-societal-and-economic-impacts-a">networks</a>, such as the United States and Canada. He has studied the unpredictable nature of solar storms and sees a need for widespread protective measures.



“A strong geomagnetic storm could incapacitate vital systems such as electricity, water supply, and telecommunications, leading to extended blackouts, communication breakdowns, and logistical paralysis,” explained Dr. Ikamas, who also warned that months-long disruptions might follow in the worst scenario.&nbsp;



One event in 1859, known as the <a href="https://scijinks.gov/what-was-the-carrington-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carrington Event</a>, caused telegraph networks to fail across continents. That was at a time when technology was nowhere near as complex as it is today.&nbsp;



More recently, a 2022 solar disturbance caused 40 newly launched Starlink satellites to burn up in Earth’s atmosphere, taking a serious toll on the mission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-countries-face-higher-risks">Large countries face higher risks</h2>



Extended electricity lines cover thousands of miles across certain regions. That makes them sensitive to currents induced by solar storms. 



According to Dr. Ikamas, a blast of charged particles can spark voltage swings that damage transformers. When that happens on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-and-severe-solar-storms-will-continue-through-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wide scale</a>, entire power grids are at risk of being knocked out for an unknown length of time.



Systems that protect satellites and power grids do exist, but they may not hold up against a massive solar storm. Organizations often weigh the cost of upgrading equipment against the chance of a storm happening soon.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, NOAA uses a G1 through G5 <a href="https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/noaa-scales-explanation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scale</a> to categorize the intensity of geomagnetic storms. The effects become more severe at each level, with the most intense storms putting everything from radio signals to entire networks in jeopardy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concern-for-space-travelers-and-wildlife">Concern for space travelers and wildlife</h2>



Humans on Earth are not the only ones in harm’s way. Astronauts orbiting outside our planet’s magnetic shield can be exposed to harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-storm-triggered-stunning-auroras-worldwide-october-11-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiation</a>. That may force agencies to adjust schedules for spacewalks and other tasks.&nbsp;



Additionally, animals that rely on magnetic fields for navigation might lose their usual sense of direction during these solar storms. Some bird species and marine life have been <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2306317120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noted</a> to show unusual migration paths when solar activity spikes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-cooperation-is-key">Global cooperation is key</h2>



Dr. Ikamas believes individual action, while useful, is not enough to fight these large-scale threats. This is especially true in an era when countries are more interlinked by communication systems than ever before.&nbsp;



He suggests that technology producers, utility companies, and governments need to come together with detailed protocols that can be put into place if a sudden storm warning appears.



Some experts compare the investments required for stronger safeguards to insurance premiums. The immediate expense may seem big, but the price tag could soar into the trillions if a crisis actually hits.&nbsp;



With digital networks stretching across continents, an outage in one region can have almost immediate effects in other regions. Dr. Ikamas warns that limited spending on grid upgrades today might open the door to large-scale chaos down the road.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-solar-storms-are-rare">Major solar storms are rare</h2>



Even though major solar storms are rare, the chance of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noaa-warning-strong-solar-storm-headed-to-earth-auroras-expected-sept-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">powerful one</a> happening in the next few years has sparked conversations among scientists, policymakers, and power companies.&nbsp;



“If a strong storm is reported, individuals should disconnect their devices from power sources to prevent damage,” said Dr. Ikamas. He noted that bigger protection calls for considerable investments on a global scale.



Information for this article came from a <a href="https://www.riverreporter.com/stories/the-beauty-and-danger-of-solar-storms,179702">press release</a> in the River Reporter.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">&nbsp;Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">&nbsp;EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">&nbsp;Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Next big solar storm could plunge the world into darkness

Solar storms have attracted curiosity for centuries. People often admire...

The remote waters of Palau have always carried a sense of intrigue for explorers. Last year, scientists encountered a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-mollusk-glowing-sea-slug-found-in-the-deep-sea/">marine creature</a> that turned heads and sparked excitement on a vessel known for investigating the mysteries of the ocean.&nbsp;



This strange cephalopod, rarely seen by anyone, appeared during an underwater operation near the German Channel in Palau. 



The crew spotted four individuals of Palau nautilus (Nautilus belauensis) cruising near the seafloor on November 27, 2024, an event that surprised even the most seasoned oceanographers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-lineage-of-the-palau-nautilus">Ancient lineage of the Palau nautilus</h2>



These sightings marked the first time the exploration team aboard E/V Nautilus observed nautiloids in more than a thousand submersible deployments across 15 years of worldwide operations.&nbsp;



Nothing prepared them for the thrill of finally watching this animal glide past gracefully at depths of between 220 and 375 yards (200 and 340 meters). 



The Palau nautilus is a master of the deep, and its subtle movements through the water column fascinate marine biologists.



Dr. Robert Ballard, founder of the Ocean Exploration Trust (OET), named the ship <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/tech/ev-nautilus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E/V Nautilus</a> in homage to the fictional submarine in the book <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/33507.Twenty_Thousand_Leagues_Under_the_Sea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea</a>. 



He once described the vertical movement of actual nautiluses as reminiscent of submarine travel, since they adjust their buoyancy to move up or down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-palau-nautilus-encounter">The Palau nautilus encounter</h2>



During the final expedition of the 2024 Nautilus season, researchers on mission <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/cruise/na169" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NA169</a> - Mapping and Water Column Exploration around the Palauan Islands - encountered a backdrop of rugged seafloor terrain that was home to sixgill sharks and scattered wartime artifacts. 



Yet the main surprise arrived in the form of four elusive Palau nautilus individuals that drifted along at depths most people never see. 



“Being in the control van for our first sighting of this animal was pretty incredible,” said Jacob Ottaviani, video engineer and documentarian on this expedition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-life">Deep-sea life</h2>



Researchers classify the nautilus as the most ancient member of the cephalopod family, a group that also includes octopuses and squid. 



This particular creature is recognized as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/163321/998336" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>).



Among the 11 known chambered nautilus species, the Palau nautilus stands out for its color patterns and the shape of its shell. 



Despite its intriguing appearance, limited knowledge exists about its overall life cycle, migratory habits, and population status.



“In addition to the obvious milestone of seeing a nautilus while onboard the eponymous Nautilus, it was also surreal to encounter an animal whose body plan and behaviors have barely changed since the age of the dinosaurs,” said expedition leader and operations coordinator at OET, Samantha Wishnak.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolving-research-techniques">Evolving research techniques</h2>



Exploring the canyons, ridges, and slopes around Palau involves more than just sending remote vehicles under the waves. 



This 17-day expedition introduced wave gliders, buoyancy gliders, and autonomous surface vehicles from the <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>. 



Researchers also relied on vertical microstructure turbulence profilers to learn how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-currents-slowing-as-water-temperature-rises/">ocean currents</a> behave along Palau’s steep slopes. 



These strong underwater movements can nurture the region’s diverse marine life by stirring up nutrients. 



Meanwhile, E/V Nautilus carried out advanced mapping of the seafloor, capturing details on the shapes and contours that drive habitat formation and water flow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-hidden-clues">Searching for hidden clues</h2>



As the submersible cameras turned their gaze upslope from the base of the German Channel, the team noted changing sand ripple patterns and unexpected geological features. 



Their video surveys revealed leftover debris from human activities, including old soda bottles and rusted munitions. 



The presence of scattered wartime materials hinted at Palau’s unique history as a strategic location, and emphasized how culture, conflict, and marine science can intersect.



No one expected to spot such a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-deep-sea-hooked-squid-taningia-danae-captured-video/">rare cephalopod</a> near these remnants, especially not after so many years of exploration. The excited chatter captured by onboard microphones told a story of eager anticipation. 



For many on the expedition, it was the highlight of a journey that had already offered a spectrum of underwater surprises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-palau-nautilus-research">Next steps in Palau nautilus research</h2>



Although the Palau nautilus calls dark ocean spaces home, experts hope that fresh data from these sightings will spur further investigations into its daily habits.&nbsp;



Scientists believe these cephalopods undertake vertical journeys toward shallower water after dark and return to deeper regions by morning. Catching them in the act is a game of patience and timing.&nbsp;



Researchers aim to learn more about how nautiluses navigate, reproduce, and respond to environmental shifts that might influence their numbers.



Organizations such as OET and NOAA Ocean Exploration are also creating more comprehensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafloor-relic-uncovers-earths-ancient-mysteries/">seafloor</a> maps to see where these creatures lurk. 



In the future, accurate underwater charts may pinpoint new hotspots for observing nautiluses or protecting them. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-palau-nautilus">Protecting the Palau nautilus</h2>



Conversations about the Palau nautilus and its newly documented presence remind people that our oceans still hold species that have changed very little for countless centuries. More research on this resilient cephalopod is likely on the horizon.&nbsp;



For the explorers who finally encountered this “living fossil,” the moment brought both relief and enthusiasm for the future. 



New technologies, research methods, and international partnerships will guide the next steps, but for now, this sighting underscores why scientific inquiry at sea can be so memorable.



Watch the highlight video <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/video/2024/12/03/first-nautiloids-spotted-ev-nautilus-last-dive-season" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Research ship finds sea creature, untouched since dinosaur times, after years of searching

The remote waters of Palau have always carried a sense...

Personal computers often struggle to handle the monumental tasks typically assigned to supercomputers. Complex simulations for crash testing or medical imaging usually demand massive processing power, which forces many researchers to rely on high-performance computing clusters. 



Yet a fresh, AI-driven approach to partial differential equations is shaking up that assumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problem-with-complex-simulations">Problem with complex simulations</h2>



Partial differential equations pop up everywhere in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/nme.4588" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineering</a> and science, from modeling how a car’s body folds in a crash to predicting how a building’s foundation settles over time.&nbsp;



They’re the mathematical instructions that describe how variables such as stress or heat move through materials. 



Solving them can feel like slogging through a maze, especially when new shapes and dimensions come into play.



Each shape often requires a new simulation, which makes the entire process slow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speeding-up-equations-with-ai-and-dimon">Speeding up equations with AI and DIMON</h2>



The technology behind speeding up these massive equations was co-led by <a href="https://www.bme.jhu.edu/people/faculty/natalia-trayanova/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natalia Trayanova</a> of Johns Hopkins University (<a href="https://www.jhu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JHU</a>) after years of facing time-consuming computational processes in her research. 



The new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-can-instantly-execute-a-task-that-would-normally-take-47-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a> framework, called <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43588-024-00732-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DIMON</a> (Diffeomorphic Mapping Operator Learning), isn’t restricted by any single shape or scenario.&nbsp;



Instead, it learns how solutions behave across different geometries, allowing it to quickly predict answers to problems that once demanded days of continuous number crunching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-dimon-and-equation-behavior">AI, DIMON, and equation behavior</h2>



DIMON sets itself apart by using AI to analyze how shape influences an equation’s behavior, then mapping that knowledge to new shapes without re-solving everything from scratch. 



It retains a kind of memory of fundamental physics.&nbsp;



“This solution will have a massive impact across engineering fields, as it’s generic, scalable, and works on problems in any domain to solve partial differential equations on multiple geometries,” said Natalia Trayanova.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boosting-heart-health-checks">Boosting heart health checks</h2>



Scientists tested this method on over 1,000 virtual heart models, each with unique shapes that represent real patients’ hearts. 



These “digital twins” help predict whether someone is at risk of a life-threatening heart rhythm disorder. 



“With this new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-quantum-computers-just-got-easier-with-new-technique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> approach, the speed at which we can have a solution is unbelievable. The time to calculate the prediction of a heart digital twin is going to decrease from many hours to 30 seconds, and it will be done on a desktop computer rather than on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-computers-may-be-powered-by-brain-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supercomputer</a>,” said Trayanova. 



The aim is to figure out in advance who might need lifesaving treatment.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-speed-matters">Why speed matters</h2>



Heart health research is only one example. Faster computations make it easier to plan patient treatments without a waiting period that drags on for days. 



Engineers can also explore a wider range of designs (like testing a variety of bridge shapes or drone structures) in a fraction of the time. 



In these fields, one delay can have a domino effect, leading to slower decision-making, increased costs, and missed opportunities to refine solutions.



Accelerating these processes allows researchers and engineers to iterate more quickly, unlocking innovations that might otherwise remain out of reach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dimon-s-shape-shifting-ai-advantage">DIMON’s shape-shifting AI advantage</h2>



By eliminating the repetitive process of starting from zero each time the shape changes, DIMON has the flexibility to handle tasks across different industries.&nbsp;



“For each problem, DIMON first solves the partial differential equations on a single shape and then maps the solution to multiple new shapes. This shape-shifting ability highlights its tremendous versatility,” said postdoctoral fellow and platform developer <a href="https://minglangyin.github.io/">Minglang Yin</a>.&nbsp;



Design optimization could become more affordable and <a href="https://github.com/MinglangYin/DIMON">accessible</a>, especially for smaller companies that lack supercomputing budgets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-ai-and-differential-equations">Future of AI and differential equations</h2>



Difficult computations can stall breakthroughs in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/google-record-shattering-quantum-ai-chip-accesses-parallel-universes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineering</a> and medicine, but the arrival of a more adaptive AI might loosen that bottleneck. 



Personal computers could soon tackle problems that only the largest clusters managed before.&nbsp;



Projects that once sat on the back burner (because solving them took too long) might now move forward at full speed. That could mean safer cars, stronger bridges, and more proactive healthcare. The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43588-024-00732-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Computational Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

New AI framework turns any laptop into a supercomputer

Personal computers often struggle to handle the monumental tasks typically...

Berries from the genus Aronia, often called black chokeberry, are native to North America and have gained attention for their high content of polyphenolic compounds. 



These natural chemicals have been associated with benefits that go beyond ordinary nutrition, such as antioxidant effects that may help calm the body’s inflammatory processes. 



People have started asking about aronia’s place in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meal-timing-has-a-major-influence-on-our-health/">everyday meals</a>, hoping to see if a simple fruit could support healthy lifestyles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rising-focus-on-aronia">A rising focus on aronia</h2>



Scientists recently examined whether aronia juice might protect against diet-induced challenges linked to the gut microbiome.



This project was led by <a href="https://www.montana.edu/news/22109/stephanie-wilson-one-of-first-three-students-to-complete-montana-state-s-individual-interdisciplinary-ph-d-program">Dr. Stephanie M. G. Wilson</a> from Montana State University. Research in this area has looked at how bacteria in the digestive system respond when aronia berries are introduced, particularly in situations where unhealthy eating patterns could raise inflammation.&nbsp;



Early investigations point to intriguing changes in microbes, and hinting that this berry might shift certain bacterial communities and reduce the strain triggered by high-fat diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-findings">Science behind the findings</h2>



The research team used a mouse model with transplanted human gut microbiomes that came from donors with different inflammation levels.&nbsp;



“Aronia supplementation provided robust protection,” noted Dr. Wilson when reviewing the results at the end of the study. Scientists saw increases in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/">Eggerthellaceae</a>, a family of bacteria that can process polyphenols.&nbsp;



Some data also linked <a href="https://extension.umn.edu/trees-and-shrubs/black-chokeberry" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black chokeberry</a> intake with changes in metabolites related to improved gut barriers. 



These shifts suggest that eating or drinking aronia-based products might assist in keeping the digestive system more balanced during periods of dietary stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personalizing-nutrition">Personalizing nutrition</h2>



Inflammation can arise when people eat high-fat or sugary foods for long stretches. Researchers point out that a person’s unique microbiome might determine how well they adapt to certain dietary habits. 



Aronia’s <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/27/22/7823">benefits</a> may vary from one person to another, depending on individual gut ecology and background health status. 



For those who carry a set of gut bacteria already geared toward lower inflammation, the advantages from adding aronia might be more visible. 



This concept underscores how science is moving toward personalized nutrition, where different bodies respond to the same foods in slightly different ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-new-directions">Exploring new directions</h2>



Other published works indicate that aronia is not just a source of antioxidants; it may also be linked with healthier glucose levels and heart function.&nbsp;



The presence of anthocyanins and other phenolic substances could explain how this fruit influences complex pathways connected to metabolism. 



Traditional uses of aronia include juices, jams, and powders, but emerging science is urging a closer look at its larger dietary potential. 



While some folks already consume aronia to freshen up their breakfast or snack routines, others remain unaware of its possible contributions to gut stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-unexpected-twists">Unraveling unexpected twists</h2>



Some findings highlight the importance of gut diversity when it comes to inflammation. Researchers observed that mice with microbiomes from donors who had lower inflammation were more resilient during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-fat-diets-cause-high-anxiety-through-changes-in-gut-bacteria/">high-fat diet</a> challenge.&nbsp;



Aronia seemed to shield this group even further. This suggests that, while aronia might help most individuals, those who have specific microbial imbalances might notice the biggest improvements.&nbsp;



On a broader level, it points to how small dietary changes, like adding a berry drink, can create ripple effects that protect overall wellness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-on-the-horizon">Applications on the horizon</h2>



Aronia’s tart flavor might not suit everyone right away. In grocery stores, it often appears in juice blends, concentrates, or dried forms. 



Because it’s easy to mix with other fruits, people can add it to smoothies or desserts without changing their routines too drastically. 



Research continues to evaluate how much aronia consumption is ideal for humans, since the dose can vary widely. 



In some clinical trials, individuals experienced potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-fat-with-food-tropical-plant-in-china-has-anti-obesity-properties/">anti-obesity benefits</a>, in addition to improvements in the body’s natural defenses. These early observations pave the way for deeper investigations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-final-thoughts">Final thoughts</h2>



Aronia may carry special ingredients that bolster the gut’s ability to cope with stress, especially during nutritional challenges. Investigators are looking to see if these insights might lead to new strategies for lowering inflammation in the long term.



This berry isn’t a magic bullet, and results will differ from person to person. Its potential, though, goes beyond just delivering antioxidants: it may connect with gut microbes in ways that support healthy balance. Fresh interest in aronia keeps growing, and the findings so far hint at a fruitful path for future study. The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2023.1244692">Frontiers</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Black gold: The vitamin-packed fruit that regulates blood sugar and blood pressure

Berries from the genus Aronia, often called black chokeberry, are...

For centuries, people have been fascinated by how body art can reflect personal identity and cultural values. Ancient communities appear to have practiced tattooing for reasons that went beyond decoration, although the precise motivations continue to be studied.&nbsp;



Recent work in Peru has showcased how scientists are using laser technology to understand more about tattoo traditions from the distant past.



These advances are shedding light on the intricate craftsmanship and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-cave-painting-discovered-in-indonesia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural significance</a> of ancient body art.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasers-uncover-ancient-tattoo-details">Lasers uncover ancient tattoo details</h2>



A group of researchers examined the preserved remains of more than 100 individuals who lived about 1,200 years ago. Their mummified bodies still had visible outlines of ink, although these markings had become faint over time.&nbsp;



Using <a href="https://www.edinst.com/resource/what-is-laser-induced-fluorescence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser-stimulated fluorescence</a>, scientists created high-contrast images that brightened the ancient skin while leaving the ink in dark relief. This gave them a new view of detailed designs.



Shortly after making this discovery public, <a href="https://www.grm.cuhk.edu.hk/en/profile/vjli/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Li </a>from the <a href="https://www.cuhk.edu.hk/english/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese University of Hong Kong</a> explained that tattoos had long been recognized as a widespread art form in parts of <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-americas/beginners-guide-art-of-the-americas/mesoamerica-beginner/a/pre-columbian-mesoamerica" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pre-Hispanic South America.</a>&nbsp;



Dr. Li and colleagues noted that older techniques tend to lose clarity over the centuries. Yet the laser approach overcame these hurdles by creating images with sharpened outlines.



The researchers reported that the findings offered clues about how these works of body art may have been made with refined tools, such as cactus needle spikes or sharpened animal bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intricate-patterns-and-proud-craftsmanship">Intricate patterns and proud craftsmanship</h2>



Some of these patterns were more exact and elaborate than other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-art-discovery-reveals-15800-year-old-fishing-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artifacts</a> from the era, such as certain textiles or pottery.&nbsp;



“Tattoos were a prevalent art form in pre-Hispanic South America,” said Dr. Li, adding that these new images showed features finer than many would expect.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/ancient-tattoos_peruvian-mummies_PNAS_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/ancient-tattoos_peruvian-mummies_PNAS_1s.webp" alt="Tattoos from the pre-Columbian Chancay culture of coastal Peru. (A) Tattoo “scales” on the forearm of mummified human remains under white light. (B) LSF image of A exposing additional fine detail in the tattoo artwork. Inset showing fine line details. (C) Infrared image of A reveals less detail than LSF image in B. (D) “Vine” tattoo on top of the hand of another mummified individual under white light. (E) LSF image of D revealing fine line details. (F) Finger tattoo of a third individual under white light. (G) LSF image of F reveals additional fine lines throughout design. (H) White light image of an amorphous animal tattoo on the chest of a fourth individual. (I) LSF image of H shows no more detail, with amorphous patches and poorly defined edges suggesting a lower quality tattoo than in A, D or F. (Scale bar, 1 cm.). Credit: PNAS/CAS" class="wp-image-1957385"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Tattoos from the pre-Columbian Chancay culture of coastal Peru. (A) Tattoo “scales” on the forearm of mummified human remains under white light. (B) LSF image of A exposing additional fine detail in the tattoo artwork. Inset showing fine line details. (C) Infrared image of A reveals less detail than LSF image in B. (D) “Vine” tattoo on top of the hand of another mummified individual under white light. (E) LSF image of D revealing fine line details. (F) Finger tattoo of a third individual under white light. (G) LSF image of F reveals additional fine lines throughout design. (H) White light image of an amorphous animal tattoo on the chest of a fourth individual. (I) LSF image of H shows no more detail, with amorphous patches and poorly defined edges suggesting a lower quality tattoo than in A, D or F. (Scale bar, 1 cm.). Credit: PNAS/CAS</figcaption></figure>



The researchers proposed that this extra detail may have required special care when piercing the skin. They theorized that each dot of ink in ancient tattoos was delivered by hand, producing precision that stands out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mummies-that-still-hold-lessons">Mummies that still hold lessons</h2>



In many ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acoustic-echoes-may-have-inspired-prehistoric-rock-art/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultures</a>, human remains have provided details about daily life, spiritual beliefs, and healing practices. 



One well-known example is <a href="https://www.iceman.it/en/the-iceman/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ötzi the Iceman</a>, whose 5,300-year-old body was found in a glacier along the border of modern-day Italy and Austria. 



Specialists spotted multiple <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1296207415000023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tattoos</a> on his preserved skin and have spent decades figuring out how these markings related to his health.&nbsp;



“We know that they were real tattoos,” said <a href="https://www.eurac.edu/en/people/albert-zink" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Albert Zink</a>, head of the <a href="https://www.eurac.edu/en/institutes-centers/institute-for-mummy-studies" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Mummies and the Iceman at the European Research Academy</a> in Italy. Experts suggest that Ötzi may have used them for therapeutic reasons, such as relieving aches in his joints.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-and-symbolic-ideas">Healing and symbolic ideas</h2>



A <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23096483/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> in the journal Inflammopharmacology described how tattoos on Ötzi’s back and legs might be linked to acupuncture-like treatments. The design, position, and number of his markings have led scholars to ask whether ancient artists used them as a way of soothing pain or marking certain areas for ritual.&nbsp;



The tattoos on the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/mummies/peru" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chancay mummies</a> add another layer to this conversation because they point to artistic flourishes on top of possible symbolic meaning.



While it’s not certain these tattoos served the same purposes as Ötzi’s, it’s interesting to see how diverse groups of people approached body art in ways that might overlap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reflections-on-ancient-tattoos">Reflections on ancient tattoos</h2>



Scientists keep searching for clues about tattoo practices around the world. The Chancay mummies reveal how skilled artists were in creating slender lines and geometric forms. Ötzi’s remains highlight how some markings could be used in medicinal ways.&nbsp;



Every time a new set of discoveries emerges, people formulate a sharper view of how tattooing may have blended <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-new-details-about-centuries-old-painting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personal statements</a>, community values, and health traditions.



These findings carry a reminder that body art has never been limited to a single time or cultural background. Instead, it reflects common human impulses to decorate, express, and connect. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2421517122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Complex tattoos and body art found on 1,200-year-old Peruvian mummies

For centuries, people have been fascinated by how body art...

When birds incorporate snake skins into their nests, it’s not just for decoration - it’s a calculated strategy to ward off predators.&nbsp;



A recent study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforest-transformation-impacts-reproduction-among-cavity-nesting-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cavity-nesting birds</a> are significantly more likely to use shed snake skins in their nests than birds that build open-cup nests.&nbsp;



This behavior, found exclusively among perching birds (passerines), seems to deter predators like small mammals, giving cavity nesters a better chance of protecting their eggs.



The research, published in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/733208" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Naturalist</a>, combines historical and contemporary data to investigate this unique nesting behavior and explore its benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-birds-use-snake-skins">Why do birds use snake skins?</h2>



Predators of cavity-nesting birds often include small mammals that are also prey for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-brains-have-evolved-to-rapidly-detect-snakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes</a>. By placing shed snake skins in their nests, these birds may exploit the natural fear these predators have of snakes.



“What do snakes eat? They eat a lot of mice and small mammals,” explained lead author Vanya Rohwer, a senior research associate at Cornell University.&nbsp;



“We think that an evolutionary history of harmful interactions between small-bodied predators of birds that are often eaten by snakes should make these predators afraid of snake skin inside of a nest.”



This instinctive fear could cause predators to avoid nests lined with snake skins, effectively reducing the likelihood of predation.&nbsp;



The researchers suggest that this behavior may have evolved as a specific defense mechanism to enhance the survival of eggs and chicks in cavity nests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-behavior-across-species">Tracing the behavior across species</h2>



Although birdwatchers have documented the use of snake skins in nests for centuries, this study is the first to systematically examine the behavior.&nbsp;



Rohwer and his team began by conducting a comprehensive literature review, including data from <a href="https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds of the World</a>, academic papers, and historical nest records housed at the <a href="https://wfvz.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology</a>.



The findings revealed that the use of snake skins is exclusive to passerines, a group of birds that includes nearly half of all known bird species. Within this group, cavity-nesting birds were significantly more likely to include snake skins in their nests than birds that build open-cup nests.



“We were trying to address why birds are investing all this time and effort in finding this bizarre material,” Rohwer said.



To validate these findings, the researchers analyzed historical nest records spanning from the late 1800s to the 1950s. These records, meticulously kept by early birdwatchers, documented nest construction, species, and locations across the United States.&nbsp;



The data aligned with the team’s initial findings: cavity nests were 6.5 times more likely to contain snake skins than open-cup nests.



“That was really, really neat, and that suggested to us that we have these two totally independent lines of data that are telling a very similar story,” Rohwer said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-snake-skin-hypothesis">Testing the snake skin hypothesis</h2>



To determine the benefits of using snake skins, the researchers conducted an experiment at the Monkey Run Natural Area in Ithaca, New York. They set up over 60 nest boxes to simulate cavity nests and 80 inactive American robin nests to represent open-cup nests.&nbsp;



Half of the nests in each category were lined with snake skins collected from a local snake breeder, while the other half were left unlined.



Each nest was stocked with two quail eggs, and the team monitored them for two weeks, checking every three days. Trail cameras captured predator activity around the nests, providing crucial insights into the effectiveness of snake skins as a deterrent.



The results were clear: snake skins significantly reduced predation in cavity nests. Predators, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-play-a-vital-role-in-maintaining-forest-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small mammals</a> like flying squirrels, avoided nest boxes containing snake skins, giving those nests a higher chance of survival during the 14-day period.



“If you were in one of those nest boxes and you had snake skin, you had a much higher chance of surviving that 14-day period,” Rohwer explained. “The benefits of the material are most strongly expressed in cavity nests.”



Interestingly, snake skins did not provide the same level of protection for open-cup nests, which were visited by a wider range of predators, including birds.&nbsp;



This suggests that the enclosed structure of cavity nests enhances the protective effect of snake skins by limiting predator access and amplifying the deterrent signal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-additional-benefits-of-snake-skins-nbsp">Exploring additional benefits of snake skins&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers also considered other possible benefits of using snake skins, such as reducing nest parasites, altering microbial communities in the nest, or signaling parental quality. However, the results primarily supported the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inaudible-screams-amphibians-use-ultrasound-to-deter-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predation deterrence</a> hypothesis, particularly for cavity nests.



The findings highlight the adaptability of birds in using their environment to protect their offspring. By selecting and incorporating such an unusual material, cavity-nesting birds demonstrate a sophisticated survival strategy that likely evolved to address specific ecological challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shedding-light-on-evolutionary-strategies">Shedding light on evolutionary strategies</h2>



This study highlights the ingenuity of birds in adapting to their environments. The use of snake skins by cavity-nesting passerines represents a clever defense mechanism, reducing the risk of predation and increasing the likelihood of reproductive success.



While the behavior is most beneficial for cavity nests, it also highlights the complex interplay between predator-prey dynamics and nesting strategies. As Rohwer notes, this behavior reflects the resourcefulness of birds and their ability to exploit predator instincts to their advantage.



The research raises fascinating questions about the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uncovering-the-secrets-of-wild-turkey-nesting-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nesting behaviors</a> in birds. The use of snake skins is not just a random quirk but a deliberate and effective survival tactic. The fact that cavity-nesting passerines are more likely to engage in this behavior suggests a deep evolutionary link between nest type and predator defense strategies.



By combining historical data with modern experiments, this study offers new insights into how birds adapt their nesting practices to enhance the safety of their young. 



The research also highlights the importance of studying the intricate relationships between animals and their environments, reminding us of the innovative strategies that have evolved over millions of years.



Whether it’s the choice of nesting material or the structure of the nest itself, birds continue to surprise and inspire with their ingenuity in the face of life’s challenges.



Image Credit: Barbara Taylor/Macaulay Library



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some birds use snake skins in their nests to deter predators

When birds incorporate snake skins into their nests, it’s not...

A new study from the Silent Spring Institute reveals a troubling reality: almost one-third of Americans have been exposed to unregulated contaminants in their drinking water.&nbsp;



These harmful chemicals, not covered by current federal safety rules, could affect people’s health.&nbsp;



The study also shows that Hispanic and Black communities are more likely to face unsafe levels of these pollutants, often living closer to sources of pollution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extent-of-contaminated-water-nbsp">Extent of contaminated water&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers analyzed data from the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) collected between 2013 and 2015. The team looked at 4,815 public water systems across the country.&nbsp;



The study revealed that 27% of these systems - serving about 97 million people - had detectable levels of at least one unregulated chemical.



Public water systems are required by law to test for nearly 100 specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-drinking-water-often-contains-unsafe-levels-of-toxic-contaminants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contaminants</a>. These tests ensure that dangerous levels of those substances do not enter our taps.&nbsp;



However, thousands of other chemicals are not regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. These unregulated chemicals can slip into groundwater and surface water, sometimes reaching the water we drink.



“We know there are thousands of other harmful chemicals that are not regulated that make their way into groundwater and surface waters, and some of these chemicals can ultimately end up in drinking water supplies,” explained Laurel Schaider, a senior scientist at the <a href="https://silentspring.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Silent Spring Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-chemicals-are-in-our-water">Which chemicals are in our water?</h2>



Among the harmful substances found in drinking water are:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>1,4-dioxane: A solvent that is considered a probable human carcinogen. It can also be found in everyday consumer products.</li>



<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-filtration-system-removes-forever-chemicals-from-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PFAS</a> (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances): Chemicals used to make non-stick coatings and water-resistant fabrics. They are linked to various health issues, including cancer and thyroid problems.</li>



<li>Chlorodifluoromethane (Freon 22): A gas once used in refrigeration and manufacturing products like Teflon.</li>



<li>1,1-dichloroethane: A chemical used in making paints, plastics, and pesticides, which is also associated with cancer.</li>
</ul>



These chemicals are not regularly monitored by water systems, which means their levels could rise without triggering safety actions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disproportionate-impacts-across-communities">Disproportionate impacts across communities</h2>



The study found that communities with higher percentages of Hispanic and Black residents are more likely to have drinking water with these unregulated chemicals.&nbsp;



These communities often live closer to places that release pollution, such as industrial sites, waste treatment plants, airports, and military areas.



“Our findings show that the percentage of Hispanic and Black residents in a community is a consistent predictor of poorer water quality,” said Aaron Maruzzo, lead author of the study and a scientist at Silent Spring Institute.



This situation cannot be explained by income or socioeconomic status alone. The researchers suggest that systemic issues like racism and the historical practice of redlining - which led to placing industrial facilities near communities of color - contribute to the unequal distribution of pollution and contaminated water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contaminated-water-across-the-nation-nbsp">Contaminated water across the nation&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0442-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Past research</a> by Silent Spring Institute has shown that Hispanic residents are more likely to drink water with high nitrate levels, which can lead to health problems like colorectal and bladder <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trained-dogs-can-detect-bladder-cancer-in-other-dogs/">cancer</a>.&nbsp;



Other studies found that community water systems serving majority Hispanic and Black populations often have higher PFAS levels.



The new study is notable because it examines disparities in exposure to PFAS and other unregulated contaminants across all U.S. states, Tribal lands, and territories, offering a comprehensive look at nationwide water quality issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-growing-pfas-problem">The growing PFAS problem</h2>



PFAS chemicals are more widespread in drinking water than previously thought. As recent tests reveal, many more people may be affected by these substances than the data from 2013 to 2015 indicated.&nbsp;



This makes the study’s estimate of 97 million residents likely an undercount, highlighting an even larger problem.



In April 2024, the EPA set new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strict-pfas-limits-will-make-drinking-water-safer-for-100-million-americans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a> standards for six PFAS chemicals, marking a step forward. However, the study underscores a larger need for federal action: regulating more harmful contaminants and addressing the disproportionate exposure that communities of color face.



“Ultimately, we need to do a better job at protecting source waters and reducing discharges of pollutants into water bodies that feed into our drinking water supplies,” Schaider emphasized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-toward-safer-and-fairer-water-quality-nbsp">Moving toward safer and fairer water quality&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers hope that by making their inventory of unregulated contaminants publicly available, policymakers will be better equipped to create realistic plans for preventing and mitigating water contamination.&nbsp;



This data can guide efforts to ensure safe drinking water for everyone, especially those most at risk.



The study casts a spotlight on a critical public health issue: the uneven burden of contaminated drinking water on minority communities. 



Addressing this challenge involves not only setting stricter regulations for a wider range of chemicals but also tackling the environmental injustices that place these populations at higher risk. 



By improving source water protection and reducing pollution, society can work toward equitable access to safe drinking water for all Americans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/EHP14721" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Health Perspectives</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Nearly 100 million Americans exposed to contaminated drinking water

A new study from the Silent Spring Institute reveals a...

The infamous Sydney funnel-web spider, long considered a single species with a bite more dangerous than any other spider, has now been reclassified into three separate species.&nbsp;



An international team of scientists has revealed that the funnel-web spiders in the Sydney region include the “classic” Sydney funnel-web (Atrax robustus), the Southern Sydney funnel-web (Atrax montanus), and the newly discovered Newcastle funnel-web (Atrax christenseni), affectionately nicknamed “Big Boy.”



The research was conducted by experts from the <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/en/institutes/leibniz-institutes-all-lists/leibniz-institute-for-the-analysis-of-biodiversity-change" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz Institute for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change</a> (LIB) in Germany, the Australian Museum (AM) in Sydney, and <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> in Adelaide. 



By combining anatomical studies with advanced DNA analysis, the team uncovered hidden diversity within this iconic spider group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-diversity-of-funnel-web-spiders-nbsp">Hidden diversity of funnel-web spiders&nbsp;</h2>



The study marks a major shift in understanding the Sydney funnel-web <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-turn-to-cannibalism-when-food-sources-are-limited/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spider</a>, with each newly identified species occupying distinct regions in New South Wales.



“Our research uncovered hidden diversity among funnel-web spiders,” explained lead researcher Dr. Stephanie Loria from LIB.&nbsp;



“The Newcastle funnel-web, Atrax christenseni - ‘Big Boy’ - is a totally new species. The ‘true’ Sydney funnel-web, Atrax robustus, centers on the North Shore of Sydney and the Central Coast, while the Southern Sydney funnel-web, Atrax montanus, is a resurrected species name from 1914.”



The researchers examined fine morphological traits and genetic data to differentiate the species. Dr. Helen Smith, an arachnologist at the Australian Museum and co-author of the study, noted that variations within the Sydney funnel-web spider had been observed before, but only now could these differences be conclusively analyzed.



“When our international team of researchers ‘reopened the case’ on the Sydney funnel-web, we looked at fine morphological details and gene sequences across the region and found the species split into three distinct groups,” Smith said.



The original Sydney funnel-web (Atrax robustus) is now confirmed to inhabit Sydney’s northern suburbs and the Central Coast, while Atrax montanus resides in the Blue Mountains to the south and west of Sydney.&nbsp;



The Newcastle funnel-web (Atrax christenseni) is restricted to the Newcastle area, approximately 150 kilometers north of Sydney.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery-of-big-boy">The discovery of “Big Boy”</h2>



The identification of Atrax christenseni was inspired by reports of unusually large male funnel-web spiders brought to the <a href="https://www.reptilepark.com.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Reptile Park</a> as part of its Venom Program. These specimens, collected by spider enthusiast Kane Christensen, sparked the team’s investigation into their distinct traits.



“Kane has been instrumental in the identification of this new species, collecting specimens so that we could do further analysis as well as shooting terrific photos of our ‘Big Boy,’” Smith said.



In recognition of Christensen’s contributions, the researchers named the species Atrax christenseni in his honor. Christensen expressed his gratitude for the acknowledgment:



“There is no greater compliment than to have another scientist name a funnel-web species after me. I am deeply honored and accept it with great pleasure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-antivenom-production">Implications for antivenom production</h2>



The findings have practical significance, particularly for the production of funnel-web <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-antivenom-to-heal-all-snakebites-is-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antivenom</a>. Since the 1980s, venom from Sydney funnel-web spiders has been used to create an effective antivenom that has prevented any fatalities since its introduction.



“The antivenom for Sydney funnel-web spiders might be optimized by considering biological differentiation at the species level,” said Danilo Harms, co-lead author of the study and researcher at LIB.



While the current antivenom remains effective against all three species, understanding venom differences could lead to improvements in treatment and support further biochemical studies of spider venoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-importance-of-spiders-nbsp">Ecological importance of spiders&nbsp;</h2>



Spiders play a critical role in global ecosystems and have adapted to diverse environments over more than 300 million years of evolution.



“Spiders are older than the dinosaurs. In more than 300 million years of existence, they’ve mastered nearly every environment on Earth and play a vital role across global ecosystems,” said Kris Helgen, chief scientist and director of the <a href="https://australian.museum/get-involved/amri/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Museum Research Institute</a> (AMRI).



The Australian Museum, which houses one of the world’s largest spider collections, including thousands of funnel-web specimens, played a vital role in this research. By combining historical collections with cutting-edge genetic analysis, the study highlights the enduring value of museum specimens in advancing scientific understanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-forward-in-biodiversity-research">A step forward in biodiversity research</h2>



The reclassification of the Sydney funnel-web spider into three distinct species showcases the complexity of Australia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> and the importance of revisiting assumptions with modern tools. 



The discovery also underscores the significance of international collaboration and historical collections in revealing hidden aspects of nature.



Dr. Loria noted that none of this would have been possible without the collaboration between institutions and the use of both historical and modern techniques.



“This new research, which relies on these collections, showcases their scientific importance and the insights that come from studying museum specimens in a thoroughly modern way,” Helgen added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-for-funnel-web-spiders-nbsp">A new chapter for funnel-web spiders&nbsp;</h2>



With this new understanding of the Sydney funnel-web spider’s diversity, researchers and conservationists have an improved perspective on these fascinating arachnids.&nbsp;



The discovery of Atrax christenseni, in particular, highlights the ongoing potential for uncovering new species and learning more about Australia’s unique wildlife.



As Christensen remarked, this research not only sheds light on the funnel-web’s incredible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazing-adaptation-early-humans-thrived-in-extreme-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptations</a> but also celebrates the collaboration between scientists, enthusiasts, and institutions that made it possible. 



By continuing to explore and study nature’s complexity, we deepen our understanding of the natural world and its many marvels.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Australia's deadliest spider is actually three different species

The infamous Sydney funnel-web spider, long considered a single species...

Gender wage gaps aren't just a concern for adults. Recent studies show that these inequities begin to form much earlier.



In a study from NYU, researchers have found that boys and girls as young as six years old already exhibit signs of the wage gap, thus perpetuating the cycle of economic disparity.



The experts found that boys tend to value their worth more - asking for bigger rewards for the same work- while girls tend to undervalue their worth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boys-overestimate-their-abilities">Boys overestimate their abilities </h2>



The wage gap isn't just about work. It's about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-we-see-the-world-based-on-what-we-expect-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perception</a>. How much do you think you're worth? 



It turns out that boys estimate themselves to be worth more than girls do, even when performing the same activities. They don't just think they're worth more - they ask for more too.



“Our findings suggest that boys tend to overestimate their abilities compared to girls - and relative to their actual performance. This inflated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-digital-technology-influence-our-sense-of-self/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-perception</a> may lead boys to feel more entitled to push the boundaries during negotiations,” explained Sophie Arnold, a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boys-and-girls-same-work-different-pay">Boys and girls: Same work, different pay?</h2>



The research was focused on boys and girls who were between six and nine years old. The children were introduced to hypothetical scenarios where they could negotiate bonuses with a teacher or a neighbor for completing tasks.



The tasks were identical, and both boys and girls believed they would face little backlash for negotiation and would receive similar rewards.



When asked to identify images rapidly on a computer screen, boys and girls performed the same. After the task, the children were informed that they were due to receive a bonus: pictures of animals.



When asked how many pictures they thought they deserved, boys asked for larger bonuses than girls, even after performing at the same level. And this wasn't a slight difference. A typical boy asked for more bonus pictures than about 65% of the girls did.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-perception">The power of perception </h2>



Boys thought they did better than girls, even though the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-sleep-transforms-brain-performance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">performance</a> was equal. And those boys who believed they did better were more likely to negotiate for higher bonuses.



This suggests that one key to understanding the wage gap may involve focusing on perception - not ability.



“Boys leveraged their perceptions of how common and permissible it is to ask for more, while girls did not,” explained Katherine McAuliffe, a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Boston College.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-wage-gap">Addressing the wage gap</h2>



Understanding the early roots of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gender</a> wage gap can help us shape strategies and policies that tackle the issue head-on.



It's not enough to simply address wage disparities among adults. We need to tackle the problem at its source - in childhood.



Addressing the early emergence of the gender pay gap requires targeted interventions to boost girls' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/power-posing-gives-children-an-instant-confidence-boost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">confidence</a> and negotiation skills. Experts suggest that parents and educators play a critical role in shaping how children perceive their worth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-the-cycle">Breaking the cycle</h2>



Encouraging girls to advocate for themselves and providing positive reinforcement for negotiating can help close the gap before it widens.



Structured activities that teach financial literacy and negotiation techniques tailored for young children could equip girls with the tools they need to value their contributions appropriately.



Schools can also incorporate lessons that highlight successful female role models who have broken barriers in their respective fields, thus inspiring young girls to challenge societal expectations.



By normalizing self-advocacy and negotiation from an early age, both boys and girls can learn to approach opportunities with equal confidence and ambition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-media-and-society">The role of media and society</h2>



Beyond individual efforts, societal and media representations contribute significantly to the early development of gendered perceptions of worth. 



Studies suggest that traditional portrayals of gender roles in media often reinforce the idea that boys should aim higher and ask for more, while girls are encouraged to be accommodating and grateful for what they receive. 



Cartoons, books, and movies often depict male characters in leadership and negotiation roles, while female characters take on supportive, nurturing roles.



Addressing this requires a cultural shift in how we represent gender in media, in addition to encouraging narratives that showcase equality in leadership and success.



Parents and educators can introduce children to diverse media that challenge these stereotypes and promote the idea that ambition and self-advocacy are valuable traits for everyone, regardless of gender. 



The earlier these ideas are introduced, the more likely they are to influence long-term perceptions and behaviors.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fdev0001898" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Developmental Psychology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wage gap starts young: Boys value their worth more than girls

Gender wage gaps aren't just a concern for adults. Recent...

A team of scientists has recreated the face of an ancient human ancestor that might offer a fresh glimpse of our distant past. This reconstructed visage of "Dragon Man" is linked to a group of early humans called the Denisovans, who roamed parts of Asia for thousands of years. 



Researchers believe these individuals may have handed down bits of genetic material that shaped the course of modern human evolution by helping our ancestors to adjust to different landscapes and climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragon-man-and-the-denisovans">Dragon Man and the Denisovans</h2>



<a href="https://gurche.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">John Gurche</a>, working with National Geographic, is the paleoartist behind this striking portrait. Denisovans are known mainly from a sparse record of fossils and DNA first extracted in 2010 from a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0455-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">finger bone</a> in Siberia.



Scientists say these ancient humans lived between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/115000-year-old-human-footprints-found-alathar-lake-arabian-peninsula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">200,000 and 25,000 years ago</a>, crossed paths with Homo sapiens, and left us with genetic traces seen today in populations across Southeast Asia and Oceania. 



Neanderthals and these early humans are our closest extinct relatives, and they likely contributed to our ability to move into and adapt to new areas of the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-harbin-skull-matters">Why the Harbin skull matters</h2>



A laborer in northeastern China uncovered a remarkably complete fossil many years ago, which became known as the <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/stunning-dragon-man-skull-may-be-elusive-denisovan-or-new-species-human" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harbin skull</a>. 



Some experts suspect it could have belonged to a Denisovan because it bears certain resemblances to a 160,000-year-old <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/01/science/denisovans-tibet-jawbone-dna.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jawbone</a> that was discovered on the Tibetan Plateau.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/dragon-man_Denisovan_Harbin-skull-photo_credit-CAS_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/dragon-man_Denisovan_Harbin-skull-photo_credit-CAS_1s.webp" alt="The Harbin Skull is the cranium of a Denisovan nicknamed Dragon Man. Credit: CAS" class="wp-image-1957356"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Harbin Skull is the cranium of a Denisovan nicknamed Dragon Man. Credit: CAS</figcaption></figure>



That jawbone, found in <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/05/denisovan-jawbone-roof-world/588442/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Xiahe Cave</a>, could not be used to extract DNA evidence, but researchers used a method called paleoproteomics to determine its lineage.



Because the Harbin fossil dates back roughly 150,000 years and was located in the same broad region where Denisovans once roamed, many scientists think it may be the most complete example of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-tools-ever-made-on-earth-hominins-3-million-years-ago-cradle-of-humankind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elusive people</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-denisovan-s-face">Clues from Denisovan's face</h2>



Gurche built his <a href="https://youtu.be/eatqu7hWw5g?si=1Nav7LXrwy-Z98qU" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">model</a> by starting with a plastic replica of the Harbin skull, which he studied to gauge features like overall jaw breadth and prominent brow.&nbsp;



His aim was “To get as close as I could to looking into the eyes of these extinct species,” he told <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/other-human-species-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic</a>. He estimated eye size by referencing the ratio of eyeball diameter to eye socket size that African apes and modern humans share, then used markings on the fossil to place chewing muscles in the right spots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragon-man-s-head-and-nose-shape">Dragon Man's head and nose shape</h2>



Studying the bone structure gave Gurche clues about the nose’s width and protrusion. 



Scientists often rely on similar methods for ancient reconstructions, since cartilage does not survive in fossils. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/dragon-man_Denisovan_human-ancestor_illustration_credit-Chuang-Zhao_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/dragon-man_Denisovan_human-ancestor_illustration_credit-Chuang-Zhao_1s.webp" alt="Illustration of a Denisovan named Dragon Man in his natural habitat. His large head could be an adaptation to the harsh environment in which he likely lived. Chuang Zhao" class="wp-image-1957360"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of a Denisovan named Dragon Man in his natural habitat. His large head could be an adaptation to the harsh environment in which he likely lived. Chuang Zhao</figcaption></figure>



Their logic stems from comparing multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wooden-structure-completely-rewrites-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominin species</a> and applying standard patterns of human and ape anatomy. 



By layering muscle over the replicated skull, Gurche produced a model with a wide mouth, a robust brow, and a braincase in the ballpark of a modern human’s - traits that underscore both our shared lineage and the intriguing diversity of this lost group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-travel-and-interbreeding">Evidence of travel and interbreeding</h2>



Denisovans likely ventured far, with fossils and DNA traces turning up from Siberia to Southeast Asia. 



Some experts point to strong signs that they interbred with Homo sapiens, possibly boosting our ancestors’ ability to cope with unfamiliar altitudes and diseases.



The story goes that our forebears met these other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a>, passed along genes that improved survival, and then forged onward to inhabit new territories. 



However, we still do not know why Denisovans themselves vanished, or how they managed to cover such large distances in eras when travel was slow and difficult.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-dragon-man-and-denisovans">Next steps for Dragon Man and Denisovans</h2>



Experts say that solving the mystery of how these people journeyed across thousands of miles - and figuring out why they vanished - requires more fossils. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/dragon-man_Denisovan_Harbin-skull-recreation_portrait_credit-Chuang-Zhao_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/dragon-man_Denisovan_Harbin-skull-recreation_portrait_credit-Chuang-Zhao_1s.webp" alt="Recreating the face of 'Dragon Man,' an ancient human cousin named Denisovans. Credit: Chuang Zhao/CAS" class="wp-image-1957358"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Recreating the face of 'Dragon Man,' an ancient human cousin named Denisovans. Credit: Chuang Zhao/CAS</figcaption></figure>



Compared to Neanderthals, Denisovan remains are exceptionally scarce, which is why the Harbin skull’s possible Denisovan link has excited many anthropologists. 



Any additional finds, such as teeth or skull fragments, can help refine our picture of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homo-juluensis-new-human-species-vanished-just-fifty-thousand-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient relatives</a> and fill in details about their environment, social behavior, and diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-into-the-past">A glimpse into the past</h2>



In February 2025, National Geographic featured Gurche’s Denisovan model, marking a milestone in our understanding of who these people were. Some see this lifelike creation as a vital leap for anyone curious about human origins.&nbsp;



The crossbreeding evidence, the scattered remains, and now this reconstructed face provide a chance to reflect on how many human groups once shared our planet. 



The Denisovans’ disappearance still mystifies scientists, but every new bit of data reveals more about their place in our lineage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-dragon-man-and-denisovans">Understanding Dragon Man and Denisovans</h2>



While we might never get every answer about the Denisovans, the puzzle pieces we do have hint at a world filled with varied human populations. 



Each group may have contributed to the genetic tapestry that makes our species what it is today. 



The Harbin skull’s similarities to that jawbone in Xiahe Cave underscore how a single fossil find can reshape our thinking on early humans. 



As more studies zero in on these and other artifacts, a fuller narrative of the Denisovans’ story may surface - one that reminds us of our interwoven past.



A version of this story will appear in the February 2025 issue of <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/other-human-species-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic magazine</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Recreating the face of 'Dragon Man,' an ancient human cousin

A team of scientists has recreated the face of an...

A deadly bird flu outbreak has devastated U.S. poultry farms, leading to the loss of over 20 million egg-laying chickens in the last quarter alone. This marks the most severe blow to America’s egg supply since the outbreak began in 2022. 



The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports that the staggering toll includes not only birds that succumbed to the virus but also those culled to prevent further spread. The consequences have been dire, leading to record-high egg prices across all production systems, including conventional, cage-free, and certified organic.



The federal government has allocated $1.25 billion to compensate farmers for their losses, aiming to encourage prompt reporting of infections and curb the virus’s expansion. 



This financial support highlights the scale of the crisis, as poultry farmers struggle to maintain operations in the face of widespread culling and biosecurity challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-is-severe-in-the-u-s">Bird flu is severe in the U.S.</h2>



Bird flu <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-virus-preparing-for-tomorrow-despite-minimal-risk-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outbreaks</a> tend to peak during the winter months as wild birds migrate south, bringing the virus with them. 



Cooler temperatures allow the virus to survive longer in the environment, increasing the likelihood of transmission among poultry flocks. However, this season has seen an alarming development: the virus has jumped beyond poultry and into dairy herds.



Hundreds of infected dairy herds have been identified, with contaminated raw milk acting as a vehicle for transmission. 



The virus spreads through contact with farmers’ clothing, shared equipment, and infected animals moving between farms. The rapid expansion into dairy livestock has raised new concerns about the virus’s adaptability and potential risks to food safety.



California has been particularly hard-hit, prompting the state to declare a state of emergency. The crisis has affected both small and large-scale poultry farms, leading to widespread economic strain and disruptions in the supply chain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-bird-flu-dangerous-to-humans">Is bird flu dangerous to humans?</h2>



While bird flu remains primarily an animal health crisis, human infections have occurred. 



The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDC</a>) has reported 66 human cases of bird flu in the U.S. since the virus emerged. Most of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/efforts-to-control-bird-flu-are-not-working-are-humans-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cases</a> have been mild, affecting farm workers with direct exposure to infected poultry or dairy animals.



However, a tragic recent development has heightened concerns. A fatal case was reported in Louisiana, linked to the D1.1 strain of the virus that has been spreading in wild birds. This marks a rare but serious escalation, prompting renewed attention to the virus’s potential human health impacts.



Despite this, researchers believe the strain responsible for many human infections has mutated to be less severe in people compared to other circulating strains. While this offers some reassurance, experts continue to monitor the situation closely, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-mutations-found-in-first-severe-u-s-human-case/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> can evolve rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debate-over-a-bird-flu-vaccine">Debate over a bird flu vaccine</h2>



In response to the escalating outbreak, the <a href="https://www.usda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USDA</a> has announced plans to stockpile a new poultry vaccine targeting the D1.1 strain. However, officials remain cautious about widespread vaccination. 



There are concerns that vaccinating poultry could mask symptoms, making it harder to detect outbreaks. Additionally, some countries may refuse to import vaccinated poultry, fearing the virus could still be present in asymptomatic birds.



The poultry industry remains divided on the issue. Some farmers support vaccination as a means of controlling the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-outbreak-in-domestic-cats-raises-new-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outbreak</a>, while others worry about the economic impact of potential trade restrictions. 



For now, biosecurity measures, early detection, and culling remain the primary tools for controlling the virus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-household-pets">Threats to household pets</h2>



The bird flu virus is no longer just a threat to chickens and cows - it has already infected household pets. In two separate incidents, raw pet food made from infected animals was linked to the deaths of cats in California and Oregon.



This highlights how the virus can spread through contaminated food products, raising concerns about broader risks to domestic animals.



“All recent detections of H5N1 [bird flu] in cats had these things in common: the infected cats ate wild birds, unpasteurized milk, raw poultry, and/or raw poultry pet food,” noted an FDA spokesperson.



This development raises alarms about food safety and the importance of avoiding raw, unpasteurized products that could carry the virus. Experts warn pet owners to be vigilant and avoid feeding their animals raw poultry or unpasteurized dairy products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-an-evolving-crisis">Managing an evolving crisis</h2>



The bird flu <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avian-flu-is-now-spreading-from-mammal-to-mammal-alarming-health-officials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outbreak</a> continues to evolve, with new cases emerging in poultry, livestock, and even humans. 



The economic impact is already being felt, with rising egg prices, farmer losses, and disruptions in poultry production. The federal response, including financial compensation and vaccine stockpiling, reflects the seriousness of the crisis.



However, uncertainty remains. Will the virus continue to spread among dairy herds? Could human infections increase? Will poultry vaccination become a viable solution, or will trade concerns prevent widespread adoption?



For now, experts emphasize the need for strict biosecurity measures, rapid detection, and ongoing research into the virus’s evolution. Consumers can also take precautions by purchasing pasteurized dairy products, avoiding raw pet food, and staying informed about the latest developments.



As the situation unfolds, one thing is clear: bird flu is no longer just a poultry problem. It’s a growing public health and economic challenge that requires continued vigilance and action.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bird flu outbreak has killed 20 million chickens in the U.S.

A deadly bird flu outbreak has devastated U.S. poultry farms,...

In an extraordinary blend of history, science, and detective work, paleontologists have identified a new species of predatory dinosaur in lost photos.



Named&nbsp;Tameryraptor markgrafi, this massive theropod roamed the Earth approximately 95 million years ago, during the mid-Cretaceous period.



What makes this discovery particularly fascinating is that the original fossil was thought to be lost forever. It was excavated in Egypt’s Bahariya Oasis in 1914 and later stored in Munich. However, it was destroyed in World War II during an air raid.



The recent identification of this new species is the result of an innovative analysis of long-forgotten photographs taken before the fossil’s destruction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-of-the-largest-land-carnivores-in-history">One of the largest land carnivores in history</h2>



The story of&nbsp;Tameryraptor&nbsp;begins in the early 20th century with paleontologist Ernst Stromer von Reichenbach, a Munich-based scientist with a deep interest in North African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a>. 



During an expedition in 1914, Stromer’s team unearthed the remains of a giant carnivorous dinosaur from the Bahariya Oasis in Egypt. The fossil was shipped to Germany and placed in the Bavarian State Collection for Paleontology and Geology.



At the time, Stromer classified the specimen as&nbsp;Carcharodontosaurus, a genus of large theropods known for their shark-like teeth. He described it as one of the largest land carnivores in Earth's history, comparable in size to&nbsp;Tyrannosaurus rex, which would evolve several million years later in North America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lost-dinosaur-fossil">Lost dinosaur fossil</h2>



The fossil remained in Munich for decades until a devastating event altered its fate forever. On the night of July 21, 1944, an Allied bombing raid targeted the city, striking the Old Academy building where the Bavarian State Collection was housed. 



A massive fire engulfed the facility, and the entire collection (including the Egyptian dinosaur fossils) was lost in the blaze. Only Stromer’s notes, a few illustrations, and some black-and-white photographs of the specimens survived.



With the physical evidence gone, Carcharodontosaurus faded into obscurity - its existence known only through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-oldest-dinosaur-is-completely-rewriting-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">historical records</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resurrecting-a-dinosaur-from-the-archives">Resurrecting a dinosaur from the archives</h2>



More than 80 years later, paleontologists have rewritten this chapter of history. Maximilian Kellermann, a master’s student at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (<a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LMU</a>), made a remarkable discovery while researching archival material.



He unearthed previously unknown photographs of the original <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> taken before its destruction in 1944. These images, preserved in university archives, provided an unexpected window into the past.



“What we saw in the historical images surprised us all. The Egyptian dinosaur fossil depicted there differs significantly from more recent Carcharodontosaurus finds in Morocco. Stromer's original classification was thus incorrect," said Kellermann. 



"We identified a completely different, previously unknown predatory dinosaur species here and named it Tameryraptor markgrafi."



Kellermann collaborated with renowned dinosaur specialist Professor Oliver Rauhut from the SNSB-<a href="https://bspg.snsb.de/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BSPG</a> and Dr. Elena Cuesta from LMU.



The analysis revealed that the fossil possessed unique anatomical features that set it apart from&nbsp;Carcharodontosaurus. Among its distinguishing traits were symmetrical teeth and a prominent nasal horn, both of which indicated it was a new dinosaur species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-a-forgotten-fossil-hunter">Honoring a forgotten fossil hunter</h2>



The new species was given the name&nbsp;Tameryraptor markgrafi. The first part of the name,&nbsp;Tameryraptor, references the ancient Egyptian term "Tamery," which means "the promised land." 



This nod to Egypt’s historical significance highlights the dinosaur’s origins. The second part,&nbsp;markgrafi, honors Richard Markgraf, the fossil collector who originally excavated the specimen more than a century ago.



Despite its destruction, Tameryraptor has finally been recognized, bringing Markgraf’s discovery back into the scientific spotlight. The story also highlights the importance of Markgraf’s contributions, which were overshadowed by war and time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-north-africa-s-prehistoric-past">North Africa’s prehistoric past</h2>



The identification of&nbsp;Tameryraptor markgrafi&nbsp;challenges previous assumptions about North Africa’s Cretaceous dinosaur diversity. 



For many years, paleontologists believed that&nbsp;Carcharodontosaurus&nbsp;dominated the region’s predatory ecosystem. However, the discovery of&nbsp;Tameryraptor&nbsp;suggests a more complex picture, with multiple large carnivorous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra-new-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered-in-spain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> coexisting.



"Presumably, the dinosaur fauna of North Africa was much more diverse than we previously thought. This work shows that it can be worthwhile for paleontologists to dig not only in the ground, but also in old archives," said Rauhut.



Interestingly, Tameryraptor appears to share evolutionary links with not only Carcharodontosaurus but also with Metriacanthosaurs, a group of predatory dinosaurs from Asia. This connection raises intriguing questions about dinosaur dispersal and migration patterns between continents during the Cretaceous period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-dinosaur-fossils-are-needed">More dinosaur fossils are needed</h2>



While the rediscovery of the lost dinosaur from archival photographs is an incredible achievement, the researchers acknowledge that much remains unknown. Without physical fossils to study, some aspects of the dinosaur’s anatomy and classification remain uncertain.



"A more comprehensive assessment of the Cretaceous predatory dinosaur fauna from the Bahariya Oasis would require the recovery of more fossils from the site," noted Rauhut.



The Bahariya Oasis, once a hotbed of dinosaur discoveries, has been largely unexplored in modern times. Future expeditions to the region could yield new fossils that provide further insights into the prehistoric ecosystem. 



Paleontologists hope that renewed interest in the area will lead to fresh discoveries that can complement the findings from Stromer’s lost collection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-lost-dinosaur-finds-its-place-in-history">A lost dinosaur finds its place in history</h2>



The rediscovery of Tameryraptor markgrafi is a testament to the power of historical records and modern scientific investigation. 



Despite being lost for eight decades, this dinosaur has been brought back to life through archival research, proving that fossils are not the only path to breakthrough discoveries in paleontology.



This story also serves as a reminder of the devastating impact of war on scientific heritage. Countless fossils, artifacts, and historical specimens were destroyed during World War II, and many of them were irreplaceable.



However, Tameryraptor demonstrates that knowledge can sometimes be recovered, even when the physical evidence is gone.



As researchers continue to explore both ancient archives and new excavation sites, who knows what other forgotten fossils might one day be rediscovered? 



Perhaps more lost dinosaurs from Stromer’s collection are waiting to be identified, hidden in dusty photographs and forgotten notebooks, ready to step back into the pages of prehistory.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0311096" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

New predatory dinosaur species identified in lost photos

In an extraordinary blend of history, science, and detective work,...

Hummingbirds may be among the smallest birds in the world, but they endure some of the most grueling migrations. Some species travel more than 9,000 km (5,590 miles) annually, relying almost entirely on nectar from wildflowers to fuel their journeys. 



This nectar is quickly converted into fat, which serves as their primary energy reserve. However, climate change and habitat loss are making the distribution of wildflowers along the birds' migratory routes increasingly unpredictable.



To cope with these challenges, hummingbirds rely on a remarkable physiological adaptation called torpor, a temporary hibernation-like state that allows them to conserve energy. 



Understanding how and when hummingbirds use torpor is crucial for conservation efforts, especially as environmental changes continue to threaten their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hummingbird-migration-and-food-availability">Hummingbird migration and food availability </h2>



A recent study led by Shayne R. Halter, a Ph.D. candidate at The University of New Mexico (<a href="https://www.unm.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNM</a>), provides new insights into how hummingbirds regulate their energy reserves during migration.



The research was conducted in collaboration with UNM Professor Blair Wolf and <a href="https://www.uwyo.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wyoming</a> Professor Emeritus Carlos Martinez del Rio.



Halter’s research focused on Rufous (Selasphorus rufus) and Calliope (Selasphorus calliope) hummingbirds migrating through New Mexico in the fall. 



The goal was to determine the role of fat reserves in regulating torpor usage and how these tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbird-wings-the-future-of-robotic-flight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> adjust their metabolism in response to uncertain food availability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conserving-energy-to-survive">Conserving energy to survive</h2>



Torpor is a survival mechanism that allows hummingbirds to dramatically lower their metabolic rate and body temperature for several hours, typically overnight. Unlike hibernation, which lasts for days or months, torpor is temporary and allows the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbird-bills-are-an-evolutionary-wonder/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> to conserve energy when food sources are scarce.



"During torpor, hummingbirds are unaware of their surroundings, making them more vulnerable to predation and other risks. For this reason, torpor should only be used when needed," Shayne Halter explains.



Hummingbirds enter torpor when their body fat reserves are too low to sustain their high-energy needs through the night. Without it, they risk starving before sunrise, when they can begin feeding again. 



Halter’s research identified a critical fat threshold that determines when a hummingbird will enter torpor. His findings show that hummingbirds initiate torpor when their fat levels drop below 500 milligrams at night and ensure they wake up with at least 180 milligrams of fat in the morning to sustain them until they find food. 



If a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> has enough fat, it will avoid torpor, since staying alert reduces the risk of predation. If food is scarce and fat reserves are low, the bird will enter torpor and adjust its duration to preserve a minimal morning fat reserve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-habitat-loss">Climate change and habitat loss</h2>



Hummingbirds are facing increasing challenges due to climate change and habitat destruction. The southwestern United States, a critical migratory corridor, is experiencing rising temperatures, prolonged droughts, and unpredictable nectar availability.



Land-use changes, such as urban development and the spread of invasive, non-nectar-producing plants, are further reducing food sources along their migration routes.



"Annual migrations are demanding events for hummingbirds and are often accompanied by high mortality rates. The arid southwest is becoming warmer and drier, and these conditions are already affecting the timing and distribution of nectar sources," noted Halter.



These environmental shifts may force hummingbirds to rely more on torpor, potentially altering their migration success rates and survival. If nectar becomes too scarce, more birds may struggle to maintain the fat reserves they need to sustain their journeys. 



As their environment becomes increasingly unpredictable, their ability to adapt will be tested like never before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-the-health-of-hummingbirds">Monitoring the health of hummingbirds</h2>



Halter’s study not only advances our understanding of hummingbird physiology but also provides a predictive model for conservation efforts. 



By analyzing torpor frequencies, durations, and fat reserves, scientists can assess the ecological health of hummingbird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hummingbirds-deal-with-their-need-for-flight-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> and monitor how they are adapting to environmental changes.



A better understanding of how hummingbirds regulate energy during migration can help guide conservation strategies.



Protecting and restoring native wildflower habitats along migratory routes will be crucial for ensuring that hummingbirds have consistent food sources. Identifying key stopover sites where hummingbirds refuel and ensuring these locations remain rich in nectar-producing plants could further support their survival.



Researchers can also use Halter’s predictive model to determine how climate change might affect hummingbird migration patterns and energy balance in the future.



By providing critical data on how much energy hummingbirds need to survive and how they adapt to changing conditions, this research offers valuable insights for conservationists working to protect these tiny but resilient birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-migrating-hummingbirds">Future of migrating hummingbirds</h2>



Hummingbirds are an incredible example of nature’s adaptability. Despite their small size, they undertake some of the most demanding migrations in the animal kingdom. Hummingbirds ability to strategically use torpor to survive periods of low food availability is a testament to their resilience.



However, as climate change and habitat loss continue to threaten their food supply, these birds may be forced to adapt in ways that could impact their long-term survival. 



By understanding their energy needs and the role of torpor in their survival, we can take meaningful steps to protect these remarkable birds for generations to come. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2489" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hummingbirds have an incredible strategy to survive food shortages

Hummingbirds may be among the smallest birds in the world,...

Florida’s wetlands are home to two striking and often confused waterbirds - the&nbsp;anhinga&nbsp;and the&nbsp;double-crested cormorant. Both are expert divers that rely on their feet to propel themselves underwater. They are commonly seen perched on branches or docks with their wings spread wide to dry.



However, despite their similar appearances and behaviors, new research from the&nbsp;University of Miami&nbsp;reveals that these birds are quite different in their&nbsp;physiology, hunting techniques, and metabolism.



A research team led by&nbsp;Jeff White, a recent&nbsp;biology doctoral graduate, spent months studying these species to understand their unique adaptations.



The findings, which build on earlier work by ornithologist&nbsp;Oscar "Bud" Owre, offer fresh insights into these fascinating birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-anhingas-and-cormorants-hunt">How anhingas and cormorants hunt</h2>



To the casual observer, anhingas and cormorants might seem interchangeable. 



Both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-and-evolution-shape-the-unique-sounds-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> dive beneath the water’s surface in search of fish and then emerge to dry their fully soaked feathers in the sun. However, their approaches to foraging and movement in the water set them apart.



Cormorants&nbsp;are&nbsp;aggressive hunters. They&nbsp;chase&nbsp;their prey with&nbsp;strong, rapid movements, often diving deep and pursuing larger fish. Their ability to consume more oxygen allows them to sustain this high-energy hunting style. 



"Cormorants have a really large muscle in their leg and are able to really prioritize storage of oxygen in their leg muscles," explained White, who is affiliated to the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami</a>. This muscle adaptation gives them an edge in deep-water environments, including&nbsp;coastaland&nbsp;oceanic waters.



In contrast, anhingas are stealthy ambush <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-wings-have-a-surprising-effect-on-island-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>. Rather than chasing fish, they wait patiently in shallow water, camouflaged among vegetation, until their prey swims close enough for a lightning-fast strike.



This sit-and-wait strategy is common among ambush predators like herons and alligators, but it is unusual among diving birds. By minimizing movement, anhingas conserve energy and use less oxygen than cormorants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-they-stay-underwater">How do they stay underwater? </h2>



Both species dive for about&nbsp;two minutes at a time, but their bodies handle oxygen storage differently. Unlike ducks and other diving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-100-bird-species-have-been-lost-for-over-a-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, anhingas and cormorants&nbsp;fully wet their feathers. 



This reduces buoyancy and allows them to stay underwater more easily. However, their methods of&nbsp;oxygen management&nbsp;vary.



"They both must hold their breath to dive, so we observed how each of these species convert their oxygen stores into energy in the swimming and flying muscles," noted McCracken, a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-use-of-anhingas-and-cormorants">Oxygen use of anhingas and cormorants</h2>



Cormorants store&nbsp;most of their oxygen in their leg muscles, which power their&nbsp;aggressive swimming style. These&nbsp;large, oxygen-rich muscles&nbsp;allow them to&nbsp;generate bursts of speed&nbsp;and maneuver swiftly to catch prey. This trait aligns them more with deep-diving seabirds like penguins.



Anhingas, on the other hand, rely on neutral buoyancy, meaning they neither sink nor float. This allows them to remain motionless under the water without needing to swim to stay in place.



"They are the only aquatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/terror-bird-phorusrhacid-discovery-was-largest-meat-eating-bird-of-its-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> I know of that can sit underwater without having to swim to stay in place," said White. This&nbsp;passive diving adaptation&nbsp;is&nbsp;unique among aquatic birds&nbsp;and helps anhingas hunt with minimal energy expenditure.



Additionally, anhingas have a&nbsp;low metabolism, which means they require&nbsp;less oxygen to generate energy. While cormorants prioritize storing oxygen in their muscles, anhingas make efficient use of the oxygen in their blood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flight-differences-soaring-vs-powerful-wingbeats">Flight differences: Soaring vs. powerful wingbeats</h2>



Beyond their diving behaviors, the two species differ in&nbsp;flight mechanics. 



Cormorants are&nbsp;strong fliers. Their powerful wing muscles allow them to&nbsp;fly quickly and with sustained flapping, making them more agile in the air. This strength is necessary since they often travel between freshwater and saltwater environments in search of food.



Anhingas, by contrast, are less suited for continuous flapping. Instead, they&nbsp;soar and glide, using&nbsp;thermals&nbsp;(rising air currents) to stay in the air with minimal effort. This flight style is similar to&nbsp;hawks and vultures, rather than the rapid, flapping flight of cormorants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-research">Significance of the research</h2>



While this study sheds light on anhingas and cormorants, its implications&nbsp;reach far beyond ornithology. Understanding how these birds&nbsp;manage oxygen&nbsp;could offer insights into&nbsp;human physiology, exercise science, cardiovascular health, and metabolism.



"There might be benefits to understanding how other species can generate energy without oxygen," White noted. Some medical conditions and athletic performance studies could benefit from&nbsp;learning how these birds use oxygen efficiently.



Additionally, this research helps scientists&nbsp;better understand metabolism. Different species process nutrients and oxygen in distinct ways, and the anhinga’s ability to function&nbsp;with minimal oxygen use&nbsp;is a&nbsp;fascinating case study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-anhingas-and-cormorants">Future research on anhingas and cormorants</h2>



Despite this latest research, anhingas remain one of the least studied aquatic birds. Jeff White hopes to continue his work to uncover more about their unique adaptations. He realized that scientists know surprisingly little about these birds, especially compared to other diving species.



Future studies could explore how anhingas achieve&nbsp;neutral buoyancy, allowing them to stay underwater without sinking or floating. Researchers also want to examine their&nbsp;metabolic rates&nbsp;to understand how they survive on lower oxygen levels compared to other diving birds. 



Additionally, studying their&nbsp;evolutionary adaptations&nbsp;could reveal how they developed their distinct physiological traits over time.



Anhingas’ unique energy conservation and oxygen use strategies could also help scientists learn more about metabolism in other animals, including humans. Further research will help unravel the mysteries of this remarkable waterbird.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-florida-s-waterbirds">New perspective on Florida’s waterbirds</h2>



For those who frequent Florida’s lakes, swamps, and coastal waters, the anhinga and the double-crested cormorant are&nbsp;familiar sights. Yet, beneath their seemingly similar exteriors, these birds have evolved&nbsp;very different strategies for survival.



Cormorants are the&nbsp;powerful, fast-moving predators, excelling in deep-water hunting and flight. Anhingas are&nbsp;masters of stealth and efficiency, conserving energy and using their&nbsp;neutral buoyancy&nbsp;to ambush prey.



Next time you see one of these birds perched with wings outstretched, take a closer look. The&nbsp;mystery of their adaptations&nbsp;is still unfolding, and there’s much more to learn about these remarkable waterbirds.



The study is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00360-024-01593-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Comparative Physiology B</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Florida’s waterbirds: Expert divers with bold hunting techniques

Florida’s wetlands are home to two striking and often confused...

Big,Cuttlefish,Hanging,In,The,Blue,Water,Close,Up,Photo

Cuttlefish, small marine animals that are masters of disguise, have left researchers wide-eyed by demonstrating high levels of self-control and an innate ability to wait, think, and make smart decisions. 



These highly-intelligent relatives of octopuses and squids have shown they’re capable of pausing for better rewards at a later point in time. 



It’s the same idea behind a popular test originally given to kids to see if they could wait for a bigger treat. Instead of marshmallows, though, these sea critters wait for shrimp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ability-of-cuttlefish-to-wait">Ability of cuttlefish to wait</h2>



The findings come from a <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> where scientists adapted <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/marshmallow-test-revisited" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the famous marshmallow test</a> to measure whether cuttlefish would pass on a snack if it meant enjoying tastier food later.



After it was confirmed they could hold out for something better, the team took things a step further. They checked if the same animals that showed self-control would also do well on a learning task. They did.&nbsp;



This is according to behavioral ecologist Alexandra Schnell from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> in the UK, whose team first confirmed that cuttlefish could hold back their impulses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peeking-inside-clever-minds">Peeking inside clever minds</h2>



Cuttlefish belong to a group of animals known for surprising feats. Certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a> have been filmed using coconut shells as portable hideouts.



Some squids communicate with patterns on their bodies. But these findings raised a question for Dr. Schnell’s team: do cuttlefish also show <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-camouflage-is-much-more-complex-and-mind-boggling-than-initially-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">problem-solving skills</a> that appear in large-brained animals like crows and chimpanzees? 



One <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiment</a> put that question to the test by letting the cuttlefish choose between a snack they could get right away or an even better snack if they waited. As soon as they picked the immediate option, the better meal disappeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cuttlefish-waiting-matters">Why cuttlefish waiting matters </h2>



When kids take part in a marshmallow test, they might look around nervously or cover their eyes so they don’t eat the treat too soon. In dogs, a similar ability to delay reward has been <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep42459" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studied</a> using treat tests.



While most of our beloved pets struggle to resist, some can wait longer than others. This skill often suggests a capacity for planning ahead. 



Cuttlefish, though, have never been known to rely on food storing or shared group behavior that might explain why they’d stand to benefit from waiting. So, a patient cuttlefish is a bit of a head-scratcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-food-to-camouflage">From food to camouflage</h2>



The study was carried out in collaboration with senior scientist <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/research/faculty-and-whitman-scientists/Roger%20Hanlon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roger Hanlon</a> at the Marine Biological Laboratory (<a href="https://www.mbl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBL</a>). One theory for this behavior points to the cuttlefish’s defensive strategies. 



They spend a lot of time blending in with their surroundings to avoid being eaten. That means they can’t just dart around all day in search of nibbles. 



In many cases, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-form-false-memories-events-similar-human-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability to hold out</a> might help cuttlefish wait for better prey, rather than risk revealing themselves for something mediocre. 



“Cuttlefish in the present study were all able to wait for the better reward and tolerated delays for up to 50-130 seconds, which is comparable to what we see in large-brained vertebrates such as chimpanzees, crows, and parrots,” said Dr. Schnell. 



A team of six cuttlefish proved they could hang back for up to about 130 seconds, which is roughly two minutes.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuttlefish-wait-and-adapt-quickly">Cuttlefish wait and adapt quickly</h2>



Cuttlefish aren’t known to be social, nor do they spend time carrying objects to build complex traps. But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-cuttlefish-instantly-change-their-skin-color-based-on-what-they-see-and-feel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">they do learn quickly</a>.



To measure that, the team placed two distinct shapes in the tank. One symbol signaled a reward if they touched it. 



Later, the scientists switched the meaning. The cuttlefish had to figure out that the “correct” shape now meant something else entirely. 



This is called a reversal-learning task, and it often trips up animals that rely on routine. Oddly enough, the cuttlefish that were better at waiting for a shrimp snack also learned this shape-swapping game in fewer tries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memories-that-stay-sharp">Memories that stay sharp</h2>



Longer <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0038125" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> on cuttlefish hint they may also have a good handle on remembering past events. 



Researchers have tested whether these animals recall what they ate, when they ate it, and where they found it. Their memory holds up, even when they’re older. 



Other <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01547-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show they might sometimes form mistaken memories. That means the way they store events in their minds could be as twisty as it is in humans. 



Cuttlefish may even exhibit different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-three-fish-make-a-school-study-offers-surprising-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responses</a> to misleading cues, suggesting a process much like our own memory reconstruction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-intelligence">Understanding intelligence</h2>



Biologists studying big brains in animals often look at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-care-more-about-unmet-expectations-than-fairness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corvids</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parrots-have-a-unique-voice-print-similar-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrots</a>, because these groups seem to come up with creative solutions to daily challenges. 



The cuttlefish’s ability to hold back in a waiting game is a strong clue that self-control doesn’t always depend on working in teams or building fancy tools. It could arise from a creature’s environment. 



In this case, it might have grown out of the cuttlefish’s camouflage routine and the need to pick high-quality prey without exposing itself to danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Cuttlefish might not make complicated gadgets or team up to hunt in packs, yet they handle some tasks as well as animals famous for smarts.&nbsp;



That raises a puzzle about how intelligence evolves in separate branches of the animal kingdom. 



Scientists have speculated that these brainy feats can pop up when a species needs to adapt in special ways, whether to outwit predators or to find hidden meals.



The team's research was published in <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/lookup/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cuttlefish show levels of self-control and reasoning that rivals that of primates

Cuttlefish, small marine animals that are masters of disguise, have...

Freshwater ecosystems cover less than 1% of Earth's surface, yet they support 10% of all known species. 



A recent study published in the journal Nature warns that nearly a quarter of freshwater species face extinction. Thousands of fish, crab, and dragonfly species could disappear in the coming decades unless urgent conservation efforts take place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-extinction-threat">The extinction threat</h2>



A comprehensive assessment of almost 24,000 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/freshwater-crisis-one-in-four-species-faces-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a> species found that 24% are at risk. Among them, nearly 1,000 species are critically endangered, and 200 may already be extinct. 



However, these numbers might only scratch the surface. Scientists lack data on many species, making it difficult to assess their full extinction risk.



"Lack of data on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater biodiversity</a> can no longer be used as an excuse for inaction," said Catherine Sayer, the study’s lead author. She highlights how freshwater habitats support human life by providing drinking water, livelihoods, flood control, and climate change mitigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-loss-of-freshwater-species">Habitat loss of freshwater species</h2>



Freshwater environments are among the most threatened on Earth. As global demand for food, water, and resources rises, these ecosystems face increasing pressure. 



Wetlands, including bogs, mangroves, and salt marshes, have suffered immense losses. Since 1700, an area the size of India - 3.4 million square kilometers - has been destroyed.



The loss of wetlands does not only affect wildlife. These ecosystems play a crucial role in climate regulation, water filtration, and flood control. 



Other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-cycles-through-plants-with-unexpected-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a> sources, such as rivers, suffer from excessive water extraction and dam construction. Some, like the Colorado River, no longer reach the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-threats-to-freshwater-species">Additional threats to freshwater species</h2>



Pollution further endangers freshwater species. Industrial waste, plastic debris, and agricultural runoff contaminate rivers and lakes. Many pesticides used to kill pests also harm aquatic creatures, especially during vulnerable life stages.



Despite these growing threats, freshwater species remain understudied. Dr. Topiltzin Contreras MacBeath, a co-author of the study, calls for increased investment in monitoring freshwater biodiversity to guide conservation efforts.



"It is essential that freshwater species data are actively included in conservation strategies and water use management to support healthy freshwater ecosystems," noted Dr. MacBeath.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-freshwater-species-are-most-at-risk">Which freshwater species are most at risk?</h2>



The study was focused on four groups that are deeply connected to freshwater ecosystems: decapods, odonates, mollusks, and fish.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decapods-crabs-lobsters-and-shrimp">Decapods: Crabs, lobsters, and shrimp</h3>



Decapods include crustaceans like crabs, crayfish, and shrimp. About 30% of freshwater decapods face extinction, primarily due to pollution. 



Pesticides used in farming contaminate waterways, harming crustaceans, especially when they molt.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-odonates-dragonflies-and-damselflies">Odonates: Dragonflies and damselflies</h3>



Dragonflies and damselflies spend much of their lives as aquatic nymphs before becoming airborne predators. Habitat destruction threatens over half of these species. 



Wetlands converted to farmland and deforestation have significantly reduced their numbers.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mollusks-snails-mussels-and-oysters">Mollusks: Snails, mussels, and oysters</h3>



Mollusks, including freshwater snails and mussels, were not included in the study due to limited data. 



However, previous research suggests that about one-third of mollusk species are endangered. This omission likely means the true percentage of at-risk freshwater species is even higher.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-freshwater-fish">Freshwater fish</h3>



Fish populations suffer from habitat destruction, overfishing, and pollution. Dams fragment river systems, reducing breeding grounds and food availability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-freshwater-species-from-extinction">Saving freshwater species from extinction</h2>



Freshwater ecosystems - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-amount-of-water-do-earths-rivers-hold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>, lakes, wetlands, and streams - exist across multiple countries and continents. Since water flows freely across borders, conservation efforts in one place may not be effective unless neighboring regions also take action.



For example, if one country pollutes a river, the impact is felt downstream in other countries. This makes protecting freshwater species a global challenge, requiring cooperation between governments, conservation groups, and local communities.



To stop freshwater species extinctions, we need a united effort. Countries must work together to manage water use responsibly, ensuring that rivers and lakes do not dry up due to overuse.



Governments should enforce stricter laws to prevent industries from polluting water sources. Investing in conservation programs and restoring damaged ecosystems can also help protect species from disappearing.



Preserving freshwater ecosystems goes beyond safeguarding wildlife. These habitats are essential for providing clean drinking water, sustaining agriculture, and mitigating natural disasters like floods. 



They also support the livelihoods of millions, offering food and employment through activities like fishing and farming.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08375-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Thousands of freshwater species are threatened with extinction

Freshwater ecosystems cover less than 1% of Earth's surface, yet...

The vaquita (Phocoena sinus) is the world’s rarest marine mammal, with fewer than 10 surviving in the wild. It faces grave challenges, from illegal fishing nets to black-market demand for totoaba swim bladders. 



Experts worry that this unique creature could disappear before most people even learn it exists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vaquitas-a-species-in-peril">Vaquitas: A species in peril</h2>



<a href="https://seashepherd.org/2024/06/11/2024-vaquita-survey/#">Populations</a> of this small porpoise have plummeted at an astonishing rate since the late 1990s.



Vaquitas inhabit the northern Gulf of California, and are restricted to an area of roughly 1,500 square miles (3,900 square kilometers). This small region, combined with the pressures of organized poaching activity, has given vaquitas little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lemurs-millions-of-years-of-diversity-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">room for recovery</a>. 



Jamie Knaub from Florida Atlantic University (<a href="https://www.fau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>) and her colleagues believe that drastic measures are necessary to preserve any record of these animals for generations to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rescuing-a-rare-vaquita-skeleton">Rescuing a rare vaquita skeleton</h2>



A complete <a href="https://fox5sandiego.com/news/local-news/photos-san-diego-researchers-scan-rare-skeleton-of-worlds-smallest-endangered-porpoise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaquita skeleton</a> in the United States is hard to find. Such a specimen recently appeared at SeaWorld San Diego, with ties to the San Diego Natural History Museum.&nbsp;



“We are delighted to collaborate with likeminded organizations to make our collections as useful and accessible as possible,” said Phil Unitt, curator of birds and mammals at the San Diego Natural History Museum.&nbsp;



“A complete skeleton of a vaquita is an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/public-concern-over-species-extinctions-fades-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extremely rare specimen</a>, so we’re thrilled to learn its replica will be available to the public.”



<a href="https://www.fau.edu/newsdesk/articles/fau-high-school-opens-one-of-a-kind-owls-imaging-lab.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU’s High School Owls Imaging Lab</a> carried out micro-CT scans on the skeleton. Knaub transported it back to Florida as precious carry-on luggage.&nbsp;



She spent 165 hours conducting high-resolution scans, gathering nearly three terabytes of data. When finished, Knaub carefully returned the vaquita remains to SeaWorld.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-hopes-for-the-tiniest-porpoise">High hopes for the tiniest porpoise</h2>



Researchers are eager to share 3D scans of this delicate skeleton on the <a href="https://www.morphosource.org/docs/about" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MorphoSource</a> online repository. The goal is to let educators and researchers worldwide access and learn from the files.&nbsp;



With vaquitas vanishing at a high rate, preserving their anatomy through digital replicas could be the only way to keep them on the radar.&nbsp;



“At the rate that vaquita’s are disappearing, it’s extremely important to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-we-failing-the-worlds-most-threatened-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preserve</a> as much about this species as we can. They are very elusive and not many physical specimens from this species exist,” said Knaub.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-and-replication-efforts">Education and replication efforts</h2>



The experts hope that these skeleton scans, once turned into models, can be placed in museums or classrooms. Brittany Aja Dolan from SeaWorld San Diego, who pushed this plan forward, wants everyone to see the small porpoise up close.&nbsp;



“We hope that by creating replicas, which will be available worldwide, and hopefully on display at SeaWorld San Diego in the near future, everyone will have the opportunity to learn about the world’s most endangered marine mammal and what we can all do to help,” explained Dolan.



Some genetic <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm1742" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> suggests the surviving vaquitas retain enough diversity to bounce back if threats cease. However, rapid action is crucial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-vaquita-data-for-future-research">Preserving vaquita data for future research</h2>



FAU’s advanced imaging technology captured the skeleton’s intricate details. 



The lab’s <a href="https://www.microphotonics.com/what-is-micro-ct-an-introduction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">micro-CT machine</a> is known for its ability to scan minute structures within skeletal fragments. Knaub, along with her mentors, previously used similar equipment to study thresher shark vertebrae, a study that is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.231473" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.&nbsp;



The same techniques have now preserved the precise shape of each vaquita bone, thus mapping out a piece of history that might soon be gone if illegal nets continue to harm the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-laboratory-environment">A unique laboratory environment</h2>



FAU’s Owls Imaging Lab attracts student researchers from across various disciplines. This facility contains tools like scanning electron microscopes and microtomes, and offers early exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-is-tracking-endangered-animal-habitats-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high-level projects</a>.&nbsp;



“The primary aim of our open-access research hub is to create a dynamic environment that promotes meaningful collaborations between our students and university mentors," said Tricia Meredith, director of research for FAU’s on-site lab schools.



"By providing opportunities for hands-on teaching, innovative demonstrations, experimentation, and robust data collection, the hub seeks to enhance the educational experience and advance research excellence.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-brink">Looking beyond the brink</h2>



Those involved in the vaquita project see it as a chance to save the species in some form, even if the real animals fade away. There is also motivation to rescue any remaining individuals in the Gulf of California.&nbsp;



Organizations like FAU, SeaWorld San Diego, and the San Diego Natural History Museum keep shining a light on this small porpoise, stressing that the vaquita’s future rests on determined human intervention.&nbsp;



Until effective solutions disrupt the illegal fishing trade, digital scans and educational displays might be the closest many of us will ever come to encountering the vaquita in real life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://phys.org/journals/royal-society-open-science/">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">&nbsp;Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">&nbsp;EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">&nbsp;Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Vaquitas may disappear before most people know they exist

The vaquita (Phocoena sinus) is the world’s rarest marine mammal,...

Woodrats are small desert rodents that have baffled scientists for years with their peculiar ability to eat the toxic creosote bush. Creosote leaves are laden with resin that would make most animals sick, but these tenacious creatures feast on it day after day.&nbsp;



For decades, researchers wondered whether woodrats adapted by evolving highly specialized enzymes or if they simply produce an enormous amount of more general detoxification enzymes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrats-eat-toxic-plants-without-harm">Woodrats eat toxic plants without harm</h2>



Scientists investigating this question observed that woodrats can live in areas where creosote has taken over.



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-rats-using-ultrasonic-sounds-to-enhance-their-sense-of-smell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> avoid the spindly green shrub because it’s coated with a chemical mix that can disrupt crucial processes in their bodies. Yet, these rodents thrive. 



In a recent study, researchers discovered a twist in the woodrat enzyme story: it isn’t about better tools, but more of them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrat-survival-through-gene-duplication">Woodrat survival through gene duplication</h2>



This discovery was led by postdoctoral researcher Dylan Klure, along with a team of colleagues at the University of Utah. The experts zeroed in on how two woodrat species independently evolved to handle large doses of resin that would debilitate other mammals.&nbsp;



After comparing both creosote-tolerant and creosote-sensitive woodrats, the results pointed toward a surge in gene copies rather than improved enzyme function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-quick-jump-in-evolutionary-terms">A quick jump in evolutionary terms</h2>



Creosote may have entered the southwestern desert around the end of the last ice age, about 15,000 years ago.&nbsp;



“These woodrats have only been exposed to creosote bush for about 15,000 years, and in an evolutionary timescale, that’s very little time,” said Klure, postdoctoral researcher at the University of Utah and lead author of the study.&nbsp;



This short window hasn’t stopped woodrats from crafting a workable solution. When food is scarce, animals can either adapt to what’s available or starve. 



Woodrats apparently adapted by copying existing detoxification genes and pumping out the related enzymes at high levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrats-churning-out-enzymes">Woodrats churning out enzymes</h2>



According to the researchers, these detox genes are part of the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35599377/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glucuronidation pathway.</a> In humans, this <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7660525/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathway</a> helps metabolize a notable chunk of prescription drugs.&nbsp;



By mapping which genes were active in woodrats’ livers, the scientists found an abundance of duplicates that churn out enzymes strong enough to process resin toxins. 



The presence of multiple copies means a single woodrat can manufacture waves of enzyme molecules to quickly flush harmful compounds out of its system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-alternative-to-specialized-enzymes">An alternative to specialized enzymes</h2>



“Rather than new tools specially designed for metabolizing this toxin, evolution made use of existing machinery - just by making more of it,” said senior author Denise Dearing, professor of biology at the University of Utah.&nbsp;



This stands in contrast to earlier findings in other species where smaller numbers of finely tuned enzymes handle toxins. In the woodrats’ case, the key isn’t building a fancy detox gadget - it’s mass-producing what they already have.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-woodrats-shift-to-toxic-plants">Why did woodrats shift to toxic plants?</h2>



Historically, woodrats dined on more abundant plants like juniper. However, climatic shifts dried up many parts of the Southwest, giving the <a href="https://btarboretum.org/creosote/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creosote bush</a> room to spread. This forced the local animals to either move or adapt.&nbsp;



Some rodent populations picked the new leaves, survived, and reproduced - thus passing along their genetic advantage to the next generation.



Over time, these gene duplications reached surprisingly high levels in regions where creosote has been around the longest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrat-nests-reveal-their-changing-diet">Woodrat nests reveal their changing diet</h2>



Paleontologists studying ancient woodrat nests found <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7081288/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> that their diet mirrored changes in plant communities. Woodrats left behind “middens,” or nest sites stacked with plant fragments, seeds, and twigs.&nbsp;



By comparing fossils from different time periods, the experts traced the shift from juniper to creosote. 



The rodents’ DNA adapted alongside this changing meal plan, illustrating how an environmental upheaval can nudge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modern-day-plague-rodents-fleas-and-their-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> down a new dietary path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enzyme-gene-duplication-in-woodrats">Enzyme gene duplication in woodrats</h2>



The genetic shift happened separately in two species of woodrats that faced similar conditions. This kind of parallel evolution suggests a powerful nudge from nature.&nbsp;



“When creosote invades, it just takes over. It’s kind of an adapt-or-die situation,” said Klure. For woodrats, duplication of existing genes was apparently an easier workaround than redesigning detoxification enzymes from scratch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-humans">Implications for humans</h2>



Scientists see a parallel between woodrats’ enzyme explosion and differences in detoxifying chemicals among humans.



People vary in the number of detoxification genes they carry, partly due to ancestral diets rich in tough-to-digest plant toxins.&nbsp;



This might explain why individuals respond differently to medications or certain foods. Studying woodrats in controlled experiments could shine more light on these variations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-expansions-tell-a-bigger-story">Gene expansions tell a bigger story</h2>



At first glance, the woodrats’ solution seems simple: copy genes until you can safely eat a toxic shrub. Yet, this adaptation demonstrates that quantity sometimes trumps refinement in the race to survive.&nbsp;



Frequent duplications of existing detox genes allowed these rodents to remain in dry habitats overrun by a bush most mammals avoid. Such repeated expansions may be a more common strategy across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-rodent-borne-diseases-spill-over-into-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a> than previously thought.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp7978" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Woodrats duplicated their genes to survive eating poisonous plants

Woodrats are small desert rodents that have baffled scientists for...

When the rain pours after a long, harsh drought, there is often a sudden influx of mosquitoes buzzing around and seemingly appearing out of nowhere. 



Despite grueling dry spells that last for weeks, mosquitoes manage to survive and bounce back quickly once the rain arrives. But how do these tiny creatures manage to make such a rapid comeback?



In a recent study, scientists at the<a href="https://www.uc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> University of Cincinnati</a> have unraveled some fascinating answers to this puzzling phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquitoes-bite-for-recovery">Mosquitoes bite for recovery</h2>



Mosquitoes are hardy insects - some of which are infamous for spreading diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-leaders-call-for-urgent-action-on-malaria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">malaria</a> to humans.



While you might imagine that the mosquito population would dwindle during a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-borne-diseases-are-a-growing-threat-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> as water sources dry up, the reality is quite the opposite. 



Mosquitoes have a unique survival strategy that entails quenching their thirst with blood. They <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-biting-season-extended-by-light-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bite more</a> frequently to keep up their hydration levels.



"We're finding that mosquitoes bite people more than we imagined, unfortunately," said Christopher Holmes, the study's lead author.



Climate change only adds to the challenge, as milder winters are advantageous to mosquito populations, noted Holmes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hungry-for-more-the-mosquito-s-lifeline">Hungry for more: The mosquito’s lifeline</h2>



Typically, female mosquitoes feed on a blood meal to produce eggs. Within four days of a blood feast, they lay their eggs and seek another blood target to repeat the cycle. However, when faced with a drought, they tweak this cycle.



Instead of waiting to lay their eggs after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitos-use-unbreakable-system-to-track-human-blood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood</a> meal, drought-prompted mosquitoes feed more frequently to stay hydrated. This, in turn, increases the likelihood of spreading diseases like dengue, Zika, or malaria. It is a fascinating yet worrisome survival technique.



According to the researchers, people have assumed drought reduces mosquito populations and the spread of diseases. However, their study finds otherwise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-of-the-fittest">Survival of the fittest</h2>



To investigate how mosquitoes survive during droughts, the team studied genetically-altered individuals in which certain senses, such as the detection of carbon dioxide, were impaired. Mosquitoes use the presence of carbon dioxide to detect their prey.



The researchers made an interesting observation. If mosquitoes couldn't sense carbon dioxide, they couldn't locate a host to bite and consequently succumbed to the dry spell.



Furthermore, UC doctoral student Souvik Chakraborty pointed out a remarkable survival trait in mosquito eggs.



"The Aedes aegypti mosquito is resistant to drying out. Its eggs can survive, sometimes for as long as a year," said Chakraborty, adding that the mosquito eggs hatch instantly when touched by rainwater.



The researchers also found that some mosquito species can tolerate cold temperatures. They engorge themselves on nectar before winter, store huge lipid deposits, and lay eggs as soon as it gets warm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-survivors-with-a-deadly-bite">Ancient survivors with a deadly bite</h2>



The oldest known mosquitoes date back to the early Cretaceous period, about 125 million years ago.



Over this impressively long period, the mosquito's survival mechanisms have evolved to ensure its continued existence in the food chain - where it is food for a range of creatures including fish, birds and bats.



However, their survival comes at a cost to humans. Each year, diseases spread by mosquitoes claim more than 700,000 lives.



According to Benoit, understanding the biology of mosquitoes is crucial in comprehending their survival and reproduction mechanics.



As we progress in understanding the resilience of these insects, we move closer to taming the significant health challenges they present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-the-mosquito-threat">Mitigating the mosquito threat</h2>



The University of Cincinnati research emphasizes the need to act on mosquito-borne diseases in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing climate</a>.



As mosquitoes adapt to harsher conditions and expand their territories due to milder winters, public health strategies must evolve in tandem. 



New methods of mosquito control, such as eco-friendly repellents or genetic interventions, could reduce their population and disease transmission rates. 



Moreover, advanced surveillance systems that predict mosquito outbreaks based on climate patterns can empower communities to take preventive measures before the diseases spread. 



With continued research, scientists hope to come up with innovative solutions to protect human health while gaining a better understanding of how these durable insects remain so resilient.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00019-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mosquitoes bite more often during droughts to stay hydrated

When the rain pours after a long, harsh drought, there...

Alaska's northern pike, long thought to be confined to freshwater, are now crossing saltwater to invade new areas in Southcentral Alaska. 



Scientists previously believed that marine barriers, like the Cook Inlet, prevented their spread. However, new research shows that pike are using estuaries to move between watersheds.



This discovery is significant because it means northern pike can reinvade lakes and rivers where they were previously removed. It also challenges long-held beliefs about how these invasive fish spread, forcing scientists to rethink their strategies for controlling their expansion. 



The finding highlights the urgent need for new measures to protect native fish species, like salmon, from the growing threat of northern pike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-pike-are-traveling">Northern pike are traveling</h2>



Researchers from the University of Alaska Fairbanks (<a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UAF</a>) and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (<a href="https://www.adfg.alaska.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ADFG</a>) made this finding by analyzing otoliths - tiny ear stones from pike.



These structures record the chemical composition of the water where a fish has lived, offering a timeline of its movements.



“Strontium varies according to geology and location,” said Matthew Wooller, a UAF fisheries professor and the study’s lead author. “If pike are moving between watersheds, you can pick it up by analyzing strontium in the otoliths.”



By comparing otolith samples collected since 2019, the team found three pike with chemical signatures matching upper Cook Inlet. These fish were caught in freshwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-there-enough-prey-for-beluga-whales-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> connected to the inlet, including Campbell Lake, Westchester Lagoon, and Vogel Lake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formidable-invasive-species">Formidable invasive species</h2>



Northern pike naturally belong in Interior and Western Alaska, where they have lived for thousands of years. However, in the 1950s, people illegally introduced them to the Susitna River basin in Southcentral Alaska. 



Since then, these highly efficient predators have spread rapidly, establishing themselves in more than 150 lakes and rivers. Their presence has had a major impact on native fish populations, particularly salmon, which they hunt and eat.



For a long time, scientists believed that northern pike could only spread through connected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater systems</a> or by human introduction. 



Many thought Cook Inlet - a large body of saltwater separating different watersheds - would act as a natural barrier, preventing the fish from moving between river systems.



However, the latest study has proven otherwise, showing that pike are capable of traveling through estuaries, where freshwater and saltwater mix, to invade new areas. This challenges previous assumptions and makes controlling their spread even more difficult.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-pike-use-estuaries-to-spread">Northern pike use estuaries to spread</h2>



This new information raises concerns that waterways previously cleared of pike could be reinvaded through ocean-connected routes.



“The newfound realization that the fish are moving through estuaries is just one more reason that northern pike are a poster child of what makes a formidable invasive species,” said Peter Westley, a UAF fisheries associate professor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-management">Implications for management</h2>



Although the discovery is concerning, it provides scientists and resource managers with a clearer understanding of how northern pike spread. 



With this knowledge, they can develop more targeted strategies to monitor high-risk areas, block migration pathways, and prevent re-invasion. 



This focused approach will help protect native fish species and limit the long-term impact of this invasive predator on Alaska’s freshwater ecosystems.



“Confirming northern pike can use this pathway gave us the information we needed to now focus on preventing this spread and protecting valuable habitats,” said Parker Bradley, an ADFG invasive species biologist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Kristine Dunker, who coordinates ADFG’s invasive pike management program, emphasized the importance of directing resources to high-risk areas.



“This discovery has been a step forward, both scientifically with our understanding of northern pike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-seas-lakes-are-losing-their-ability-to-support-most-types-of-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecology</a> in North America and also for our invasive northern pike management here at home,” Dunker said.



The fact that pike can use estuaries to travel between watersheds means they are far more adaptable than scientists previously believed. 



This creates new challenges for resource managers, who must now account for saltwater pathways in their efforts to contain and remove pike from vulnerable freshwater systems. 



If left unchecked, these invasive fish could continue to spread and threaten <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harbor-porpoises-are-severely-threatened-by-fishing-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native species</a>, like salmon, making effective management strategies more urgent than ever.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0315320" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Northern pike are sneaking through the ocean to invade new lakes

Alaska's northern pike, long thought to be confined to freshwater,...

Deep in Brazil's semi-arid Caatinga region, capuchin monkeys are teaching scientists valuable lessons about social learning and group dynamics. 



Recent research has uncovered that these remarkable primates don't just learn new skills by watching others - the social bonds and tolerance levels within their groups play a crucial role in knowledge transmission.



The remarkable study was led by Camila Galheigo Coelho during her doctoral research at the University of São Paulo's Institute of Psychology, alongside Professor Eduardo Ottoni and collaborators from Durham University in the UK. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-influence-of-social-tolerance">The influence of social tolerance </h2>



The findings shed new light on how social relationships shape learning patterns in primate communities.



"The influence of social tolerance in animal social learning has been scarcely investigated empirically. Social tolerance determines who is allowed in proximity to whom and granted access to resources such as food or social information," wrote the researchers.



"Therefore, tolerance toward others in proximity is necessary for the spread of social information, linking theories of cultural transmission and animal traditions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-tolerance-in-monkeys">Social tolerance in monkeys</h2>



The study from <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a> and <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> highlights that monkeys engaged in collective activities, such as parasite grooming and playful interactions, are more likely to acquire new skills from their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-drive-learning-in-monkeys-and-humans-alike/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a>. 



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“Our observations fed into a mathematical model that showed that monkeys learn from others mainly through direct observation, by looking closely at another individual doing the task,” explained Camila Galheigo Coelho, one of the study’s lead authors.
</blockquote>



The research team found that younger monkeys who had not yet mastered a task tended to learn from skilled adult males. Social tolerance, particularly within close-knit groups, significantly influenced who learned from whom.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The most important aspect was to prove, using network-based diffusion analysis [NBDA], that the diffusion of a new technique for obtaining a resource spread through socially-mediated learning, and not simply through gradual individual learning by new individuals,” noted Professor Eduardo Ottoni, who supervised the study.
</blockquote>



This means that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-changes-social-behavior-in-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monkeys</a> don’t just figure things out on their own; they actively learn from their peers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-tool-use-and-social-learning">Evolution of tool use and social learning</h2>



The study is part of a larger project investigating how social dynamics influence behavior in capuchin monkeys. Professor Ottoni has been studying these primates since the late 1990s, particularly their use of tools. 



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The discovery of tool use and social learning among capuchin monkeys was a fluke for us that turned into the discovery of a series of non-human cultural processes,” noted Ottoni.
</blockquote>



Over the years, researchers have observed capuchins using stones to crack nuts, dig roots, and even catch small animals with sticks. These behaviors vary between populations, suggesting distinct cultural traditions among different groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-learning-spreads-in-monkeys">How learning spreads in monkeys</h2>



Researchers studied two groups of capuchin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkeys-with-greater-social-tolerance-have-more-self-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monkeys</a> living eight kilometers apart. They introduced a special box designed to test learning and problem-solving. The box had two different mechanisms for releasing food: a blue door that required pushing and a green lever that required pulling.



To test how knowledge spreads, the researchers trained one monkey in each group to use only one of the methods. After the trained monkeys learned how to retrieve food, the box was introduced to the rest of the group. 



The researchers carefully observed how other monkeys reacted and whether they would adopt the demonstrated technique.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monkey-s-dynamic-social-learning">Monkey's dynamic social learning</h2>



Initially, scientists expected that each group would stick to the method they first observed, leading to the development of distinct traditions within the two groups. However, the results showed a surprising outcome. Instead of sticking to one method, the monkeys in both groups learned to use both techniques.



“Our expectation was that one group would learn to push and the other to pull, creating two different traditions. But in both groups, they learned to release the reward in both ways,” said Coelho.



This finding highlights the adaptability of capuchin monkeys and their ability to learn in a dynamic, social way rather than rigidly following one approach. Their ability to observe and experiment suggests a level of intelligence that supports problem-solving and social learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-group-structure-and-learning-success">Group structure and learning success</h2>



The study showed that social structure affects how capuchin monkeys learn. In a larger, fragmented group, 57.5% of monkeys quickly learned the task because knowledge spread easily between subgroups. 



In contrast, only 36.7% of monkeys in a smaller, tightly bonded group learned the skill. A dominant male restricted access, preventing others from observing and practicing. This highlights the importance of social tolerance in learning. 



When group members can freely interact and observe skilled individuals, knowledge spreads faster. However, in restrictive environments, learning is limited. This finding emphasizes how social dynamics shape learning in both animals and human societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-window-into-cultural-evolution">Window into cultural evolution</h2>



This research provides valuable insights into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkeys-use-names-for-each-other-in-their-communication-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">non-human primates</a> develop traditions and pass knowledge across generations. 



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The more we study, the more we realize that cultural evolution is part of something bigger in the context of biological evolution itself,” said Ottoni.
</blockquote>



By studying capuchin monkeys, scientists continue to uncover the deep-rooted nature of social learning and cultural transmission in the animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2322884121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Social tolerance helps monkeys pass along new skills

Deep in Brazil's semi-arid Caatinga region, capuchin monkeys are teaching...

The Swinhoe’s softshell turtle has long captivated conservationists because of its rarity and uncertain future. This freshwater reptile, also called the Yangtze giant softshell turtle, has only two confirmed individuals left on the entire planet.



Scientists have been searching far and wide to locate more.&nbsp;The latest tool in their arsenal is environmental DNA (eDNA) technology, which has shown promise in previous studies on amphibians and fish by detecting genetic remnants left behind in water samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edna-test-for-rare-turtles">eDNA test for rare turtles</h2>



Swinhoe’s <a href="https://www.edgeofexistence.org/species/yangtze-giant-softshell-turtle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">softshell turtle</a> lives in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large waterways</a>, and releases traces of genetic material into the water through urine, feces, and sloughed skin. The challenge is enormous because these particles disperse quickly and degrade over time.&nbsp;



Researchers needed a test that could identify minuscule DNA fragments right at the water’s edge. <a href="https://asianturtleprogram.org/meet-the-team/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tim McCormack</a>, Program Director of the Asian Turtle Program of Indo-Myanmar Conservation (ATP-IMC), began investigating eDNA applications in 2013.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensitive-and-specific-kit">Sensitive and specific kit</h2>



Researchers have now <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/edn3.70011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">launched</a> a portable eDNA system that relies on quantitative polymerase chain reaction (<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24011054/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">qPCR</a>), an established method for pinpointing species-specific DNA. 



There had been previous success in laboratory settings, though the wait time for results was often long. Field teams wanted speed and accuracy in places with limited equipment. 



“Our early data showed the feasibility that eDNA testing could be used to detect this turtle species in its natural environment,” said Tim McCormack at the end of his initial trials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-time-field-results">Real-time field results</h2>



Traditional eDNA methods have required sending water samples to specialized laboratories, where the analysis might take weeks. 



That gap proved frustrating for surveys aiming to verify the presence of a rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. This new portable approach compresses the timeframe significantly. 



A 2014 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320714004443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> suggested that eDNA could reshape conservation efforts by making the detection of elusive species more efficient. With this test, the field team can sample water, filter it, and run the qPCR analysis onsite.&nbsp;



“The portable eDNA test has allowed conservationists to be trained in and carry out the qPCR testing in real-time on the ground,” explained <a href="https://cres.edu.vn/en/about-cres/staff/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Minh Le</a>, Head of Department of Natural Resources and Conservation at Vietnam’s Central Institute for Natural Resources and Environmental Studies (<a href="https://cres.edu.vn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRES</a>), at the end of a demonstration project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters">Why it matters</h2>



Swinhoe’s softshell <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-a-tribute-to-resilience-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtle</a> has persisted in pockets of Vietnam and China, yet little is known about these hidden populations.



One documented individual lives in Vietnam’s Dong Mo Lake, a 3,000-acre body of water that had confounded researchers in the past. Another resides in captivity in China.&nbsp;



Attempts at breeding have faced setbacks, and a female turtle died in 2019. Without additional turtles, the future of this species looks bleak. 



This new test is expected to guide survey teams in checking undervalued habitats, such as lesser-known lakes and reservoirs, with a level of speed not seen before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-success-of-edna-test-on-a-turtle">Success of eDNA test on a turtle</h2>



Researchers recently validated the portable kit’s accuracy by detecting eDNA from a living turtle in a large waterbody near Hanoi.&nbsp;



“This project proved that we could use eDNA to detect an extremely rare species in a very large lake, and demonstrates that portable eDNA testing can be applied as a conservation tool to help detect the rarest of the rare of species in a natural environment. This is truly groundbreaking for conservation research,” said <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tracie-Seimon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Tracie Seimon</a>, Director of the WCS Zoological Health Program’s Molecular Laboratory and lead author of the project’s paper.



The technology also lowers costs. Conservationists can pool multiple water filters before a single test, covering broader areas with fewer resources. 



The results appear swiftly, which enables them to decide whether they should concentrate further effort in any positive location.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-edna-tests-for-turtles">Future of eDNA tests for turtles</h2>



Teams in Vietnam plan to continue scanning far-off lakes and little-known reservoirs for signs of the Swinhoe’s softshell turtle.



“By finding other individuals, we may succeed in our overall goal, which is to prevent the species from going extinct,” said <a href="https://cres.edu.vn/en/about-cres/staff/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thuy Hoang</a>, Director of WCS Vietnam, at the end of a talk at CRES. Even the discovery of one more turtle could push conservation steps forward.



Field teams are hopeful that other institutions will adopt the same strategy for other endangered species, since eDNA detection works for many life forms. This might include cryptic fish, amphibians, or even mammals in tricky habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-strategies">Refining strategies</h2>



Some improvements may still be needed. 



Scientists are testing the kit’s resilience in different water conditions and investigating how to preserve filter samples for extended trips. 



They also see value in pairing the eDNA method with established survey practices, such as visual observations and local knowledge. 



Collaborations across borders continue because conservation initiatives are rarely confined to a single country’s waterways.



Local communities have shown interest, particularly when they learn that sampling is quick and non-invasive. There’s no need to catch or disturb an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-impacts-the-size-of-sea-turtle-hatchlings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a>. 



Once the presence of the target eDNA is confirmed, researchers can decide whether more involved steps, such as camera traps or small-scale capture attempts, are justified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-on-the-horizon">Hope on the horizon</h2>



Many face frustration and weariness from years of searching for this turtle. The portable eDNA test is bringing fresh optimism for turtle conservation. 



The two known Swinhoe’s softshell turtles might soon be joined by relatives if this tool is successful in uncovering hidden pockets where they survive.



Though the timeline remains uncertain, conservationists believe that persistence and collaboration will improve the species’ outlook. 



There is excitement about applying this simple, rapid, and targeted solution to other emergencies in wildlife protection.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/edn3.70011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental DNA</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">&nbsp;Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">&nbsp;EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">&nbsp;Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

New eDNA tech locates animals in the wild in real-time

The Swinhoe’s softshell turtle has long captivated conservationists because of...

Elasmosaurus,,Group,Of,Long-necked,Plesiosaurs,From,The,Late,Cretaceous,Period,

Scientists have pieced together evidence that ancient marine reptiles once swam in what is now central Colombia, and these creatures appear to have been more formidable predators than today’s mighty killer whales.&nbsp;



Their presence at an unexpectedly high level in the food chain has raised new questions about how ocean ecosystems evolve.&nbsp;



Paleontologists reconstructed the lives of giant reptiles and invertebrates that flourished in a lush environment roughly 130 million years ago, and uncovered a glimpse of life that sits outside what is considered standard for our modern seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-reptiles-ruled-over-killer-whales-nbsp">Marine reptiles ruled over killer whales&nbsp;</h2>



Experts discovered that some of these reptiles could exceed 33 feet (10 meters) in length, hinting at a way of life that appears to have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remarkably powerful</a>.&nbsp;



According to their research, these creatures ruled the seventh level in a reconstructed Cretaceous food web, while present-day killer whales and great white sharks rarely pass the sixth.&nbsp;



At the heart of these findings is work by McGill University’s <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Biology</a>, led by doctoral student Dirley Cortés and co-author Hans Larsson, who is a professor in the same department.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-reptiles-reached-the-pinnacle">Marine reptiles reached the pinnacle</h2>



Large predators typically dominate the top ranks in any oceanic food chain. Scientists often call these ranks "<a href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/06%3A_Ecology/6.05%3A_Trophic_Levels" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic levels</a>." 



Modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> systems reach a natural limit around the sixth trophic (or feeding) level, where species like orcas hover at the pinnacle of the energy pyramid.&nbsp;



“Our study is the first to examine these possible ecological interactions,” said Cortés, who is lead author on the publication. 



By <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/202/1/zlad092/7275647?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studying</a> fossil evidence in the <a href="https://www2.sgc.gov.co/LibroGeologiaColombia/tgc/sgcpubesp36201913.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paja Formation</a>, the team determined that Mesozoic reptiles had apparently gone one level higher. 



These ancient animals likely feasted on anything in their path, which explains how their food web stacked up so high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-a-lost-food-web">Reconstructing a lost food web</h2>



This investigation on ancient marine reptiles used body size, possible feeding tools, and comparisons with existing marine species to build a detailed framework for who ate whom in that vanished Colombian sea, where the warm climates of the Early Cretaceous allowed a surge in ocean diversity.&nbsp;



The Paja Formation’s fossil record reveals predators with robust jaws and swift movement, alongside an assortment of invertebrates that thrived in trophic levels beneath them.&nbsp;



Researchers drew upon modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-disease-is-pushing-caribbean-reefs-toward-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caribbean reef</a> networks to cross-check their results. 



By comparing these fossils to present-day communities, the study uncovered what one of the paper’s authors described as "intricate links among prehistoric animals" that pushed the boundaries of the marine hierarchy.



“Understanding this complexity helps us trace how ecosystems evolve over time,” said Cortés.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-competition-shaped-the-seas">How competition shaped the seas</h2>



Marine food webs do not form overnight. Competition for resources tends to bring about new evolutionary strategies and unique feeding habits. 



During parts of the Mesozoic, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0501562102" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pressure</a> from marine predators and their potential prey made survival an ongoing challenge. 



A known surge in shell-crushing snails and other predatory invertebrates during this era has been labeled by paleontologists as the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesozoic Marine Revolution</a>.&nbsp;



Ancient marine reptiles from the Paja Formation existed in this tense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-to-earths-ancient-climate-to-predict-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> of changing prey, leading them to develop massive body sizes and formidable hunting styles.&nbsp;



“These findings illuminate how marine ecosystems developed through intense trophic competition and shaped the diversity we see today,” said <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/202/1/zlad092/7275647?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Larsson</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-today">Why this matters today</h2>



The close study of creatures that roamed the ocean so long ago is not just about cataloging exciting fossils. Discoveries like this tell us that life’s history is packed with surprising adaptations.&nbsp;



Paleontologists see a chance to compare these ancient networks with modern ones, thus providing fresh insights into how ecosystems recover from challenges such as climate change or habitat loss.&nbsp;



Researchers also note that these fossil communities remind us of how species at the top of the food chain can alter their entire environment, often making space for additional biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-evolution">A window into evolution</h2>



One important lesson from this work is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dramatic shifts</a> in ocean biodiversity occurred long before humans entered the picture. 



Marine reptiles vanished near the end of the Mesozoic, but the legacy of their top-heavy food webs is imprinted in the fossil record. 



Each puzzle piece from that record, from large jaws to specialized teeth, helps paint a more accurate picture of how Earth’s seas matured. 



The high trophic levels in the Paja Formation suggest that new habitats were emerging, allowing marine reptiles to reach body sizes and predatory niches that are rarely matched in modern times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-marine-reptiles-and-ecosystems">Ancient marine reptiles and ecosystems</h2>



Researchers plan to keep building models for other fossil sites. This work may reveal whether seventh-level predators were uncommon or if there were other pockets in Earth’s history where they thrived. 



In many regions, marine formations remain poorly understood, so there is every chance that the Paja Formation was not the only site containing marine reptiles with astonishing hunting powers.&nbsp;



More studies may show that, over millions of years, seas can produce predators more fearsome than anything we know today.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/202/1/zlad092/7275647?redirectedFrom=fulltext&amp;login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Prehistoric ocean monsters would have eaten killer whales as snacks

Scientists have pieced together evidence that ancient marine reptiles once...

Underwater,Photo,Of,Octopus,Swimming,In,Tropical,Exotic,Sandy,Bay

Octopus arms display incredible dexterity, bending and twisting with near-infinite freedom. These movements help octopuses explore their environments, manipulate objects, and catch prey. 



Recent research reveals a fascinating secret behind this flexibility: segmented nervous system circuitry.



“If you're going to have a nervous system that's controlling such dynamic movement, that's a good way to set it up,” said Dr. Clifton Ragsdale, professor of neurobiology at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>.



This segmentation appears to be an evolutionary adaptation specific to soft-bodied cephalopods like octopuses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-neural-architecture">Unique neural architecture</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Octopus</a> arms are equipped with a remarkably complex nervous system, containing more neurons collectively in their eight arms than in their brain. 



This extensive network of neurons is concentrated in a structure called the axial nerve cord (ANC), which runs along the length of each arm.



The ANC is segmented, with each segment corresponding to one of the suckers on the arm. These segments act like local control hubs, with nerves branching out to nearby muscles and sensory structures associated with each sucker. 



The segmented organization of the ANC allows the octopus to manage the movement and sensory functions of each sucker independently, enabling precise control over their arms. 



This unique design supports the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopus's extraordinary ability to explore</a>, manipulate, and interact with its environment with unparalleled dexterity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structures-in-octopus-arms">Structures in octopus arms</h2>



Graduate students Cassady Olson and Grace Schulz made this discovery while studying the arms of the California two-spot octopus (Octopus bimaculoides). 



Using imaging tools, they found that the ANC features columns of neuronal cell bodies separated by gaps, or septa. These septa allow nerves and blood vessels to connect to the muscles and suckers. 



“The best way to set up a control system for this very long, flexible arm would be to divide it into segments,” Olson noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-sucker-control">Complex sucker control</h2>



The study revealed that octopus arms have a "sucker map" in their nervous system - a layout that helps control each sucker with great precision.



This map organizes nerves in a way that allows the octopus to coordinate the movement and sensory input of every sucker individually. Each sucker can move on its own, changing its shape and even functioning as a sensory tool. 



When an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-octopus-day-the-intelligent-creatures-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopus</a> touches something, it can "taste" and "smell" through receptors in the suckers, much like combining a hand, tongue, and nose into one. 



This specialized nervous system design is what enables octopuses to perform complex tasks like manipulating objects, exploring their surroundings, and capturing prey with exceptional dexterity and precision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-octopus-and-squid-arms">Octopus and squid arms</h2>



The researchers also studied the longfin inshore squid (Doryteuthis pealeii), another type of soft-bodied cephalopod, to compare its nervous system to that of octopuses.



While squid and octopuses share some structural similarities, the study revealed key differences reflecting their unique evolutionary paths. 



In squid, the long stalks of their tentacles - used to shoot out and grab prey - do not have segmented nerve structures.



However, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sucker-equipped clubs</a> at the end of these tentacles do show segmentation in their axial nerve cord (ANC), similar to octopus arms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specific-evolutionary-adaptations">Specific evolutionary adaptations</h2>



This suggests that segmentation in the nervous system is specifically adapted to control precise, dexterous movements in appendages with suckers.



The lifestyles of these animals explain the differences. Squid primarily hunt in open water, relying heavily on their vision to locate prey and using their streamlined tentacles to grab it. 



In contrast, octopuses explore the ocean floor, using their highly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-arms-inspire-more-human-like-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensitive arms</a> to touch, taste, and manipulate their environment. 



These differences highlight how evolution modifies neural designs to meet the unique demands of an animal’s habitat and hunting style.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-octopus-arms-use-their-eight-brains">How octopus arms use their eight brains</h2>



Each of their eight arms operates almost like a separate brain, packed with its own set of neurons that allow them to perform complex tasks independently. 



This means an octopus can explore a crevice with one arm while another is unscrewing a jar or playing with a toy. 



Their arms are incredibly flexible and strong, covered in suction cups that can taste, touch, and grip objects with amazing precision.



What’s even more mind-blowing is how octopuses use their arms to solve problems and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-garden-thermal-springs-accelerate-octopus-egg-hatching-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interact with their environment</a>. 



They can manipulate objects, open containers, and even escape from tight spots, showcasing their problem-solving skills and adaptability. 



Scientists believe this arm intelligence is one of the reasons octopuses are such skilled hunters and escape artists. 



Additionally, their ability to coordinate their arms seamlessly allows them to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-ringed-octopus-a-master-of-deception-inspires-new-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">camouflage themselves</a> by changing color and texture, blending perfectly into their surroundings to avoid predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-s-ingenious-solutions">Evolution's ingenious solutions</h2>



“Organisms with these sucker-laden appendages that have worm-like movements need the right kind of nervous system,” Ragsdale explained. 



The segmented ANC in octopuses and squid highlights how evolution optimizes neural designs to meet unique demands. 



Despite diverging over 270 million years ago, these cephalopods developed similar neural architectures to control their sucker-laden appendages effectively.



This UChicago research sheds light on how octopuses achieve their unparalleled flexibility and dexterity, offering insights into the intricate relationship between structure, function, and evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55475-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Each octopus arm has its own massive nervous system similar to a brain

Octopus arms display incredible dexterity, bending and twisting with near-infinite...

Continental European snakes, geckos, and Italian wall lizards are silently making their way to northern Europe. They travel undetected among ornamental plants such as olive trees that are imported for gardens and green spaces.



These hidden plant hitchhikers can become invasive species, threatening native ecosystems - just as they have in snake-free Mediterranean islands like Majorca.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importing-ornamental-plants">Importing ornamental plants </h2>



The presence of these reptiles signals a larger problem. Ornamental plants and cut flowers transport a wide range of pests, including insects, fungi, and disease-carrying organisms. These shipments move at high speed and in large volumes, making thorough inspections nearly impossible.



A study published in the journal Bioscience warns that despite regulations, imported plants pose an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increasing risk</a>. The global market for ornamental plants is expanding rapidly, and stronger regulations are urgently needed to prevent environmental and agricultural damage.



“Ornamental olive trees for sale in the UK can be over 100 years old, with many hiding places amongst their gnarly bark and the soil they’re transported in. This is incredibly risky in terms of importing pests,” said Professor William Sutherland from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>.



“Adult snakes and lizards are just the tip of the iceberg. If they’re getting through, what’s the chance of us spotting small insects and fungi - the things that really cause the problems?”



“The sheer volume of cut flowers and ornamental plants being traded at speed around the world makes it extremely difficult to intercept all the pests and diseases they carry. Even with the best of intentions, unwanted hitchhikers are getting through customs import checks all the time,” added Dr. Silviu Petrovan, a researcher from Cambridge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illegal-plant-trade-and-wild-pests">Illegal plant trade and wild pests </h2>



The problem goes beyond pests. Some suppliers ignore regulations, illegally stripping orchids and cacti from tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-plants-alter-the-soundscape-of-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> and selling them as part of legal shipments. Enforcing trade protections on a large scale is challenging, making it easier for endangered species to be exploited.



“Even with a global trade in cultivated ornamental plants, there is still a market for rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-bombs-invasive-plants-can-lie-dormant-for-centuries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> taken from the wild, and this can lead to rapid species declines, as well as increased risks that wild pests and plant diseases may enter the supply chain,” warned Dr. Amy Hinsley from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-frog-s-journey-to-sheffield">A frog’s journey to Sheffield</h2>



For Dr. Petrovan, the issue became personal when he was called to identify a live frog found in a florist’s shop in Sheffield. Initially, he assumed it was a joke.&nbsp;



When Dr. Petrovan realized the tree frog had arrived from Colombia via Ecuador, he was shocked.



“Finding a South American tree frog in a Sheffield florist was extraordinary. It made me realize that if you can get this type of fragile small vertebrate arriving alive in a flower shipment without being noticed at customs, just how hard it must be to detect very small agricultural insect pests or their eggs,” said Dr. Petrovan.



To assess the scale of the problem, researchers analyzed records from Dutch customs (2017-2018) and the UK’s DEFRA (2021-2023). Over 80% of intercepted pests were insects, highlighting the difficulty of detection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-and-health-costs">Environmental and health costs</h2>



The study on invasive species reveals several serious concerns about the ornamental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-native-species-are-spreading-at-an-exponential-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> trade, particularly in the countries that supply these plants.&nbsp;



One major issue is pollution, as microplastics and agrochemicals used in plant cultivation contaminate soil and water systems. Another concern is the health risks faced by workers handling cut flowers which expose them to harmful pesticide residues. 



The industry’s high water consumption also threatens food security, especially in places like Kenya, where floriculture takes up to 98% of the water drawn from Lake Naivasha, reducing the availability of water for essential agriculture.&nbsp;



Additionally, transporting flowers across the world generates significant carbon emissions, with each flower producing up to 3kg of CO2 due to refrigeration and shipping. Beyond these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-lionfish-global-domination-mediterranean-sea-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental impacts</a>, the exploitation of wild plants remains a critical problem.&nbsp;



Many endangered species, such as rare cacti, succulents, and orchids, continue to be taken from their natural habitats to meet demand, putting these species at further risk of extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-sustainable-solutions">Need for sustainable solutions</h2>



Despite its risks, the ornamental plant industry supports many rural economies. In 2022, the global export value of cut flowers and foliage reached $10 billion, while live plants and bulbs totaled $13 billion.



“We absolutely don’t want to encourage knee-jerk reactions that might be well-meaning but actually cause more problems than they solve,” said Dr. Petrovan. Instead, he advocates for better industry standards. 



“We need to push to make the industry more sustainable through things like certifications and better regulation, and to work with those involved in the trade to better understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-invasive-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-mediterranean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">risks</a> and how to mitigate them,” added Dr. Petrovan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-responsible-consumers">The role of responsible consumers</h2>



“We need to be responsible consumers. While certification standards are being developed, buying plants rather than cut flowers can reduce many of the risks that stem from importing cut flowers. They last much longer and also reduce the emission costs,” said Dr. Alice Hughes from the University of Hong Kong (<a href="https://www.hku.hk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HKU</a>).



The ornamental plant trade is booming, but it carries hidden risks. From invasive reptiles to agricultural pests, unchecked imports threaten ecosystems and food security.&nbsp;



Smarter regulations, responsible sourcing, and consumer awareness can help create a more sustainable future - without sacrificing the beauty that plants and flowers bring to our lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biae124/7954447" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bioscience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

International plant trade is spreading invasive species and pests

Continental European snakes, geckos, and Italian wall lizards are silently...

As global warming continues to rise, desert lizards are experiencing an energy crisis. These reptiles rely on external temperatures to regulate their body functions, including how much energy they need and when they can forage for food. 



A recent study published in the journal Science&nbsp;reveals that climate change is severely disrupting this balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-deserts-put-lizards-at-risk">Warming deserts put lizards at risk</h2>



Cold-blooded animals, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-lizard-day-2024-celebrating-our-scaly-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a>, rely on external temperatures to regulate their body heat. Their body temperature directly affects how much energy they need and when they can be active. 



In hot desert environments, food is already scarce, and extreme heat can make it too dangerous for lizards to go out and forage.



Climate change is making this problem worse. As temperatures rise, lizards need more energy just to survive because their metabolism speeds up. 



However, they also have less time to find food because the heat forces them to stay in shaded or underground areas for longer periods. This creates a difficult situation where their food needs increase, but the lizards' ability to meet those needs decreases, putting their survival at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-budget-squeeze">Energy budget squeeze</h2>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“Cost-of-living is a concept humans are all too aware of, but the same concept applies to ectotherms - or cold-blooded animals - such as lizards," noted study lead author Dr. Kristoffer Wild from the <a href="https://www.unimelb.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Melbourne</a>.



"We just need to switch the currency from money to energy and realize that for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sandy-soil-reptiles-face-extinction-threat-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a> these costs and their ability to meet them depend on temperature." 
</blockquote>



The researchers found that diurnal (day-active) lizards are especially vulnerable to rising global warming. These lizards depend on daylight hours to hunt for food and sustain their energy levels.



However, as temperatures increase, extreme heat makes it unsafe for the lizards to remain active for long periods. To avoid overheating, they are forced to retreat into shaded areas, burrows, or underground shelters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-desert-lizards-struggle-to-meet-their-needs">Desert lizards struggle to meet their needs</h2>



The reduction in active hours significantly limits their ability to search for and consume food. Since desert lizards require a certain amount of energy to survive, the loss of foraging time creates a major challenge. 



They must find enough food in a shorter window while their energy demands continue to rise due to higher body temperatures.



As a result, diurnal lizards are struggling more than ever in desert environments that are becoming even hotter. With less time to find food and increasing energy needs, their survival is at risk. 



If temperatures continue to rise, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anoles-are-the-scuba-diving-champions-of-the-lizard-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a> may face population declines as they fail to meet their basic nutritional requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-lizards-may-benefit-from-warming">Some lizards may benefit from warming</h2>



In contrast, nocturnal (night-active) lizards may actually benefit from warmer temperatures. Since they are active after sunset, higher nighttime temperatures could extend their hunting periods, giving them more opportunities to find food. 



This could help them compensate for the increased energy demands caused by climate change, putting them in a better position to adapt compared to their diurnal counterparts.



Dr. Wild likens this imbalance to a financial crisis. “It’s like diurnal lizards paying higher bills with fewer work hours, while nocturnal lizards can counter high bills by gaining extra work hours during the warmer nights.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-climate-impacts-on-desert-lizards">Predicting climate impacts on desert lizards</h2>



To measure these impacts, the researchers developed a model combining physics and biology.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“We were able to reconstruct, within two or three degrees, what a field biologist observed in the middle of the Australian and African deserts more than 50 years ago. This gives us confidence to predict the direct effects of climate warming on these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-lizards-have-evolved-to-resist-deadly-snake-venom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> in the future,” explained co-author Professor Michael Kearney.
</blockquote>



The findings suggest that desert lizards in historically warmer regions will face greater challenges. Africa’s desert lizards, for instance, will need more food but have less time to find it compared to their Australian counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



The researchers emphasize that conservation strategies must be customized based on each species' unique foraging habits. Climate change does not affect all animals in the same way - some species will struggle more than others.



This means that a one-size-fits-all approach to conservation is not effective. Instead, targeted efforts are needed to address the specific challenges faced by different lizard species.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“If we can better understand the ecological processes underpinning these cost-of-living pressures, we can better anticipate the species most at risk and act accordingly,” said Professor Kearney.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-of-desert-lizards-in-a-warming-climate">Survival of desert lizards in a warming climate </h2>
</blockquote>



However, rising temperatures are not the only threat. Other climate-related issues, such as food shortages and increasing water needs, add to the stress on desert reptiles. 



These challenges become even more severe in the warmer months - spring and summer - which are also the critical breeding seasons for many species.



If lizards cannot find enough food and water during this time, their ability to reproduce and maintain stable populations will be threatened. Addressing these combined pressures is essential for ensuring the survival of desert lizard species in a rapidly changing climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“Our next steps will be to bring food and water resources into our calculations and translate the results into growth and reproduction, which will help us predict whether populations will survive further change under warming,” Dr. Wild said.
</blockquote>



The study highlights the urgent need to understand and address the effects of climate change on desert <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snake-evolution-legless-lizards-into-slithering-snakes-100-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>. As temperatures continue to rise, species that rely on delicate energy balances are at increasing risk. 



By predicting how different species will respond to these environmental shifts, scientists can develop better conservation strategies. This research is essential for protecting vulnerable desert lizard populations and ensuring their survival in a rapidly warming world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq4372" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Desert lizards struggle as global warming raises their energy needs

As global warming continues to rise, desert lizards are experiencing...

Imagine a world where robotic insects take over the critical task of pollination, freeing farmers from relying on the whims of nature or resorting to manually pollinating crops with paintbrushes. 



These high-tech marvels, inspired by nature’s own pollinators, promise to revolutionize agriculture by boosting efficiency and reducing environmental impact. 



Scientists at MIT are diligently working to reinvent artificial pollination, which will bring us closer to this sensational reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-pioneers-of-giant-transformations">Small pioneers of giant transformations</h2>



These tiny mechanical marvels that are smaller than the size of a paperclip are expected to expedite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-apocalypse-australasia-is-facing-a-hidden-pollination-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a>, thereby boosting crop yields while minimizing traditional agriculture's harmful effects on the environment.



Inspired by bees, these robotic insects could soon swarm out of mechanical hives to perform precise pollination, mimicking the efficiency and agility of their natural counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-inception-of-robotic-insects">The inception of robotic insects</h2>



<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> researchers drew inspiration from bees to design these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-robotic-fish-developed-to-collect-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">miniature robots</a>. 



Kevin Chen, an associate professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), head of the Soft and Micro Robotics Laboratory within the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE), and the senior author of an open-access paper on the new design, leads this innovative project.



Chen and his team recognized that earlier versions of robotic insects lacked the endurance, speed, and maneuverability of natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-not-just-attracted-to-plants-by-scent-but-also-by-humidity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>. 



This led them to redesign the robots, mimicking the anatomy and flight mechanics of bees to achieve greater efficiency and precision.



The research team, including co-lead authors Suhan Kim and Yi-Hsuan Hsiao, EECS graduate students, collaborated with Zhijian Ren and summer visiting student Jiashu Huang to produce their findings, which were published in Science Robotics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-robotic-insects">The evolution of robotic insects</h2>



The latest robotic insects represent a significant leap in design. 



The revamped bots can hover for about 1,000 seconds - over 100 times longer than their predecessors.



Weighing less than a paperclip, these robots achieve remarkable speeds, perform acrobatic stunts like double flips, and track trajectories as intricate as spelling "M-I-T."



The design improvements include more sophisticated transmissions that connect the wings to soft actuators, or artificial muscles, which minimize mechanical strain while increasing precision and agility. 



Each unit now features a single wing pointing outward, which reduces interference between wings and creates space for future enhancements, such as tiny batteries or sensors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-challenges">Overcoming challenges </h2>



Initial designs, with four units and eight wings, faced issues where the wings interfered with each other’s lift forces. 



"But there is no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-insect-decline-what-are-the-causes-and-consequences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> that has eight wings. In our old design, the performance of each individual unit was always better than the assembled robot," Chen remarked.



The team halved the number of wings and reconfigured their alignment, significantly improving flight performance.



Fabricating the wing hinges was another challenge. 



These 2-centimeter-long, 200-micron-wide components required a multistep laser-cutting process to ensure precision. 



"If you have even a tiny alignment issue during the fabrication process, the wing hinge will be slanted instead of rectangular, which affects the wing kinematics," Chen explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-promise-of-progress">The promise of progress </h2>



The latest design breakthroughs bring the team closer to practical applications like assisted pollination.



“The amount of flight we demonstrated in this paper is probably longer than the entire amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbird-wings-the-future-of-robotic-flight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flight</a> our field has been able to accumulate with these robotic insects,” Chen shared.



Future goals include achieving flight durations in excess of 10,000 seconds and enhancing the robots’ precision to land and take off from flower centers.



In the long term, the team envisions equipping the robots with sensors, batteries, and computing capabilities for autonomous navigation outside the lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-into-the-future">A glimpse into the future</h2>



As Kevin Chen and his team continue to push the boundaries of robotic insect design, the promise of swarming, battery-powered pollinators edges closer to reality. 



With each iteration, these miniature marvels become more efficient, agile, and precise, bringing them one step closer to deployment in real-world environments.



They could bring revolutionary change in modern agriculture by making it possible to produce fruits and vegetables within controlled environments such as multilevel warehouses with robotic insects to remove the shackles of seasonality, climatic variability, and the decline of natural pollinators on crop production.



It is envisioned that such a shift would bring a surge in crop yield while opening doors to a greener, more responsible means of farm operation through pesticide-free and non-water hogging systems.



A whole vision of an army of robot pollinators marching across farms symbolizes technology with the science of biomimicry redefining everything related to the food sector. 



These robots may, one day, help solve some of the world's most pressing problems in food security and environmental conservation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.adp4256" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Robotics</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Robotic insects are here and may be the future of farming and plant pollination

Imagine a world where robotic insects take over the critical...

View,Of,Wild,Coyote,In,San,Francisco

Coyotes are hardy and adaptable carnivores, and they have been spotted everywhere from the streets of Berkeley, California, to the Bronx in New York.



These urban coyotes are the focus of a recent study that sheds light on their remarkable journey and how cities might be influencing their evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timeless-evolution-in-a-modern-world">Timeless evolution in a modern world</h2>



In the past, many believed evolution took hundreds, if not thousands, of years to happen. 



Yet, recent findings suggest that the process isn't as drawn-out as we once thought. In fact, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-both-predictable-and-random/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> can occur within just a handful of generations. 



Nowhere is this clearer than in urban environments, where the constant interaction between animals and humans serves as a catalyst for change.



Some creatures demonstrate an exceptional ability to adapt to these new conditions. Amongst these, coyotes stand out.



"Coyotes are doing really well in urban spaces," said Elizabeth Carlen from <a href="https://washu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a>. 



"Given the close evolutionary relationship between coyotes and domestic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-breed-behavior-linked-to-brain-size/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, we leveraged the dog genome to think about what genes could be under selection in urban areas and how they might be changing."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-the-coyote-genetic-puzzle">Piecing together the coyote genetic puzzle</h2>



Unraveling the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-with-higher-genetic-variation-are-much-more-adaptable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic changes</a> within populations of urban coyotes is no easy task. 



"For coyotes in particular, the ecological differences between urban and rural individuals have been well characterized," said Samantha Kreling of the University of Washington.



However, identifying the specific genes or genome regions affected has proved more elusive. 



To solve this, researchers use a method known as the "candidate gene approach." This involves sequencing and comparing specific genes of interest.



While whole-genome and epigenome sequencing are considered the gold standard for understanding evolutionary change, they often come with a hefty price tag. 



To combat the budget constraints and still maintain statistical accuracy, researchers opt for this alternative approach. Carlen and Kreling's study offers a deep insight into the traits that are under selection in urban coyotes, along with a list of candidate genes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-diets-changing-genes">Changing diets, changing genes</h2>



One area where this evolution is evident is in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-coyotes-do-not-rely-on-human-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes' diet</a>.



Unlike their rural counterparts who primarily feed on rabbits, mice, and other small mammals, urban coyotes tend to have a higher intake of glucose and starch from scavenging food scraps or leftover pet food. 



This shift in diet could potentially trigger changes in genes that help regulate insulin sensitivity and production. 



The same goes for starch digestion efficiency, which could explain the increase in the number of copies of AMY2B, a gene responsible for amylase production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-coyote-s-urbanization">The coyote's urbanization</h2>



Despite these fascinating observations, it's important to remember that population trends among coyotes can vary. 



For instance, Carlen points out an increase in coyote numbers along the East Coast due to the displacement of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eastern-wolves-and-grey-wolves-evolved-separately/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolves</a>. 



"In these places, we're seeing more coyotes because they're occupying the niche space that previously would have been occupied by wolves," she stated.



Back in St. Louis, Carlen and her team are studying urban coyotes using motion-triggered wildlife cameras and GPS collars, even amidst the challenges posed by the animals' intelligence and elusiveness. 



They're smart, they're adaptable, but unfortunately, they're also misunderstood.



"There is a lot of misplaced fear around coyotes," Carlen admits. “This is a decently large animal to be living alongside humans in our urban spaces, but I think that they are unfairly persecuted.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-endeavors">Future endeavors</h2>



Carlen hopes this study will inspire more researchers to pursue the topic of urban adaptation in coyotes. 



She believes this groundwork can serve as a starting point for urban evolutionary biologists studying other species. 



"While we have seen continued growth in the field of urban evolution, research work linking specific genes to adaptation in urban regions is still relatively unexplored," she remarked.



Indeed, the story of the urban coyote is more than a tale of survival and adaptability. It's a shining example, in the concrete jungle, of the fluidity and resilience of nature.



As we continue to explore this fascinating phenomenon, perhaps we'll uncover other equally intriguing changes that are happening right under our noses.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/gbe/advance-article/doi/10.1093/gbe/evae279/7934939" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genome Biology and Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

City life has a huge impact on coyote evolution

Coyotes are hardy and adaptable carnivores, and they have been...

The ocean is a vast, diverse world teeming with lifeforms that include remarkable isopods in habitats from the shimmering surface right down to the foreboding depths.



Yet, how much do we truly know about those creatures that dwell in the deep?



In Vietnamese waters, one such fascinating sea creature has recently come into the spotlight: the "sea bug," or bọ biển. This is a supergiant isopod of the genus Bathynomus.



This captivating creature, remarkable for its size and uncanny resemblance to a certain infamous helmet, is stirring up excitement in both scientific circles and seafood markets across Vietnam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unfamiliar-isopod-face-pops-up-in-the-deep">Unfamiliar isopod face pops up in the deep</h2>



At the first encounter, this unique species from Vietnamese waters was given the name Bathynomus vaderi, in homage to the visually striking helmet of Star Wars' very own Sith Lord, Darth Vader.



These colossal isopods, dubbed as the "supergiants," can measure up to an impressive 32.5 cm (12.8 inches) in length and weigh over a kilogram (2.2 pounds).



The only recorded sightings of these enigmatic creatures to date have been around Vietnam's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-winds-support-the-worlds-most-productive-ocean-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spratly Islands</a>, yet there is a growing anticipation that further investigation might uncover their presence across more areas of the South China Sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bathynomus-vaderi-an-isopod-delicacy">Bathynomus vaderi: An isopod delicacy</h2>



Once sold at low prices as a bycatch product, Bathynomus vaderi has , since 2017, become an exotic and expensive isopod delicacy.



There’s even been a compelling discussion among food enthusiasts suggesting that its taste could surpass that of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-solve-lobster-farming-secrets-after-120-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lobster</a> – the known "king of seafood."



These marine giants have been harvested commercially by trawlers working in the deep waters of Biển Đông (the East Sea, which is the Vietnamese part of the South China Sea), and the offshore provinces in Vietnam's south-central coast.



In the past five years, live sales of these "sea bugs" in Hanoi, Hồ Chí Minh City, and Đà Nẵng City's seafood markets have surged.



Some retailers and restaurants have been quick to jump on this trend, promoting these odd yet captivating creatures via various online platforms, and even offering cooking tips.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identification-of-new-isopod-species">Identification of new isopod species</h2>



The scientists who had the privilege of investigating this extraordinary species were from <a href="https://www.hanu.vn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hanoi University</a>, National University of Singapore's Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum, and the Vietnam National University. 



They had procured four specimens of these giant isopods from Quy Nhơn City. 



After thorough examination and research, they discovered in early 2023 that they were dealing with an unrecorded species. 



Their exciting findings were later published in the open-access journal, ZooKeys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bathynomus-isopod-reveals-deep-sea-mysteries">Bathynomus isopod reveals deep-sea mysteries</h2>



The discovery of Bathynomus vaderi in Vietnamese waters underlines our limited knowledge of the deep-sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>.



It's startling that a species as large as this was able to remain concealed for so long. This is a stark reminder of the many unknowns that still exist in the Southeast Asian seas.



Today, as we venture deeper into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> to exploit resources for fisheries, oil, gas, and minerals, there's an escalating need to extend our understanding of this robust yet vulnerable ecosystem. 



It is likely to be a challenge to fish these giant isopods in a sustainable manner, but we need to confront this in order to ensure that the species is not overexploited. 



The first step to addressing this starts with knowing what resides within these mysterious depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-deep-sea-ecosystems">Protecting deep-sea ecosystems</h2>



The discovery of Bathynomus vaderi highlights not only the incredible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> hidden in the ocean’s depths but also the fragility of these ecosystems. 



As deep-sea exploration and commercial activities expand, there’s an increasing need to balance resource utilization with conservation. 



Practices such as sustainable fishing and minimizing seabed disturbances can help protect species like these isopods while preserving the intricate web of life which they are a part of.



By promoting international collaborations and advancing research into deep-sea environments, scientists and policymakers can work together to ensure that these ecosystems thrive for generations to come.



After all, each new discovery, like the enigmatic Bathynomus vaderi, serves as a reminder of how much more there is to learn and safeguard in the vast expanse of our oceans.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/139335/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZooKeys</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Giant isopod named 'Bathynomus vaderi' after Darth Vader

The ocean is a vast, diverse world teeming with lifeforms...

Every year, the night sky fills with the unseen movement of millions of migrating songbirds, tracing routes carved by evolutionary history.&nbsp;



While these flight paths are largely guided by innate instincts, new research from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> suggests an unexpected social dimension to their nocturnal journeys.&nbsp;



Evidence from over 18,300 hours of acoustic recordings reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-benefit-from-social-networks-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">songbirds</a> may “talk” to other species as they migrate, potentially sharing information and forming temporary social bonds along the way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-may-not-be-a-solitary-endeavor">Migration may not be a solitary endeavor</h2>



The study, led by Benjamin Van Doren, an assistant professor in the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences at Illinois, offers a fresh perspective on the traditionally individualistic view of songbird migration.&nbsp;



The research, initiated at the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>, indicates that birds may vocalize during flight to signal their species, age, or sex and perhaps even exchange navigation tips or information about stopover sites.



“We can’t be sure what they’re saying, but birds might broadcast calls during flight to signal their species, age, and sex. And we can certainly speculate that these flight calls could relate to navigation or finding suitable stopover habitat,” Van Doren said.



Earlier studies had documented instances of different species forming temporary partnerships during stopovers. However, this is the first evidence of vocal communication and possible social interactions between songbird species while in flight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-to-the-night-sky">Listening to the night sky</h2>



Songbirds migrate primarily at night, making it difficult to observe their movements. To overcome this challenge, Van Doren and his team used acoustic recordings captured at 26 sites in eastern North America over three years. These recordings provided a rare glimpse into the nocturnal world of songbird migration.



“These nocturnal acoustic recordings are really the only window onto this unseen but absolutely massive flow of birds - hundreds of millions aloft over the U.S. on any given night during migration,” Van Doren explained. “It's something people aren’t usually aware of because it happens when we’re sleeping.”



Analyzing such a vast dataset would have been impractical without recent advancements in artificial intelligence.&nbsp;



Using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a> tools, the researchers identified the flight calls of 27 bird species, including 25 well-sampled songbirds, allowing them to detect patterns of co-occurrence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-associations-in-the-sky">Social associations in the sky</h2>



The team measured how often flight calls from different species occurred within 15, 30, and 60-second intervals. Regardless of the time frame, they found that certain species called in tandem more often than chance would predict.



Further analysis revealed two key factors influencing these associations: wing length and call similarity.



Birds with similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-with-short-stubby-wings-are-less-capable-of-relocating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wing sizes</a> were more likely to associate, likely because similar wing lengths correspond to similar flight speeds, making it easier for them to travel together.



Species with comparable vocalizations also showed stronger associations, suggesting that shared calls may facilitate social connections during migration.



Interestingly, species that formed partnerships during stopovers did not maintain those relationships while in flight. Additionally, the birds were not necessarily flying with closely related species or those with similar habitat preferences.



“Species with similar wing sizes were more likely to associate, and wing length is directly linked to flight speed,” Van Doren said.&nbsp;



“As for vocalizations, it is possible that species’ calls have converged over time because of this social link or that species that happen to give similar calls are simply more likely to gravitate towards each other.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-our-understanding-of-songbird-migration">Expanding our understanding of songbird migration</h2>



While the study focused on 25 species, many other nocturnal migrants do not vocalize during flight, leaving much to uncover.&nbsp;



Van Doren’s team plans to extend their research by equipping individual birds with tiny microphones to track their in-flight “conversations” and interactions with travel companions.



These preliminary findings raise fascinating possibilities. For instance, short-lived species that cannot rely on parental guidance for migration may instead depend on social ties with other birds.&nbsp;



Conversely, the loss of biodiversity due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-behavior-productivity-being-directly-impacted-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and habitat destruction could disrupt these co-migratory relationships, further imperiling vulnerable species.



“This study really calls into question the long-held idea that songbirds migrate alone, solely following their own instincts,” Van Doren said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



The discovery of social interactions during migration has significant implications for bird conservation. If certain species rely on social cues or co-migration with specific partners, their survival may depend on maintaining these networks.&nbsp;



Losses in bird biodiversity could jeopardize these connections, making migration more difficult for some species.



Moreover, understanding the role of social information in migration could help researchers design better strategies to protect migratory birds, particularly as they face mounting risks from habitat loss, climate change, and light pollution.



“Learning more about the consequences of these social connections - not only for migration but also for other aspects of their biology - will be important to inform and manage the risks they face in a changing world,” Van Doren emphasized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-songbird-migration">A new perspective on songbird migration</h2>



This research challenges the traditional view of songbirds as solitary migrants guided solely by instinct and memory. Instead, it suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-migration-is-influenced-by-social-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social interactions</a> and communication play a crucial role in their epic nocturnal journeys.&nbsp;



As scientists continue to explore these complex dynamics, they may uncover new strategies for safeguarding these remarkable travelers and the ecosystems they connect.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Songbirds ‘talk’ to each other during migration

Every year, the night sky fills with the unseen movement...

Phillip Island’s little penguins - famous for their nightly waddle from the ocean to their burrows - have love lives that are far more complex than they appear. 



While penguins are often thought to mate for life, new research from Monash University and Phillip Island Nature Parks reveals a different reality.



The researchers found that little penguins often divorce and find new mates if they are not satisfied with their reproductive success. However, this decision comes with risks, as higher divorce rates can lead to lower breeding success in the following season.



This remarkable study, published in the journal Ecology and Evolution, sheds new light on the intricate social behaviors of these beloved seabirds.



Over more than a decade, the researchers tracked hundreds of penguin pairs to better understand what drives their mating decisions and how those choices impact the overall health of the colony.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-loss-and-breeding">Love, loss, and breeding</h2>



For 13 breeding seasons, the scientists followed nearly 1,000 penguin pairs on Phillip Island, recording their mating patterns, breakups, and the success of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-are-struggling-to-survive-as-sea-ice-vanishes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">offspring</a>.



The team documented 250 divorces during the study period and found that the colony's reproductive success declined in years when divorce rates were high.



Surprisingly, these breakups had a greater impact on breeding success than environmental factors such as food availability or habitat conditions. While environmental pressures certainly influence penguin survival, the study suggests that social dynamics play an equally - if not more - important role in shaping the colony’s future.



Professor Richard Reina, who has dedicated 20 years to studying Phillip Island’s penguins, explains that their relationships are more fluid than people often assume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bad-breeding-season-for-penguins">Bad breeding season for penguins</h2>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"In good times, they largely stick with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enhanced-monitoring-of-emperor-penguins-can-help-us-save-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">partners</a>, although there's often a bit of hanky-panky happening on the side," Professor Reina said. "However, after a poor reproductive season, they may try to find a new partner for the next season to increase their breeding success."
</blockquote>



This suggests that little penguins are strategic in their partnerships, evaluating past breeding success when deciding whether to stay or leave a mate. 



If a pair struggles to raise chicks, one or both partners may seek a more promising partner in the hopes of producing more offspring. However, this gamble does not always pay off. 



The researchers found that penguins who switched mates often had lower breeding success in their next attempt, indicating that the process of re-pairing might come at a cost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-penguin-divorce-means-for-conservation">What penguin divorce means for conservation</h2>



Phillip Island is home to the world's largest colony of little penguins, with around 37,000 individuals calling the island home. 



The world-famous Penguin Parade draws thousands of visitors each year, eager to watch these charming birds return from the ocean at dusk. However, ensuring the long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-artificial-nests-help-save-african-penguins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival of the colony</a> requires a deeper understanding of their behaviors and breeding patterns.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"Our findings on lower divorce rates among little penguins at Phillip Island under favorable environmental conditions highlight the importance of considering social dynamics alongside environmental factors when designing strategies to protect vulnerable seabird species," noted Professor Andre Chiaradia, a marine scientist at <a href="https://www.penguins.org.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phillip Island Nature Parks</a>.
</blockquote>



This means that while environmental changes such as food shortages or climate shifts do affect penguins, the stability of their relationships also plays a critical role in their success as a species. 



By studying social behaviors like divorce rates and breeding seasons, researchers can gain valuable insight into the overall health of the penguin colony and predict potential challenges in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaboration-in-penguin-science">Collaboration in penguin science</h2>



This research is the latest milestone in a decades-long partnership between <a href="https://www.monash.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monash University</a> and Phillip Island Nature Parks. It also provided an exciting opportunity for young scientists to gain real-world experience in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-will-not-survive-the-current-rate-of-sea-ice-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife research</a>.



Matt Simpson contributed to the study as part of his Honours project while completing a Bachelor of Science at Monash University.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"I'm proud to have been able to make a significant contribution to the conservation of these fascinating birds by helping find new ways of identifying patterns that indicate the health of these bird populations," Simpson said. 



"This has been a long time in the making and a lot of work went into it. It was also a fantastic opportunity to gain real-world experience in the field while completing my studies."
</blockquote>



With ongoing research and conservation efforts, scientists hope to use these findings to better protect Phillip Island’s little penguins. Understanding their social structures and breeding strategies can provide crucial insights into how to manage and safeguard this beloved colony.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes-in-mating-behavior">Monitoring changes in mating behavior </h2>



While little penguins may not always find lifelong love, their social behaviors are a key factor in their survival. As researchers continue to study these birds, they may uncover even more surprising aspects of penguin relationships that could influence conservation strategies worldwide.



The findings from this study challenge long-held assumptions about penguin monogamy and highlight the importance of social bonds and breeding season in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-penguins-have-lost-97-percent-of-their-population/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife populations</a>. 



By monitoring changes in mating behaviors over time, scientists can track how the species adapts to environmental challenges and human impacts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.70787" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Little penguins divorce their partners after bad breeding seasons

Phillip Island’s little penguins - famous for their nightly waddle...

A study led by Tel Aviv University has revealed alarming insights into how microplastic particles are transformed within marine ecosystems, posing new challenges to the health of the ocean’s food web.&nbsp;



The research highlights how filter-feeding marine organisms alter the behavior and composition of microplastics, creating unforeseen risks for marine environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-microplastic-pollution">Investigating microplastic pollution</h2>



While previous research has documented the dangers of marine animals ingesting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-steadily-increasing-in-freshwater-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>, this study goes a step further, exploring how these particles change after passing through the digestive systems of filter feeders.&nbsp;



Conducted by PhD student Eden Harel, Professor Noa Shenkar, and Professor Ines Zucker from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>, the study focused on ascidians - marine animals that efficiently filter tiny particles from water.&nbsp;



The findings reveal how the interaction between filter feeders and microplastics contributes to the spread and transformation of these particles.



“We aimed to examine whether and how plastic changes after passing through the digestive system of a marine organism and how this process affects the presence of plastic and its availability to other organisms,” Shenkar explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-filter-feeders-transform-microplastics">How filter feeders transform microplastics</h2>



Using a controlled laboratory experiment, the researchers simulated seawater environments containing ascidians and introduced two types of microplastic particles.



These particles included polystyrene (PS), a common conventional plastic, and polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable bioplastic marketed as environmentally friendly. The team monitored the filtration, digestion, and excretion processes over 48 hours.



The results showed stark differences between the two types of plastic. Ascidians removed 90% of polystyrene particles from the water within two hours, but these particles were reintroduced to the water after 48 hours following digestion.



Polylactic acid particles, on the other hand, decreased significantly in concentration and remained at low levels. Larger PLA particles appeared to break down during digestion - likely returning to the water as smaller, undetectable nanoparticles.



These findings reveal that while some microplastics persist in their original form, others may fragment into smaller particles, potentially amplifying their environmental impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-disguised-as-organic-matter">Plastic disguised as organic matter</h2>



To understand the changes microplastics undergo during digestion, the team used Raman spectroscopy to analyze particles excreted by the ascidians.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed a surprising transformation: the plastic particles were no longer identifiable as plastics. Instead, they appeared to be organic matter due to a fecal coating acquired in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-humans-have-shockingly-different-digestive-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digestive system</a>.



“Our findings revealed that microplastic particles are excreted from the ascidian’s digestive system coated with a fecal layer, and it is likely that the marine environment also identifies these particles as this organic material,” Harel said.



This transformation increases the likelihood of these particles being ingested by other marine animals that feed on feces, further embedding microplastics into the food web.&nbsp;



The fecal coating also facilitates bacterial colonization and the adhesion of pollutants like heavy metals and residual organic compounds, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-could-cause-a-health-crisis-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotics</a>, making these particles even more hazardous.



According to Zucker, plastic particles undergo many transformations in the environment, from weathering to digestive processes, turning them into carriers of pollutants and diseases within the food web.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-microplastics-on-feces">Impacts of microplastics on feces</h2>



In addition to examining how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-jawless-fish-rhinopteraspis-dunensis-filter-feeders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">filter feeders</a> transform microplastics, the study explored how these particles affect the physical properties of feces - a vital nutrient source for many marine organisms. Feces containing microplastics displayed significant changes in behavior.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-sinking">Rapid sinking</h3>



Unlike normal feces, which sink slowly and provide sustenance to organisms along their descent, feces containing microplastics sank rapidly to the seafloor. This deprives marine organisms in the water column of a crucial food source.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-localized-accumulation">Localized accumulation</h3>



The faster sinking caused feces and microplastics to accumulate on the seafloor near the filter feeders, instead of dispersing evenly. 



This buildup can lead to increased carbon and nitrogen levels, fostering algal blooms that disrupt marine ecosystems.



“This accumulation can increase carbon and nitrogen levels on the seafloor and trigger algal blooms, representing another critical impact of microplastics on the balance of the marine food web,” Harel explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-microplastic-pollution-nbsp">Complexity of microplastic pollution&nbsp;</h2>



The study highlights the complexity of microplastic pollution, showing that the problem goes far beyond the particles themselves. 



Their transformation through biological processes and environmental exposure creates unexpected and far-reaching consequences.



“The most alarming conclusion is that the microplastic problem is far more complex than initially thought,” said the researchers.&nbsp;



“Plastic pollution in the marine environment has many unexpected dimensions, and its complexities continue to grow. Sometimes, neither we nor the environment can even recognize it as plastic.”



The findings emphasize the urgent need for better technologies and strategies to mitigate the spread and impact of microplastics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-microplastics-crisis">Addressing the microplastics crisis</h2>



As microplastic pollution continues to infiltrate marine ecosystems in unpredictable ways, this study reveals just how urgent the issue has become. 



With microplastics transforming into carriers of pollutants, altering the balance of marine food webs, and contributing to environmental degradation, addressing this crisis is essential.



“As time goes on, plastic continues to harm more and more marine ecosystems,” the researchers concluded. “It is our duty to develop new technologies to mitigate this dangerous phenomenon.”



This research provides a crucial step toward understanding the hidden dimensions of microplastic pollution and calls for global action to protect marine life and the delicate ecosystems that sustain it.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some creatures eat and transform microplastics into a much bigger threat

A study led by Tel Aviv University has revealed alarming...

species in Travisiidae